1.
Sarracenia purpurea
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Sarracenia purpurea, commonly known as the purple pitcher plant, northern pitcher plant, or side-saddle flower, is a carnivorous plant in the family Sarraceniaceae. Its range includes the Eastern seaboard and Gulf Coast of the United States, the Great Lakes region, all of Canada, Washington state, and Alaska. That makes it the most common and broadly distributed pitcher plant, the species is the floral emblem of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. The species was introduced into bogs in parts of Ireland, where it has proliferated and it is an introduced and naturalized species in northern California. It is found in habitats of the carnivorous species Darlingtonia californica, in the Klamath Mountains. Like other species of Sarracenia, S. purpurea obtains most of its nutrients through prey capture, however, prey acquisition is said to be inefficient, with less than 1% of the visiting prey captured within the pitcher. Even so, anecdotal evidence by growers often shows that pitchers quickly fill up with prey during the summer months. Prey fall into the pitcher and drown in the rainwater that collects in the base of each leaf. Prey items such as flies, ants, spiders, and even moths, are digested by an invertebrate community, made up mostly by the mosquito Wyeomyia smithii. The relationship between W. smithii and S. purpurea is an example of commensalism, protists, rotifers, and bacteria form the base of inquiline food web that shreds and mineralizes available prey, making nutrients available to the plant. The species is divided into two subspecies, S. purpurea subsp. The former is found from New Jersey north, while the latter is found from New Jersey south, venosa var. burkii was described as a species of its own, Sarracenia rosea. This re-ranking has been debated among carnivorous plant enthusiasts since then, the following species and infraspecific taxa are usually recognized, Sarracenia purpurea subsp. Purpurea f. heterophylla Sarracenia purpurea subsp, purpurea f. ruplicola Sarracenia purpurea subsp. Venosa var. burkii Sarracenia purpurea subsp, venosa var. burkii f. luteola Sarracenia purpurea subsp. Venosa var. USDA Plants Profile for Sarracenia purpurea Sarracenia purpurea at Barry Rices carnivorous plant FAQ, botanical Society of America, Sarracenia - the Pitcher Plants UC Photos gallery — Sarracenia purpurea
2.
Animal
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Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia. The animal kingdom emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the group to the choanoflagellates. Animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently at some point in their lives and their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in their lives. All animals are heterotrophs, they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance, most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates, vertebrates have a backbone or spine, and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, the remaining animals are the invertebrates, which lack a backbone. These include molluscs, arthropods, annelids, nematodes, flatworms, cnidarians, ctenophores, the study of animals is called zoology. The word animal comes from the Latin animalis, meaning having breath, the biological definition of the word refers to all members of the kingdom Animalia, encompassing creatures as diverse as sponges, jellyfish, insects, and humans. Aristotle divided the world between animals and plants, and this was followed by Carl Linnaeus, in the first hierarchical classification. In Linnaeuss original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes, Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Aves, and Mammalia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, in 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into two subkingdoms, Metazoa and Protozoa. The protozoa were later moved to the kingdom Protista, leaving only the metazoa, thus Metazoa is now considered a synonym of Animalia. Animals have several characteristics that set apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and multicellular, which separates them from bacteria and they are heterotrophic, generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls. All animals are motile, if only at life stages. In most animals, embryos pass through a stage, which is a characteristic exclusive to animals. With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges and Placozoa and these include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and nerve tissues, which send and process signals
3.
Fungus
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A fungus is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from the other eukaryotic life kingdoms of plants, a characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria and some protists, is chitin in their cell walls. Similar to animals, fungi are heterotrophs, they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, growth is their means of mobility, except for spores, which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems and this fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes and oomycetes. The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology, in the past, mycology was regarded as a branch of botany, although it is now known fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants. Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the size of their structures. Fungi include symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and they may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform a role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides, the fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans, losses of crops due to fungal diseases or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies. The fungus kingdom encompasses a diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies. However, little is known of the biodiversity of Kingdom Fungi. Advances in molecular genetics have opened the way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy, phylogenetic studies published in the last decade have helped reshape the classification within Kingdom Fungi, which is divided into one subkingdom, seven phyla, and ten subphyla. The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus, used in the writings of Horace, a group of all the fungi present in a particular area or geographic region is known as mycobiota, e. g. the mycobiota of Ireland. Like plants, fungi grow in soil and, in the case of mushrooms, form conspicuous fruit bodies. The fungi are now considered a kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from which they appear to have diverged around one billion years ago. Fungi have membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria, sterol-containing membranes and they have a characteristic range of soluble carbohydrates and storage compounds, including sugar alcohols, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
4.
