1.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
German language
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Old Frisian (Alt-Friesisch)
German language
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The widespread popularity of the
Bible translated into German by
Martin Luther helped establish modern German
German language
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Examples of German language in
Namibian everyday life
German language
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German-language newspapers in the U.S. in 1922
2.
Slovene language
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Slovene or Slovenian belongs to the group of South Slavic languages. It is spoken by approximately 2.5 million speakers worldwide and it is the first language of about 2.1 million Slovenian people and is one of the 24 official and working languages of the European Union. Standard Slovene is the standard language that was formed in the 18th century, mostly based on Upper and Lower Carniolan dialect groups. For example, the Resian and Torre dialects in the Italian Province of Udine differ most from other Slovene dialects, the distinctive characteristics of Slovene are dual grammatical number, two accentual norms, and abundant inflection. Although Slovene is basically an SVO language, word order is very flexible, Slovene has a T-V distinction, second-person plural forms are used for individuals as a sign of respect. Slovene and Slovak are the two modern Slavic languages whose names for themselves literally mean Slavic. Slovene is an Indo-European language belonging to the Western subgroup of the South Slavic branch of the Slavic languages, furthermore, Slovene shares certain linguistic characteristics with all South Slavic languages, including those of the Eastern subgroup, such as Bulgarian. The Slovene language also has commonalities with the West Slavic languages. Like all Slavic languages, Slovene traces its roots to the same group of languages that produced Old Church Slavonic. The earliest known examples of a distinct, written Slovene dialect are from the Freising Manuscripts, the consensus estimate of their date of origin is between 972 and 1093. These religious writings are among the oldest surviving manuscripts in any Slavic language and this linguistic border remained almost unchanged until the late 19th century, when a second process of Germanization took place, mostly in Carinthia. Between the 9th and 12th century, proto-Slovene spread into northern Istria, during most of the Middle Ages, Slovene was a vernacular language of the peasantry, although it was also spoken in most of the towns on Slovene territory, together with German or Italian. Although during this time, German emerged as the language of the nobility, Slovene had some role in the courtly life of the Carinthian, Carniolan and Styrian nobility. This is proved by the survival of certain ritual formulas in Slovene, the words Buge waz primi, gralva Venus. The first printed Slovene words, stara pravda, appeared in 1515 in Vienna in a poem of the German mercenaries who suppressed the Slovene peasant revolt. Standard Slovene emerged in the half of the 16th century, thanks to the works of Slovene Lutheran authors. During this period, German had a influence on Slovene. Many Slovene scientists before the 1920s also wrote in languages, mostly German
Slovene language
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Tombstone of Jožef Nahtigal in
Dobrova with archaic Slovene onikanje in indirect reference. Literal translation "Here lie [počivajo] the honorable Jožef Nahtigal... they were born [rojeni]... they died [umerli]... God grant them [jim] eternal peace and rest."
Slovene language
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Slovene-speaking areas
3.
Italian language
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By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages
Italian language
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Dante Alighieri (above) and
Petrarch (below) were influential in establishing their
Tuscan dialect as the most prominent literary language in all of
Italy in the
Late Middle Ages
Italian language
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The geographic distribution of the Italian language in the world: large Italian-speaking communities are shown in green; light blue indicates areas where the Italian language was used officially during the Italian colonial period.
Italian language
Italian language
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Pietro Bembo was an influential figure in the development of the Italian language from the Tuscan dialect, as a literary medium, codifying the language for standard modern usage
4.
Habsburg Monarchy
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The Monarchy was a composite state composed of territories within and outside the Holy Roman Empire, united only in the person of the monarch. The dynastic capital was Vienna, except from 1583 to 1611, from 1804 to 1867 the Habsburg Monarchy was formally unified as the Austrian Empire, and from 1867 to 1918 as the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The two entities were never coterminous, as the Habsburg Monarchy covered many lands beyond the Holy Roman Empire, the monarchy had no official name. The entity had no official name, Austrian Empire, This was the official name. Note that the German version is Kaisertum Österreich, i. e. the English translation empire refers to a territory ruled by an emperor, Austria-Hungary, This was the official name. An unofficial popular name was the Danubian Monarchy also often used was the term Doppel-Monarchie meaning two states under one crowned ruler, Crownlands or crown lands, This is the name of all the individual parts of the Austrian Empire, and then of Austria-Hungary from 1867 on. The Hungarian parts of the Empire were called Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of Saint Stephen or Lands of Holy Stephens Crown, the Bohemian Lands were called Lands of the St. Wenceslaus Crown. Burgenland came to Austria in 1921 from Hungary, Salzburg finally became Austrian in 1816 after the Napoleonic wars. Vienna, Austrias capital became a state January 1,1922, after being residence, Upper and Lower Austria, historically, were split into Austria above the Enns and Austria below the Enns. Upper Austria was enlarged after the Treaty of Teschen following the War of the Bavarian Succession by the so-called Innviertel, formerly part of Bavaria. Hereditary Lands or German Hereditary Lands or Austrian Hereditary Lands, In a narrower sense these were the original Habsburg Austrian territories, i. e. basically the Austrian lands, in a wider sense the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were also included in the Hereditary lands. The term was replaced by the term Crownlands in the 1849 March Constitution, within the Habsburg Monarchy, each province was governed according to its own particular customs. Until the mid 17th century, not all of the provinces were even necessarily ruled by the same members of the family often ruled portions of the Hereditary Lands as private apanages. An even greater attempt at centralization began in 1849 following the suppression of the revolutions of 1848. For the first time, ministers tried to transform the monarchy into a bureaucratic state ruled from Vienna. The Kingdom of Hungary, in particular, ceased to exist as a separate entity, in this system, the Kingdom of Hungary was given sovereignty and a parliament, with only a personal union and a joint foreign and military policy connecting it to the other Habsburg lands. When Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed, it was not incorporated into either half of the monarchy, instead, it was governed by the joint Ministry of Finance. Austria-Hungary collapsed under the weight of the various unsolved ethnic problems that came to a head with its defeat in World War I, to these were added in 1779 the Inn Quarter of Bavaria, and in 1803 the Bishoprics of Trent and Brixen
Habsburg Monarchy
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Growth of the Habsburg Monarchy
Habsburg Monarchy
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Flag
Habsburg Monarchy
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Europa regina, symbolizing a Habsburg-dominated Europe.
Habsburg Monarchy
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Soldiers of the
Military Frontier against the incursions of the Ottoman Turks, 1756
5.
Semmering Pass
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For the town of the same name, see Semmering, Austria. Semmering is a pass in the Eastern Northern Limestone Alps connecting Lower Austria and Styria. Semmering Pass is located west of Sonnwendstein and Hirschenkogel and east of the Pinkenkogel, with the Wechsel Pass, the Semmering is the most important connection between Lower Austria and Styria. It can be crossed by road, or using the Semmering Railway, a village also bearing the name Semmering is located on the pass. The villages of Maria Schutz and Spital am Semmering are located slightly below the pass, schottwien and Mürzzuschlag are the closest sizeable towns on either side. The project has now been revised according to the state of technology. A ground-breaking ceremony was held at Gloggnitz on April 25,2012 to officially launch preliminary construction works for the 27·3 km Semmering Base Tunnel, the €3·1bn base tunnel between Gloggnitz and Mürzzuschlag is a key part of the new Südbahn project. It will eliminate the current bottleneck on the 41 km Semmering Railway route where steep gradients, the tunnel will comprise two 10 m bores between 40 and 70 m apart, linked by cross passages every 500m. Boring is planned to start in 2014, with excavation completed ready for fitting out from 2021. The tunnel will be designed for trains to run at up to 230 km/h, shortening Wien - Graz journey times by 40 min to 1 h 50 min. The Semmering ski resort, called Zauberberg, which also hosts World Cup events, is located at the pass and it is mainly used by skiers from Vienna, from where it can be reached within one hour, but increasingly also by people from Hungary and Slovakia. The Semmering Pass is featured on a commemorative coin, the 25 euro 150 Years of the Semmering Alpine Railway Coin. The reverse of the shows a typical Semmering view. A steam engine has just emerged from a tunnel crossing one of the distinctive viaducts, List of highest paved roads in Europe List of mountain passes http, //www. semmering. com/ Stuhleck - Skiregion Semmering http, //www. semmering. at/
Semmering Pass
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Satellite photo of the Semmering
Semmering Pass
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Semmering.
Semmering Pass
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Austria 25 Euro 150 Years Semmering Alpine Railway Coin
6.
