1.
Coach (bus)
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A coach is a type of vehicle used for conveying passengers on excursions and on longer-distance intercity—or even international—bus service. The term was applied to railway carriages in the 19th century, horse-drawn chariots and carriages were used by the wealthy and powerful where the roads were of a high enough standard from possibly 3000 BC. In Hungary, during the reign of King Matthias Corvinus in the 15th century and this cart of Kocs as the Hungarians called it soon became popular all over Europe. Stagecoaches were used for transport between cities from about 1500 in Great Britain until displaced by the arrival of the railways, one of the earliest motorised vehicles was the charabanc, which was used for short journeys and excursions until the early years of the 20th century. Coaches, as they hold passengers for significant periods of time on long journeys, are designed for comfort and they vary considerably in quality from country to country and within countries. Higher specification vehicles include luxury seats and air conditioning, coaches typically have only a single, narrow door, as an increased loading time is acceptable due to infrequent stops. Some characteristics include, Comfortable seats that may include a table, armrests. Comfort is considered to be an important feature in coaches, a minority of coaches are built with monocoque bodies without a chassis frame. Integrated manufacturers include Autosan, Scania, Fuso, and Alexander Dennis, major coachwork providers include Van Hool, Neoplan, Marcopolo, Irizar, MCI, Prevost, and Designline. A representative selection of vehicles currently in use in different parts of the world, a selection of vehicles in use in different parts of the world in the past. Pegaso Z-403 PD-4501 Scenicruiser GM Buffalo bus Anderson, R. C. A. and Frankis, history of Royal Blue Express Services. BBC Time Shift, The Modern Age of Coach Travel
2.
Greyhound Lines
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Greyhound Lines, Inc. usually shortened to Greyhound, is an intercity bus common carrier serving over 3,800 destinations across North America. The companys first route began in Hibbing, Minnesota in 1914, since October 2007, Greyhound has been a subsidiary of British transportation company FirstGroup, but continues to be based in Dallas, Texas, where it has been headquartered since 1987. Greyhound and sister companies in FirstGroup America are the largest motorcoach operators in the United States, carl Eric Wickman was born in Sweden in 1887. In 1905 he moved to the United States where he was working in a mine as an operator in Alice, Minnesota. In the same year, he became a Hupmobile salesman in Hibbing and he proved unable to sell the car. In 1914, using his vehicle, a 7-passenger car, he began a bus service with Andy Anderson. Heed, by transporting iron ore miners from Hibbing to Alice at 15 cents a ride, in 1915 Wickman joined forces with Ralph Bogan, who was running a similar service from Hibbing to Duluth, Minnesota. The name of the new organization was the Mesaba Transportation Company, by the end of World War I in 1918, Wickman owned 18 buses and was making an annual profit of $40,000. In 1922, Wickman joined forces with Orville Caesar, the owner of the Superior White Bus Lines, four years later, Wickman purchased two West Coast operations, the Pioneer Yelloway System and the Pickwick Lines, creating a national intercity bus company. The Greyhound name had its origins in the run of a route from Superior, Wisconsin to Wausau. While passing through a town, Ed Stone, the routes operator. The reflection reminded him of a dog, and he adopted that name for that segment of the Blue Goose Lines. The Greyhound name became popular and later applied to the bus network. Stone later became General Sales Manager of Yellow Truck and Coach, a division of General Motors, Wickman, as the president of the company, continued to expand it so that by 1927, his buses were making transcontinental trips from California to New York. In 1928, Greyhound had an annual income of $6 million. In 1929, Greyhound acquired additional interests in Southland Transportation Company, the Gray Line, Greyhound also acquired an interest in Northland Transportation Company, and renamed it Northland Greyhound Lines. By 1930 more than 100 bus lines had been consolidated into what was called the Motor Transit Company, recognizing that the company needed a more memorable name, the partners of the Motor Transit Company decided to rename it after the Greyhound marketing phrase used by earlier bus lines. Wickmans business suffered during the Great Depression, and by 1931 was over $1 million in debt, as the 1930s progressed and the economy improved, the Greyhound Corporation began to prosper again
3.
Oxford to London coach route
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The Oxford to London coach route is an express coach route between Oxford and London along the M40 motorway. The Oxford Tube, which is operated by Stagecoach, runs up to five coaches an hour via Lewknor, Hillingdon in West London, and Shepherds Bush, and terminates on Buckingham Palace Road, Victoria. The X90, which is operated by the Oxford Bus Company, with a total of 150 journeys a day in each direction it is the highest frequency long distance coach route currently operating in the United Kingdom. By way of comparison, there are 15 coach journeys a day from Cambridge to London, the Oxford Tube operates a fleet of 26 Van Hool Astromega TX27 double decker coaches that were introduced in July 2014. Rather than turnover its fleet on a basis, Oxford Tube renews its entire fleet in one go every five years. Tickets are also sold via the Megabus network, the Oxford Bus Company operates the X90 service every 15 minutes at peak times, using Plaxton Panther bodied Volvo B12B coaches. And are fitted with advanced telematics resulting in a fuel consumption of 10.37 mpg‑imp, in 1919 William Beesley of Oxford formed a company called South Midland and by 1924 offered excursions to London by charabanc. This became a service, and by 1928 it had become a regular coach service picking up. By 1930,18 companies were running a total of 58 coach services between Oxford and London every day, after the Road Traffic Act 1930, the competitors quickly reduced to two, South Midland and Varsity Express. Varsity Express used the A40 via High Wycombe and Uxbridge, South Midland ran via Henley-on-Thames, Maidenhead, in 1933 the Eastern Counties Omnibus Company acquired Varsity Express. In 1934, the Tilling Group moved the Oxford service of Varsity Express to a group company. In 1934, South Midland was running seven journeys a day, the day return fare was 6/-. In 1942 the Government compelled coach operators to suspend operations, in 1945 South Midland was sold to Red & White. Operations resumed in 1946, but by 1950 both Red & White and United Counties had been nationalised and were controlled by the British Transport Commission, the BTC transferred control of South Midland to Thames Valley Traction, and in 1952 transferred the United Counties service to South Midland. During the 1950s and 1960s, South Midland ran coaches between Oxford and London about every hour, alternating between the High Wycombe and Henley routes, non-stop coaches started in 1963, reducing the journey time to 2 hours 15 minutes. In 1968 the Oxford Bus Company became state-owned when British Electric Traction sold its UK bus interests to the government, at the beginning of 1971 the state-owned Transport Holding Company merged South Midland with the Oxford Bus Company, which adopted the trading name Oxford South Midland. The two routes were combined with Oxford Bus Companys bus routes from Oxford to High Wycombe and Henley, the M40 motorway between London and Oxford was opened in stages from 1967 to 1974. Occasional non-stop services used the motorway, but in 1977 a regular service was started as route 190
4.
North American English
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North American English is the most generalized variety of the English language as spoken in the United States and Canada. Canadian spellings are based on British usage as a result of Canadas longer-standing connections with the United Kingdom. Canadians are generally tolerant of both British and American spellings, with British spellings being favoured in formal settings and in Canadian print media. Spellings in American English have been influenced by lexicographers like Noah Webster. Some terms in North American English are used almost exclusively in Canada, similarly, the accents of Newfoundland have some similarities to the accents of Scotland and Ireland. Standard Canadian English Western American English North-Central American English Northern American English Midland American English Southern American English a, Canadian English,250 Years in the Making, in The Canadian Oxford Dictionary, 2nd ed. p. xi. Organizing Our Marvellous Neighbours, How to Feel Good About Canadian English, labov, William, Ash, Sharon, Boberg, Charles, The Atlas of North American English, Berlin, Mouton-de Gruyter, ISBN 3-11-016746-8
5.
Public transport
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Public transport modes include city buses, trolleybuses, trams and passenger trains, rapid transit and ferries. Public transport between cities is dominated by airlines, coaches, and intercity rail, high-speed rail networks are being developed in many parts of the world. Most public transport runs to a timetable, with the most frequent services running to a headway. Share taxis offer services in many parts of the world. Paratransit is sometimes used in areas of low demand and for people who need a door-to-door service, there are distinct differences in urban public transit between Asia, North America, and Europe. In Asia, mass transit operations are run by profit-driven privately owned and publicly traded mass transit. In North America, mass transit operations are run by municipal transit authorities. In Europe, mass transit operations are run by both state-owned and private companies. Public transport services can be profit-driven by use of pay-by-the-distance fares or funded by government subsidies in which flat rate fares are charged to each passenger. Services can be profitable through high ridership numbers and high farebox recovery ratios, or can be regulated. Fully subsidized, zero-fare services operate in some towns and cities, for geographical, historical and economic reasons, there are differences internationally regarding use and extent of public transport. It has 3,400 members from 92 countries, conveyances designed for public hire are as old as the first ferries, and the earliest public transport was water transport, on land people walked or rode an animal. Ferries appear in Greek mythology—corpses in ancient Greece were buried with a coin underneath their tongue to pay the ferryman Charon to take them to Hades, the omnibus was introduced to London in July 1829. The first passenger railway opened in 1806, it ran between Swansea and Mumbles in southwest Wales in the United Kingdom. In 1825 George Stephenson built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway in northeast England, the usability of different types of public transport, and its overall appeal, can be measured by seven criteria, although they overlap somewhat. These are speed, comfort, safety, cost, proximity, speed is calculated from total journey time including transfers. Proximity means how far passengers have to walk or otherwise travel before they can begin the public transport leg of their journey, timeliness is how long they have to wait for the vehicle. Directness records how far a journey using public transport deviates from the shortest route, an airline provides scheduled service with aircraft between airports
6.
City
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A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
7.
Town
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A town is a human settlement larger than a village but smaller than a city. The size definition for what constitutes a town varies considerably in different parts of the world, the word town shares an origin with the German word Zaun, the Dutch word tuin, and the Old Norse tun. The German word Zaun comes closest to the meaning of the word. An early borrowing from Celtic *dunom, in English and Dutch, the meaning of the word took on the sense of the space which these fences enclosed. In England, a town was a community that could not afford or was not allowed to build walls or other larger fortifications. In the Netherlands, this space was a garden, more specifically those of the wealthy, in Old Norse tun means a place between farmhouses, and is still used in a similar meaning in modern Norwegian. If there was any distinction between toun and burgh as claimed by some, it did not last in practice as burghs, for example, Edina Burgh or Edinburgh was built around a fort and eventually came to have a defensive wall. In some cases, town is a name for city or village. Sometimes, the town is short for township. A places population size is not a determinant of urban character. In many areas of the world, as in India at least until recent times, in the United Kingdom, there are historical cities that are far smaller than the larger towns. Some forms of settlement, such as temporary mining locations, may be clearly non-rural. Towns often exist as governmental units, with legally defined borders. In the United States these are referred to as incorporated towns, in other cases the town lacks its own governance and is said to be unincorporated. Note that the existence of a town may be legally set forth through other means. In the case of planned communities, the town exists legally in the form of covenants on the properties within the town. Australian geographer Thomas Griffith Taylor proposed a classification of towns based on their age, although there is no official use of the term for any settlement. In Albanian qytezë means small city or new city, while in ancient times small residential center within the walls of a castle
8.