Ant
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Ants are eusocial insects of the family Formicidae and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from ancestors in the Cretaceous period, about 99 million years ago. More than 12,500 of an total of 22,000 species have been classified. They are easily identified by their antennae and the distinctive node-like structure that forms their slender waists. Larger colonies consist mostly of sterile, wingless females forming castes of workers, soldiers, nearly all ant colonies also have some fertile males called drones and one or more fertile females called queens. The colonies are described as superorganisms because the ants appear to operate as a unified entity, Ants have colonised almost every landmass on Earth. The only places lacking indigenous ants are Antarctica and a few remote or inhospitable islands, Ants thrive in most ecosystems and may form 15–25% of the terrestrial animal biomass. Their success in so many environments has been attributed to their organisation and their ability to modify habitats, tap resources. Their long co-evolution with other species has led to mimetic, commensal, parasitic, Ant societies have division of labour, communication between individuals, and an ability to solve complex problems. These parallels with human societies have long been an inspiration and subject of study, many human cultures make use of ants in cuisine, medication, and rituals. Some species are valued in their role as biological pest control agents and their ability to exploit resources may bring ants into conflict with humans, however, as they can damage crops and invade buildings. Some species, such as the red imported fire ant, are regarded as invasive species, all of these words come from West Germanic *ēmaitijǭ, and the original meaning of the word was the biter. The family Formicidae belongs to the order Hymenoptera, which also includes sawflies, bees, Ants evolved from a lineage within the aculeate wasps, and a 2013 study suggests that they are a sister group of the Apoidea. In 1966, E. O. Wilson and his colleagues identified the remains of an ant that lived in the Cretaceous period. The specimen, trapped in amber dating back to around 92 million years ago, has found in some wasps. Sphecomyrma possibly was a ground forager, while Haidomyrmex and Haidomyrmodes, older ants in the genus Sphecomyrmodes have been found in 99 million year-old amber from Myanmar. After the rise of flowering plants about 100 million years ago they diversified and assumed ecological dominance around 60 million years ago. Some groups, such as the Leptanillinae and Martialinae, are suggested to have diversified from early primitive ants that were likely to have been predators underneath the surface of the soil, during the Cretaceous period, a few species of primitive ants ranged widely on the Laurasian supercontinent
5.
Termite
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Termites are eusocial insects that are classified at the taxonomic rank of infraorder Isoptera, or as epifamily Termitoidae within the cockroach order Blattodea. Termites were once classified in an order from cockroaches. However, the first termites emerged during the Permian or even the Carboniferous. About 3,106 species are described, with a few hundred more left to be described. Although these insects are called white ants, they are not ants. Like ants and some bees and wasps from the separate order Hymenoptera, all colonies have fertile males called kings and one or more fertile females called queens. Termites mostly feed on plant material and cellulose, generally in the form of wood, leaf litter, soil. Termites are major detritivores, particularly in the subtropical and tropical regions, Termites are among the most successful groups of insects on Earth, colonising most landmasses except for Antarctica. Their colonies range in size from a few hundred individuals to enormous societies with several million individuals, Termite queens have the longest lifespan of any insect in the world, with some queens reportedly living up to 30 to 50 years. Unlike ants, which undergo a metamorphosis, each individual termite goes through an incomplete metamorphosis that proceeds through egg, nymph. Colonies are described as superorganisms because the termites form part of a self-regulating entity, Termites are a delicacy in the diet of some human cultures and are used in many traditional medicines. Several hundred species are significant as pests that can cause serious damage to buildings, crops. Some species, such as the West Indian drywood termite, are regarded as invasive species, the infraorder name Isoptera is derived from the Greek words iso and ptera, which refers to the nearly equal size of the fore and hind wings. Termite derives from the Latin and Late Latin word termes, altered by the influence of Latin terere from the earlier word tarmes, Termite nests were commonly known as terminarium or termitaria. In early English, termites were known as wood ants or white ants, the modern term was first used in 1781. DNA analysis from 16S rRNA sequences has supported a hypothesis, originally suggested by Cleveland and colleagues in 1934 and this earlier conclusion had been based on the similarity of the symbiotic gut flagellates in the wood-eating cockroaches to those in certain species of termites regarded as living fossils. In the 1960s additional evidence supporting that hypothesis emerged when F. A. McKittrick noted similar morphological characteristics between some termites and Cryptocercus nymphs. These similarities have led some authors to propose that termites be reclassified as a family, the Termitidae, within the order Blattodea
6.