Holy Roman Empire
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The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne, some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire, while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning. Scholars generally concur, however, in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, the office of Holy Roman Emperor was traditionally elective, although frequently controlled by dynasties. Emperor Francis II dissolved the empire on 6 August 1806, after the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon, before 1157, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire. In a decree following the 1512 Diet of Cologne, the name was changed to Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, by the end of the 18th century, the term Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation had fallen out of official use. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control, by the middle of the 8th century, however, the Merovingians had been reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians, led by Charles Martel, had become the de facto rulers. In 751, Martel’s son Pepin became King of the Franks, the Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. In 768 Pepin’s son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, on Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the west for the first time in over three centuries. After the death of Charles the Fat in 888, however, the Carolingian Empire broke apart, according to Regino of Prüm, the parts of the realm spewed forth kinglets, and each part elected a kinglet from its own bowels. After the death of Charles the Fat, those crowned emperor by the pope controlled only territories in Italy, the last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924. Around 900, autonomous stem duchies reemerged in East Francia, on his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony, who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. Henry reached a truce with the raiding Magyars, and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade, Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing dynasty, would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowlers death, Otto, his son and designated successor, was elected King in Aachen in 936 and he overcame a series of revolts from an elder brother and from several dukes. After that, the managed to control the appointment of dukes. In 951, Otto came to the aid of Adelaide, the queen of Italy, defeating her enemies, marrying her. In 955, Otto won a victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld
Holy Roman Empire
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The Holy Roman Empire at its maximal extent, in the 13th century
Holy Roman Empire
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Imperial Banner
Holy Roman Empire
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An illustration from
Schedelsche Weltchronik depicting the structure of the Reich: The Holy Roman Emperor is sitting; on his left are three ecclesiastics; on his right are four secular electors.
Holy Roman Empire
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Double-headed eagle with coats of arms of individual states, symbol of the Holy Roman Empire (painting from 1510)
7.
Duchy of Styria
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The Duchy of Styria was a duchy located in modern-day southern Austria and northern Slovenia. It was a part of the Holy Roman Empire until its dissolution in 1806, margrave Ottokar IV thereby became the first Duke of Styria and also the last of the ancient Otakar dynasty. Upon his death in 1192, Styria as stipulated fell to the Babenberg duke Leopold V of Austria, the Austrian Babenbergs became extinct in 1246, when Duke Frederick II the Quarrelsome was killed in battle against King Béla IV of Hungary. It passed quickly through the hands of Hungary in 1254, until the Bohemian king Ottokar II Přemysl conquered it, rudolph finally defeated Ottokar at the 1278 Battle on the Marchfeld, seized Austria and Styria and granted them to his sons Albert I and Rudolf II. The House of Habsburg provided Styria with dukes of their lineage ever since, in 1456 they could significantly enlarge the Styrian territory by acquisition of the comital Celje estates in Lower Styria. Both duchies were ruled in personal union, when Leopolds grandson Frederick V inherited Austria in 1457. In 1496 Fredericks son Maximilian I signed an order expelling all Jews from Styria, in 1512 the duchy joined the Empires Austrian Circle. A second Inner Austrian cadet branch of the Habsburgs ruled over Styria from 1564, the Protestant population was expelled, including the astronomer Johannes Kepler in 1600. Meanwhile, at the time of the Ottoman invasions in the 16th and 17th centuries after the 1526 Battle of Mohács, Styria remained a part of the Habsburg Monarchy and from 1804 belonged to the Austrian Empire. He also forwarded the construction of the Semmering railway to Mürzzuschlag and the Austrian Southern Railway line from Vienna to Trieste completed in 1857, history of Styria Map of the Balkans, 1815–59, showing the Duchy of Styria
Duchy of Styria
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Grazer Schlossberg
Duchy of Styria
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Flag
8.
Duchy of Carinthia
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The Duchy of Carinthia was a duchy located in southern Austria and parts of northern Slovenia. It was separated from the Duchy of Bavaria in 976, and was the first newly created Imperial State after the original German stem duchies. Carinthia remained a State of the Holy Roman Empire until its dissolution in 1806, a constituent part of the Habsburg Monarchy and of the Austrian Empire, it remained a Cisleithanian crown land of Austria-Hungary until 1918. By the Carinthian Plebiscite in October 1920, the area of the duchy formed the Austrian state of Carinthia. In the seventh century the area was part of the Slavic principality of Carantania, the Bavarian stem duchy was incorporated into the Carolingian Empire when Charlemagne deposed Odilos son Duke Tassilo III in 788. In the 843 partition by the Treaty of Verdun, Carinthia became part of East Francia under King Louis the German, after Berthold became Duke of Bavaria in 938, both territories were ruled by him. Duke Henrys son Henry II the Quarreller from 974 onwards, revolted against his cousin Emperor Otto II, at the same time Emperor Otto II created a sixth duchy in addition to the original stem duchies, the new Duchy of Carinthia. He reverted the possession of the territories to the Luitpoldings, when he split Carinthia from the Bavarian lands, over the centuries, the name Carinthia gradually replaced former Carantania. The realm of the Carinthian dukes initially comprised a vast territory including the marches of Styria, Carniola and Istria, though Henry once again managed to regain the ducal title in 985, Carinthia upon his death in 989 fell back to the Imperial Ottonian dynasty in Bavaria. Adalbero was removed from office in 1035 after he had out of favour with the Salian Emperor Conrad II. In 1039 Carinthia was inherited by Emperor Henry III himself, who split off the Carniolan march the following year and granted it to Margrave Poppo of Istria. In 1077, the duchy was given to Luitpold, again a member of the Eppensteiner family, upon his death the duchy was further reduced in area, a large part of the Eppenstein lands in what is today Upper Styria passed to Margrave Ottokar II of Styria. The remainder of Carinthia passed from Duke Henry III to his godchild Henry from the House of Sponheim, the most outstanding of the Spanheim dukes was Bernhard, the first Carinthian duke who was actually described and honoured in documents as prince of the land. The last Spanheim duke was Ulrich III, he signed a treaty with his brother Archbishop Philip of Salzburg. In spite of being supported by the Habsburg king Rudolf I of Germany, the duchy was seized by Rudolph and Philip died a year later in 1279. Rudolf, after being elected King of the Romans and defeating King Ottokar II, the Habsburgs would continue to rule Carinthia until 1918. As with the component parts of the Habsburg Monarchy, Carinthia remained a semi-autonomous state with its own constitutional structure for a long time. The Habsburgs divided up their territories within the family twice, according to the 1379 Treaty of Neuberg, each time, the Duchy of Carinthia became part of Inner Austria and was ruled jointly with the adjacent duchies of Styria and Carniola
Duchy of Carinthia
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Carinthia (yellow) within Inner Austria, c. 1790
Duchy of Carinthia
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Flag
Duchy of Carinthia
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Early 18th century map of Carinthia showing fiefs owned by Salzburg and Bamberg.
Duchy of Carinthia
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Klagenfurt Landhaus
9.
Duchy of Carniola
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The Duchy of Carniola was a State of the Holy Roman Empire, established under Habsburg rule on the territory of the former East Frankish March of Carniola in 1364. A hereditary land of the Habsburg Monarchy, it became a constituent land of the Austrian Empire in 1804, a separate crown land from 1849, it was incorporated into the Cisleithanian territories of Austria-Hungary from 1867 until the states dissolution in 1918. The borders of the historic Carniola region had varied over the centuries, in the north, it bordered the Imperial Duchy of Carinthia, from the Predil Pass and Fusine along the main ridge of the Karawanks range up to Jezersko. In the northeast and east, it bordered on the Duchy of Styria, i. e. the present-day Štajerska or Lower Styrian lands beyond the Sava River, which until 1456 were held by the Counts of Celje. In the southwest, beyond the Dinaric Alps, the Counts of Görz held the remaining Friulian territory, the remains of the Margraviate of Istria south of the Karst Plateau and the Brkini Hills were also administered from Carniola. In its final extent, re-established in 1815, the duchy had an area of 9,904 square kilometres, in 1914, before the beginning of World War I, it had a population of a little under 530,000 inhabitants. Until 1860, these sub-regions coincided with the districts of Ljubljana, Novo Mesto and they were later divided into smaller units, called political districts. Between 1861 and 1918, Carniola was divided into districts consisting of 359 municipalities. The districts were, Kamnik, Kranj, Radovljica, the neighbourhood of Ljubljana, Logatec, Postojna, Litija, Krško, Novo Mesto, Črnomelj, the political districts were in turn divided into 31 judicial circuits. The former March of Carniola, i. e. Upper Carniola and it was nevertheless temporarily still held by the Carinthian rulers in personal union, like the Meinhardiner duke Henry VI, who died in 1335 without a male heir. Alberts son Rudolf IV of Austria, the Founder, in the course of his Privilegium Maius, rudolph also founded the town of Novo Mesto in Lower Carniola, then named Rudolphswerth. In 1457, the Inner Austrian territories were re-united with the Archduchy of Austria under the rule of the Habsburg emperor Frederick III. When Fredericks descendant, Emperor Ferdinand I, died in 1564, Charles son, Emperor Ferdinand II, inherited all the dynastys lands in 1619 and the duchy formed a constituent part of the Habsburg Monarchy ever since. Napoleon subsequent to the 1809 Treaty of Schönbrunn formed the short-lived Illyrian Provinces from the territories in Carniola, Carinthia, Croatia, Gorizia and Gradisca. The Final Act of the 1815 Congress of Vienna restored the Illyrian Provinces to the Austrian Empire, the home legislature consisted of a single chamber of thirty-seven members, among whom the prince-bishop sat ex-officio. The emperor convened the legislature, and it was presided over by the k. k, the landed interests elected ten members, the cities and towns eight, the commercial and industrial boards two, the village communes sixteen. The land budget of 1901 amounted to 3,573,280 crowns, the Austrian Imperial-Royal government was represented by the Imperial-Royal president, appointed by the emperor, and the Imperial-Royal Government in Ljubljana. In the majority of other Austrian crown lands these were known as Imperial-Royal Lieutenant, in 1918, the duchy ceased to exist and its territory became part of the newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and subsequently part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes
Duchy of Carniola
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Historic map of the Carniolan duchy: Upper (pink), Lower (green) and Inner (yellow) Carniola with adjacent Istrian march (orange),
Johann Homann, 1714
Duchy of Carniola
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Flag
Duchy of Carniola
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Carniola and Istria (pink) as part of Inner Austria, 1379–1457 and 1564–1619
10.