Transit bus
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A transit bus is a type of bus used on shorter-distance public transport bus services. Several configurations are used, including Low-floor buses, high-floor buses, double-decker buses and these are distinct from all-seated coaches used for longer distance journeys and smaller minibuses, which are typically used for paratransit services. Some industry members and commentators promote the idea of making the interior of a bus as inviting as a private car. Due to the local authority use, transit buses are built to a third-party specification put to the manufacturer by the authority. Early examples of such include the Greater Manchester Leyland Atlantean. New transit buses may be purchased each time a route/area is contracted, the operating area of a transit bus may also be defined as a geographic metropolitan area, with the buses used outside of this area being more varied with buses purchased with other factors in mind. Some regional-size operators for capital cost reasons may use transit buses interchangeably on short urban routes as well as longer routes, sometimes up to 2 or 3 hours. Often transit bus operators have a selection of dual-purpose fitted buses, sometimes transit buses may also be used as express buses on a limited-stopping or non-stop service at peak times, but over the same distance as the regular route. For rear doors, most buses have doors opened by the controls or patron. Most doors will signify that they are unlocked and open with lights, transit buses can be single-decker, double-decker, rigid or articulated. Depending on local policies, transit buses will usually have two, three or four doors to facilitate rapid boarding and alighting. In cases of low-demand routes, or to small local streets, some models of minibus. Due to their public role, transit buses were the first type of bus to benefit from low-floor technology. Transit buses are now subject to various disability discrimination acts in several jurisdictions which dictate various design features also applied to other vehicles in some cases. Fare collection is also seeing a shift to off-bus payment, with either the driver or an inspector verifying fare payments
9.
Government
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A government is the system by which a state or community is controlled. In the Commonwealth of Nations, the government is also used more narrowly to refer to the collective group of people that exercises executive authority in a state. This usage is analogous to what is called an administration in American English, finally, government is also sometimes used in English as a synonym for governance. In the case of its broad definition, government normally consists of legislators, administrators. Government is the means by which state policy is enforced, as well as the mechanism for determining the policy of the state. A form of government, or form of governance, refers to the set of political systems. Government of any kind currently affects every human activity in many important ways, in political science, it has long been a goal to create a typology or taxonomy of polities. as typologies of political systems are not obvious. It is especially important in the science fields of comparative politics. On the surface, identifying a form of government appears to be simple, the United States is a constitutional republic, while the former Soviet Union was a socialist republic. However self-identification is not objective, and as Kopstein and Lichbach argue, for example, elections are a defining characteristic of an electoral democracy, but in practice elections in the former Soviet Union were not free and fair and took place in a one-party state. Voltaire argued that the Holy Roman Empire is neither Holy, nor Roman, many governments that officially call themselves a democratic republic are not democratic, nor a republic, they are usually a dictatorship de facto. Communist dictatorships have been prone to use this term. For example, the name of North Vietnam was The Democratic Republic of Vietnam. China uses a variant, The Peoples Republic of China, thus in many practical classifications it would not be considered democratic. Experience with those movements in power, and the ties they may have to particular forms of government. For example, The meaning of conservatism in the United States has little in common with the way the words definition is used elsewhere, as Ribuffo notes, what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or neoliberalism. Since the 1950s conservatism in the United States has been associated with the Republican Party. However, during the era of segregation many Southern Democrats were conservatives, values are sorted from 1–100 based on level of democracy and political accountability
10.
Business
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A business is an organizational entity involved in the provision of goods and services to consumers. Businesses may also be social non-profit enterprises or state-owned public enterprises operated by governments with specific social, a business owned by multiple private individuals may form as an incorporated company or jointly organise as a partnership. Countries have different laws that may ascribe different rights to the business entities. The word business can refer to an organization or to an entire market sector or to the sum of all economic activity. Compound forms such as agribusiness represent subsets of the broader meaning. Businesses aim to maximize sales to have their income exceed their expenditures, resulting in a profit, the owner operates the business alone and may hire employees. A sole proprietor has unlimited liability for all obligations incurred by the business, partnership, A partnership is a business owned by two or more people. In most forms of partnerships, each partner has unlimited liability for the debts incurred by the business, the three most prevalent types of for-profit partnerships are, general partnerships, limited partnerships, and limited liability partnerships. Corporation, The owners of a corporation have limited liability and the business has a legal personality from its owners. Corporations can be either government-owned or privately owned and they can organize either for profit or as nonprofit organizations. A privately owned, for-profit corporation is owned by its shareholders, a privately owned, for-profit corporation can be either privately held by a small group of individuals, or publicly held, with publicly traded shares listed on a stock exchange. Cooperative, Often referred to as a co-op, a cooperative is a limited-liability business that can organize as for-profit or not-for-profit, a cooperative differs from a corporation in that it has members, not shareholders, and they share decision-making authority. Cooperatives are typically classified as either consumer cooperatives or worker cooperatives, cooperatives are fundamental to the ideology of economic democracy. In contrast, unincorporated businesses or persons working on their own are not as protected. Franchises, A franchise is a system in which entrepreneurs purchase the rights to open, franchising in the United States is widespread and is a major economic powerhouse. One out of retail businesses in the United States are franchised and 8 million people are employed in a franchised business. Real estate businesses sell, invest, construct and develop properties – including land, residential homes, retailers, wholesalers, and distributors act as middlemen and get goods produced by manufacturers to the intended consumers, they make their profits by marking up their prices. Most stores and catalog companies are distributors or retailers, transportation businesses such as railways, airlines, shipping companies that deliver goods and individuals to their destinations for a fee
11.
Nonprofit organization
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A nonprofit organization is an organization whose purpose is something other than making a profit. A nonprofit organization is dedicated to furthering a particular social cause or advocating for a particular point of view. This is known as the non-distribution constraint, the decision to adopt a nonprofit legal structure is one that will often have taxation implications, particularly where the nonprofit seeks income tax exemption, charitable status and so on. The terms nonprofit and not-for-profit are not consistently differentiated across jurisdictions, in laymans terms they are usually equivalent in concept, although in various jurisdictions there are accounting and legal differences. The nonprofit landscape is varied, although many people have come to associate NPOs with charitable organizations. Although charities do make up an often high-profile or visible aspect of the sector, overall, they tend to be either member-serving or community-serving. e. It could be argued many nonprofits sit across both camps, at least in terms of the impact they make. For example, the support group that provides a lifeline to those with a particular condition or disease could be deemed to be serving its members. Many NPOs use the model of a bottom line in that furthering their cause is more important than making a profit. Although NPOs are permitted to generate revenues, they must be retained by the organization for its self-preservation, expansion. NPOs have controlling members or a board of directors, many have paid staff including management, whereas others employ unpaid volunteers and executives who work with or without compensation. In some countries, where there is a fee, in general. The extent to which an NPO can generate surplus revenues may be constrained or use of surplus revenues may be restricted. Some NPOs may also be a charity or service organization, they may be organized as a corporation or as a trust. Their goal is not to be successful in terms of wealth, NPOs have a wide diversity of structures and purposes. Some of the above must be expressed in the charter of establishment or constitution. Others may be provided by the authority at each particular jurisdiction. While affiliations will not affect a legal status, they may be taken into consideration by legal proceedings as an indication of purpose, most countries have laws that regulate the establishment and management of NPOs and that require compliance with corporate governance regimes
12.
Train
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A train is a form of rail transport consisting of a series of vehicles that usually runs along a rail track to transport cargo or passengers. Motive power is provided by a locomotive or individual motors in self-propelled multiple units. Although historically steam propulsion dominated, the most common forms are diesel and electric locomotives. Other energy sources include horses, engine or water-driven rope or wire winch, gravity, pneumatics, batteries, the word train comes from the Old French trahiner, from the Latin trahere pull, draw. There are various types of trains that are designed for particular purposes, a train may consist of a combination of one or more locomotives and attached railroad cars, or a self-propelled multiple unit. The first trains were rope-hauled, gravity powered or pulled by horses, from the early 19th century almost all were powered by steam locomotives. A passenger train is one which includes passenger-carrying vehicles which can often be very long, one notable and growing long-distance train category is high-speed rail. In order to much faster operation over 500 km/h, innovative Maglev technology has been researched for years. In most countries, such as the United Kingdom, the distinction between a tramway and a railway is precise and defined in law, a freight train uses freight cars to transport goods or materials. Freight and passengers may be carried in the train in a mixed consist. Rail cars and machinery used for maintenance and repair of tracks, etc. are termed maintenance of way equipment, similarly, dedicated trains may be used to provide support services to stations along a train line, such as garbage or revenue collection. There are various types of trains that are designed for particular purposes, a train can consist of a combination of one or more locomotives and attached railroad cars, or a self-propelled multiple unit. Trains can also be hauled by horses, pulled by a cable, special kinds of trains running on corresponding special railways are atmospheric railways, monorails, high-speed railways, maglev, rubber-tired underground, funicular and cog railways. A passenger train may consist of one or several locomotives and coaches, alternatively, a train may consist entirely of passenger carrying coaches, some or all of which are powered as a multiple unit. In many parts of the world, particularly the Far East and Europe, freight trains are composed of wagons or trucks rather than carriages, though some parcel and mail trains are outwardly more like passenger trains. Trains can also be mixed, comprising both passenger accommodation and freight vehicles, special trains are also used for track maintenance, in some places, this is called maintenance of way. A train with a locomotive attached at each end is described as top and tailed, where a second locomotive is attached temporarily to assist a train up steep banks or grades it is referred to as banking in the UK, or helper service in North America. Recently, many loaded trains in the United States have been made up one or more locomotives in the middle or at the rear of the train
13.