Parasitism
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In biology/ecology, parasitism is a non-mutual relationship between species, where one species, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other, the host. Traditionally parasite referred primarily to organisms visible to the naked eye, Parasites can be microparasites, which are typically smaller, such as protozoa, viruses, and bacteria. Examples of parasites include the plants mistletoe and cuscuta, and animals such as hookworms, unlike predators, parasites typically do not kill their host, are generally much smaller than their host, and will often live in or on their host for an extended period. Both are special cases of consumer-resource interactions, Parasites show a high degree of specialization, and reproduce at a faster rate than their hosts. Classic examples of parasitism include interactions between vertebrate hosts and tapeworms, flukes, the Plasmodium species, and fleas, parasitism differs from the parasitoid relationship in that parasitoids generally kill their hosts. Parasites reduce host biological fitness by general or specialized pathology, such as parasitic castration and impairment of secondary sex characteristics, Parasites increase their own fitness by exploiting hosts for resources necessary for their survival, e. g. food, water, heat, habitat, and transmission. Although parasitism applies unambiguously to many cases, it is part of a continuum of types of interactions between species, rather than an exclusive category, in many cases, it is difficult to demonstrate harm to the host. In others, there may be no apparent specialization on the part of the parasite, coined in English in 1611, the word parasitism comes from the Greek παρά + σιτισμός feeding, fattening. Parasites are classified based on their interactions with their hosts and on their life cycles, an obligate parasite is totally dependent on the host to complete its life cycle, while a facultative parasite is not. A direct parasite has one host while an indirect parasite has multiple hosts. For indirect parasites, there always be a definitive host. Parasites that live on the outside of the host, either on the skin or the outgrowths of the skin, are called ectoparasites and those that live inside the host are called endoparasites. Endoparasites can exist in one of two forms, intercellular parasites or intracellular parasites, intracellular parasites, such as protozoa, bacteria or viruses, tend to rely on a third organism, which is generally known as the carrier or vector. The vector does the job of transmitting them to the host, an example of this interaction is the transmission of malaria, caused by a protozoan of the genus Plasmodium, to humans by the bite of an anopheline mosquito. Those parasites living in a position, being half-ectoparasites and half-endoparasites, are called mesoparasites. An epiparasite is one that feeds on another parasite and this relationship is also sometimes referred to as hyperparasitism, exemplified by a protozoan living in the digestive tract of a flea living on a dog. Social parasites take advantage of interactions between members of social organisms such as ants, termites, and bumblebees, an extreme example of social parasitism is the ant species of Tetramorium inquilinum of the Alps, which spend their whole lives on the back of Tetramorium host ants. With tiny and deprecated bodies they have evolved for one single task, if they fall off, they most likely would not have the strength to climb back on top of another ant, and eventually they will die
7.