Austrian Littoral
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The Austrian Littoral was established as a crown land of the Austrian Empire in 1849. It consisted of three regions, the Istria peninsula, Gorizia and Gradisca, and the city of Trieste. Throughout history, the region has frequently contested, with parts of it controlled at various times by the Republic of Venice, Austria-Hungary, Italy. The Kingdom of Italy annexed it after World War I according to the Treaty of London, after World War II, it was split between Italy, Slovenia, and Croatia. Trieste had strategic importance as Austria-Hungarys primary seaport and the coast of the Littoral was a resort destination, the region was a multi-national one, with Italians, Slovenes, Croats, Germans and Friulians being the main ethnic groups. In 1910, it had an area of 7,969 square kilometres, the territory of the medieval Patriarchate of Aquileia had gradually been conquered by the Republic of Venice until the early 15th century. In the east, the Habsburg archdukes of Austria, based on the March of Carniola they held from 1335, had gained suzerainty over Istrian Pazin in 1374 and the port of Trieste in 1382. They also purchased Duino and Rijeka on the northern Adriatic coast in 1474, in 1511 Emperor Maximilian I annexed the city of Gradisca from Venice. The Habsburgs however did little initially to consolidate or develop their holdings in the Littoral, incorporated into the Austrian Circle of the Holy Roman Empire, Görz, Trieste and Istria remained separately administered and retained their autonomy until into the 18th century. Emperor Charles VI increased the sea power of the Habsburg Monarchy by making peace with the Ottomans, in 1719, Trieste and Fiume were made free ports. In 1730, administration of the Littoral was unified under the Intendancy in Trieste, however, in 1775, Emperor Joseph II divided the administration of the two main ports, assigning Trieste as the port for the Austrian hereditary lands and Fiume for the Kingdom of Hungary. Shortly after, Trieste was merged with the Princely County of Gorizia, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Habsburg Monarchy gained Venetian lands in the Istrian Peninsula and the Quarnero Islands as part of the Treaty of Campo Formio of 1797. However, these territories and all of the new Austrian Empires Adriatic lands were soon lost to the French Empires puppet state, the 1809 Treaty of Schönbrunn then transferred the area to the Illyrian Provinces which were directly ruled by France. From 1816, the Littoral was a part of the Austrian Empires Kingdom of Illyria, in 1822, Fiume and Civil Croatia were separated from the territory and ceded to the Kingdom of Hungary. The Littoral was officially the Trieste Province, one of two provinces of the Kingdom, the other being Laibach and it was subdivided into four districts, Gorizia, Istria, Trieste, and Trieste city. In 1849, the Kingdom of Illyria was dissolved and the Littoral became a crown land with a governor in Trieste. It was formally divided into the Margravate of Istria and the Princely County of Gorizia, following the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, the Littoral fell within Italys newly expanded borders as part of the Julian March. After World War II, most of it was included in the Second Yugoslavia, today Croatia and Slovenia each hold portions of the territory and the city of Trieste remains under Italian rule
Austrian Littoral
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Austrian Littoral in 1897
Austrian Littoral
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flag
11.
Archduke
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Archduke was the title borne from 1358 by the Habsburg rulers of the Archduchy of Austria, and later by all senior members of that dynasty. It denotes a rank within the former Holy Roman Empire, which was below that of Emperor and King and above that of a Grand Duke, Duke, the territory ruled by an Archduke or Archduchess was called an Archduchy. All remaining Archduchies ceased to exist in 1918, in the Carolingian Empire, the title Archduke was awarded not as rank of nobility, but as a unique honorary title to the Duke of Lotharingia. Lotharingia was eventually absorbed by East Francia, becoming part of the Holy Roman Empire rather than a fully independent Kingdom, the later extended fragmentation of both territories created two succeeding Duchies in the Low Countries, Brabant and Geldre. Both claimed archducal status but were never recognised as such by the Holy Roman Emperor. Archduke of Austria, the archducal title to re-emerge, was invented in the Privilegium Maius in the 14th century by Duke Rudolf IV of Austria. Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV refused to recognise the title, as did all the ruling dynasties of the member countries of the Empire. But Duke Ernest the Iron and his descendants assumed the title of Archduke. Emperor Frederick III himself simply used the title Duke of Austria, never Archduke, the title was first granted to Fredericks younger brother, Albert VI of Austria, who used it at least from 1458. In 1477, Frederick III also granted the title of Archduke to his first cousin, Sigismund of Austria, the title appears first in documents issued under the joint rule of Maximilian and his son Philip in the Low Countries. Archduke was initially borne by those dynasts who ruled a Habsburg territory—i. e, only by males and their consorts, appanages being commonly distributed to cadets. But these junior archdukes did not thereby become sovereign hereditary rulers, occasionally a territory might be combined with a separate gubernatorial mandate ruled by an archducal cadet. From the 16th century onward, Archduke and its form, Archduchess. After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire this usage was retained in the Austrian Empire, thus those members of the Habsburg family who are residents of the Republic of Austria are simply known by their first name and their surname Habsburg-Lothringen. However, members of the family who reside in other countries may or may not use the title, in accordance with laws, for example, Otto Habsburg-Lothringen, the eldest son of the last Habsburg Emperor, was an Austrian, Hungarian and German citizen. Hence, no member of the family other than the King bears the title of Archduke. The insignia of the Archduke of Lower and Upper Austria was the archducal hat, List of rulers of Austria List of Austrian consorts
Archduke
–
Archducal hat, the coronet of an archduke
Archduke
–
Bust of
Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria
Archduke
–
The heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne,
Archduke Franz Ferdinand (right) with his family. Ferdinand, along with his wife, was assassinated at Sarajevo in 1914, which sparked World War I
12.
Stadtholder
–
In the Low Countries, stadtholder, literally steward, designated a medieval official and then a national leader. For the last half century of its existence, it became a hereditary role. His son, Prince William V, was the last stadtholder of the republic, whose own son, King William I, became the first king of the Netherlands. The Dutch Monarchy is thus descended from the first stadtholder of the young Republic, William of Orange, the title stadtholder is roughly comparable to Englands historic title Lord Lieutenant. Its component parts literally translate as place holder, or as a cognate, stead holder. Note, however, that is not the word for the rank of lieutenant. Stadtholders in the Middle Ages were appointed by feudal lords to represent them in their absence, if a lord had several dominions, some of these could be ruled by a permanent stadtholder, to whom was delegated the full authority of the lord. A stadtholder was thus more powerful than a governor, who had limited authority. The local rulers of the independent provinces of the Low Countries made extensive use of stadtholders, in the 15th century the Dukes of Burgundy acquired most of the Low Countries, and these Burgundian Netherlands mostly each had their own stadtholder. Only the Prince-Bishopric of Liège and two smaller territories remained outside his domains, stadtholders continued to be appointed to represent Charles and King Philip II, his son and successor in Spain and the Low Countries. Due to the centralist and absolutist policies of Philip, the power of the stadtholders strongly diminished. The stadtholder no longer represented the lord but became the highest executive official, although each province could assign its own stadtholder, most stadtholders held appointments from several provinces at the same time. As these councils themselves appointed most members of the states, the stadtholder could very indirectly influence the general policy, in the army, he could appoint officers by himself, in the navy only affirm appointments of the five admiralty councils. Legal powers of the stadtholder were thus limited, and by law he was a mere official. His real powers, however, were greater, especially given the martial law atmosphere of the permanent Eighty Years War. Maurice of Orange after 1618 ruled as a dictator. The leader of the Dutch Revolt was William the Silent, he had been appointed stadtholder in 1572 by the first province to rebel and his personal influence and reputation was subsequently associated with the office and transferred to members of his house. Maurice in 1618 and William III of Orange from 1672 replaced entire city councils with their partisans to increase their power, by intimidation, the stadtholders tried to extend their right of affirmation
Stadtholder
–
William I of Orange was a stadtholder during the
Dutch Revolt against the
Spanish Empire.