Competition (economics)
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Merriam-Webster defines competition in business as the effort of two or more parties acting independently to secure the business of a third party by offering the most favorable terms. Later microeconomic theory distinguished between perfect competition and imperfect competition, concluding that perfect competition is Pareto efficient while imperfect competition is not. Competition, according to the theory, causes commercial firms to develop new products, services and technologies, the greater selection typically causes lower prices for the products, compared to what the price would be if there was no competition or little competition. Competition is generally accepted as a condition for the coordination of disparate individuals interests via the market process. It is generally accepted that competition results in lower prices and a number of goods delivered to more people. Less competition is perceived to result in higher prices with a fewer number of—and less innovation in—goods delivered to fewer people, as a result, many governments use competition laws to promote competition and regulate against anti-competitive practices. Competition is seen as a state which produces gains for the whole economy, competition is widespread throughout the market process. It is a condition where buyers tend to compete with other buyers, in offering goods for exchange, buyers competitively bid to purchase specific quantities of specific goods which are available, or might be available if sellers were to choose to offer such goods. Similarly, sellers bid against other sellers in offering goods on the market, competing for the attention, competition results from scarcity—there is never enough to satisfy all conceivable human wants—and occurs when people strive to meet the criteria that are being used to determine who gets what. For the competitive process to work however, it is important that prices accurately signal costs and benefits, where externalities occur, or monopolistic or oligopolistic conditions persist, or for the provision of certain goods such as public goods, the pressure of the competitive process is reduced. Competition may also lead to wasted effort and to increased costs in some circumstances, in a small number of goods and services, the cost structure means that competition may be inefficient. These situations are known as natural monopoly and are usually publicly provided or tightly regulated, competition does not necessarily have to be between companies. For example, business writers sometimes refer to internal competition, the idea was first introduced by Alfred Sloan at General Motors in the 1920s. Sloan deliberately created areas of overlap between divisions of the company so that division would be competing with the other divisions. For example, the Chevy division would compete with the Pontiac division for some market segments, also, in 1931, Procter & Gamble initiated a deliberate system of internal brand versus brand rivalry. The company was organized around different brands, with each brand allocated resources, each brand manager was given responsibility for the success or failure of the brand and was compensated accordingly. This form of competition thus pitted a brand against another brand, finally, most businesses also encourage competition between individual employees. An example of this is a contest between sales representatives, the sales representative with the highest sales over a period of time would gain benefits from the employer
14.
Airliner
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An airliner is a type of aircraft for transporting passengers and air cargo. Such aircraft are most often operated by airlines, although the definition of an airliner can vary from country to country, an airliner is typically defined as an aircraft intended for carrying multiple passengers or cargo in commercial service. The largest airliners are wide-body jets and these aircraft are frequently called twin-aisle aircraft because they generally have two separate aisles running from the front to the back of the passenger cabin. These aircraft are used for long-haul flights between airline hubs and major cities with many passengers. A smaller, more class of airliners is the narrow-body or single aisle aircraft. These smaller airliners are used for short to medium-distance flights with fewer passengers than their wide-body counterparts. Regional airliners typically seat fewer than 100 passengers and may be powered by turbofans or turboprops and these airliners are the non-mainline counterparts to the larger aircraft operated by the major carriers, legacy carriers, and flag carriers and are used to feed traffic into the large airline hubs. These regional routes then form the spokes of an air transport model. The Beechcraft 1900, for example, has only 19 seats, when the Wright brothers made the world’s first sustained heavier-than-air flight, they laid the foundation for what would become a major transport industry. Their flight in 1903 was just 11 years before what is defined as the world’s first airliner. These airliners would have a significant impact on society, economics. If an airliner is defined as an aircraft intended for carrying passengers in commercial service. The Ilya Muromets was an aircraft with a separate passenger saloon, wicker chairs, bedroom, lounge. The aircraft also had heating and electrical lighting, the Ilya Muromets first flew on December 10,1913. On February 25,1914, it took off for its first demonstration flight with 16 passengers aboard, from June 21 – June 23, it made a round-trip from Saint Petersburg to Kiev in 14 hours and 38 minutes with one intermediate landing. However, it was never used as a commercial airliner due to the onset of World War I, in 1915 the very first airliner was used by Elliot Air Service. The aircraft was a Curtiss JN4, a biplane which was used mainly in World War I as a trainer. Later, it was used as a tour and familiarization flight aircraft in the early 1920s
15.
Car
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A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
16.
Stagecoach
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A stagecoach is a type of covered wagon used to carry passengers and goods inside. It is strongly sprung and generally drawn by four horses, usually four-in-hand, widely used before the introduction of railway transport, it made regular trips between stages or stations, which were places of rest provided for stagecoach travelers. The business of running stagecoaches or the act of journeying in them was known as staging, the yard of ale drinking glass is associated by legend with stagecoach drivers, though it was mainly used for drinking feats and special toasts. The stagecoach was a vehicle pulled by horses or mules. The primary requirement was that it was used as a conveyance, running on an established route. Vehicles that were used included buckboards and dead axle wagons, surplus Army ambulances, on the outside were two back seats facing one another, which the British called baskets. In addition to the driver who guided the vehicle, a shotgun messenger, armed with a coach gun. The stagecoach traveled at an speed of about five miles per hour. The term stage originally referred to the distance between stations on a route, the coach traveling the route in stages, but through metonymy it came to apply to the coach. A fresh set of horses would be staged at the next station, under this staging system, the resting, watering and feeding of the spent horses would not delay the coach. This system based on making fresh horses regularly available along a route had been in use by a number of different civilisations, the stagecoach was also called a stage or stage carriage. Varieties included, mail coach or post coach, used for carrying mail, mud coach, lighter and smaller, with flat sides and simpler joinery. Road coach, revived in Great Britain and Ireland during the half of the 19th century. The first crude depiction of a coach, not necessarily a stagecoach, was in an English manuscript from the 13th century, crude coaches were built from the 16th century. Without suspension, these coaches achieved very low speeds on the poor quality rutted roads of the time, by the mid 17th century, a basic stagecoach infrastructure had been put in place. The first stagecoach route started in 1610 and ran from Edinburgh to Leith and this was followed by a steady proliferation of other routes around the country. A string of coaching inns operated as stopping points for travellers on the route between London and Liverpool by the mid 17th century, the coach would depart every Monday and Thursday and took roughly ten days to make the journey during the summer months. They also became adopted for travel in and around London by mid-century
17.
Edinburgh
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Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls
18.
Leith
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Leith /ˈliːθ/, Scottish Gaelic, Lìte, is a district to the north of the city of Edinburgh at the mouth of the Water of Leith. The earliest surviving references are in the royal charter authorising the construction of Holyrood Abbey in 1128. The medieval settlements of Leith had grown into a burgh by 1833, historically part of Midlothian, Leith is sited on the coast of the Firth of Forth and lies within the council area of the City of Edinburgh. The port remains one of its most valuable enterprises, handling over 1.5 million tonnes of cargo a year in 2003, previous to the bridge being built in the late 15th century, Leith had settlements on either side of the river, lacking an easy crossing. South Leith was larger and was controlled by the lairds of Restalrig and it was based on trade and had many merchants houses and warehouses. This was where ships offloaded their cargoes at The Shore where they were collected by Edinburgh merchants, leithers were explicitly forbidden by statute to participate directly in the trade at the port, to ensure that landed goods were not sold elsewhere. North Leith was smaller but proportionately richer, coming under the jurisdiction of Holyrood Abbey and it was effectively a fishing village consisting of one street, now Sandport Street and Quayside Lane. Burgage plots ran down to the river from each house and this has traditionally been the shipbuilding side of Leith with several wet and dry docks built over time. The first dry dock in Scotland was built here in 1720, a small peninsula of land on the east bank also came under the same jurisdiction on what is now Sheriff Brae/Sheriff Bank. The first bridge to both banks of the river was built in 1493 by Abbot Bellenden, who controlled the church at North Leith. The bridge was a bridge, the revenue supplementing the churchs income. Reputedly Leiths oldest building, it was demolished in 1780 to allow ships to sail further upstream, the earliest evidence of settlement in Leith comes from several archaeological digs undertaken in the Shore area in the late 20th century. Amongst the finds were medieval wharf edges from the 12th century and this date fits with the earliest documentary evidence of settlement in Leith - the foundation charter of Holyrood Abbey. Leith has played a long and prominent role in Scottish history, as the major port serving Edinburgh, it has been the stage on which many significant events in Scottish history have taken place. Mary of Guise ruled Scotland from Leith in 1560 as Regent while her daughter, Mary, Mary of Guise moved the Scottish Court to Leith, to a site that is now Parliament Street, off Coalhill. According to the 18th-century historian William Maitland, her palace was situated on Rotten Row, now Water Street. Artifacts from the residence are held by the National Museum of Scotland. In June 1560, Mary of Guise died, and the Siege of Leith ended with the departure of the French troops in accordance with the Treaty of Leith, also known as the Treaty of Edinburgh
19.
Coaching inn
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There are few motels with the function of refueling to motor vehicles, but the feeding function to horses was required for coaching inn. Coaching inns stabled teams of horses for stagecoaches and mail coaches, traditionally they were seven miles apart but this depended very much on the terrain. Hence any suspiciously elaborate tale would become a cock and bull story and this is a cock-and bull story in itself, however, as there is no evidence to suggest that this is where the phrase originated. The phrase, first recorded in 1621, may instead be an allusion to Aesops fables, as this slightly predates coaching inns, the names of the two inns could have been a reference to Cock and Bull stories as to encourage the passing of such anecdotes within their doors. Historic inns in Oxford include The Bear Inn and the Lamb & Flag, examples of historic inns in Wales include the Black Boy Inn and the Groes Inn. The Black Lion in Cardigan is probably the oldest Welsh coaching inn, Inn Public house Stagecoach Inn Coaching Era, The, Stage and Mail Coach Travel in and Around Bath, Bristol and Somerset, Roy Gallop, Fiducia, ISBN 1-85026-019-2 Coaching inns. Photos of examples of what may be considered coaching inns in geograph. org. uk
20.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
21.
Liverpool
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Liverpool is a major city and metropolitan borough in North West England.24 million people in 2011. Liverpool historically lay within the ancient hundred of West Derby in the south west of the county of Lancashire and it became a borough from 1207 and a city from 1880. In 1889 it became a county borough independent of Lancashire, Liverpool sits on the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary and its growth as a major port is paralleled by the expansion of the city throughout the Industrial Revolution. Along with general cargo, freight, raw materials such as coal and cotton, the city was also directly involved in the Atlantic slave trade. Liverpool was home to both the Cunard and White Star Line, and was the port of registry of the ocean liner RMS Titanic and others such as the RMS Lusitania, Queen Mary, and Olympic. The city celebrated its 800th anniversary in 2007, and it held the European Capital of Culture title together with Stavanger, Norway, several areas of Liverpool city centre were granted World Heritage Site status by UNESCO in 2004. The Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City includes the Pier Head, Albert Dock, tourism forms a significant part of the citys economy. Liverpool is also the home of two Premier League football clubs, Liverpool and Everton, matches between the two being known as the Merseyside derby, the world-famous Grand National horse race takes place annually at Aintree Racecourse on the outskirts of the city. The city is home to the oldest Black African community in the country. Natives of Liverpool are referred to as Liverpudlians and colloquially as Scousers, a reference to scouse, the word Scouse has also become synonymous with the Liverpool accent and dialect. Pool is a place name element in England from the Brythonic word for a pond, inlet, or pit, cognate with the modern Welsh. The derivation of the first element remains uncertain, with the Welsh word Llif as the most plausible relative and this etymology is supported by its similarity to that of the archaic Welsh name for Liverpool Llynlleifiad. Other origins of the name have suggested, including elverpool. The name appeared in 1190 as Liuerpul, and it may be that the place appearing as Leyrpole, in a record of 1418. King Johns letters patent of 1207 announced the foundation of the borough of Liverpool, the original street plan of Liverpool is said to have been designed by King John near the same time it was granted a royal charter, making it a borough. The original seven streets were laid out in an H shape, Bank Street, Castle Street, Chapel Street, Dale Street, Juggler Street, Moor Street, in the 17th century there was slow progress in trade and population growth. Battles for the town were waged during the English Civil War, in 1699 Liverpool was made a parish by Act of Parliament, that same year its first slave ship, Liverpool Merchant, set sail for Africa. Since Roman times, the city of Chester on the River Dee had been the regions principal port on the Irish Sea
22.