Gall wasp
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Gall wasps, also called gallflies, are a family of the order Hymenoptera and are classified with the Apocrita suborder of wasps in the superfamily Cynipoidea. Their common name comes from the galls they induce on plants for larval development, about 1300 species of this generally very small creature are known worldwide, with about 360 species of 36 different genera in Europe and some 800 species in North America. Like all Apocrita, gall wasps have a body shape. The first abdominal tergum is conjoined with the thorax, while the abdominal segment forms a sort of shaft. The petiole connects with the gaster, which is the abdomen in apocritan wasps. Together, the petiole and the form the metasoma, while the thorax. The antennae are straight and consist of two or three segments, in many varieties, the backside of the mesosoma appears longitudinally banded. The wings are typically simply structured, the females egg-depositing ovipositor is often seen protruding from the tip of the metasoma. The reproduction of the wasp is partly pure two-sex propagation. With most species, however, an alternation of generations occurs, with one two-sex generation and this process differentiates the various generations primarily in their appearance and the form of the plant galls they induce. The larvae of most gall wasps develop in characteristic plant galls they induce themselves, the plant galls mostly develop directly after the female insect lays the eggs. The inducement for the formation is largely unknown, discussion speculates as to chemical, mechanical. The hatching larvae nourish themselves with the tissue of the galls. The host plants and the size and shape of the galls are specific to the majority of gall wasps, one can find galls on nearly all parts of such trees, some on the leaves, the buds, the branches, and the roots. Other species of gall wasps live in trees, rose bushes or maple trees. Frequently, the determination of the species is much easier through observation of the galls produced rather than the insect itself, some of these parasitoids use their long, hardened egg-laying tube to bore into the gall and lay an egg on the helpless gall maker. A bedeguar or robins pincushions gall, collected before the autumn and kept cool and these wasps, such as Eurytoma rosae, are beautiful, metallic insects with long ovipositors. These parasitoids may, in turn, be preyed upon by other wasps, most species of gall wasps live as gall-formers on oaks
8.
Gall
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Galls or cecidia are a kind of swelling growth on the external tissues of plants or animals. Plant galls are abnormal outgrowths of plant tissues, similar to benign tumors or warts in animals and they can be caused by various parasites, from fungi and bacteria, to insects and mites. Plant galls are highly organized structures and because of this the cause of the gall can often be determined without the actual agent being identified. This applies particularly to some insect and mite plant galls, the study of plant galls is known as cecidology. In human pathology, a gall is a sore on the skin. Insect galls are the distinctive plant structures formed by some herbivorous insects as their own microhabitats. They are plant tissue which is controlled by the insect, Galls act as both the habitat and food source for the maker of the gall. The interior of a gall can contain edible nutritious starch and other tissues, some galls act as physiologic sinks, concentrating resources in the gall from the surrounding plant parts. Galls may also provide the insect with physical protection from predators, Insect galls are usually induced by chemicals injected by the larvae or the adults of the insects into the plants, and possibly mechanical damage. After the galls are formed, the larvae develop inside until fully grown, in order to form galls, the insects must seize the time when plant cell division occurs quickly, the growing season, usually spring in temperate climates, but which is extended in the tropics. Gall-inducing insects are usually species-specific and sometimes tissue-specific on the plants they gall, gall-inducing insects include gall wasps, gall midges, gall flies, Agromyzidae aphids, scale insects, and psyllids. Various galls produced by insects and mites are listed below, Ash flower gall, the galls are initially green, then dry and turn brown. Ash midrib gall, normally 0.5 to 1 inch long, a small cavity within each gall contains one or more small maggots, the larval stages of very small flies called midges. Female midges lay their eggs in young leaflets during early spring. Gall formation begins soon after the eggs are laid, specifics of the biology of this insect are not known. The galls probably do not harm tree health, elm cockscomb gall, these distinct galls, caused by an aphid, are about one inch long and about 1/4 inch high. The irregular edge of the gall and its red color at maturity account for the common name, the galls dry, harden and turn brown as they age. Aphids may be seen through an opening in the underside of the gall
9.