13.
Graz
–
Graz is the capital of Styria and second-largest city in Austria after Vienna. On 1 January 2017, it had a population of 320,587, in 2014, the population of the Graz Larger Urban Zone who had principal residence status stood at 605,143. Graz has a tradition as a university town, its six universities have more than 44,000 students. Its Old Town is one of the city centres in Central Europe. Politically and culturally, Graz was for more important for Slovenes than Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. In 1999, Graz was added to the UNESCO list of World Cultural Heritage Sites, Graz was sole Cultural Capital of Europe for 2003 and got the title of a City of Culinary Delights in 2008. The name of the city, Graz, formerly spelled Gratz, stems most likely from the Slavic gradec, some archaeological finds point to the erection of a small castle by Alpine Slavic people, which in time became a heavily defended fortification. The name thus follows the common South Slavic pattern for naming settlements as grad, the German name Graz first appears in records in 1128. Graz is situated on the Mur River in the southeast of Austria and it is about 200 km southwest of Vienna. The nearest larger urban center is Maribor in Slovenia which is about 50 km away, Graz is the capital and largest city in Styria, a green and heavily forested area. These towns and villages border Graz, The city of Graz is divided into 17 districts, however, no historical continuity exists of a settlement before the Middle Ages. During the 12th century, dukes under Babenberg rule made the town into an important commercial center, later, Graz came under the rule of the Habsburgs, and in 1281, gained special privileges from King Rudolph I. In the 14th century, Graz became the city of residence of the Inner Austrian line of the Habsburgs, the royalty lived in the Schloßberg castle and from there ruled Styria, Carinthia, most of todays Slovenia, and parts of Italy. In the 16th century, the design and planning were primarily controlled by Italian Renaissance architects and artists. One of the most famous buildings built in style is the Landhaus, designed by Domenico dellAllio. Karl-Franzens-Universität, also called the University of Graz, is the citys oldest university, for most of its existence, it was controlled by the Catholic church, and was closed in 1782 by Joseph II in an attempt to gain state control over educational institutions. Joseph II transformed it into a lyceum where civil servants and medical personnel were trained, in 1827 it was re-instituted as a university by Emperor Franz I, thus gaining the name Karl-Franzens Universität, meaning Charles-Francis University. Over 30,000 students currently study at this university, the astronomer Johannes Kepler lived in Graz for a short period
Graz
–
Rathaus (Town Hall) at dusk
Graz
Graz
–
Aerial photography showing the historic city center of Graz
Graz
–
Graz, Georg Matthäus Vischer (1670)
14.
Archduchy of Austria
–
The Archduchy of Austria was a major principality of the Holy Roman Empire and the nucleus of the Habsburg Monarchy. With its capital at Vienna, the archduchy was centered at the Empires southeastern periphery, the Archduchy developed out of the Bavarian Margraviate of Austria, elevated to the Duchy of Austria according to the 1156 Privilegium Minus by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. The House of Habsburg came to the Austrian throne in Vienna in 1282 and in 1453 Emperor Frederick III, also Austrian ruler, the Archduchys history as an Imperial State ended with the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. It was replaced with the Lower and Upper Austria crown lands of the Austrian Empire, located in the Danube basin, Austria bordered on the Kingdom of Hungary beyond the March and Leitha rivers in the east. In the west, the Upper Austrian part bordered on the Bavarian stem duchy, in the course of the German mediatisation in 1803, the Austrian archdukes also acquired the rule over the Electorate of Salzburg and the Berchtesgaden Provostry. After Austria was detached from Bavaria and established as an Imperial estate in 1156, in 1358/59 the Habsburg duke Rudolf IV, in response of the Golden Bull of 1356, already claimed the archducal title by forging the Privilegium Maius. By the 1379 Treaty of Neuberg, his heirs divided the Habsburg lands, on Epiphany 1453 Emperor Frederick III, regent of Austria for his minor Albertinian cousin Ladislaus the Posthumous, finally acknowledged the archducal title. It was then conferred to all Habsburg emperors and rulers, as well as to the princes of the dynasty, however. Frederick further promoted the rise of the Habsburg dynasty into European dimensions with the arrangement of the marriage between his son Maximilian I and Mary the Rich, heiress of Burgundy in 1477. After Maximilians son Philip the Handsome in 1496 had married Joanna the Mad, Queen of Castile, by marrying Princess Anna of Bohemia and Hungary, Ferdinand inherited both kingdoms in 1526. The Archduchy of Austria continued to exist as a constituent crown land within the empire, history of Austria List of rulers of Austria
Archduchy of Austria
–
The Archduchy of Austria (orange) in 1477.
15.
Main chain of the Alps
–
The main chain of the Alps, also called the Alpine divide is the central line of mountains that forms the water divide of the range. The Alps are generally divided into Western Alps and Eastern Alps, the Western Alps are higher, but their central chain is shorter and much curved, they are located in France, Italy and Switzerland. The Eastern Alps belong to Austria, Germany, Italy, Slovenia, the highest peak of the Western Alps is Mont Blanc, in the Eastern Alps Piz Bernina,4,049 meters. the west. From here the divide extends eastwards, culminating in the Aiguille de Scolette, once more the chain bends to the north-west, rising in several lofty peaks, before attaining the considerable depression of the Little St Bernard Pass. The divide then briefly north to the Col de la Soigne, and then north-east along the crest of the Mont Blanc chain, which culminates in the peak of Mont Blanc. A number of high peaks line the divide before it attains Mont Dolent and it is in the portion of the watershed between the Grande St Bernard Pass and the Simplon that the main chain maintains a greater average height than in any other part. On the other hand the chain between the Grande St Bernard and the Simplon sinks at barely half a dozen points below a level of 3,000 metres, the Simplon Pass corresponds to what may be called a dislocation of the main chain. From there to the St. Gotthard the divide runs north-east, all the higher summits rising on it, but all the loftiest peaks rise on it, Scopi, Piz Medel, the Rheinwaldhorn, the Pizzo Tambo and Piz Timun. From the Maloja Pass the main watershed dips to the south-east for a short distance, the break in the continuity of the Alpine chain marked by the deep valley, the Vinschgau, of the upper Adige is one of the most remarkable features in the orography of the Alps. The little Reschen Lake, which forms the source of the Adige is only 4 metres below the Reschen Pass. The Brenner is almost the lowest of all the great Carriage-road passes across the main chain, for some way beyond it the watershed runs eastwards over the highest crest of the Zillertal Alps, which attains 3,510 metres in the Hochfeiler. The water divide further runs eastwards through the Northern Limestone Alps, ending at Vienna Gate, the slopes of the Leopoldsberg high above the Danube water gap. The main chain has more glaciers and eternal snow than the independent or external ranges, the longest of these are both 9¼ miles, the Mer de Glace at Chamonix and the Gorner Glacier at Zermatt. But the next two longest glaciers in the Eastern Alps are both in the Ötztal Alps, and so close to the main watershed. Alps Geography of the Alps This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
Main chain of the Alps
–
Main chain of the Alps
Main chain of the Alps
–
Main ridge in the Hohe Tauern range
16.
Upper Styria
–
Upper Styria, in the Austrian usage of the term, refers exclusively to the northwestern, generally mountainous and well wooded half of the federal state of Styria. The southwestern half of the state around the capital of Graz is known as Central Styria, upper Styria is separated from Central Styria by the Stubalpe and Gleinalpe ranges of the Lavanttal Alps, and the Prealps East of the Mur. The area around Altaussee in the far northwest ist part of the Austrian Salzkammergut cultural landscape, the Obersteiermark region consists of five districts, Murau Liezen Murtal Leoben Bruck–Mürzzuschlag
Upper Styria
–
Obersteiermark districts within the state of Styria
17.