Shakespeare
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William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
23.
The George Inn, Southwark
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The George, or George Inn, is a public house established in the medieval period on Borough High Street in Southwark, London. Currently owned and leased by the National Trust, it is located about 250 m from the side of the River Thames near London Bridge. It is by far the oldest pub in London and it is also notable as the only surviving galleried London coaching inn. The first map of Southwark clearly shows it marked as Gorge and it was formerly known as the George and Dragon, named after the legend of Saint George and the Dragon. There were many inns in this part of London. Probably the most famous was The Tabard where, in 1388, in 1677 the George was rebuilt after a serious fire that destroyed most of medieval Southwark. The Tabard was also rebuilt after the fire, but was demolished in the late nineteenth century. It is known that galleried inns were used for Elizabethan theatrical productions and it is thought that the Players were on a dais in the courtyard with the standing audience next to them and that those paying a premium would be in the galleries with a better view. Later, the Great Northern Railway used the George as a depot, now just the south face remains. The George was one of the famous coaching inns in the days of Charles Dickens. Dickens in fact visited the George and referred to it in Little Dorrit, the building is partly timber framed. The ground floor is divided into a number of connected bars, the Parliament Bar used to be a waiting room for passengers on coaches. The Middle Bar was the Coffee Room, which was frequented by Charles Dickens, the bedrooms, now a restaurant, were upstairs in the galleried part of the building. It is one of two coaching inns to survive in Greater London, and is the only galleried example. The White Hart is immediately to the north, and the site of The Tabard immediately to the south, the building is Grade I listed, and is listed in CAMRAs National Inventory of Historic Pub Interiors. The beer writer Pete Brown explores the history of the pub in his book Shakespeares Local and provides a lot of information about the pub, George Inn information at the National Trust
24.
Hyde Park, London
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Hyde Park is one of the largest parks in London and one of its Royal Parks. The park is divided by the Serpentine and the Long Water, the park is contiguous with Kensington Gardens, which are often assumed to be part of Hyde Park, Kensington Gardens has been separate since 1728, when Queen Caroline divided them. To the southeast, outside the park, is Hyde Park Corner, during daylight, the two parks merge seamlessly into each other, but Kensington Gardens closes at dusk, and Hyde Park remains open throughout the year from 5 a. m. until midnight. The Great Exhibition of 1851 was held in the park, for which the Crystal Palace, the park became a traditional location for mass demonstrations. The Chartists, the Reform League, the suffragettes, and the Stop the War Coalition have all held protests there, many protesters on the Liberty and Livelihood March in 2002 started their march from Hyde Park. Hyde Park is also a ward of the City of Westminster, the population of the ward at the 2011 Census was 12,462. Hyde Park was created for hunting by Henry Vlll in 1536, Charles I created the Ring, and in 1637 he opened the park to the general public. In 1652, during the Interregnum, Parliament ordered the then 620-acre park to be sold for ready money and it realised £17,000 with an additional £765 6s 2d for the resident deer. In 1689, when William III moved his residence to Kensington Palace on the far side of Hyde Park, public transport entering London from the west runs parallel to the Kings private road along Kensington Gore, just outside the park. In the late 1800s, the row was used by the wealthy for horseback rides, the first coherent landscaping was undertaken by Charles Bridgeman for Queen Caroline, under the supervision of Charles Withers, the Surveyor-General of Woods and Forests, who took some credit. It was completed in 1733 at a cost to the public purse of £20,000, the 2nd Viscount Weymouth was made Ranger of Hyde Park in 1739 and shortly after began digging the Serpentine lakes at Longleat. The Serpentine is divided from the Long Water by a bridge designed by George Rennie, one of the most important events to take place in the park was the Great Exhibition of 1851. The Crystal Palace was constructed on the side of the park. The public did not want the building to remain after the closure of the exhibition and he had it moved to Sydenham Hill in South London. At the age of twenty-five, Decimus Burton was commissioned by the Office of Woods and he laid out the paths and driveways and designed a series of lodges, the Screen/Gate at Hyde Park Corner and the Wellington Arch. The Screen and the Arch originally formed a single composition, designed to provide a transition between Hyde Park and Green Park, although the arch was later moved. An early description reports, It consists of a screen of handsome fluted Ionic columns, the extent of the whole frontage is about 107 ft. The two side gateways, in their elevations, present two insulated Ionic columns, flanked by antae, all these entrances are finished by a blocking, the sides of the central one being decorated with a beautiful frieze, representing a naval and military triumphal procession
25.
Kensington
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Kensington is an affluent district within the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea in West London. Its commercial heart is Kensington High Street, the affluent and densely populated area contains the major museum district of South Kensington, which has the Royal Albert Hall for music and nearby Royal College of Music. The area is home to many of Londons European embassies, the first mention of the area is in the Domesday Book of 1086, where it was written in Latin as Chenesitone, which has been interpreted to have originally been Kenesignetun in Anglo-Saxon. A variation may be Kesyngton, in 1396 and he in turn granted the tenancy of Kensington to his vassal Aubrey de Vere I, who was holding the manor in 1086, according to Domesday Book. The bishops heir, Robert de Mowbray, rebelled against William Rufus, Aubrey de Vere I had his tenure converted to a tenancy in-chief, holding Kensington after 1095 directly of the crown. He granted land and church there to Abingdon Abbey at the deathbed request of his young eldest son, Geoffrey. As the Veres became the earls of Oxford, their estate at Kensington came to be known as Earls Court, while the Abingdon lands were called Abbots Kensington and the church St Mary Abbots. The original Kensington Barracks, built at Kensington Gate in the late 18th century, were demolished in 1858, the focus of the area is Kensington High Street, a busy commercial centre with many shops, typically upmarket. The street was declared Londons second best shopping street in February 2005 thanks to its range, however, since October 2008 the street has faced competition from the Westfield shopping centre in nearby White City. Kensingtons second group of buildings is at South Kensington, where several streets of small to medium-sized shops. This is also the end of Exhibition Road, the thoroughfare that serves the areas museums. To the west, a border is kept along the line of the Counter Creek marked by the West London railway line, in the north east, the large Royal Park of Kensington Gardens is a green buffer. The other main area in Kensington is Holland Park, just north of Kensington High Street. Kensington is, in general, an affluent area, a trait that it now shares with its neighbour to the south. In early 2007, houses sold in Upper Phillimore Gardens for in excess of £20 million, Kensington is also very densely populated, it forms part of the most densely populated local government district in the United Kingdom. This high density is not formed from high-rise buildings, instead, unlike northern extremities of the Borough, Kensington lacks high-rise buildings except for the Holiday Inns London Kensington Forum Hotel in Cromwell Road, which is a 27-storey building. The Olympia exhibition hall is just over the border in West Kensington. Kensington is part of the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, the head office of newspaper group DMGT is located in Northcliffe House in Kensington, which is the office part of the large Barkers building
26.
Turnpike trusts
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At the peak, in the 1830s, over 1,000 trusts administered around 30,000 miles of turnpike road in England and Wales, taking tolls at almost 8,000 toll-gates and side-bars. During the early 19th century the concept of the turnpike trust was adopted and adapted to manage roads within the British Empire and in the United States. Turnpikes declined with the coming of the railways and then the Local Government Act of 1888 gave responsibility for maintaining main roads to county councils and county borough councils. The term turnpike originates from the similarity of the used to control access to the road. Pavage grants, originally made for paving the marketplace or streets of towns and these grants were made by letters patent, almost invariably for a limited term, presumably the time likely to be required to pay for the required works. Tudor statutes had placed responsibility on each parish to maintain all its roads and this arrangement was adequate for roads that the parishioners used themselves but proved unsatisfactory for the principal highways that were used by long-distance travellers and waggoners. During the late 17th century, the approach to road maintenance caused acute problems on the main routes into London. As trade increased, the numbers of heavy carts and carriages led to serious deterioration in the state of these roads. A parliamentary bill, presented in 1621/2, proposed to relieve the parishes responsible for part of the Great North Road by imposing a scale of tolls on various sorts of traffic. The revenue from the tolls was to be employed in repairing the road, however, during the following forty years, the idea of making travellers contribute to the repair of roads was raised on several occasions. Then in 1656 the parish of Radwell, Hertfordshire petitioned the quarter sessions for help to maintain their section of the Great North Road, probably as a result of this petition the quarter session justices of Hertfordshire, Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire represented the matter to Parliament. The toll-gate erected at Wadesmill became the first effective toll-gate in England, Parliament then gave similar powers to the justices in other counties in England and Wales. An example being the first Turnpike Act for Surrey that in 1696, during the reign of William III, the first scheme that had trustees who were not justices was established through a Turnpike Act in 1707, for a section of the London-Chester road between Fornhill and Stony Stratford. This became the pattern for the turnpiking of a number of highways. The proposal to turnpike a particular section of road was normally a local initiative, the Act gave the trustees responsibility for maintaining a specified part of the existing highway. It provided them with powers to achieve this, the right to collect tolls from those using the road was particularly important, Local gentlemen, clergy and merchants were nominated as trustees and they appointed a clerk, a treasurer and a surveyor to actually administer and maintain the highway. These officers were paid by the trust, trustees were not paid, though they derived indirect benefits from the better transport, which improved access to markets and led to increases in rental income and trade. The first action of a new trust was to erect turnpike gates at which a toll was charged
27.
History of road transport
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The history of road transport started with the development of tracks by humans and their beasts of burden. The first forms of transport were horses, oxen or even humans carrying goods over tracks that often followed game trails. In the Stone Age humans did not need constructed tracks in open country, the first improved trails would have been at fords, mountain passes and through swamps. The first improvements would have consisted largely of clearing trees and big stones from the path, as commerce increased, the tracks were often flattened or widened to accommodate human and animal traffic. Some of these tracks were developed into fairly extensive networks, allowing communications, trade. The Incan Empire in South America and the Iroquois Confederation in North America, the first goods transport was on human backs and heads, but the use of pack animals, including donkeys and horses, developed during the Stone Age. The first vehicle is believed to have been the travois, a used to drag loads. In about 5000 BC, sleds developed, which are difficult to build than travois. Pack animals, ridden horses and bullocks dragging travois or sleds require wider paths and higher clearances than people on foot, as a result, by about 5000 BC roads, including the Ridgeway, developed along ridges in England to avoid crossing rivers and bogging. In central Germany, such ridgeways remained the predominant form of long-distance road till the mid 18th century, street paving has been found from the first human settlements around 4000 BC in cities of the Indus Valley Civilization on the Indian subcontinent, such as Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. Roads in the towns were straight and long, intersecting one another at right angles, wheels appear to have been developed in ancient Sumer in Mesopotamia around 5000 BC, perhaps originally for the making of pottery. Their original transport use may have been as attachments to travois or sleds to reduce resistance and it has been argued that logs were used as rollers under sleds prior to the development of wheels, but there is no archeological evidence for this. Most early wheels appear to have attached to fixed axles. The first simple two-wheel carts, apparently developed from travois, appear to have used in Mesopotamia and northern Iran in about 3000 BC. They were hauled by onagers, related to donkeys, heavy four-wheeled wagons developed about 2500 BC, which were only suitable for oxen-haulage, and therefore were only used where crops were cultivated, particularly Mesopotamia. Two-wheeled chariots with spoked wheels appear to have developed around 2000 BC by the Andronovo culture in southern Siberia. At much the same time the first primitive harness enabling horse-haulage was invented, wheeled-transport created the need for better roads. Generally natural materials cannot be both soft enough to form well-graded surfaces and strong enough to bear wheeled vehicles, especially when wet, and stay intact
28.
Cambridge
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Cambridge is a university city and the county town of Cambridgeshire, England, on the River Cam about 50 miles north of London. At the United Kingdom Census 2011, its population was 123,867, there is archaeological evidence of settlement in the area in the Bronze Age and in Roman Britain, under Viking rule, Cambridge became an important trading centre. The first town charters were granted in the 12th century, although city status was not conferred until 1951, the University of Cambridge, founded in 1209, is one of the top five universities in the world. The university includes the Cavendish Laboratory, Kings College Chapel, the citys skyline is dominated by the last two buildings, along with the spire of the Our Lady and the English Martyrs Church, the chimney of Addenbrookes Hospital and St Johns College Chapel tower. Anglia Ruskin University, evolved from the Cambridge School of Art, Cambridge is at the heart of the high-technology Silicon Fen with industries such as software and bioscience and many start-up companies spun out of the university. More than 40% of the workforce has a higher education qualification, the Cambridge Biomedical Campus, one of the largest biomedical research clusters in the world, is soon to be home to AstraZeneca, a hotel and the relocated Papworth Hospital. Parkers Piece hosted the first ever game of Association football, the Strawberry Fair music and arts festival and Midsummer Fairs are held on Midsummer Common, and the annual Cambridge Beer Festival takes place on Jesus Green. The city is adjacent to the M11 and A14 roads, settlements have existed around the Cambridge area since prehistoric times. The earliest clear evidence of occupation is the remains of a 3, the principal Roman site is a small fort Duroliponte on Castle Hill, just northwest of the city centre around the location of the earlier British village. The fort was bounded on two sides by the lines formed by the present Mount Pleasant, continuing across Huntingdon Road into Clare Street, the eastern side followed Magrath Avenue, with the southern side running near to Chesterton Lane and Kettles Yard before turning northwest at Honey Hill. It was constructed around AD70 and converted to use around 50 years later. Evidence of more widespread Roman settlement has been discovered including numerous farmsteads, evidence exists that the invading Anglo-Saxons had begun occupying the area by the end of the century. Their settlement—also on and around Castle Hill—became known as Grantebrycge, Anglo-Saxon grave goods have been found in the area. During this period, Cambridge benefited from good trade links across the hard-to-travel fenlands, by the 7th century, the town was less significant and described by Bede as a little ruined city containing the burial site of Etheldreda. Cambridge was on the border between the East and Middle Anglian kingdoms and the settlement slowly expanded on both sides of the river, the arrival of the Vikings was recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 875. Viking rule, the Danelaw, had been imposed by 878 Their vigorous trading habits caused the town to grow rapidly. During this period the centre of the town shifted from Castle Hill on the bank of the river to the area now known as the Quayside on the right bank. In 1068, two years after his conquest of England, William of Normandy built a castle on Castle Hill, like the rest of the newly conquered kingdom, Cambridge fell under the control of the King and his deputies
29.
Robert Hooke
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Robert Hooke FRS was an English natural philosopher, architect and polymath. Allan Chapman has characterised him as Englands Leonardo, Robert Gunthers Early Science in Oxford, a history of science in Oxford during the Protectorate, Restoration and Age of Enlightenment, devotes five of its fourteen volumes to Hooke. Hooke studied at Wadham College, Oxford during the Protectorate where he became one of a tightly knit group of ardent Royalists led by John Wilkins. Here he was employed as an assistant to Thomas Willis and to Robert Boyle and he built some of the earliest Gregorian telescopes and observed the rotations of Mars and Jupiter. In 1665 he inspired the use of microscopes for scientific exploration with his book, based on his microscopic observations of fossils, Hooke was an early proponent of biological evolution. Much of Hookes scientific work was conducted in his capacity as curator of experiments of the Royal Society, much of what is known of Hookes early life comes from an autobiography that he commenced in 1696 but never completed. Richard Waller mentions it in his introduction to The Posthumous Works of Robert Hooke, the work of Waller, along with John Wards Lives of the Gresham Professors and John Aubreys Brief Lives, form the major near-contemporaneous biographical accounts of Hooke. Robert Hooke was born in 1635 in Freshwater on the Isle of Wight to John Hooke, Robert was the last of four children, two boys and two girls, and there was an age difference of seven years between him and the next youngest. Their father John was a Church of England priest, the curate of Freshwaters Church of All Saints, Robert Hooke was expected to succeed in his education and join the Church. John Hooke also was in charge of a school, and so was able to teach Robert. He was a Royalist and almost certainly a member of a group who went to pay their respects to Charles I when he escaped to the Isle of Wight, Robert, too, grew up to be a staunch monarchist. As a youth, Robert Hooke was fascinated by observation, mechanical works and he dismantled a brass clock and built a wooden replica that, by all accounts, worked well enough, and he learned to draw, making his own materials from coal, chalk and ruddle. Hooke quickly mastered Latin and Greek, made study of Hebrew. Here, too, he embarked on his study of mechanics. It appears that Hooke was one of a group of students whom Busby educated in parallel to the work of the school. Contemporary accounts say he was not much seen in the school, in 1653, Hooke secured a choristers place at Christ Church, Oxford. He was employed as an assistant to Dr Thomas Willis. There he met the natural philosopher Robert Boyle, and gained employment as his assistant from about 1655 to 1662, constructing, operating and he did not take his Master of Arts until 1662 or 1663
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Manchester
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Manchester is a major city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester, England, with a population of 514,414 as of 2013. It lies within the United Kingdoms second-most populous urban area, with a population of 2.55 million, Manchester is fringed by the Cheshire Plain to the south, the Pennines to the north and east and an arc of towns with which it forms a continuous conurbation. The local authority is Manchester City Council and it was historically a part of Lancashire, although areas of Cheshire south of the River Mersey were incorporated during the 20th century. Throughout the Middle Ages Manchester remained a township but began to expand at an astonishing rate around the turn of the 19th century. Manchesters unplanned urbanisation was brought on by a boom in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution, Manchester achieved city status in 1853. The Manchester Ship Canal opened in 1894, creating the Port of Manchester and its fortunes declined after the Second World War, owing to deindustrialisation. The city centre was devastated in a bombing in 1996, but it led to extensive investment, in 2014, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranked Manchester as a beta world city, the highest-ranked British city apart from London. Manchester is the third-most visited city in the UK and it is notable for its architecture, culture, musical exports, media links, scientific and engineering output, social impact, sports clubs and transport connections. Manchester Liverpool Road railway station was the worlds first inter-city passenger railway station and in the city scientists first split the atom, the name Manchester originates from the Latin name Mamucium or its variant Mancunium and the citizens are still referred to as Mancunians. These are generally thought to represent a Latinisation of an original Brittonic name, both meanings are preserved in languages derived from Common Brittonic, mam meaning breast in Irish and mother in Welsh. The suffix -chester is a survival of Old English ceaster and their territory extended across the fertile lowland of what is now Salford and Stretford. Central Manchester has been settled since this time. A stabilised fragment of foundations of the version of the Roman fort is visible in Castlefield. After the Roman withdrawal and Saxon conquest, the focus of settlement shifted to the confluence of the Irwell, much of the wider area was laid waste in the subsequent Harrying of the North. Thomas de la Warre, lord of the manor, founded and constructed a church for the parish in 1421. The church is now Manchester Cathedral, the premises of the college house Chethams School of Music. The library, which opened in 1653 and is open to the public today, is the oldest free public reference library in the United Kingdom. Manchester is mentioned as having a market in 1282, around the 14th century, Manchester received an influx of Flemish weavers, sometimes credited as the foundation of the regions textile industry
31.
Advertising
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Advertising is an audio or visual form of marketing communication that employs an openly sponsored, nonpersonal message to promote or sell a product, service or idea. Sponsors of advertising are often businesses who wish to promote their products or services, Advertising is differentiated from public relations in that an advertiser usually pays for and has control over the message. It is differentiated from personal selling in that the message is nonpersonal, the actual presentation of the message in a medium is referred to as an advertisement or ad. Commercial ads often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through branding, on the other hand, ads that intend to elicit an immediate sale are known as direct response advertising. Non-commercial advertisers who spend money to advertise items other than a product or service include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations. Non-profit organizations may use free modes of persuasion, such as a service announcement. Advertising may also be used to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or successful, in 2015, the world spent an estimate of US$592.43 billion on advertising. Its projected distribution for 2017 is 40. 4% on TV,33. 3% on digital, internationally, the largest advertising conglomerates are Interpublic, Omnicom, Publicis, and WPP. In Latin, ad vertere means to turn toward, egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii, lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, the tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC. In ancient China, the earliest advertising known was oral, as recorded in the Classic of Poetry of bamboo flutes played to sell candy, advertisement usually takes in the form of calligraphic signboards and inked papers. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons, the first compilation of such advertisements was gathered in Les Crieries de Paris, a thirteenth-century poem by Guillaume de la Villeneuve. In the 18th century advertisements started to appear in newspapers in England. However, false advertising and so-called quack advertisements became a problem, thomas J. Barratt from London has been called the father of modern advertising. Working for the Pears Soap company, Barratt created an advertising campaign for the company products. One of his slogans, Good morning, have you used Pears soap. was famous in its day and into the 20th century. Barratt introduced many of the ideas that lie behind successful advertising
32.
Newmarket, Suffolk
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Newmarket is a market town in the English county of Suffolk, approximately 65 miles north of London. It is generally considered the birthplace and global centre of thoroughbred horse racing and it is a major local business cluster, with annual investment rivalling that of the Cambridge Science Park, the other major cluster in the region. Two Classic races, and an additional three British Champions Series races are held at Newmarket every year, the town has been a centre for British royalty since James I, and was also a home to Charles I, Charles II and many monarchs since. The current monarch, Queen Elizabeth, regularly visits the town to see her horses in training, Newmarket has over fifty horse training stables, two large racetracks, The Rowley Mile and The July Course and one of the most extensive and prestigious horse training grounds in the world. The town is home to over 3,500 racehorses, the town is surrounded by over sixty horse breeding studs. On account of its position in the multibillion-pound horse racing and breeding industry. 1200, Newmarkets name was recorded as Novum Forum, a Latin phrase meaning new market, february 1605, James I first visited, describing it as a poor little village. 1606 to 1610, James I built the Newmarket Palace, an estate covering an acre of land from the High Street to All Saints’ churchyard and this made Newmarket into a horseracing town. 1619, Inigo Jones was commissioned to build a new lodge for the Prince of Wales and it had three storeys and was Italianate in style. 1642, In Newmarket Charles I met a parliamentary deputation that demanded his surrender of the armed forces, by God not for an hour, Charles replied, You have asked such of me that was never asked of a King. This effectively started the English Civil War, Newmarket remained Royalist throughout the war. Early June 1647, Charles was captured at Holdenby House in Northamptonshire and he was placed under house arrest in the palace while the whole of Cromwells New Model Army kept guard over the town. 30 January 1649, Charles I was executed,1649, A survey showed that the palace was in disrepair. 1650, The palace was sold to John Okey, who demolished most of the buildings,1666 to 1685, Charles II often visited Newmarket. 1668, Charles II commissioned William Samwell to build a new palace on the High Street,1670, John Evelyn said that the palace was meane enough, and hardly capable for a hunting house, let alone a royal palace. October 1677, October 1695, William of Orange visited Newmarket, start of the 19th century, The palace was largely torn down, but a part survives and is now named Palace House. 19th century, Newmarket south of the High Street spread into the parishes of Woodditton,1894, The county border was moved to accommodate this, and has been further altered since. 15 December 1977, An F111-F jet fighter crashed at Exning near Newmarket because of hydraulic failure, about 2011, Time Team excavated on the site of Charles IIs palace at Newmarket, and found foundations of racehorse stables
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John Palmer (postal innovator)
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For other persons named John Palmer, see John Palmer. He was Mayor of Bath on two occasions and Comptroller General of the Post Office, and later served as Member of Parliament for the constituency of Bath between 1801 and 1807. Palmers second theatre in Bristol was granted the status in 1778, becoming the Theatre Royal. Palmer worked as his fathers London agent, frequently travelling between London and Bath, and after his father decided to retire in 1776 the patent was transferred to him and he continued to manage the theatre until 1785. Later, when Palmer became involved in the Post Office, he believed that the service he had previously run between theatres could be utilised for a countrywide mail delivery service. The riders were frequent targets for robbers, and the system was inefficient and it occurred to him that this coach service could be developed into a national mail delivery service, so in 1782 he suggested to the Post Office in London that they take up the idea. Under the old system the journey had taken up to 38 hours, the coach, funded by Palmer, left Bristol at 4 pm on 2 August 1784 and arrived in London just 16 hours later. Impressed by the run, Pitt authorised the creation of new routes. A service to Edinburgh was added the year, and Palmer was rewarded by being made Surveyor. By 1797 there were forty-two routes and he was appointed Comptroller General of the Post Office on 11 October 1786, but there was some delay in paying him his share of the very substantial increase in revenue. He was eventually granted a payment of arrears after a commission of inquiry investigated in 1789, initially the coach, horses and driver were all supplied by contractors. There was strong competition for the contracts because they provided a regular income in addition to which the companies could charge fares for the passengers. By the beginning of the 19th century the Post Office had their own fleet of coaches with black, the development of railways in the 1830s spelt the end for the mail coach service. The first rail delivery between Liverpool and Manchester took place on 11 November 1830, by the early 1840s many London-based mail coaches were starting to be withdrawn from service, the final service from London was shut down in 1846. Regional mail coaches continued into the 1850s, but these too were replaced by rail services. After a series of controversies, he was dismissed in 1792. However, Palmer continued to press his claim for the much greater sum to which he believed he was entitled, the institution of mail coaches permanently revolutionised the British postal service, and Palmer was widely honoured for it, being presented with the freedom of numerous towns and cities. In Bath he was particularly cherished, becoming Mayor in 1796 and again in 1809, such was his influence with the Common Council of Bath that he was able to stand down from Parliament in 1808 in the knowledge that his son Charles would be elected in his place
34.
Post Office Ltd
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The company is owned by the British Governments Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, through Postal Services Holding Company Limited. Post Office branches, along with the Royal Mail delivery service, were part of the General Post Office. Post Office Counters Ltd was created as an owned subsidiary of the Post Office corporation in 1986. After the Post Office corporation was renamed Royal Mail Group in 2001, Post Office Ltd has in recent years announced losses, a reported £102 million in 2006. This has raised concerns in the media regarding Post Office Ltds ability as a company to operate efficiently. Plans to cut the subsidy for rural post offices led to the announcement that 2,500 local post offices were to be closed. This announcement resulted in a backlash from local communities that relied on the service, in 2007, the government gave a £1.7 billion subsidy to Royal Mail Group so that it could turn a profit by 2011. This was to be used to invest across the network of Royal Mail, Post Office Ltd. 85 Crown post offices were closed,70 of which were sold to WHSmith and this followed a trial of six Post Office outlets in WHSmith stores. WHSmith was expected to make up to £2.5 million extra in annual profit,2,500 sub-post offices closed between 2008 and 2009. Redundancy packages were provided from public funding, in November 2010, the government committed £1.34 billion of funding up to 2015 to Post Office Ltd to enable it to modernise the Post Office network. As part of the Postal Services Act 2011, Post Office Ltd became independent of Royal Mail Group on 1 April 2012, a ten-year inter-business agreement was signed between the two companies to allow post offices to continue issuing stamps and handling letters and parcels for Royal Mail. The Act also contained the option for Post Office Ltd to become an organisation in the future. On 8 February 2013, Post Office Ltd announced it was planning to move around seventy of its Crown post offices into shops and this would reduce the Crown network, which it stated was losing £40 million a year, to around 300. On 27 November 2013, the government committed an additional £640 million of funding for 2015 to 2018 to allow Post Office Ltd to complete its network modernisation. There are currently around 11,500 post office branches across the UK, the majority of other branches are either run by various franchise partners or local subpostmaster or operators, as sub-postoffices. The Post Office has a variety of services throughout the network of branches. Products and services available vary throughout the network, main post offices generally provide the range of services
35.
Mail coach
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In Great Britain, the mail coach or post coach was a horse-drawn carriage that carried mail deliveries, from 1784. In Ireland, the first mail coach service from Dublin in 1789. The coach was drawn by four horses and had seating for four passengers inside, further passengers were later allowed to sit outside with the driver. The mail was held in a box to the rear, where a Royal Mail post office guard stood, the mail coach was faster than the stage coach as it only stopped for delivery of mail and generally not for the comfort of the passengers. They were slowly phased out during the 1840s and 1850s, their role being replaced by trains as the network expanded. The riders were frequent targets for robbers, and the system was inefficient, under the old system the journey had taken up to 38 hours. The coach, funded by Palmer, left Bristol at 4pm on 2 August 1784, impressed by the trial run, Pitt authorised the creation of new routes. By the end of 1785 there were services from London to Norwich, Liverpool, Leeds, Dover, Portsmouth, Poole, Exeter, Gloucester, Worcester, Holyhead and Carlisle. A service to Edinburgh was added the year and Palmer was rewarded by being made Surveyor. Initially the coach, horses and driver were all supplied by contractors, there was strong competition for the contracts as they provided a fixed regular income on top of which the companies could charge fares for the passengers. By the beginning of the 19th century the Post Office had their own fleet of coaches with black, the mail coaches continued unchallenged until the 1830s but the development of railways spelt the end for the service. The first rail delivery between Liverpool and Manchester took place on 11 November 1830, by the early 1840s other rail lines had been constructed and many London-based mail coaches were starting to be withdrawn from service, the final service from London was shut down in 1846. Regional mail coaches continued into the 1850s, but these too were replaced by rail services. The mail coaches were designed for a driver, seated outside. The guard travelled on the outside at the next to the mail box. Later a further passenger was allowed outside, sitting at the front next to the driver, travel could be uncomfortable as the coaches travelled on poor roads and passengers were obliged to dismount from the carriage when going up steep hills to spare the horses. The coaches averaged 7 to 8 mph in summer and about 5 mph in winter, fresh horses were supplied every 10 to 15 miles. Stops to collect mail were short and sometimes there would be no stops at all with the throwing the mail off the coach
36.
Regency era
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The Regency in Great Britain was a period when King George III was deemed unfit to rule and his son ruled as his proxy as Prince Regent. On the death of George III in 1820, the Prince Regent became George IV, the term Regency can refer to various stretches of time, some are longer period than the decade of the formal Regency which lasted from 1811–1820. The Regency era ended in 1837 when Queen Victoria succeeded William IV, the Regency is noted for its elegance and achievements in the fine arts and architecture. This era encompassed a time of social, political. War was waged with Napoleon and on other fronts, affecting commerce both at home and internationally as well as politics, despite the bloodshed and warfare the Regency was also a period of great refinement and cultural achievement, shaping and altering the societal structure of Britain as a whole. One of the greatest patrons of the arts and architecture was the Prince Regent himself, upper class society flourished in a sort of mini-Renaissance of culture and refinement. Naturally, this required dipping into the treasury and the Regent, in many ways there was a dark side to the beauty and fashion in England at this time. In the dingier, less affluent areas of London, thievery, womanising, gambling, the existence of rookeries, the population boom—the population increased from just under a million in 1801 to one and a quarter million by 1820—created a wild, roiling, volatile, and vibrant scene. The formation of the Regency after the retirement of George III saw the end of a pious and reserved society. This change was influenced by the Regent himself, who was entirely removed from the machinations of politics. Driving these changes was not only money and rebellious pampered youth, in 1814 The Times adopted steam printing. By this method it could now print 1,100 sheets every hour, not 200 as before—a fivefold increase in production capability,1811 George Augustus Frederick, Prince of Wales began his nine-year tenure as regent and became known as The Prince Regent. This sub-period of the Georgian era began the formal Regency, the Duke of Wellington held off the French at Fuentes dOnoro and Albuhera in the Peninsular War. The Prince Regent held a fete at 9,00 p. m, june 19,1811, at Carlton House in celebration of his assumption of the Regency. 1812 Spencer Perceval assassinated in the House of Commons, final shipment of the Elgin Marbles arrived in England. Sarah Siddons retired from the stage, shipping and territory disputes started the War of 1812 between the United Kingdom and the United States. The British were victorious over French armies at the Battle of Salamanca), charles John Huffam Dickens English writer and social critic of the Victorian era was born on 7 February 18121813 Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen was published. William Hedleys Puffing Billy, a steam locomotive, ran on smooth rails
37.
Brake
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A brake is a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy from a moving system. It is used for slowing or stopping a vehicle, wheel, axle, or to prevent its motion. Most brakes commonly use friction between two surfaces pressed together to convert the energy of the moving object into heat, though other methods of energy conversion may be employed. For example, regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy, other methods convert kinetic energy into potential energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields to convert energy into electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail. Still other braking methods even transform kinetic energy into different forms, Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other forms such as the surface of a moving fluid. In practice, fast vehicles usually have significant air drag, almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp, most fixed-wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes on the undercarriage. Some aircraft also feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight, notable examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft, primarily some fighter aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a speed in a steep descent. The Saab B17 dive bomber and Vought F4U Corsair fighter used the deployed undercarriage as an air brake, Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake while braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles can use their engines to brake, when the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed against the master cylinder, ultimately a piston pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which also slows the wheel down, Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or electromagnetics. Typically the term brake is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and excludes hydrodynamic brakes. Friction brakes are often rotating devices with a pad and a rotating wear surface. Other brake configurations are used, but less often, a drum brake is a vehicle brake in which the friction is caused by a set of brake shoes that press against the inner surface of a rotating drum. The drum is connected to the rotating roadwheel hub, drum brakes generally can be found on older car and truck models. However, because of their low production cost, drum brake setups are also installed on the rear of some low-cost newer vehicles, compared to modern disc brakes, drum brakes wear out faster due to their tendency to overheat
38.
Axle
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An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating them, or fixed to the vehicle. In the former case, bearings or bushings are provided at the points where the axle is supported. In the latter case, a bearing or bushing sits inside a hole in the wheel to allow the wheel or gear to rotate around the axle. Sometimes, especially on bicycles, the latter type axle is referred to as a spindle, on cars and trucks, several senses of the word axle occur in casual usage, referring to the shaft itself, its housing, or simply any transverse pair of wheels. Strictly speaking, a shaft which rotates with the wheel, being either bolted or splined in fixed relation to it, is called an axle or axle shaft, however, in looser usage an entire assembly including the surrounding axle housing is also called an axle. An even broader sense of the word refers to every pair of wheels on opposite sides of the vehicle, regardless of their mechanical connection to each other. Thus, transverse pairs of wheels in an independent suspension may be called an axle in some contexts, axles are an integral component of most practical wheeled vehicles. In a live-axle suspension system, the serve to transmit driving torque to the wheel, as well as to maintain the position of the wheels relative to each other. The axles in this system must also bear the weight of the vehicle plus any cargo. A non-driving axle, such as the front beam axle in heavy duty trucks and some 2-wheel drive light trucks and vans, will have no shaft, conversely, many front wheel drive cars have a solid rear beam axle. In other types of systems, the axles serve only to transmit driving torque to the wheels. This is typical of the independent suspension found on most newer cars and SUVs and these systems still have a differential, but it will not have attached axle housing tubes. It may be attached to the frame or body, or integral in a transaxle. The axle shafts then transmit driving torque to the wheels, like a full floating axle system, the drive shafts in a front wheel drive independent suspension system do not support any vehicle weight. A straight axle is a rigid shaft connecting a wheel on the left side of the vehicle to a wheel on the right side. The axis of rotation fixed by the axle is common to both wheels, such a design can keep the wheel positions steady under heavy stress, and can therefore support heavy loads. Straight axles are used on trains, for the axles of commercial trucks
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Mail
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The mail or post is a system for physically transporting documents and other small packages, or, the postcards, letters, and parcels themselves. A postal service can be private or public, though many governments place restrictions on private systems, since the mid-19th century national postal systems have generally been established as government monopolies with a fee on the article prepaid. Proof of payment is often in the form of adhesive postage stamps, modern private postal systems are typically distinguished from national postal agencies by the names courier or delivery service. Postal authorities often have other than transporting letters. In some countries, a postal, telegraph and telephone service oversees the system, in addition to telephone. Some countries postal systems allow for savings accounts and handle applications for passports, the Universal Postal Union, established in 1874, includes 192 member countries and sets the rules for international mail exchanges. The word mail comes from the Medieval English word male, referring to a bag or pack. It was spelled that way until the 17th century, and is distinct from the word male, the French have a similar word, malle for a trunk or large box, and mála is the Irish term for a bag. In the 17th century, the mail began to appear as a reference for a bag that contained letters. Over the next hundred years the word began to be applied strictly to the letters themselves. The U. S. Postal Service delivers the mail, the term email first appeared in the 1970s. The term snail-mail is a retronym to distinguish it from the quicker email, various dates have been given for its first use. Post is derived from Medieval French poste, which stems from the past participle of the Latin verb ponere. The practice of communication by written documents carried by an intermediary from one person or place to another almost certainly dates back nearly to the invention of writing, however, development of formal postal systems occurred much later. The earliest surviving piece of mail is also Egyptian, dating to 255 BC, the first credible claim for the development of a real postal system comes from Ancient Persia, but the point of invention remains in question. He also negotiated with neighbouring countries to do the same and had built from the city of Post in Western Iran all the way up to the city of Hakha in the East. Other writers credit his successor Darius I of Persia, other sources claim much earlier dates for an Assyrian postal system, with credit given to Hammurabi and Sargon II. Mail may not have been the mission of this postal service
40.
History of rail transport
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Including systems with man or horse power, and tracks or guides made of stone or wood, the history of rail transport dates back as far as the ancient Greeks. Wagonways were relatively common in Europe from about 1500 through 1800, mechanised rail transport systems first appeared in England in the 1820s. These systems, which use of the steam locomotive, were critical to the Industrial Revolution. They have remained the form of long distance land transportation for many bulk materials such as coal, ore, grains, stone and sand. Reduction in friction was one of the reasons for the success of railroads compared to wagons. This was demonstrated on an iron plate-covered wooden tramway in 1805 at Croydon in England, “A good horse on an ordinary turnpike road can draw two thousand pounds, or one ton. A party of gentlemen were invited to look upon the experiment, twelve wagons were loaded with stones, till each wagon weighed three tons, and the wagons were fastened together. A horse was then attached, which drew the wagons with ease, six miles in two hours, having stopped four times, in order to show he had the power of starting, as well as drawing his great load. ”Wheeled vehicles pulled by men and animals ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element, preventing the wagons from leaving the intended route. The Diolkos was in use for over 650 years, until at least the 1st century AD, the first horse-drawn wagonways also appeared in ancient Greece, with others to be found on Malta and various parts of the Roman Empire, using cut-stone tracks. They fell into disuse as the Roman Empire collapsed, in 1515, Cardinal Matthäus Lang wrote a description of the Reisszug, a funicular railway at the Hohensalzburg Castle in Austria. The line originally used wooden rails and a hemp haulage rope, the line still exists, albeit in updated form, and is possibly the oldest wagonway still to operate. Wagonways are thought to have developed in Germany in the 1550s to facilitate the transport of ore tubs to and from mines, such an operation was illustrated in 1556 by Georgius Agricola. This used Hund carts with unflanged wheels running on wooden planks, such a transport system was used by German miners at Caldbeck, Cumbria, England, perhaps from the 1560s. An alternative explanation derives it from the Magyar hintó - a carriage, there are possible references to their use in central Europe in the 15th century. The first true railway is now suggested to have been a railway made at Broseley in Shropshire. This carried coal for James Clifford from his mines down to the river Severn to be loaded onto barges, though the first documentary record of this is later, its construction probably preceded the Wollaton Wagonway, completed in 1604, hitherto regarded as the earliest British installation. This ran from Strelley to Wollaton near Nottingham, another early wagonway is noted onwards. Huntingdon Beaumont, who was concerned with mining at Strelley, also laid down broad wooden rails near Newcastle upon Tyne, by the 18th century, such wagonways and tramways existed in a number of areas
41.
Blackpool
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Blackpool /ˈblækpuːl/ is a seaside resort and unitary authority area in Lancashire, England, on Englands northwest coast. The town is on the Irish Sea, between the Ribble and Wyre estuaries,15 miles northwest of Preston,27 miles north of Liverpool,28 miles northwest of Bolton and 40 miles northwest of Manchester. It had an population of 142,065 at the 2011 Census. In 1781, visitors attracted to Blackpools 7-mile sandy beach were able to use a new road, built by Thomas Clifton. Stagecoaches began running to Blackpool from Manchester in the same year, in the early 19th century, Henry Banks and his son-in-law John Cocker erected new buildings in Blackpool such that its population grew from less than 500 in 1801 to over 2,500 in 1851. St Johns Church in Blackpool was consecrated in 1821, Blackpool rose to prominence as a major centre of tourism in England when a railway was built in the 1840s connecting it to the industrialised regions of Northern England. In 1881, Blackpool was a resort with a population of 14,000. By 1901 the population of Blackpool was 47,000, by which time its place was cemented as the archetypal British seaside resort, by 1951 it had grown to 147,000. Shifts in tastes, combined with opportunities for Britons to travel overseas, Blackpool gets its name from a historic drainage channel that ran over a peat bog, discharging discoloured water into the Irish Sea, which formed a black pool. Another explanation is that the dialect for stream was pul or poole. People originating from Blackpool are called Blackpudlians although Sandgrownians or Sandgrownuns is sometimes used or Seasiders, a 13, 500-year-old elk skeleton was found with man-made barbed bone points on Blackpool Old Road in Carleton in 1970. Now displayed in the Harris Museum this provided the first evidence of living on the Fylde as far back as the Palaeolithic era. The Fylde was also home to a British tribe, the Setantii a sub-tribe of the Brigantes, during the Roman occupation the area was covered by oak forests and bog land. Some of the earliest villages on the Fylde, which were later to become part of Blackpool town, were named in the Domesday Book in 1086, many of them were Anglo-Saxon settlements. Some though had 9th and 10th century Viking place names, the Vikings and Anglo-Saxons seem to have co-existed peacefully, with some Anglo-Saxon and Viking placenames later being joined together – such as Layton-with-Warbreck and Bispham-with-Norbreck. Layton was controlled by the Butlers, Barons of Warrington from the 12th century, the stream ran through peatlands that discoloured the water, so the name for the area became Black Poole. In the 15th century the area was just called Pul, in 1602, entries in Bispham Parish Church baptismal register include both Poole and for the first time blackpoole. The first house of any substance, Foxhall, was built toward the end of the 17th century by Edward Tyldesley, an Act of Parliament in 1767 enclosed a common, mostly sand hills on the coast, that stretched from Spen Dyke southwards
42.
Royal Blue Coach Services
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Royal Blue Express Services was a coach operator in the south and west of England from 1880 until 1986. The Royal Blue business was founded in 1880 by Thomas Elliott in Bournemouth, the business, at first known as Royal Blue & Branksome Mews, included the hire of every kind of horse-drawn vehicle, as well as coach building, saddlery and blacksmithing. Elliott soon started a stagecoach service to connect Bournemouth to the railway at Holmsley. When Thomas died in 1911, the business was taken over by his sons John, in 1913, Royal Blue purchased its first motor charabanc, and motors rapidly replaced the horses. In 1919 the Elliott Brothers took advantage of a strike to start a motor coach service from Bournemouth to London. The service was so successful that the service was increased to twice a week during 1920, by 1926 Royal Blue was operating 72 coaches. Until 1928 the express service only carried passengers to and from Bournemouth and London. In 1928 Royal Blue obtained licences to pick up and set down en route, by 1930 Royal Blue was operating 11 routes, an expansion prompted by the expected passage of the Road Traffic Act 1930, which was to regulate competition for passenger road transport. The Road Traffic Act led coach operators to eliminate competition in two ways, by buying competitors and by reaching agreements with competitors to share services and pool revenues. It acquired competitors in Plymouth and Portsmouth, and made agreements with Southdown and East Kent, Greyhound Motors, Western National. In 1934 Royal Blue was one of the founders of Associated Motorways, at the end of 1934 Elliot Brothers sold the Royal Blue business to Western National and Southern National, by then controlled by the Tilling Group. The new owners continued the process of acquiring competitors and expanding the network, particularly in Devon. The change of control meant that Royal Blue switched to Bristol for its new coaches. World War II brought black-out night driving, fuel shortages and bomb damage to Royal Blue garages, Royal Blue was forced to cease operations from October 1942 to Easter 1946. In 1947 the Tilling Group sold its bus operations to the British Transport Commission, state control did little to hinder the expansion of Royal Blue services. The Beeching cuts of the early 1960s generated more traffic for Royal Blue, in 1972, the National Bus Company formed National Travel, which became National Express, to run long-distance coach services. The following year the operations of Royal Blue were franchised to National Express, Western National continued to own the Royal Blue coaches, but was required to adopt the National Express brand white livery, somewhat inappropriate for Royal Blue. The Royal Blue name was retained, unlike many local bus services, Royal Blues coach services continued to make profits
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Nepal Transport Service
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Nepal Transport Service was the first, and for a time, the largest, Nepalese public bus line. The company was based in the capital Kathmandu and operated from 1959 to 1966 and its head office was located at 122 Asan Tyouda Tol, Kathmandu. The company was founded by proprietor Karuna Ratna Tuladhar and Lupau Ratna Tuladhar of Kathmandu, the brothers were former merchants who operated an ancestral business house in Lhasa that conducted trade between Tibet, India and Nepal. It is the countrys first highway which opened to traffic in 1956. In July 1959, Nepal Transport Service began a daily intercity bus service between Kathmandu and Amlekhganj over the highway that went over two ranges of hills. The route started at Sundhara near Dharahara tower and exited the Kathmandu Valley at Thankot and it climbed over the Mahabharat Range and descended to Hetauda and then went over the Sivalik Hills to Amlekhganj in the plains. Here, bus passengers transferred to the Nepal Government Railway for their onward journey, the bus stop in Kathmandu was located at the northwestern corner of Rani Pokhari. In Patan, the bus stops at Mangal Bazaar, Lagankhel and Jawalakhel before returning to Kathmandu. The route was shortened to Patan Dhoka, or Patan Gate. In addition to its main Kathmandu-Patan service, Nepal Transport Service operated on various short-lived routes in the Kathmandu Valley,5 Tata Mercedes-Benz LP 312/36 buses manufactured by TATA Engineering and Locomotive Company of India. 4 Bedford SB4 buses manufactured by Hindustan Motors of India,2 Chevrolet Viking buses manufactured by Hindustan Motors of India. The buses of Nepal Transport Service were painted a blue with the company name written in Devanagari on one side. Nepal Transport Service went out of business in 1966, no longer able to sustain the losses resulting from frequent downtime, breakdowns were common due to bad road conditions. Major maintenance had to be done in India, and unavailability of spare parts locally for its diverse fleet meant its buses were out of commission for extended periods. During the companys final years, it fought a court battle over increasing income tax despite falling revenues as more and more of its aging buses went out of service. The stamp also shows a Chevrolet bus of Nepal Transport Service
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Eric Geddes
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Sir Eric Campbell Geddes GCB GBE PC was a British businessman and Conservative politician. With a background in railways, he served as head of Military Transportation on the Western Front and he then served as First Lord of the Admiralty between 1917 and 1919. He then served as the first Minister of Transport between 1919 and 1921, in position he was responsible for the deep public spending cuts known as the Geddes Axe. Born in British India, Geddes was the son of Auckland Campbell Geddes, of Edinburgh, Scotland, and he was educated at Oxford Military College and Merchiston Castle School, Edinburgh, until asked to leave. Returning to England because of his wifes health, he joined the North-Eastern Railway. During the First World War Geddes was one of the men of push and they got the ports and railways working efficiently and built light railways to bring materials to the front. He was knighted in 1916 and appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath and he was promoted to inspector general of transportation in all theaters of war. The German U-boat campaign unleashed unrestricted attacks in February 1917, as the British merchant fleet was suffering, Lloyd George transferred Geddes to the Admiralty as Civilian Lord with the rank of vice-admiral. He was given control of British shipbuilding, charged with making up for as many of the losses as possible and he found the Admiralty in disarray and wrote to his friend Field Marshal Haig about the lack of drive. On 19 June 1917 First Sea Lord Jellicoe confessed to the War Cabinet that they were losing, Haig and Geddes breakfasted with Lloyd George to demand a new administration in the Admiralty. On 6 July 1917 Geddes, strongly recommended by Haig, returned to life as First Lord of the Admiralty. To serve he had to be a member of the House of Commons and was elected in a by-election for Cambridge and he was sworn into the Privy Council the same month. Regardless of this deficiency he infused the Admiralty with determined energy, encouraged innovation, openness, Jellicoe was replaced at the end of 1917. At wars end the world supply of shipping was larger than it had been at the outset, thanks to the growth of the Japanese and it was a great Allied victory. Lloyd Georges evaluation was that Geddes was, one of the most remarkable men which the State called to its aid. He left the Admiralty in January 1919 and was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, Lloyd George then asked him to organize a new Ministry of Transport. Until the bill setting up this new office was passed in May 1919, in May 1919 he was appointed the first Minister of Transport. The new ministry was given control over railways, roads, canals, in the autumn of 1921 the handing back of the railways from state control to the companies was being reviewed, which put the Ministry of Transport under further pressure
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Punch (magazine)
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Punch, or The London Charivari was a British weekly magazine of humour and satire established in 1841 by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells. Historically, it was most influential in the 1840s and 1850s, after the 1940s, when its circulation peaked, it went into a long decline, closing in 1992. It was revived in 1996, but closed again in 2002, Punch was founded on 17 July 1841 by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells, on an initial investment of £25. It was jointly edited by Mayhew and Mark Lemon and it was subtitled The London Charivari in homage to Charles Philipons French satirical humour magazine Le Charivari. Mayhew ceased to be joint editor in 1842 and became suggestor in chief until he severed his connection in 1845, the magazine initially struggled for readers, except for an 1842 Almanack issue which shocked its creators by selling 90,000 copies. In December 1842 due to difficulties the magazine was sold to Bradbury and Evans. Bradbury and Evans capitalised on newly evolving mass printing technologies and also were the publishers for Charles Dickens, Punch humorously appropriated the term to refer to its political cartoons, and the popularity of the Punch cartoons led to the terms widespread use. The illustrator Archibald Henning designed the cover of the magazines first issues, the cover design varied in the early years, though Richard Doyle designed what became the magazines masthead in 1849. Artists who published in Punch during the 1840s and 50s included John Leech, Richard Doyle, John Tenniel and this group became known as The Punch Brotherhood, which also included Charles Dickens who joined Bradbury and Evans after leaving Chapman and Hall in 1843. Punch authors and artists contributed to another Bradbury and Evans literary magazine called Once A Week. In the 1860s and 1870s, conservative Punch faced competition from upstart liberal journal Fun, at Evanss café in London, the two journals had Round tables in competition with each other. Punch gave several phrases to the English language, including The Crystal Palace, several British humour classics were first serialised in Punch, such as the Diary of a Nobody and 1066 and All That. Towards the end of the century, the artistic roster included Harry Furniss, Linley Sambourne, Francis Carruthers Gould. Among the outstanding cartoonists of the century were Bernard Partridge, H. M. Bateman, Bernard Hollowood who also edited the magazine from 1957 to 1968, Kenneth Mahood. Circulation broke the 100,000 mark around 1910, and peaked in 1947–1948 at 175,000 to 184,000, sales declined steadily thereafter, ultimately, the magazine was forced to close in 1992 after 150 years of publication. Punch was widely emulated worldwide and popular in the colonies, however, the colonial experience, especially in India, also influenced Punch and its iconography. Tenniels Punch cartoons of the 1857 Sepoy Mutiny led to a surge in the magazines popularity, colonial India was time and again caricatured in Punch and can be seen as a significant source for producing knowledge about India. Many Punch cartoonists of the late 20th century published collections of their own, Punch magazine ceased publishing in 1992
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Showroom
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A showroom is a large space used to display products or show entertainment. A showroom is a space used to display products for sale, such as automobiles, furniture, appliances. It is a store of a company in which products are on sale in a space created by their brand or company. A showroom can also be a space for wholesale buyers to view fashion merchandise for sale in their retail stores, one of the worlds largest showrooms is the 35,000 square metres BMW showroom in Abu Dhabi. The biggest collection of showrooms is a 216, 000-square-metre car showroom in Istanbul called Autopia Europia, a showroom is a permanent enclosed space used to present a performance. Some showrooms are used daily, while others are used when a performer is booked to perform. In some cases, a showroom is leased to a performer, in fashion capitals such as New York City, Paris, Milan or London one can find temporary showrooms. These places can be rented on a daily or weekly basis, some temporary showrooms are managed with the help of event management agencies. Temporary showrooms can also be pop-up stores, which are short-term sales spaces, automobile manufacturer Ferrari has recently introduced augmented reality technology into their showrooms, to provide customers with a more hands-on approach when purchasing a vehicle