Nepenthes
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Nepenthes, also known as tropical pitcher plants or monkey cups, is a genus of carnivorous plants in the monotypic family Nepenthaceae. The genus comprises roughly 150 species, and numerous natural and many cultivated hybrids, the greatest diversity occurs on Borneo, Sumatra, and the Philippines, with many endemic species. Many are plants of hot, humid, lowland areas, but the majority are tropical plants, receiving warm days but cool to cold. A few are considered tropical alpine, with days and nights near freezing. The name monkey cups refers to the fact that monkeys have been observed drinking rainwater from these plants, from the stems arise alternate, sword-shaped leaves with entire leaf margins. An extension of the midrib, which in some species aids in climbing, protrudes from the tip of the leaf, the pitcher starts as a small bud and gradually expands to form a globe- or tube-shaped trap. The trap contains a fluid of the own production, which may be watery or syrupy. Research has shown this fluid contains viscoelastic biopolymers that may be crucial to the retention of insects within the traps of many species, the viscoelastic fluid in pitchers is especially effective in the retention of winged insects. The trapping efficiency of this fluid remains high, even when diluted by water. The lower part of the trap contains glands which absorb nutrients from captured prey, along the upper inside part of the trap is a slick, waxy coating which makes the escape of its prey nearly impossible. Surrounding the entrance to the trap is a called the peristome which is slippery and often quite colorful, attracting prey. The prey-capture effectiveness of the peristome is further enhanced in moist environments, when wet, the slippery surface of the peristome causes insects to ‘aquaplane’, or slip and fall, into the pitcher. Above the peristome is a lid, in species, this keeps rain from diluting the fluid within the pitcher. Nepenthes species usually produce two types of pitchers, known as leaf dimorphism, appearing near the base of the plant are the large lower traps, which typically sit on the ground. The upper or aerial pitchers are smaller, coloured differently. These upper pitchers usually form as the plant reaches maturity and the plant grows taller, to keep the plant steady, the upper pitchers often form a loop in the tendril, allowing it to wrap around nearby support. In some species, different prey may be attracted by the two types of pitchers and this varied morphology also often makes identification of species difficult. Prey usually consists of insects, but the largest species may catch small vertebrates, such as rats
10.
Cephalotus
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Cephalotus is a genus which contains one species, Cephalotus follicularis the Australian pitcher plant, a small carnivorous pitcher plant. The pit-fall traps of the leaves have inspired the common names for this plant. Cephalotus follicularis is a small, low growing, herbaceous species, evergreen leaves appear from underground rhizomes, are simple with an entire leaf blade, and lie close to the ground. The insectivorous leaves are small and have the appearance of moccasins, the pitchers develop a dark red colour in high light levels but stay green in shadier conditions. The foliage is an arrangement that is closely arranged with outward facing adapted leaf blades. These leaves give the form of the species, the height is around 200 mm. The pitcher trap of the species is similar to pitcher plants. The peristome at the entrance of the trap has an arrangement that allows the prey to enter. The lid over the entrance, the operculum, prevents rainwater entering the pitcher, insects trapped in this digestive fluid are consumed by the plant. The operculum has translucent cells which confuse its insect prey as they appear to be patches of sky, the inflorescence is groupings of small, hermaphroditic, six-parted, regular flowers, which are creamy, or whitish. In the cooler months of winter, they have a dormancy period of about 3–4 months, triggered by the temperature drop. Botanical specimens were first collected during the visit of the HMS Investigator to King George Sound in December 1801, on 2 January 1802 the expeditions botanist, Robert Brown, wrote in his diary, Remaind on board. Mr Good went in search of the pitcher plant wch Messrs Bauer & Westall had found yesterday in flower and he returned with it in the evening. Brown initially gave this species the manuscript name Cantharifera paludosa KG III Sound, but this name was not published, the following year, further specimens were collected by Jean Baptiste Leschenault de la Tour botanist to Nicolas Baudins expedition. In 1806, Jacques Labillardière used these specimens as the basis of his publication of the species in Novae Hollandiae plantarum specimen, leschenaults specimen was a fruiting plant, but the fruit was in poor condition, and as a result Labillardière erroneously placed it in the family Rosaceae. This error was not corrected until better fruiting specimens were collected by William Baxter in the 1820s and these were examined by Brown, who concluded that the plant merited its own family, and accordingly erected Cephalotaceae. It has remained in this family ever since. The Albany Pitcher Plant is an advanced rosid, and thus related to apples
11.
Heliamphora
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The genus Heliamphora contains 23 species of pitcher plants endemic to South America. The species are known as sun pitchers, based on the mistaken notion that the heli of Heliamphora is from the Greek helios. In fact, the name derives from helos, meaning marsh, species in the genus Heliamphora are carnivorous plants that consist of a modified leaf form that is fused into a tubular shape. They have evolved mechanisms to attract, trap, and kill insects, at least one species produces its own proteolytic enzymes that allows it to digest its prey without the help of symbiotic bacteria. All Heliamphora are herbaceous plants that grow from a subterranean rhizome. H. tatei grows as a shrub, up to four meters tall, all species form prostrate rosettes. The leaf size ranges from a few centimeters up to more than 50 cm, Heliamphora possess tubular traps formed by rolled leaves with fused edges. Marsh pitcher plants are unusual among plants in that they lack lids. This spoon-like structure secretes a substance, which serves as a lure for insects. Each pitcher also exhibits a small slit in its side that allows rainwater to drain away. This allows the pitcher plants to maintain a constant maximum level of rainwater within the pitcher. The pitchers inner surface is covered with downward-pointing hairs to force insects into the lower parts. They do, however, attract prey through special visual and chemical signals and trap, field studies of H. nutans, H. heterodoxa, H. minor, and H. ionasi have determined that none of these species produce their own proteolytic enzymes. If production of enzymes was used as a strict demarcation of what is and what is not a carnivorous plant. H. tatei is one of the few species observed to produce digestive enzymes and wax scales, which also aid in prey capture. Most Heliamphora typically capture ants, while H. tateis improvements on the design allow it to capture, all Heliamphora species are endemic to the tepuis of the Guiana Highlands and their surrounding uplands. Most are found in Venezuela, with a few extending into western Guyana, many of the tepuis have not yet been explored for Heliamphora, and the large number of species described in recent years suggests that many more species may be awaiting discovery. The first species of the genus to be described was H. nutans and this remained the only known species until Henry Allan Gleason described H. tatei and H. tyleri in 1931, also adding H. minor in 1939
12.
Mutualism (biology)
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Mutualism is the way two organisms of different species exist in a relationship in which each individual benefits from the activity of the other. Similar interactions within a species are known as co-operation, symbiosis involves two species living in close proximity and includes relationships that are mutualistic, parasitic, and commensal. Symbiotic relationships are sometimes, but not always, mutualistic, a well-known example of mutualism is the relationship between ungulates and bacteria within their intestines. The ungulates benefit from the produced by the bacteria, which facilitates digestion. This can also be found in many different symbiotic relationships. Mutualism plays a key part in ecology, in addition, mutualism is thought to have driven the evolution of much of the biological diversity we see, such as flower forms and co-evolution between groups of species. However mutualism has historically received less attention than other such as predation. It is therefore common to categorise mutualisms according to the closeness of the association, using such as obligate. Defining closeness, however, is also problematic and it can refer to mutual dependency or the biological intimacy of the relationship in relation to physical closeness. The term mutualism was introduced by Pierre-Joseph van Beneden in 1876, other examples include rhizobia bacteria that fix nitrogen for leguminous plants in return for energy-containing carbohydrates. Pollination in which nectar or pollen are traded for pollen dispersal or ant protection of aphids, phagophiles feed on ectoparasites, thereby providing anti-pest service, as in cleaning symbiosis. Elacatinus and Gobiosoma, genus of gobies, also feed on ectoparasites of their clients while cleaning them, zoochory is the dispersal of the seeds of plants by animals. This is similar to pollination in that the plant produces food resources for animals that disperse the seeds, strict service-service interactions are very rare, for reasons that are far from clear. Therefore, what appears to be a service-service mutualism in fact has a service-resource component, a second example is that of the relationship between some ants in the genus Pseudomyrmex and trees in the genus Acacia, such as the whistling thorn and bullhorn acacia. The ants nest inside the plants thorns, in exchange for shelter, the ants protect acacias from attack by herbivores and competition from other plants by trimming back vegetation that would shade the acacia. In addition, another component is present, as the ants regularly feed on lipid-rich food-bodies called Beltian bodies that are on the Acacia plant. In the neotropics, the ant, Myrmelachista schumanni makes its nest in cavities in Duroia hirsute. Plants in the vicinity that belong to other species are killed with formic acid and this selective gardening can be so aggressive that small areas of the rainforest are dominated by Duroia hirsute
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