Lower Styria
–
Styria, also Slovenian Styria or Lower Styria, is a traditional region in northeastern Slovenia, comprising the southern third of the former Duchy of Styria. The population of Styria in its historical boundaries amounts to around 705,000 inhabitants, the first two parts, predominantly German-speaking, today form the Austrian state of Styria. The southern third, predominantly Slovene-speaking, is part of Slovenia. The Austrian rulers had the estates developed benefitting the Lower Styrian towns, according to the last Austro-Hungarian census of 1910, Lower Styria had around 498,000 inhabitants, of which around 82% were Slovene and around 18% German speakers. After a short fight with German-Austrian paramilitary units, the current border was established, acknowledged by the provisional Styrian assembly at Graz, by December 1918, all of Lower Styria was de facto included in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. A protest by German-speaking Marburg citizens resulted in the Marburg Bloody Sunday, confirmed by the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the border between Yugoslav and Austrian Styria mostly followed the ethnic-linguistic dividing line between Slovenes and ethnic Germans. Nevertheless, several Slovene-speaking villages around Leutschach, Spielberg, Soboth, according to the 1921 Yugoslav census, some 22,500 ethnic Germans lived in Yugoslav Styria. They represented around 4. 5% of the population of the region. In 1931, this dropped to around 12,500 or 2. 3% of the regional population. In 1922, the County of Maribor was formed, comprising most of the territory of Slovene Styria, plus the Prekmurje, after the coup detat of King Alexander I of Yugoslavia in January 1929, the counties were abolished and replaced with nine Banates. In April 1941, Nazi Germany invaded Yugoslavia and Slovene Styria was annexed to the Third Reich, a policy of violent Germanization was introduced. Public use of Slovene language was prohibited, and all Slovene associations were dissolved, members of all professional and intellectual groups, including many clergymen, were expelled. Between April 1941 and May 1942, around 80,000 Slovenes were expelled from Lower Styria, as a reaction, a resistance movement developed. Many areas of Lower Styria witnessed fierce fighting between German troops and Slovene partisan units, after World War II, Yugoslav authority over the region was established and Slovene Styria became an integral part of the Socialist Republic of Slovenia. Between the 1950s and 1970s, many areas of the region underwent rapid industrializations, towns like Maribor, Celje and Velenje became among the most important industrial centers of Slovenia and Yugoslavia. Lower Styria has no status as an administrative or statistical unit within Slovenia. The bulk of Lower Styria is subdivided between the Drava Statistical Region with its seat in Maribor, and the Savinja Statistical Region with its seat in Celje, nowadays, many of these peripheral areas are no longer considered part of Styria. An exception is the Prlekija subregion, which is widely considered part of Styria
Lower Styria
–
Typical Lower Styrian landscape in
Sevnica.
Lower Styria
–
Maribor
Lower Styria
–
Ptuj
Lower Styria
–
Celje
18.
Carniola
–
Carniola was a historical region that comprised parts of present-day Slovenia. In 1991, 47% of the population of Slovenia lived within the borders of the former Duchy of Carniola and its capital was originally Krainburg, for a short period Stein, and from the second half of the 13th century, Laibach or Ljubljana. Nowadays, its territory is almost entirely located in Slovenia, except for a part in the northwest Italy. Carniola in its form, established in 1815, encompassed 9,904 km2. In 1914, before the beginning of World War I, it had a population of slightly under 530,000 inhabitants, the Julian and Karavanken Alps traverse the country. The highest mountain peaks are Nanos,4,200 feet, Vremščica,3,360 feet, Snežnik,5,900 feet, and Triglav,9,300 feet. The principal rivers are Sava, Tržič Bistrica, Kokra, Kamnik Bistrica, Sora, Ljubljanica, Mirna, Krka, and Kolpa and it was known to the Romans as Lugea palus, and is a natural curiosity. Dante Alighieri mentions it in his Divine Comedy, the Ljubljana Marshes cover an area of 76 square miles. Hot and mineral springs are to be found at Sušica, Šmarjetske, there is an interesting cave at Postojna. Agriculture thrives better in Upper than in Lower Carniola, the Vipava Valley is especially famous for its wine and vegetables, and for its mild climate. The principal exports are all kinds of vegetables, clover-seed, lumber, carvings, cattle, in the mineral kingdom the principal products are iron, coal, quicksilver, manganese, lead, and zinc. Upper Carniola has the most industries, among the products being lumber, linen, woollen stuffs, and lace, bells, straw hats, wicker-work, the railroads are the Juzna, the Prince Rudolf, the Bohinjska, the Kamniska, the Dolenjska, and the Vrhniska. The principal cities and towns are, Kamnik, Kranj, Tržič, Vrhnika, Vipava, Idrija, Turjak, Ribnica, Metlika, Novo Mesto, Vače. The mean average temperature in spring is 56 °F, in summer,77 °F, in autumn,59 °F, of the inhabitants 95 per cent were Slovenes, kinsmen to the Croats, the remainder are Germans,700 Croats, and Italians. In the districts of Gottschee and Črnomelj dwell the people of White Carniola for a link between the Croats and Slovenes. One-half of the Germans live in Gottschee,5000 in Ljubljana,3500 at Novo Mesto, the Germans at Gottschee were settled there by Otho, Count of Ortenburg, in the fourteenth century, and they preserve their Tyrolean German dialect. After the fall of the Roman Empire, Lombards settled in Carniola, from about 900 AD until the 20th century, Carniolas ruling classes and urban areas spoke German, while the peasantry spoke Slovene. The capital of Carniola, originally situated at Kranj, was moved to Kamnik and finally to the current capital of Slovenia
Carniola
–
Landscape of Lower Carniola in
Slepšek
Carniola
–
1791 map of Carniola
Carniola
–
The Mark Krain (March of Carniola) was in the southeast of the 10th-century Holy Roman Empire. Its namesake and capital was
Krainburg (now Kranj).
Carniola
–
The Carniolan Parliament building. In 1919 it became the main building of the
University of Ljubljana.
19.
Lower Carniola
–
Lower Carniola is a traditional region in Slovenia, the southeastern part of the historical Carniola region. The southernmost region down to the border with Croatia on the Kolpa River is called White Carniola, within the Kočevje Rog karst plateau, the mountains reach an elevation of up to 1,099 m. The historic centre of Lower Carniola is Novo Mesto, and other towns include Kočevje, Grosuplje, Krško, Trebnje, Mirna, Črnomelj, Semič, in the 17th century, the Habsburg duchy of Carniola was internally divided into three administrative districts. This division was described by the scholar Johann Weikhard von Valvasor in his 1689 work The Glory of the Duchy of Carniola. The districts were known in German as Kreise, while the bulk of the population spoke Slovene, the German-speaking exclave of the Gottschee Germans existed around Kočevje in the south. Nevertheless, the regional identity remained strong also thereafter, the Carniolan regional identity soon faded away, but the regional identification with its sub-units remain strong. In the early 21st century the Brotherhood and Unity Highway was replaced with the modern A2 motorway, Lower Carniolan dialect group Gottscheerish Southeast Slovenia Statistical Region Media related to Lower Carniola at Wikimedia Commons
Lower Carniola
–
Typical Lower Carniolan landscape in
Sveti Vrh.
Lower Carniola
–
1714 map of Carniola by
Johann Homann, Lower Carniola in green
Lower Carniola
–
Novo Mesto
Lower Carniola
–
Stična Abbey
20.
White Carniola
–
White Carniola is a small traditional region in southeastern Slovenia on the border with Croatia. It is the southernmost part of the historical Lower Carniola region, as the area could only be reached from northern Lower Carniola by mountain passes, the inhabitants cultivate a certain distinctness. The region corresponds to the municipalities of Metlika, Črnomelj. The terrain is characterised by low karst hills and extended birch forests, the main river is the Kolpa with its Lahinja, Dobličica and Krupa tributaries. White Carniola is known for Grič and Kanižarica pottery from clay with a distinct calcite content, as well as for high-quality wines, such as metliška črnina, belokranjec, a distinguishing part of Bela krajina is its folk heritage. It still has many events, which show traditional local costumes, music, played on a regionally known instrument called tamburica. A distinctive feature is also the pisanica, a coloured Easter egg decorated in a characteristic manner using beeswax that is nowhere else in Slovenia. Belokranjska pogača, a type of bread has recently been granted with the European Unions Traditional Speciality Guaranteed designation. The name Bela krajina literally means white march, the noun krajina march refers to a border territory organized for military defense. The adjective bela white may refer to the trees in the area in comparison to black trees in the neighboring Kočevje area. It may also be an old designation for west, referring to the location of the region in comparison to the Croatian Military Frontier. Non-linguistic explanations connect the designation bela with the white linen clothing of the population. The German designation Weißkrain is the result of a hypercorrection based on the adjective belokrajnski, the Counts of Weichselberg, descendants of Saint Hemma of Gurk, established the Imperial Weiße Mark in the acquired territories. They established their residence at Metlika, and therefore in contemporary sources their lands were referred to as the County of Möttling. With the Ottoman conquest of Serbian territories, groups of Serbs fled to the north or west, of the western groups, some settled in White Carniola. In September 1597, with the fall of Slatina, some 1,700 Uskoks with their wives and children settled in Carniola, the following year, with the conquest of Cernik, some 500 Uskok families settled in Carniola. Several castles were built in the region, especially during the Ottoman Wars from the 15th century onwards, as in Črnomelj, Gradac. The remains of the fortress in Pobrežje were destroyed in World War II
White Carniola
–
View over White Carniola from the Kolpa River in the front to the Gorjanci ridge
White Carniola
–
Location of White Carniola in Slovenia
White Carniola
–
Ruins of Pobrežje Castle
21.
Windic March
–
This article is about the medieval region in present-day south-eastern Slovenia. In Slovenian historiography, it is known as Slovenian March. The name Windic is derived from Wends, the name for Western Slavs settling in the Germania Slavica contact zone, the medieval German term Windisch referred to the Slovene language, it should not to be confused with Wendische, the historic German term for the Sorbian-speaking population in Lusatia. However, it should be noted that the geographic term windisches Land referred exclusively to the Croatian region of Slavonia. The Chronicle of Fredegar mentions Sclavos coinomento Winedorum in 623, samos tribal union included the Windic March of Duke Valuk, located in the Eastern Alps, in 631. In 976 it was attached to the newly founded Duchy of Carinthia, in 1077 King Henry IV of Germany put Carniola and the Windic March under the direction of the Patriarch of Aquileia. From 1127 to 1131 the margavial territory was expanded in several campaigns by the Counts of Weichselburg against Croatia in the union with Hungary. Backed by the Archbishop of Salzburg, they conquered the territory around Metlika up to the Kolpa River in the southeast, until 1209 the Counts of Weichselburg held extended possessions in the Windic March. Through a marriage to the last heiress Sophia of Weichselburg, the Counts of Andechs, then at the peak of their power as Margraves of Istria and Dukes of Merania came to dominate the territory. It was part of the dowry of Agnes of Merania, sister of Duke Otto I of Andechs-Merania, upon her marriage with the Frederick II of Babenberg, son of Duke Leopold VI of Austria, in 1229. Frederick II thereafter called himself a dominus Carniole and succeeded his father as Duke of Austria and Styria in the following year, in 1248 the title was picked up by Duke Ulrich III of Carinthia, who had married Agnes of Merania after Fredericks death in 1246. After 1282, despite King Rudolf Is grant to his sons, Carniola, after 1374 and the death of the Tyrolean branch of the Meinhardiner dynasty, the Windic March finally fell to the House of Habsburg, but it was no longer a separate political division by then. The head of the House of Habsburg continued carrying the title of Lord on the Windic March in the title of the Emperor of Austria. Slovene Lands History of Slovenia Inner Austria Media related to Windic March at Wikimedia Commons
Windic March
–
"Map of the
Duchy of Carniola, Windic March and
Istria ", by
Johann Homann (1663-1724), after
Johann Weikhard von Valvasor (1641-1693): Lower Carniola and Windic March in green
22.
Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)
–
The Kingdom of Croatia was an administrative division that existed between 1527 and 1868 within the Habsburg Monarchy. The Kingdom was a part of the Lands of the Crown of St. Stephen, between 1744 and 1868 the Kingdom of Croatia included a subordinate autonomous kingdom, the Kingdom of Slavonia. The territory of the Slavonian Kingdom was recovered from the Ottoman Empire, in 1744 these territories were organized as the Kingdom of Slavonia and included within the Kingdom of Croatia as an autonomous part. In 1868 both were merged again into the newly formed Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, following the Battle of Mohács, in 1527 the Croatian and Hungarian nobles needed to decide on a new king. The bulk of the Croatian nobility convened the Croatian Parliament in Cetin, some of the nobles dissented and supported John Zápolya, but the Habsburg option prevailed by 1540, when John Zápolya died. Territory retaken from the Ottoman Empire was formed in 1745 as the Kingdom of Slavonia, in 1804 the Habsburg Monarchy became the Austrian Empire which annexed the Venetian Republic in 1814 and established the Kingdom of Dalmatia. Stephen in the Hungarian part of the Empire, while the Kingdom of Dalmatia became a Kronland in the Austrian part of the Empire. The new Kingdom claimed the Kingdom of Dalmatia, as the remaining Croatian land in the Empire, and often referred to itself as the Triune Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia. The change of leadership was far from a solution to the war with the Ottomans, in fact, Croatian territory under Habsburg rule was 25 years later reduced to about 20,000 km². In 1558, the parliaments of Croatia and Slavonia were united after many centuries into one, the centre of the Croatian state moved northward from coastal Dalmatia, as these lands were conquered by the Ottomans. The town of Zagreb gained importance, as did nearby Varaždin, taking advantage of the growing conflict between Maximilian and Sigismund, Suleyman started his sixth raid of Hungary in 1565 with 100,000 troops. They successfully progressed northwards until 1566 when they took a detour to capture the outpost of Siget which they failed to capture ten years previously. The small fort was defended by Count Nikola Šubić Zrinski and 2 and they were able to hold their ground for a month, and decimated the Ottoman army before being wiped out themselves. This siege, now known as the Battle of Szigetvár, bought time to allow Austrian troops to regroup before the Ottomans could reach Vienna. Ambroz Matija Gubec and other leaders of the mutiny raised peasants to arms in over sixty fiefs throughout the country in January 1573, Matija Gubec and thousands of others were publicly executed shortly thereafter, in a rather brutal manner in order to set an example for others. After the Bihać fort finally fell to the army of the Bosnian vizier Hasan Pasha Predojević in 1592, the remaining 16,800 km² where around 400,000 inhabitants lived were referred to as the remnants of remnants of the once great and renowned Kingdom of Croatia. By the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire was driven out of Ottoman Hungary and Croatia, subsequently, the empress made significant contributions to Croatian matters, by making several changes in the administrative control of the Military Frontier, the feudal and tax system. The empress also gave the independent port of Rijeka to Croatia in 1776, however, she also ignored the Croatian Parliament
Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)
–
Map of Croatia, Dalmatia, Slavonia, Bosnia, Serbia, Istria and the Republic of Dubrovnik in the 18th century
Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)
–
Flag
Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)
–
Nikola Šubić Zrinski by
Oton Iveković. The work depicts Croatian Ban
Nikola Šubić Zrinski defending against the Ottomans at the
Battle of Szigetvár
Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)
–
An old map of Croatia from the end of the 16th century (1593)
23.
Archbishopric of Salzburg
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The Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg was an ecclesiastical principality and state of the Holy Roman Empire. It comprised the territory ruled by the Archbishops of Salzburg. The capital of the archbishopric was Salzburg, the former Roman city of Iuvavum, from the late 13th century onwards, the archbishops gradually reached the status of Imperial immediacy and independence from the Bavarian dukes. Salzburg remained a principality until its secularisation to the short-lived Electorate of Salzburg in 1803. The last prince-archbishop exercising secular authority was Count Hieronymus von Colloredo, the bishoprics territory was roughly congruent with the present-day Austrian state of Salzburg. It stretched along the Salzach river from the High Tauern range—Mt, großvenediger at 3,666 m —at the main chain of the Alps in the south down to the Alpine foothills in the north. Here it also comprised the present-day Rupertiwinkel on the shore of the Salzach. In the southeast, Salzburg adjoined the Duchy of Styria, also ruled by the Habsburg dukes in personal union since 1192. By 1335, the Austrian regents had also acquired the old Duchy of Carinthia in the south, the Habsburg encirclement was nearly completed, when in 1363 the archdukes also attained the County of Tyrol in the west. Very little is known of the bishopric during the Migration Period. In his conflict with the Rugii tribes, Odoacer had his brother Onoulphus evacuate the Noricum ripense province in 487/88, whereby Iuvavum was abandoned, Saint Severinus had already died in 482 in the castrum of Favianis, six years before the departure of the Roman legions from the region. After erecting a church at nearby Seekirchen he discovered the ruins of Iuvavum overgrown with brambles and remnants of the Romance population, the former theory that he arrived already in c. In either case, it was not until after 700 that Christian civilisation re-emerged in the region, Rupert established a monastery dedicated to Saint Peter at the site of a Late Antique church in former Iuvavum. In 711 Rupert also founded the Cella Maximiliana in the Pongau region and his niece Erentrude established a Bendictine nunnery at nearby Nonnberg about 713. In 739 Archbishop Boniface, with the blessing of Pope Gregory III, completed the work of Saint Rupert and raised Salzburg to a bishopric, St. Vergilius, abbot of St. Peters since about 749, had quarrelled with St. Boniface over the existence of antipodes. He nevertheless became bishop about 767, had the first cathedral erected in 774, monasteries were founded and all of Carinthia was slowly Christianised. While Arno was in Rome attending to some of Charlemagnes business in 798, when the dispute over the ecclesiastical border between Salzburg and the Patriarchate of Aquileia broke out, Charlemagne declared the Drava to be the border. Arno also began the copying of 150 volumes from the court of Charlemagne, Archbishop Adalwin suffered great troubles when King Rastislav of Moravia attempted to remove his realm from the ecclesiastical influence of East Francia
Archbishopric of Salzburg
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Rupert of Salzburg with salt barrel, mediæval depiction
Archbishopric of Salzburg
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Salzburg territory (violet) in 1789, between
Bavarian (green) and
Habsburg (orange) lands
Archbishopric of Salzburg
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Archbishopric of Salzburg, c. 1715
24.
County of Tyrol
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The Princely County of Tyrol, until 1493, County of Tyrol, was a State of the Holy Roman Empire established about 1140. Originally a jurisdiction under the sovereignty of the Counts of Tyrol, it was inherited by the Counts of Gorizia in 1253, today the territory of the historic crown land is divided between the Italian autonomous region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol and the Austrian state of Tyrol. Both parts are today associated again in the Tyrol–South Tyrol–Trentino Euroregion, the German monarchs regularly travelled across Brenner or Reschen Pass on their Italian expeditions aiming at papal coronation or the consolidation of Imperial rule. In 1004 King Henry II of Germany separated the estates of Trent from the North Italian March of Verona, especially the Brixen bishops remained loyal supporters of the Salian rulers in the Investiture Controversy and in 1091 also received the Puster Valley from the hands of Emperor Henry IV. Documented from about 1140 onwards, the comital dynasty residing in Tyrol Castle near Meran held the office of Vogts in the Trent diocese and they extended their territory over much of the region and came to surpass the power of the bishops, who were nominally their feudal lords. After the deposition of the Welf duke Henry X of Bavaria in 1138, when Henry the Lion was again enfeoffed with the Bavarian duchy by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa at the 1154 Imperial Diet in Goslar, his possessions no longer comprised the Tyrolean lands. The Counts maintained that independence under the rising Bavarian Wittelsbach dynasty, in 1210, Count Albert IV of Tyrol also took over the Vogt office in the Bishopric of Brixen, prevailing against the rivalling Counts of Andechs. In 1253 Count Meinhard of Gorizia inherited the Tyrolean lands by his marriage to Adelheid, when their sons divided their estate in 1271, the elder Meinhard II took Tyrol, for which he was recognized as an immediate lordship. He supported the German king Rudolph of Habsburg against his rival King Ottokar II of Bohemia, in reward, he received the Duchy of Carinthia with the Carniolan march in 1286. In 1307 Meinhards son Henry was elected King of Bohemia, After his death, he had one surviving daughter, Margaret Maultasch, in 1342 she married Louis V of Wittelsbach, then Margrave of Brandenburg. Louis V died in 1361, followed by Margarets son Meinhard III two years later, lacking any descendants to succeed her, she bequeathed the county to Rudolph IV of Habsburg, Duke of Austria in 1363. He was recognized by the House of Wittelsbach in 1369, from that time onward, Tyrol was ruled by various lines of the Austrian Habsburg dynasty, who held the title of Count. After the Habsburg hereditary lands had been divided by the 1379 Treaty of Neuberg, after a second division within the Leopoldinian line in 1406, Duke Frederick IV of the Empty Pockets ruled them. In 1420 he made Innsbruck the Tyrolean residence, in 1490 his son and heir Sigismund renounced Tyrol and Further Austria in favour of his cousin German king Maximilian I of Habsburg. By then Maximilian I had re-united all Habsburg lands under his rule, in 1500 he also acquired the remaining Gorizia territories around Lienz and the Puster Valley. When Emperor Ferdinand I of Habsburg died in 1564, he bequeathed the rule over Tyrol, both territories thereafter fell to the younger sons of the Habsburg Emperors, Archduke Matthias in 1608 and Maximilian III in 1612. After the death of Archduke Sigismund Francis in 1665, all Habsburg lands were again under the rule of the Emperor Leopold I. From the time of Maria Theresa of Austria onward, Tyrol was governed by a government of the Habsburg Monarchy at Vienna in all matters of major importance
County of Tyrol
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Map of the County of Tyrol (1799)
County of Tyrol
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Flag
County of Tyrol
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Castle Tyrol was the seat of the Counts of Tyrol and gave the region its name
County of Tyrol
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Andreas Hofer led the
Tyrolean Rebellion 1809 against the invading
Napoleon I
25.
Mur (river)
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The Mur or Mura is a river in Central Europe rising in the Hohe Tauern national park of the Central Eastern Alps in Austria with its source being 1,898 m above sea level. It is a tributary of the Drava and subsequently the Danube, the Murs total length is around 480 kilometres. About 330 km are within the interior of Austria,95 km flow in and around Slovenia, the largest city on the river is Graz, Austria. Its basin covers an area of 13,800 km2, tributaries of the Mur include the Mürz, the Sulm, the Ščavnica, the Ledava and the Trnava. The river rises in a valley within the Lungau region of Austrian state of Salzburg. The river flows eastwards through Tamsweg before crossing the border into the state of Styria, between Tamsweg and Unzmarkt-Frauenburg the river flows through a rural mountain valley and is closely paralleled by the 65 km long narrow gauge Murtalbahn railway. From Unzmarkt the river continues in a direction through the industrial towns of Leoben. At Bruck an der Mur the Mürz joins the Mur, which turns south to flow through the city of Graz. The river flows through the centre of Graz, passing underneath the Schloßberg, as a result of being the European Capital of Culture for 2003, an artificial island known as the Murinsel was constructed in the middle of the river. Once heavily polluted by several mills on the shore and by the ironworks around Leoben, the water quality has improved since the 1980s. From Graz the river continues to south, past the town of Leibnitz to its nearby confluence with the Sulm. Near Spielfeld, the forms the border between Austria and Slovenia, a role it retains until just after the twin towns of Bad Radkersburg and Gornja Radgona. In Slovenia it passes the towns of Radenci, and Veržej, the river gives its name to the Slovenian region of Prekmurje and the Croatian region of Međimurje. Cable ferries and ship mills are found in this area. In the upper Međimurje area, in the part of the region. Here, the biggest forest along the river, the Murščak, is located between Domašinec and Donji Hrašćan, after receiving its last significant tributary Trnava, the river ends near Legrad in Koprivnica-Križevci county, Croatia, where it flows into the Drava River. Since the 4th century BC, there have reports of floating mills powered by the streams of the river. The ancient technology was adopted later by arriving Slavs and then by Magyars, several decades ago, in the 1920s and 1930s, many of these mills were still operating along the river
Mur (river)
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The Mur valley near Tamsweg in Austria
Mur (river)
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Mur source (Murursprung)
Mur (river)
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The Mur in Graz
Mur (river)
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The Mur river in Slovenia
26.
House of Habsburg
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The House of Habsburg, also called House of Hapsburg, or House of Austria, was one of the most influential royal houses of Europe. The throne of the Holy Roman Empire was continuously occupied by the Habsburgs between 1438 and 1740, from the sixteenth century, following the reign of Charles V, the dynasty was split between its Austrian and Spanish branches. Although they ruled distinct territories, they maintained close relations. The House takes its name from Habsburg Castle, a built in the 1020s in present-day Switzerland, in the canton of Aargau, by Count Radbot of Klettgau. His grandson Otto II was the first to take the name as his own. The House of Habsburg gathered dynastic momentum through the 11th, 12th, by 1276, Count Radbots seventh generation descendant Rudolph of Habsburg had moved the familys power base from Habsburg Castle to the Duchy of Austria. Rudolph had become King of Germany in 1273, and the dynasty of the House of Habsburg was truly entrenched in 1276 when Rudolph became ruler of Austria, which the Habsburgs ruled until 1918. A series of dynastic marriages enabled the family to expand its domains to include Burgundy, Spain and its colonial empire, Bohemia, Hungary. In the 16th century, the separated into the senior Habsburg Spain and the junior Habsburg Monarchy branches. The House of Habsburg became extinct in the 18th century, the senior Spanish branch ended upon the death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and was replaced by the House of Bourbon. It was succeeded by the Vaudemont branch of the House of Lorraine, the new successor house styled itself formally as the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, although it was often referred to as simply the House of Habsburg. His grandson Radbot, Count of Habsburg founded the Habsburg Castle, the origins of the castles name, located in what is now the Swiss canton of Aargau, are uncertain. There is disagreement on whether the name is derived from the High German Habichtsburg, or from the Middle High German word hab/hap meaning ford, the first documented use of the name by the dynasty itself has been traced to the year 1108. The Habsburg Castle was the seat in the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries. The Habsburgs expanded their influence through arranged marriages and by gaining political privileges, in the 13th century, the house aimed its marriage policy at families in Upper Alsace and Swabia. They were also able to high positions in the church hierarchy for their members. Territorially, they often profited from the extinction of other families such as the House of Kyburg. By the second half of the 13th century, count Rudolph IV had become one of the most influential territorial lords in the area between the Vosges Mountains and Lake Constance
House of Habsburg
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House of Habsburg
House of Habsburg
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Growth of the Habsburg Empire in Central Europe.
House of Habsburg
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A map of the dominion of the Habsburgs following the
Battle of Mühlberg (1547) as depicted in The Cambridge Modern History Atlas (1912); Habsburg lands are shaded green, but do not include the lands of the
Holy Roman Empire over which they presided, nor the vast Castilian holdings outside of Europe, particularly in the
New World.
House of Habsburg
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Spanish branch's family tree with connections to Emperors' branch
27.
Duino
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Duino is a town and castle at the Adriatic coast in the municipality of Duino-Aurisina, part of the region of Friuli–Venezia Giulia in the province of Trieste, northeastern Italy. Until the 1950s, Duino was a predominantly Slovene-speaking village with a sizeable Italian-speaking minority, according to the last Austrian census of 1910,63. 5% of the inhabitants of the town were Slovenes and 25. 1% were Italians. The Italian census of 1921 confirmed the Slovene ethnic character of the town, during the years of the Free Territory of Trieste, however, its ethnic composition changed considerably, as many Istrian Italians fleeing from Yugoslavia settled in Duino. Nowadays, Duino is a predominantly Italian-speaking town, with a numerous Slovene-speaking minority, most signs are written in both languages, and the municipality of Duino-Aurisina is an officially bilingual one. Duino is noted for being the place where the physicist Ludwig Boltzmann committed suicide and it is also the place where the well-known Slovene folk legend Lepa Vida takes place. Since 1982 the town has been home to UWC Adriatic, a school attended by students from 80 different countries. The two Duino castles are the main attraction, below the ruins of the ancient castle there lies a white rock projecting into the sea, the Dama Bianca, which resembles a veiled woman and gave origin to many gothic legends
Duino
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The Duino castles
Duino
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Peninsula near old Duino Castle
Duino
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The Dama Bianca
Duino
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The
Duino Castle
28.
Domini di Terraferma
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The Domini di Terraferma was the name given to the hinterland territories of the Republic of Venice beyond the Adriatic coast in Northeast Italy. They were one of the three subdivisions of the Republics possessions, the two being the original Dogado and the Stato da Màr oversea territories. In the south the lower Po River formed the border with the Papal States, the Terraferma comprised the western and central parts of the historic Friuli region, except for the easternmost part along the Isonzo River, which was held by the Imperial Counts of Görz. In the north, the Carnic and Julian Alps marked the border with the Inner Austrian duchies of Carinthia, Venice had conquered the Mestre mainland from the Scaliger rulers at Verona in 1337, followed by Treviso and Bassano del Grappa in 1339. His successors Tommaso Mocenigo and Francesco Foscari enlarged the possessions to the not only of the Scaligeri, but also of the Carraresi at Padua. In 1420 Venice annexed the Friulian territories of the Imperial Patriarchate of Aquileia from the Adriatic coast up to Pontebba in the Julian Alps, Emperor Sigismund had to acknowledge the acquisition in 1433, four years later he officially ceded the territory to Venice as an Imperial fief. In 1523 Emperor Charles V finally renounced all titles as feudal lord
Domini di Terraferma
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Venice's Mediterranean possessions, Terraferma in pink
29.
Republic of Venice
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It was based in the lagoon communities of the historically prosperous city of Venice. It was a leading European economic and trading power during the Middle Ages, the Venetian city state was founded as a safe haven for people escaping persecution in mainland Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. In its early years, it prospered on the salt trade, in subsequent centuries, the city state established a thalassocracy. It dominated trade on the Mediterranean Sea, including commerce between Asia, Europe and North Africa, the Venetian navy was used in the Crusades. Venice achieved territorial conquests along the Adriatic Sea, the city became home to an extremely wealthy merchant class, who patronized renowned art and architecture along the citys lagoons. Venetian merchants were influential financiers in Europe, the city was also the birthplace of great European explorers, including Marco Polo, as well as the classical music composer Vivaldi. The republic was ruled by the Doge, who was elected by members of the Great Council of Venice, the ruling class was an oligarchy of merchants and aristocrats. Venice and other Italian maritime republics played a key role in fostering capitalism, Venetian citizens generally supported the system of governance. The city-state enforced strict laws and employed ruthless tactics in its prisons, the opening of new trade routes to the Americas and the East Indies via the Atlantic Ocean marked the beginning of Venices decline as a maritime republic. The city state suffered defeats from the navy of the Ottoman Empire, in 1797, the country was colonized by Austria and France, following an invasion by Napoleon Bonaparte. Venice became a part of a unified Italy in the 19th century and it was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in reference to its title as one of the Most Serene Republics. He was the first historical Doge of Venice, whichever the case, the first doges had their power base in Heraclea. Ursuss successor, Deusdedit, moved his seat from Heraclea to Malamocco in the 740s and he was the son of Ursus and represented the attempt of his father to establish a dynasty. Such attempts were more commonplace among the doges of the first few centuries of Venetian history. They desired to remain well-connected to the Empire, another faction, republican in nature, believed in continuing along a course towards practical independence. The other main faction was pro-Frankish, supported mostly by clergy, they looked towards the new Carolingian king of the Franks, Pepin the Short, as the best provider of defence against the Lombards. A minor, pro-Lombard faction was opposed to close ties with any of these further-off powers, the successors of Obelerio inherited a united Venice. By the Pax Nicephori, the two emperors had recognised that Venice belonged to the Byzantine sphere of influence, many centuries later, the Venetians claimed that the treaty had recognised Venetian de facto independence, but the truth of this claim is doubted by modern scholars
Republic of Venice
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Sack of Constantinople
Republic of Venice
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Flag
Republic of Venice
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Voyage of
Marco Polo into the Far East during the
Pax Mongolica
Republic of Venice
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The
Piraeus Lion in
Venice - a spoil from Constantinople
30.
Imperial Free City of Trieste
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Trieste was part of the Holy Roman Empire and, later, of the German Confederation and the Austrian Littoral. The city administration and economy were dominated by the citys Italian population element, in the later 19th and early 20th century, the city attracted the immigration of workers from the citys hinterlands, many of whom were speakers of Slovene. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, Trieste was a Byzantine military outpost, in 567 AD the city was destroyed by the Lombards, in the course of their invasion of northern Italy. In 788 it became part of the Frankish kingdom, under the authority of their count-bishop, from 1081 the city came loosely under the Patriarchate of Aquileia, developing into a free commune by the end of the 12th century. After two centuries of war, Trieste came with the signing of a treaty on 30 October 1370 in front of St. Bartholomews Church in the village of Šiška under the Republic of Venice. The Venetians retained the town until 1378, when it became the property of the Patriarchate of Aquileia. Discontent with the rule, the main citizens of Trieste in 1382 petitioned Leopold III of Habsburg, Duke of Austria to become part of his domains. This united Charlemagnes southern marches under Habsburg rule, subsequently consolidated as the Austrian Littoral, the Habsburg Empire recovered Trieste a little over a year later, however, when conflict resumed. Austro-Venetian rivalry over the Adriatic weakened each states efforts to repel the Ottoman Empires expansion into the Balkans, on the Habsburgs annexation, Trieste had a patriciate, a bishop and his chapter, two municipal chapters totalling 200 people, armed forces and institutions of higher education. Trieste became an important port and trade hub, from June 1734, Charles VI began assembling a navy in the city. In 1768, the German art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann was murdered by a robber in Trieste, Trieste was occupied by French troops three times during the Napoleonic Wars, in 1797,1805 and in 1809. The restoration of Istria to the Austrian Empire was confirmed at the Congress of Vienna, following the Napoleonic Wars, Trieste continued to prosper as the free imperial city of Trieste, a status that granted economic freedom, but limited its political self-government. By 1913, Austrian Lloyd had a fleet of 62 ships comprising a total of 236,000 tons, however, the Austrian monarch Franz Josef I gently rejected this idea. The modern Austro-Hungarian Navy used Triestes shipbuilding facilities for construction and as a base, the importance of Trieste as a trading and shipbuilding city to the Empire is testified by the expenditure made. The construction of Porto Nuovo cost 29 million crowns over 15 years, up until 1914, over 14 million crowns of subsidies were paid to Austrian shipping companies using Trieste. The city was the port of the Austrian Riviera. Viennese architecture and coffeehouses dominate the streets of Trieste to this day. Together with Trento, Trieste was a focus of the irredentist movement
Imperial Free City of Trieste
Imperial Free City of Trieste
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Flag of
Austrian Triest
Imperial Free City of Trieste
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Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca
