1.
Twistlock
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A twistlock and corner casting together form a standardized rotating connector for securing shipping containers. The primary uses are for locking a container into place on container ship, semi-trailer truck or railway container train, the twistlock was developed in Spokane, Washington in the 1950s by transport engineer Keith Tantlinger. The relative obscurity of this invention belies its importance to a more efficient world trade and transport, even with long term exposure to the weather the container remains as simple to move as ever. Only when corrosion is very extensive does the twistlock become dangerous to move the crate, the male part is placed on vehicles and equipment that are inspected very frequently, and will work with all standard containers. The female part of the connector is the 7×7×4 1⁄2 in corner casting, which is fitted to the container itself, the hole is an oval 4.9 in on the long axis with two flat sides 2.5 in apart. The male component is the twistlock, which is fitted to cranes and this can be inserted through the hole, and then the top portion is rotated 90° so that it cannot be withdrawn. The mechanism is similar to that of a Kensington lock, the maximum size and position of the holes in the connector is defined in international standard ISO1161,1984. The tensile strength of a twistlock is rated at either 20 or 25 tonnes, some twistlocks have built-in levers or mechanisms, while simpler versions require tools for installation or removal. Some twistlocks are permanently installed, while others are installed and removed as needed. Special types of twistlocks are also used in rail transport to secure the lower stack container with the upper one. West Sayville, NY, Peck & Hale, archived from the original on 2011-07-15. The Box, How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller, reid, Williams, Robert G. Encyclopedia of Marine Science
2.
Shipping container
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A shipping container is a container with strength suitable to withstand shipment, storage, and handling. Shipping containers range from large steel boxes used for intermodal shipments to the ubiquitous corrugated boxes. In the context of international shipping trade, container or shipping container is virtually synonymous with intermodal freight container, freight containers are a reusable transport and storage unit for moving products and raw materials between locations or countries. In addition, its estimated that several million of these containers have now been discarded due to the shipping cost of sending back to their port of origin. Corrugated boxes are used as shipping containers. They are made of corrugated fiberboard which is lightweight, recyclable, wooden boxes are often used for shipping heavy and dense products. They are sometimes specified for shipments of government or military shipments, a crate is a large container, often made of wood, used to transport large, heavy or awkward items. A crate has a structure, with or without sheathing. An Intermediate bulk container is a used for transport and storage of fluids. The construction may be plastic, composite, steel, stainless steel and it is often made of a woven synthetic material. A bulk box, bulk bin, skid box, or tote box is a pallet size box used for storage, drums are cylindrical shipping containers made of steel, plastic or fiber. They are often used for liquids and granular materials, insulated shipping containers are a type of packaging used to ship temperature sensitive products such as foods, pharmaceuticals, and chemicals. They are used as part of a chain to help maintain product freshness. Some pails are used as shipping containers, a Unit Load Device, or ULD, is a container used to transport cargo on commercial aircraft. A ULD can be a pallet or container used to load luggage, freight and it allows a large quantity of cargo to be bundled into a single unit. Since this leads to fewer units to load, it saves ground crews time and effort, customized cushioning, blocking and bracing, carrying handles, lift rings, locks, etc. are common to facilitate handling and to protect the contents. Often, these containers are reusable. Specialized shipping containers include, High Cube Containers, pallet wides, open tops, side loaders, double door or tunnel-tainers, another specialized container known as Transtainer is a portable fuel and oil freight container
3.
Intermodal freight transport
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The method reduces cargo handling, and so improves security, reduces damage and loss, and allows freight to be transported faster. Reduced costs over road trucking is the key benefit for inter-continental use and this may be offset by reduced timings for road transport over shorter distances. Intermodal transportation goes back to the 18th century and predates the railways, some of the earliest containers were those used for shipping coal on the Bridgewater Canal in England in the 1780s. Coal containers were soon deployed on the canals and railways and were used for road/rail transfers. Wooden coal containers used on railways go back to the 1830s on the Liverpool, in 1841 Isambard Kingdom Brunel introduced iron containers to move coal from the vale of Neath to Swansea Docks. By the outbreak of the First World War the Great Eastern Railway was using wooden containers to trans-ship passenger luggage between trains and sailings via the port of Harwich. The early 1900s saw the first adoption of covered containers, primarily for the movement of furniture, a lack of standards limited the value of this service and this in turn drove standardisation. In the U. S. such containers, known as vans, were in use from as early as 1911. By modern standards these containers were small, being 1.5 or 3.0 meters long, normally wooden and with a curved roof, from 1928 the London, Midland and Scottish Railway offered door to door intermodal road-rail services using these containers. This standard failed to become popular outside the United Kingdom, because no freight handling was required, fewer personnel were needed and loading times were decreased. Truck trailers were first carried by railway before World War II, an arrangement often called piggyback, by the small Class I railroad, the Canadian Pacific Railway was a pioneer in piggyback transport, becoming the first major North American railway to introduce the service in 1952. In the United Kingdom the big four railway companies offered services using standard RCH containers that could be craned on, moving companies such as Pickfords offered private services in the same way. In 1933 in Europe under the auspices of the International Chamber of Commerce was established The International Container Bureau, in June 1933, Bureau International des Containers et du Transport Intermodal decided about obligatory parameters for containers uses in international traffic. Containers handled by means of lifting gear, such as cranes, overhead conveyors, etc. for traveling elevators, constructed after July 1,1933. Obligatory Regulations, Clause 1. —Containers are, as form, either of the closed or the open type. The International Organization for Standardization then issued standards based upon the U. S. Department of Defense standards between 1968 and 1970. The White Pass and Yukon Route railway acquired the worlds first container ship, the Clifford J. Rogers, built in 1955, in the United Kingdom the modernisation plan and in turn the Beeching Report strongly pushed containerization. The British Railways freightliner service was launched carrying 8-foot high pre-ISO containers, the older wooden containers and the pre-ISO containers were rapidly replaced by 10-foot and 20-foot ISO standard containers, and later by 40-foot containers and larger
4.
Mode of transport
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Mode of transport is a term used to distinguish substantially different ways to perform. The most dominant modes of transport are air, water, and land transport, other modes also exist, including pipelines, cable transport, and space transport. Human-powered transport and animal-powered transport are sometimes regarded as their own mode, in general, transportation is used for the movement of people, animals, and other things. Each mode of transport has a different technological solution. Each mode has its own infrastructure, vehicles, and operations, each mode also has separate subsystems. A fixed-wing aircraft, typically airplane, is a flight vehicle. Fixed-wing aircraft ranges from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large airliners, for short distances or in places without runways, helicopters can be practical. Air transport is the second fastest method of transport, after space travel and this celerity comes with higher cost and energy use, and aviations impacts to the environment and particularly the global climate require consideration when comparing modes of transportation. U. S. airlines alone burned about 16.2 billion gallons of fuel during the months between October 2013 and September 2014. WHO estimates that globally as many as 500,000 people at a time are on planes, land transport covers all land-based transportation systems that provide for the movement of people, goods and services. Land transport plays a role in linking communities to each other. The rails are anchored perpendicular to railroad train consists of one or more connected vehicles that run on the rails, propulsion is commonly provided by a locomotive, that hauls a series of unpowered cars, that can carry passengers or freight. The locomotive can be powered by steam, diesel or by electricity supplied by trackside systems, alternatively, some or all the cars can be powered, known as a multiple unit. Also, a train can be powered by horses, cables, gravity, pneumatics, railed vehicles move with much less friction than rubber tires on paved roads, making trains more energy efficient, though not as efficient as ships. Intercity trains are long-haul services connecting cities, modern high-speed rail is capable of speeds up to 430 km/h, Freight trains traditionally used box cars, requiring manual loading and unloading of the cargo. Since the 1960s, container trains have become the dominant solution for general freight, a road is an identifiable route of travel, usually surfaced with gravel, asphalt or concrete, and supporting land passage by foot or by a number of vehicles. The most common vehicle in the developed world is the automobile. As of 2002, there were 591 million automobiles worldwide, other users of roads include motorcars, motorcycles, buses, trucks, bicycles and pedestrians, and special provisions are sometimes made for each of these
5.
Container ship
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Container ships are cargo ships that carry all of their load in truck-size intermodal containers, in a technique called containerization. They are a means of commercial intermodal freight transport and now carry most seagoing non-bulk cargo. Container ship capacity is measured in equivalent units. Typical loads are a mix of 20-foot and 40-foot ISO-standard containers, today, about 90% of non-bulk cargo worldwide is transported by container, and modern container ships can carry over 19,000 TEU. Container ships now rival crude oil tankers and bulk carriers as the largest commercial vessels on the ocean, there are two main types of dry cargo, bulk cargo and break bulk cargo. Bulk cargoes, like grain or coal, are transported unpackaged in the hull of the ship, break-bulk cargoes, on the other hand, are transported in packages, and are generally manufactured goods. Before the advent of containerization in the 1950s, break-bulk items were loaded, lashed, unlashed and unloaded from the one piece at a time. However, by grouping cargo into containers,1,000 to 3,000 cubic feet of cargo, or up to about 64,000 pounds, is moved at once and each container is secured to the ship once in a standardized way. Containerization has increased the efficiency of moving traditional break-bulk cargoes significantly, reducing shipping time by 84%, in 2001, more than 90% of world trade in non-bulk goods was transported in ISO containers. In 2009, almost one quarter of the dry cargo was shipped by container. The first ships designed to carrying standardized load units were use in the late 18th century in England, in 1766 James Brindley designed the box boat Starvationer with 10 wooden containers, to transport coal from Worsley Delph to Manchester by Bridgewater Canal. Before the Second World War first container ships were used to carrying baggages of the passenger train from London to Paris, Golden Arrow/Fleche dOr. These containers were loaded in London or Paris and carried to ports, Dover or Calais, on cars in the UK. The earliest container ships after the Second World War were converted to tankers, in 1951, the first purpose-built container vessels began operating in Denmark, and between Seattle and Alaska. The first commercially successful container ship was Ideal X, a T2 tanker, owned by Malcom McLean, in 1955, McLean built his company, McLean Trucking into one of United States biggest freighter fleets. In 1955, he purchased the small Pan Atlantic Steamship Company from Waterman Steamship, on April 26,1956, the first of these rebuilt container vessels, Ideal X, left the Port Newark in New Jersey and a new revolution in modern shipping resulted. Container vessels eliminate the individual hatches, holds and dividers of the general cargo vessels. The hull of a container ship is a huge warehouse divided into cells by vertical guide rails
6.
Semi-trailer truck
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A semi-trailer truck, more commonly called a semi truck, is the combination of a tractor unit and one or more semi-trailers to carry freight. A semi-trailer attaches to the tractor with a fifth wheel hitch, the result is that both tractor and semi-trailer will have a distinctly different design than a rigid truck and trailer. The tractor unit typically has two or three axles, those built for hauling heavy-duty commercial-construction machinery may have as many as five, the most common tractor-cab layout has a forward engine, one steering axle, and two drive axles. The fifth-wheel trailer coupling on most tractor trucks is movable fore and aft, ubiquitous in Europe, but less common in North America since the 1990s, is the cabover engine configuration, where the driver sits next to, or over the engine. With changes in the US to the length of the combined vehicle. Cabovers were difficult to service, as the cab could not be lifted on its hinges to a full 90-degree forward tilt, Trucks average from 4 to 8 miles per US gallon, with fuel economy standards requiring better than 7 miles per US gallon efficiency by 2014. The cargo trailer usually has tandem axles at the rear, each of which has wheels, or eight tires on the trailer. In the US it is common to refer to the number of hubs, rather than the number of tires. The combination of eight tires on the trailer and ten tires on the tractor is what led to the moniker eighteen wheeler, many trailers are equipped with movable tandem axles to allow adjusting the weight distribution. To connect the second of a set of doubles to the first trailer, and to support the front half of the second trailer and this has one or two axles, a fifth-wheel coupling for the rear trailer, and a tongue with a ring-hitch coupling for the forward trailer. Individual states may further allow longer vehicles, known as longer combination vehicles, Long Combination Vehicle types include, Doubles, Two 28.5 ft trailers. Turnpike Doubles, Two 48 ft trailers, Rocky Mountain Doubles, One 40 to 53 ft trailer and one 28.5 ft trailer. In Canada, a Turnpike Double is two 53 ft trailers, and a Rocky Mountain Double is a 50 ft trailer with a 24 ft pup, future Long Combination Vehicles under consideration and study for the U. S. MAP-21 transportation bill are container doubles. The US federal government, which regulates the Interstate Highway System, does not set maximum length requirements. Tractors can pull two or three if the combination is legal in that state. Weight maximums are 20,000 lb on an axle,34,000 lb on a tandem. There is a width of 8.5 ft and no maximum height. Roads other than the Interstates are regulated by the individual states, maximum weight varies between 80,000 lb to 171,000 lb, depending on the combination
7.
Containerization
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Containerization is a system of intermodal freight transport using intermodal containers made of weathering steel. The handling system is completely mechanized so that all handling is done with cranes, all containers are numbered and tracked using computerized systems. The system, developed after World War II, dramatically reduced the costs of transport, supported the boom in international trade. Containerization did away with the sorting of most shipments and the need for warehousing. It displaced many thousands of workers who formerly handled break bulk cargo. Containerization also reduced congestion in ports, significantly shortened shipping time and reduced losses from damage, before containerization, goods were usually handled manually as break bulk cargo. Typically, goods would be loaded onto a vehicle from the factory, when the vessel arrived, they would be moved to the side of the ship along with other cargo to be lowered or carried into the hold and packed by dock workers. The ship might call at other ports before off-loading a given consignment of cargo. Each port visit would delay the delivery of other cargo, delivered cargo might then have been offloaded into another warehouse before being picked up and delivered to its destination. Multiple handling and delays made transport costly, time consuming and unreliable, containerization has its origins in early coal mining regions in England beginning in the late 18th century. In 1766 James Brindley designed the box boat Starvationer with 10 wooden containers, in 1795, Benjamin Outram opened the Little Eaton Gangway, upon which coal was carried in wagons built at his Butterley Ironwork. The horse-drawn wheeled wagons on the gangway took the form of containers, which, loaded coal, could be transshipped from canal barges on the Derby Canal. By the 1830s, railroads on several continents were carrying containers that could be transferred to other modes of transport, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in the United Kingdom was one of these. Simple rectangular timber boxes, four to a wagon, they were used to convey coal from the Lancashire collieries to Liverpool, originally used for moving coal on and off barges, loose boxes were used to containerize coal from the late 1780s, at places like the Bridgewater Canal. By the 1840s, iron boxes were in use as well as wooden ones, the early 1900s saw the adoption of closed container boxes designed for movement between road and rail. Later in 1919, his system was extended to over 200 containers serving 21 railway stations with 14 freight trucks, prior to the Second World War, many European countries independently developed container systems. In 1919, Stanisław Rodowicz, an engineer, developed the first draft of the system in Poland. In 1920, he built a prototype of the biaxial wagon, the Polish-Bolshevik War stopped development of the container system in Poland
8.
Conex box
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The CONEX box was developed during the Korean War and was used to transport and store supplies during the Korean and Vietnam war. It was reinvented by Malcom McLean to form the Intermodal shipping container that is used widely by container shipping companies today, the use of standardized steel shipping containers began during the late 1940s and early 1950s, when commercial shipping operators and the US military started developing such units. During World War II, the US Army began experiments with containers to ship supplies to the front lines, cargo was being delayed at ports due to the time required by break bulk loading and offloading of ships. In addition the supplies suffered from pilferage and in-transit damage, in 1948 the U. S. Army Transportation Corps developed the Transporter, a rigid, corrugated steel container, able to carry 9,000 pounds. It was 8 ft 6 in long,6 ft 3 in wide, and 6 ft 10 in high, with doors on one end, was mounted on skids. After proving successful in Korea, the Transporter was developed into the Container Express box system in late 1952, cONEXes could be stacked three high, and protected their contents from the elements. By 1965 the US military used some 100,000 Conex boxes, making this the first worldwide application of intermodal containers. More than three quarters were shipped only once, because they remained in theatre, the Conex boxes were as useful to the soldiers as their contents
9.
Durable good
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In economics, a durable good or a hard good is a good that does not quickly wear out, or more specifically, one that yields utility over time rather than being completely consumed in one use. Items like bricks could be considered perfectly durable goods because they should never wear out. Highly durable goods such as refrigerators or cars usually continue to be useful for 3 or more years of use, examples of consumer durable goods include automobiles, books, household goods, sports equipment, jewelry, medical equipment, firearms, and toys. Nondurable goods or soft goods are the opposite of durable goods and they may be defined either as goods that are immediately consumed in one use or ones that have a lifespan of fewer than 3 years. While durable goods can usually be rented as well as bought, while buying durable goods comes under the category of investment demand of goods, buying non-durables comes under the category of consumption demand of goods. Several units may be used to measure the durability of a product according to its field of such as years of existence, hours of use. The life span of household goods is significant for sustainable consumption, the longer product life spans could contribute to eco-efficiency and sufficiency, thus, slowing consumption in order to progress towards a sustainable consumption. Cooper proposed a model to demonstrate the role of product life spans to sustainable production and consumption. Coase conjecture Industrial organization Pacman conjecture Planned obsolescence Putty-putty
10.
Weathering steel
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U. S. Steel holds the registered trademark on the name COR-TEN. Although USS sold its discrete plate business to International Steel Group in 2003, it still sells COR-TEN branded material in strip-mill plate, the original COR-TEN received the standard designation A242 from the ASTM International standards group. Newer ASTM grades are A588 and A606 for thin sheet, all alloys are in common production and use. Weathering refers to the composition of these steels, allowing them to exhibit increased resistance to atmospheric corrosion compared to other steels. This is because the forms a protective layer on its surface under the influence of the weather. The corrosion-retarding effect of the layer is produced by the particular distribution and concentration of alloying elements in it. The layer protecting the surface develops and regenerates continuously when subjected to the influence of the weather, in other words, the steel is allowed to rust in order to form the protective coating. The mechanical properties of weathering steels depend on which alloy and how thick the material is. The original A242 alloy has a strength of 50 kilopounds per square inch. It has yield strength of 46 ksi and ultimate strength of 67 ksi for medium weight rolled shapes and plates from 0. 75–1 inch thick. The thickest rolled sections and plates – from 1. 5–4 in thick have yield strength of 42 ksi, a 588 has a yield strength of at least 50 ksi, and ultimate tensile strength of 70 ksi for all rolled shapes and plate thicknesses up to 4 in thick. It is very used in marine transportation, in the construction of intermodal containers as well as visible sheet piling along recently widened sections of Londons M25 motorway. The first use of weathering steel for architectural applications was the John Deere World Headquarters in Moline, the building was designed by architect Eero Saarinen, and completed in 1964. The main buildings of Odense University, designed by Knud Holscher and Jørgen Vesterholt and built 1971–1976, are clad in weathering steel, earning them the nickname Rustenborg. In 1977, Robert Indiana created a Hebrew version of the Love sculpture made from weathering steel using the four-letter word ahava for the Israel Museum Art Garden in Jerusalem, in Denmark, all masts for supporting the catenary on electrified railways are made of weathering steel for aesthetic reasons. Weathering steel was used in 1971 for the Highliner electric cars built by the St. Louis Car Company for Illinois Central Railroad, the use of weathering steel was seen as a cost-cutting move in comparison with the contemporary railcar standard of stainless steel. A subsequent order in 1979 was built to similar specs, including weathering steel bodies, the cars were painted, a standard practice for weathering steel railcars. The durability of weathering steel did not live up to expectations and these cars have been retired by 2016
11.
Cardboard box
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Cardboard boxes are industrially prefabricated boxes, primarily used for packaging goods and materials. Specialists in industry seldom use the term cardboard because it does not denote a specific material, the term cardboard may refer to a variety of heavy paper-like materials, including card stock, corrugated fiberboard, or paperboard. The meaning of the term may depend on the locale, contents, construction, there is still not complete and uniform usage. Often the term “cardboard” is avoided because it does not define any particular material, broad divisions of paper-based packaging materials are, Paper is thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon, or for packaging. It is produced by pressing together moist fibers, typically cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags, or grasses, paperboard, sometimes known as cardboard, is generally thicker than paper. According to ISO standards, paperboard is a paper with a weight above 224 g/m². Paperboard can be single- or multi-ply, Corrugated fiberboard sometimes known as corrugated board or corrugated cardboard, is a combined paper-based material consisting of a fluted corrugated medium and one or two flat liner boards. There are also names for containers, A shipping container made of corrugated fiberboard is sometimes called a cardboard box. There are many options for corrugated box design, a folding carton made of paperboard is sometimes called a cardboard box. A set-up box is made of a grade of paperboard and is sometimes called a cardboard box. Drink boxes made of paperboard laminates, are sometimes called cardboard boxes, cartons, the first commercial paperboard box is sometimes credited to the firm M. Treverton & Son in England in 1817. Cardboard box packaging was made the year in Germany. The Scottish-born Robert Gair invented the pre-cut cardboard or paperboard box in 1890 – flat pieces manufactured in bulk that folded into boxes, Gair discovered that by cutting and creasing in one operation he could make prefabricated paperboard boxes. Applying this idea to corrugated boxboard was a development when the material became available around the turn of the twentieth century. The advent of lightweight flaked cereals increased the use of cardboard boxes, the first to use cardboard boxes as cereal cartons was the Kellogg Company. Corrugated paper was patented in England in 1856, and used as a liner for tall hats, the patent was issued to Albert Jones of New York City for single-sided corrugated board. Jones used the board for wrapping bottles and glass lantern chimneys. This was corrugated cardboard as we know it today, the first corrugated cardboard box manufactured in the US was in 1895
12.
Pallet
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A pallet is the structural foundation of a unit load which allows handling and storage efficiencies. Goods or shipping containers are placed on a pallet secured with strapping, stretch wrap or shrink wrap. While most pallets are wooden, pallets can also be made of plastic, metal, paper, each material has advantages and disadvantages relative to the others. Containerization for transport has spurred the use of pallets because the shipping containers have the smooth, most pallets can easily carry a load of 1,000 kg. Today, over half a billion pallets are made each year, pallets make it easier to move heavy stacks. Loads with pallets under them can be hauled by forklift trucks of different sizes, or even by hand-pumped, movement is easy on a wide, strong, flat floor, concrete is excellent. The greatest investment needed for economical use is in the construction of commercial or industrial buildings. Passage through doors and buildings must be possible, to help this issue, some later pallet standards are designed to pass through standard doorways. Organizations using standard pallets for loading and unloading can have lower costs for handling and storage. The exceptions are establishments that move small items such as jewelry or large items such as cars, but even they can be improved. For instance, the distributors of costume jewelry normally use pallets in their warehouses and car manufacturers use pallets to move components, the lack of a single international standard for pallets causes substantial continuing expense in international trade. A single standard is difficult because of the variety of needs a standard pallet would have to satisfy, passing doorways, fitting in standard containers. For example, organizations already handling large pallets often see no reason to pay the higher handling cost of using smaller pallets that can fit through doors, due to cost and a need to focus on core business, pallet pooling becomes more and more common. Some pallet suppliers supply users with reusable pallets, sometimes with integral tracking devices, a pallet management company can help supply, clean, repair, and reuse pallets. Pallets should be seen as reusable packaging items as a pallet can potentially be used multiple times over the course its lifetime, in the UK, government legislation relating to the Waste Framework Directive requires the reuse of packaging items above recycling and disposal. Wooden pallets typically consist of three or four stringers that support several deckboards, on top of which goods are placed, in a pallet measurement the first number is the stringer length and the second is the deckboard length. Square or nearly square pallets help a load resist tipping, two-way pallets are designed to be lifted by the deckboards. The standard North American pallet, or GMA pallet, has stringers of 48 inches, four-way pallets, or pallets for heavy loads are best lifted by their more rigid stringers
13.
Unit load
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A unit load combines individual items or items in shipping containers into single units that can be moved easily with a pallet jack or forklift truck. Most consumer and industrial products move through the chain in unitized or unit load form for at least part of their distribution cycle. Unit loads make handling, storage, and distribution more efficient and they help reduce handling costs and damage by reducing individual handling. A typical unit load might consist of corrugated fiberboard boxes stacked on a pallet or slip sheet and stabilized with stretch wrap, pressure-sensitive tape, about 2 billion unit loads are in daily use in the United States. There are three kinds of unit load design, Component based, systems based, and standards compliant, component-based design is the outmoded ad hoc method of unit load design. Components are sometimes specified to get assured performance, or tested to get inexpensive economic performance. When packaging, pallet, and handling systems are designed separately at different locations by different teams, companies must now consider sustainability when determining how their packaging products will be reused or recycled at the end of their journey. Unit loads move by a mix of many types of vehicles and storage areas. Therefore, unit loads must be designed to travel by any such vehicles, there are therefore many similarities in the requirements for long term storage and long distance transportation of unit loads. Standards permit a load to be designed and tested to meet a written specification or test method. A unit load can be verified to comply with a standard, standards provide institutional memory of the many conditions in real logistic trains, and collect the best practices for design and testing unit loads. Standards also describe load requirements, so that logistic providers can plan to meet them, material based standards describe proven designs for particular circumstances. These are often used to describe unit load components such as pallets, strapping, seals, caps, retaining rings, performance testing standards describe needs and allow flexibility in the choice of matierials. These are applied to particular unit load designs, ASTM D4169 has standard test protocols for unit loads. These vary based on the value of the load, the hazards. This is a performance based standard, another standard for unit loads is MIL-STD-1660, a standard for ammunition unit loads. DOD unit loads generally use 40 in ×48 in pallets and they weigh less than 4,000 lb to limit the stresses on handling equipment. They are weatherproof, and stack 16 ft high and they often use steel pallets, steel straps with notched seals, outdoor plywood, and plastic film
14.
ISO 6346
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ISO6346 is an international standard covering the coding, identification and marking of intermodal containers used within containerized intermodal freight transport. The standard is managed by the International Container Bureau, example of an ISO6346 compliant container number, The owner code consists of three capital letters of the Latin alphabet to indicate the owner or principal operator of the container. Such code needs to be registered at the Bureau International des Conteneurs in Paris to ensure uniqueness worldwide, the reefer container is identified by means of the size type code. The serial number consists of 6 numeric digits, assigned by the owner or operator, the check digit consists of one numeric digit providing a means of validating the recording and transmission accuracies of the owner code and serial number. To compute the check digit, the letters have to be converted to numbers, each of the numbers calculated in step 1 is multiplied by 2position, where position is the exponent to base 2. Position starts at 0, from left to right, the following table shows the multiplication factors, If the final difference is 10, then the check digit becomes 0. Notice that step to is a calculation of the remainder found after division of by 11, most programming languages have a modulo operator for this. Attention should be paid on how it is working in the language chosen,11 is used as divisor because a container number has 11 letters and digits in total. In step 1 the numbers 11,22 and 33 are left out as they are multiples of the divisor, usually these are shippers owned containers, which means that they are not owned by the carrier but supplied by the cargo owners. They may have no registered owner code and no category identifier and have no check digit, for example, YYYY at the carrier and XXXX at the terminal causes the equipment to mismatch. It indicates the country where the code is registered not the nationality of the owner or operator of the container, the letters of the code shall not be less than 100 mm high. Operational marks are intended solely to convey information requested for the movement of containers or give visual warnings and they relate to the weight of containers a symbol to denote air-surface container a sign warning of overhead electrical danger height marks for containers higher than 2
15.
Break bulk cargo
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In shipping, break bulk cargo or general cargo are goods that must be loaded individually, and not in intermodal containers nor in bulk as with oil or grain. Ships that carry this sort of cargo are often called general cargo ships, the term break bulk derives from the phrase breaking bulk—the extraction of a portion of the cargo of a ship or the beginning of the unloading process from the ships holds. These goods may not be in shipping containers, break bulk cargo is transported in bags, boxes, crates, drums, or barrels. Unit loads of items secured to a pallet or skid are also used, a break-in-bulk point is a place where goods are transferred from one mode of transport to another, for example the docks where goods transfer from ship to truck. Break bulk was the most common form of cargo for most of the history of shipping, since the late 1960s the volume of break bulk cargo has declined dramatically worldwide as containerization has grown. Moving cargo on and off ship in containers is much more efficient, break bulk cargo also suffered from greater theft and damage. When the ship arrives the cargo is then taken from the warehouse to the quay, the discharge of the ship is the reverse of the loading operation. Loading and discharging by break bulk is labour-intensive, the cargo is brought to the quay next to the ship and then each individual item is lifted on board separately. Some items such as sacks or bags can be loaded in batches by using a sling or cargo net, once on board each item must be stowed separately. Before any loading takes place, any signs of the cargo are removed. The holds are swept, washed if necessary and any damage to them repaired, dunnage is laid ready for the cargo or is just put in bundles ready for the stevedores to lay out as the cargo is loaded. There are many sorts of bulk cargo but amongst them are, Bagged cargo is stowed on double dunnage and kept clear of the ships sides. Bags are kept away from pillars and stanchions by covering it with matting or waterproof paper, baled goods are stowed on single dunnage at least 50 mm thick. The bales must be clean with all the bands intact, stained or oily bales are rejected. All fibres can absorb oil and are liable to spontaneous combustion, as a result, they are kept clear of any new paintwork. Bales close to the deckhead are covered to prevent damage by dripping sweat, wooden barrels are stowed on their sides on beds of dunnage which keeps the middle of the side off the deck and they are stowed with the bung at the top. To prevent movement wedges called quoins are put in on top of the beds, barrels should be stowed fore and aft and not athwart ships. Once the first tier has been loaded the next tier of barrels fits into the hollows between the barrels, this is known as stowing bilge and cantline
16.
Bulk cargo
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Bulk cargo is commodity cargo that is transported unpackaged in large quantities. It refers to material in liquid or granular, particulate form, as a mass of relatively small solids, such as petroleum/crude oil, grain, coal. This cargo is usually dropped or poured, with a spout or shovel bucket, into a bulk carrier ships hold, railroad car/railway wagon, smaller quantities can be boxed and palletised. Bulk cargo is classified as liquid or dry, the Baltic Exchange is based in London and provides a range of indices benchmarking the cost of moving bulk commodities, dry and wet, along popular routes around the seas. Some of these indices are used to settle Freight Futures. The most famous of the Baltic indices is the Baltic Dry Indices and this is a derived function of the Baltic Capesize index, Baltic Panamax index, Baltic Supramax index and the Baltic Handysize index. The BDI has been used as a bellwether for the economy as it can be interpreted as an indicator of an increase or decrease in the amount of raw commodities countries are importing/exporting. Bauxite Bulk minerals Cements Chemicals Coals and cokes Agricultural products such as dry edibles Grains Iron, Bulk Cargoes, A Guide to Good Practice. UK, The North of England P&I Association, stability and Trim for the Ships Officer. Keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. New York and Geneva, United Nations, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. New York and Geneva, United Nations
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Bulk carrier
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A bulk carrier, bulk freighter, or bulker is a merchant ship specially designed to transport unpackaged bulk cargo, such as grains, coal, ore, and cement in its cargo holds. Since the first specialized bulk carrier was built in 1852, economic forces have fuelled the development of ships, causing them to grow in size. Todays bulkers are specially designed to maximize capacity, safety, efficiency, today, bulkers make up 15% - 17% of the worlds merchant fleets and range in size from single-hold mini-bulkers to mammoth ore ships able to carry 400,000 metric tons of deadweight. A number of specialized designs exist, some can unload their own cargo, some depend on port facilities for unloading, over half of all bulkers have Greek, Japanese, or Chinese owners and more than a quarter are registered in Panama. South Korea is the largest single builder of bulkers, and 82% of these ships were built in Asia, a bulk carriers crew participates in the loading and unloading of cargo, navigating the ship, and keeping its machinery and equipment properly maintained. Loading and unloading the cargo is difficult, dangerous, and can take up to 120 hours on larger ships, crews can range in size from three people on the smallest ships to over 30 on the largest. Bulk cargo can be dense, corrosive, or abrasive. This can present safety problems, cargo shifting, spontaneous combustion, the use of ships that are old and have corrosion problems has been linked to a spate of bulker sinkings in the 1990s, as have the bulkers large hatchways, important for efficient cargo handling. New international regulations have since been introduced to improve design and inspection. There are various ways to define the term bulk carrier, however, most classification societies use a broader definition where a bulker is any ship that carries dry unpackaged goods. Multipurpose cargo ships can carry cargo, but can also carry other cargoes and are not specifically designed for bulk carriage. The term dry bulk carrier is used to distinguish bulkers from bulk liquid carriers such as oil, chemical, very small bulkers are almost indistinguishable from general cargo ships, and they are often classified based more on the ships use than its design. A number of abbreviations are used to describe bulkers, OBO describes a bulker which carries a combination of ore, bulk, and oil, and O/O is used for combination oil and ore carriers. The terms VLOC, VLBC, ULOC, and ULBC for very large and ultra large ore and bulk carriers were adapted from the supertanker designations very large crude carrier, before specialized bulk carriers existed, shippers had two methods to move bulk goods by ship. In the first method, longshoremen loaded the cargo into sacks, stacked the sacks onto pallets, the second method required the shipper to charter an entire ship and spend time and money to build plywood bins into the holds. Then, to guide the cargo through the hatches, wooden feeders. These methods were slow and labor-intensive, as with the container ship, the problem of efficient loading and unloading has driven the evolution of the bulk carrier. Specialized bulk carriers began to appear as steam-powered ships became more popular, the first steam ship recognized as a bulk carrier was the British coal carrier SS John Bowes in 1852
18.
Tanker (ship)
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A tanker is a merchant vessel designed to transport liquids or gases in bulk. Major types of tankship include the oil tanker, the chemical tanker, in the United States Navy and Military Sealift Command, any type of tanker used to refuel other ships is called an oiler. Tankers can range in size of capacity from several hundred tons, besides ocean- or seagoing tankers there are also specialized inland-waterway tankers which operate on rivers and canals with an average cargo capacity up to some thousand tons. Before this, technology had not supported the idea of carrying bulk liquids. The market was not geared towards transporting or selling cargo in bulk, therefore most ships carried a wide range of different products in different holds. Liquids were usually loaded in casks—hence the term tonnage, which refers to the volume of the holds in terms of how many tuns or casks of wine could be carried, even potable water, vital for the survival of the crew, was stowed in casks. Carrying bulk liquids in earlier ships posed several problems, The holds, on ships the holds were not sufficiently water. The development of iron and steel hulls solved this problem, loading and discharging, Bulk liquids must be pumped - the development of efficient pumps and piping systems was vital to the development of the tanker. Steam engines were developed as prime-movers for early pumping systems, dedicated cargo handling facilities were now required ashore too - as was a market for receiving a product in that quantity. Casks could be unloaded using ordinary cranes, and the nature of the casks meant that the volume of liquid was always relatively small - therefore keeping the market more stable. The effect was negligible in casks, but could cause capsizing if the tank extended the width of the ship, tankers were first used by the oil industry to transfer refined fuel in bulk from refineries to customers. This would then be stored in tanks ashore, and subdivided for delivery to individual locations. The use of tankers caught on other liquids were also cheaper to transport in bulk, store in dedicated terminals. Even the Guinness brewery used tankers to transport the stout across the Irish Sea, among oil tankers, supertankers are designed for transporting oil around the Horn of Africa from the Middle East. The supertanker Seawise Giant, scrapped in 2010, was 458 meters in length and 69 meters wide, supertankers are one of the three preferred methods for transporting large quantities of oil, along with pipeline transport and rail. Despite being highly regulated, tankers have been involved in environmental disasters resulting from oil spills, see Amoco Cadiz, Braer, Erika, Exxon Valdez, Prestige oil spill and Torrey Canyon for examples of coastal accidents. Many modern tankers are designed for a cargo and a specific route. Draft is typically limited by the depth of water in loading and unloading harbors, cargoes with high vapor pressure at ambient temperatures may require pressurized tanks or vapor recovery systems
19.
Tank car
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A tank car is a type of railroad car or rolling stock designed to transport liquid and gaseous commodities. 1869, Wrought iron tanks, with an capacity of 3,500 US gal per car. 1888, Tank-car manufacturers sell units directly to the oil companies,1903, Tank-car companies develop construction safety standards. More than 10,000 tank cars are in operation,1915, A classification system is developed by the tank-car industry to ensure the correct match of car type to product being shipped. Some 50,000 tank cars are in use,1920, Welding replaces riveting in tank-car construction, enhancing the safety of cars. 1930,140,000 tank cars transport some 103 commodities, 1940s, Virtually every tank car is engaged in oil transport in support of the war effort. 1950, Pipelines and tank trucks begin to compete for liquid transport business,1963, The Union Tank Car Company introduces the Whale Belly tank car. Many variants exist due to the variety of liquids and gases transported. Tank cars can be pressurized or non-pressurized, insulated or non-insulated, non-pressurized cars have various fittings on the top and may have fittings on the bottom. Some of the top fittings are covered by a protective housing, pressurized cars have a pressure plate, with all fittings, and a cylindrical protective housing at the top. Loading and unloading are done through the protective housing, Tank cars are specialized pieces of equipment. As an example, the interior of the car may be lined with a material, such as glass, care is taken to ensure that tank contents are compatible with tank construction. As a result of this specialization, tank cars have generally been one-way cars, other cars, like boxcars, can easily be reloaded with other goods for the return trip. Combinations of the two types were attempted, such as boxcars with fluid tanks slung beneath the floors, while the car could certainly carry a load in both directions, the limited tank size made this unsuccessful. A large percentage of cars are owned by companies serviced by railroads instead of the railroads themselves. This can be verified by examining the marks on the cars. These marks invariably end in X, meaning that the owner is not a common carrier, within the rail industry, tank cars are grouped by their type and not by the cargo carried. Food-service tank cars may be lined with steel, glass
20.
Tank truck
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A tank truck or tanker truck or tanker, is a motor vehicle designed to carry liquefied loads, dry bulk cargo or gases on roads. The largest such vehicles are similar to railroad cars which are also designed to carry liquefied loads. Many variants exist due to the variety of liquids that can be transported. Tank trucks tend to be large, they may be insulated or non-insulated, pressurized or non-pressurized and they are difficult to drive due to their high center of gravity. Tank trucks are described by their size or volume capacity, large trucks typically have capacities ranging from 5,500 to 11,600 US gallons. In Australia, road trains up to three cars long carry loads in excess of 100,000 L, longer road trains transporting liquids are also in use. A tank truck is distinguished by its shape, usually a cylindrical tank upon the vehicle lying horizontally, the tanks themselves will almost always contain multiple compartments or baffles to prevent load movement destabilizing the vehicle. Large tank trucks are used for example to transport gasoline to filling stations and they also transport a wide variety of liquid goods such as liquid sugar, molasses, milk, wine, juices, water, gasoline, diesel, and industrial chemicals. Tank trucks are constructed of materials depending on what products they are hauling. These materials include aluminium, carbon steel, stainless steel, some tank trucks are able to carry multiple products at once due to compartmentalization of the tank into 2,3,4,5,6 or in some rare cases more tank compartments. This allows for an number of delivery options. These trucks are used to carry different grades of gasoline to service stations to carry all products needed in one trip. Smaller tank trucks, with a capacity of less than 3,000 US gallons are typically used to deal with light liquid cargo within a local community. A common example is vacuum truck used to empty several septic tanks and these tank trucks typically have a maximum capacity of 3,000 US gallons. They are equipped with a system to serve their particular need. Another common use is to deliver fuel such as liquified petroleum gas to households, the smallest of these trucks usually carry about 1,000 US gallons of LPG under pressure. Typically LPG tank trucks carry up to 3499 US gallons of product,3500 US gallons and greater requires a 3 axle truck. Tank trucks are used to fuel aircraft at airports
21.
Air cargo
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Air cargo is any property carried or to be carried in an aircraft. Air cargo comprises air freight, air express and airmail, - this practice is known as Belly Cargo. Cargo can also be transported in the cabin as hand-carry by an “on-board courier”. Cargo aircraft are dedicated for the job - they carry freight on the main deck, combi aircraft carries cargo on the main deck behind the passengers’ area with side loading and in the belly. The first cargo flight took place on the 7 November 1910 in the USA, philip Orin Parmelee piloted a Wright Model B aeroplane 65 miles carrying a package of 200 pounds of silk for the opening of a store. Newspaper clippings quoted the Wright brothers as stating he covered the distance in 66 minutes, but the flight was recorded at 57 minutes. The worlds first official flight took place on 18 February 1911, at a large exhibition in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. This first airmail flight was piloted by Henri Pequet, who flew 6,500 letters a distance of 13 km, the aircraft used was a Humber-Sommer biplane with about fifty horsepower, and it made the journey in thirteen minutes. The worlds first scheduled airmail post service took place in the United Kingdom between the London suburb of Hendon, and the Postmaster Generals office in Windsor, Berkshire, on September 9,1911. It was part of the celebrations for King George Vs coronation and at the suggestion of Sir Walter Windham, the service ran for just under a month, transporting 35 bags of mail in 16 flights. In the early 20s, air cargo developed rapidly because numerous entrepreneurs realized aircraft could move high value and low volume consignments much faster than the railroads and shipping companies. The first scheduled flight from London to Paris in 1919 had only one passenger but carried leather for a shoe manufacturer and grouse for a restaurant. Although there were a few attempts to air freight airlines from the 1920s on. In 1945, at a conference in Havana,57 airlines formed the International Air Transport Association, in 1948 Berlin was jointly controlled by the Allies and Russians, although the Russians held the area surrounding the city and thus land access. As this access was closed, in the so-called Berlin blockade, an airlift remained the only option to get increasingly urgent deliveries of food, coal, and other supplies to West Berlin. Over 330 days to 12 May 1949 a total of 2.26 million tons of cargo were airlifted to Berlin, although freight traffic developed modestly, reaching only 800,000 tonnes worldwide by the mid-1950s, the world economy was hitting its post-war stride. In 1968, Boeing launched the four engine 747, the first wide-body aircraft, the 747 was the first aircraft capable of transporting full pallets in the cargo hold, revolutionizing the air cargo industry. Despite widespread hopes for a vibrant industry, for decades the air freight did not grow as expected and remained a small part of total air traffic
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International Air Transport Association
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The International Air Transport Association is a trade association of the world’s airlines. Consisting of 268 airlines, primarily major carriers, representing 117 countries, IATA supports airline activity and helps formulate industry policy and standards. It is headquartered in Montreal, Canada with Executive Offices in Geneva, IATA was formed in April 1945 in Havana, Cuba. It is the successor to the International Air Traffic Association, which was formed in 1919 at The Hague, at its founding, IATA consisted of 57 airlines from 31 countries. The Chicago Convention couldn’t resolve the issue of who flies where, however, the benchmark standard for the early bilaterals was the 1946 United States-United Kingdom Bermuda Agreement. IATA was also charged by the governments with setting a coherent fare structure that avoided cut-throat competition, the first Traffic Conference was held in 1947 in Rio de Janeiro and reached unanimous agreement on some 400 resolutions. Aviation grew rapidly over the decades and IATA’s work duly expanded. Safety is the number one priority for IATA, the main instrument for safety is the IATA Operational Safety Audit. IOSA has also been mandated at the level by several countries. In 2012, aviation posted its safest year ever, the global Western-built jet accident rate was 0.20, the equivalent of one accident every 5 million flights. Future improvements will be founded on data sharing with a database fed by a multitude of sources, in June 2014 the IATA set up a special panel to study measures to track aircraft in flight in real time. The move was in response to the disappearance without trace of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 on 8 March 2014, security has become increasingly important following the September 11 attacks in 2001. Following a series of uncoordinated rules by different countries, the industry has developed a Checkpoint of the Future, simplifying the Business was launched in 2004. This initiative has introduced a number of concepts to passenger travel, including the electronic ticket. Many other innovations are being established as part of the Fast Travel initiative, an innovative program, launched in 2012 is New Distribution Capability. This will replace the pre-Internet EDIFACT messaging standard that is still the basis of the distribution system /travel agent channel. This will enable the same choices to be offered to high street travel shoppers as are offered to those who book directly through airline websites, a filing with the US Department of Transportation brought over 400 comments. At the 69th IATA annual general meeting in Cape Town, South Africa, IATA provides consulting and training services in many areas crucial to aviation
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Unit load device
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A unit load device is a pallet or container used to load luggage, freight, and mail on wide-body aircraft and specific narrow-body aircraft. It allows a large quantity of cargo to be bundled into a single unit, since this leads to fewer units to load, it saves ground crews time and effort and helps prevent delayed flights. Each ULD has its own packing list so that its contents can be tracked, ULDs come in two forms, pallets and containers. ULD pallets are rugged sheets of aluminum with rims designed to lock onto cargo net lugs, examples of common ULDs and their specifics are listed below. Pallet volumes shown are built 64 in tall for lower deck loading, height limit for main deck depends on aircraft type. LD3s, LD6s, and LD11s will fit 787s, 777s, 747s, MD-11s, Il-86s, Il-96s, L-1011s, the 767 uses the smaller LD2s and LD8s because of its narrower fuselage. The less common LD1 is designed specifically for the 747, LD3s with reduced height can also be loaded on the Airbus A320 family. LD7 pallets will fit 787s, 777s, 747s, late model 767s, interchangeability of certain ULDs between LD3/6/11 aircraft and LD2/8 aircraft is possible when cargo needs to be quickly transferred to a connecting flight. Both LD2s and LD8s can be loaded in LD3/6/11 aircraft, only the LD3 of the LD3/6/11 family of ULDs can be loaded in a 767, it will occupy an entire row where two LD2s or one LD8 would otherwise have fit. Policies vary from airline to airline as to whether such transfers are allowed, one of the design requirements of the 787, was for it to use the LD3/6/11 family of ULDs to solve the wasted volume issue. Aircraft loads can consist of containers, pallets, or a mix of ULD types, the table below indicates the maximum capacity of an aircraft for all-container and all-pallet configurations. In some aircraft the two types must be mixed as some compartments take only specific ULDs, container capacity of an aircraft is measured in positions. Each half-width container in the aircraft it was designed for one position. Typically, each row in a cargo compartment consists of two positions, therefore, a full-width container will take two positions. An LD6 or an LD11 can occupy the space of two LD3s, an LD8 takes the space of two LD2s. Aircraft pallet capacity is measured by how many PMC-type LD7s can be stored and these pallets occupy approximately three LD3 positions or four LD2 positions. PMCs can only be loaded in cargo compartments with large doors designed to accept them, maximum capacity shown does not reflect weight restrictions. Actual number of ULDs loaded may be lower if aircraft is at its weight limit, all ULDs are identified by their ULD number
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London, Midland and Scottish Railway
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The London, Midland and Scottish Railway was a British railway company. It was formed on 1 January 1923 under the Railways Act of 1921, the resulting company was an unwieldy construction, with numerous interests other than railway operation. Besides being the worlds largest transport organisation, it was also the largest commercial enterprise in the British Empire, the LMS also claimed to be the largest joint stock organisation in the world. In 1938, the LMS operated 6,870 miles of railway, under the Transport Act 1947, along with the other members of the Big Four British railway companies, the LMS was nationalised on 1 January 1948, becoming part of the state-owned British Railways. The LMS was the largest of the Big Four railway companies serving routes in England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, the LMS operated services in and around London, the Midlands, the North West of England, Mid/North Wales and Scotland. The company also operated a network of lines in Northern Ireland. The LMS operated a number of lines jointly with the main railway companies. Most of these were situated at or near the boundaries between two or more of the companies, but there were notable examples which extended beyond this hinterland zone. Together with the London and North Eastern Railway, the LMS ran the former Midland, exceeding 183 miles, this was the largest jointly-operated network in Great Britain in terms of route mileage, and extended from Peterborough to the East Anglian coast. The M&GN was wholly incorporated into the LNER in 1936, the LMS also operated a significant joint network with the Southern Railway, in the shape of the former Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway. This network connected Bath and Bournemouth, and wound its way through territory nominally allocated to a railway company. Through the former Midland Railway holdings, the LMS, together with the Great Northern Railway, the SR and the LMS were mainly overlapping on the West London Line. The London to Birmingham corridor was fiercely contested with the LMS running expresses over its West Coast Main Line via Rugby, the LMS was also the only one of the Big Four companies to operate rail services in Northern Ireland, serving most major settlements in the region. On 1 July 1903, the Midland Railway took over the Belfast and Northern Counties Railway, in 1912, the Midland Railway purchased the London, Tilbury and Southend Railway which operated between London Fenchurch Street and Shoeburyness, with a loop serving Tilbury. This part of the later came under the control of the LNER, although this particular route. This arrangement did however provide a choice for residents of Southend, the LMS was the minority partner in the Cheshire Lines Committee. In Ireland there were three railways, Dundalk, Newry and Greenore Railway 26.5 miles Northern Counties Committee 265, for all railways see List of constituents of the LMS. Generally, the Midland prevailed, with the adoption of many Midland practices such as the livery of Crimson Lake for passenger locomotives, notable was the continuation of the Midland Railways small-engine policy
25.
Bochum Dahlhausen Railway Museum
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The Eisenbahnmuseum Bochum-Dahlhausen is a railway museum situated south of the city of Bochum in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It was founded by DGEG, the German Railway History Company in 1977 and is based in a depot that was built between 1916 and 1918 and ceased operation in 1969. Then DGEG took over the area of 46,000 square metres. In the middle of the museum, there is a shed with fourteen tracks. A preserved turntable, coaling, watering, and sanding facilities are still in operation and this museum is integrated into The Industrial Heritage Trail a route of monuments from the history of the industry. The origins of the collection go back to 1967. A variety of locomotives and other technically interesting railway vehicles from different epochs are displayed. There are over 200 exhibits in total, the stars of the exhibition are the heavy locomotives. Examples include, DRG Class 01 DRG Class 44 DRG Class 50 DRG Class 80 Bavarian S 3/6 Prussian P8 Prussian T9, the exhibits are looked after by 130 mainly voluntary employees, who are also involved in the museum railway services where they wear historical uniforms. At present the museum is busy refurbishing locomotive number 66002 with the help of donations, museum vehicles and installations are often used for film and television productions. For example, a part of the railway scenes in the film Das Wunder von Bern took place in Dahlhausen. A highlight in the history of the museum was the large vehicle show put on in 1985 as part of the 150th anniversary of the German railways. A Prussian P8 owned by the museum is used for the steam services. When there is service on the Ruhrtalbahn, the Uerdingen railbus operate another abandoned railway. In addition, from 2009 there were trips to the Zollverein coal mine via Mülheim. Part of the train to Hagen includes a restored passenger coach by MAN from 1921 belonging to the Essen Model Railway Club founded in 1949. Das BW Bochum-Dahlhausen und die Eisenbahn im mittleren Ruhrtal
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Liverpool and Manchester Railway
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The Liverpool and Manchester Railway was a railway opened on 15 September 1830 between the Lancashire towns of Liverpool and Manchester in the United Kingdom. Jervis of the Delaware and Hudson Railway some years later wrote, as opening the epoch of railways which has revolutionised the social and commercial intercourse of the civilized world. Trains were hauled by steam locomotives between the two towns, though private wagons and carriages were allowed. Cable haulage of trains was down the steeply-graded 1. 26-mile Wapping Tunnel to Liverpool Docks from Edge Hill junction. The railway was built to provide faster transport of raw materials, finished goods. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway was the first public transport system on land which did not use animal traction power. Up to then, the rail systems for public use had been, Horse-drawn plateways, such as the Lake Lock Railroad, Surrey Iron Railway. Railways that used a mix of steam and horse-drawn traffic, such as the Stockton and Darlington Railway, or a mix of cable and horse haulage, often described as the Grand British Experimental Railway the success or failure of which would decide plans for all future railways. The L&MR was intended to achieve cheap transport of raw materials, finished goods, huge tonnages of textile raw material were imported through Liverpool and carried to the textile mills near the Pennines where water and then steam power enabled the production of the finished cloth. There was support for the railway from the towns at either end, the original promoters are usually acknowledged to be Joseph Sandars, a rich Liverpool corn merchant, and John Kennedy, then owner of the largest spinning mill in Manchester. They were influenced to do this by William James, now something of a forgotten figure, James was a land surveyor who had made a fortune in property speculation. He advocated a national network of railways, based upon what he had seen of the development of colliery lines, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway Company was founded on 24 May 1823. It was established by Henry Booth, who became its secretary and treasurer, along with merchants from Liverpool. Charles Lawrence was the Chairman, Lister Ellis, Robert Gladstone, John Moss, a bill presented in 1825 to Parliament was rejected, but it passed in May the following year. In Liverpool 172 people took 1,979 shares, in London 96 took 844, the Marquess of Stafford had 1,000, giving 308 shareholders with 4,233 shares. The initial survey for the line was carried out by William James and, Robert Stephenson departed for South America and William James became bankrupt. Consequently, in 1824 George Stephenson was appointed engineer in their place, by this time, he was taking on too much. As Robert was absent, George left checking the survey to subordinates, upon presentation to Parliament in 1825 it was shown to be inaccurate
27.
Bureau International des Containers
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BIC was originally established in 1933 under the auspices of the International Chamber of Commerce. The Bureau suspended its operations during World War II, with resumption in 1948, in June 1933, the Bureau decided on obligatory parameters for containers used in international traffic in Europe. Containers handled by means of lifting gear, such as cranes, overhead conveyors, etc. for traveling elevators, constructed after July 1,1933. Obligatory Regulations, Clause 1. —Containers are, as form, either of the closed or the open type. This system has been implemented in Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, West Germany, Switzerland, along with the gradual popularization of large container type ISO, system Pa-Behälter was withdrawn from use by the railways. In the 70s of the last century began to be used for the transport of waste in the system of a car. This ensures a unique number for every shipping container in the world. The Customs Convention on Containers in a recent amendment enforced in 2008 also makes reference to the ISO6346, the BIC is headquartered 41 rue Réaumur,75003, Paris, France
28.
Wall Street Crash of 1929
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The crash, which followed the London Stock Exchanges crash of September, signaled the beginning of the 12-year Great Depression that affected all Western industrialized countries. The Roaring Twenties, the decade that followed World War I and led to the crash, was a time of wealth, while the American cities prospered, the overproduction of agricultural produce created widespread financial despair among American farmers throughout the decade. This would later be blamed as one of the key factors that led to the 1929 stock market crash, despite the dangers of speculation, many believed that the stock market would continue to rise forever. On March 25,1929, after the Federal Reserve warned of excessive speculation, two days later, banker Charles E. Mitchell announced his company the National City Bank would provide $25 million in credit to stop the markets slide. Mitchells move brought a halt to the financial crisis and call money declined from 20 to 8 percent. Despite all these economic trouble signs and the breaks in March and May 1929, stocks resumed their advance in June. The market had been on a run that saw the Dow Jones Industrial Average increase in value tenfold. Shortly before the crash, economist Irving Fisher famously proclaimed, Stock prices have reached what looks like a high plateau. The optimism and financial gains of the bull market were shaken after a well publicized early September prediction from financial expert Roger Babson that a crash was coming. The initial September decline was thus called the Babson Break in the press and this was the start of the Great Crash, although until the severe phase of the crash in October, many investors regarded the September Babson Break as a healthy correction and buying opportunity. On September 20, the London Stock Exchange crashed when top British investor Clarence Hatry and many of his associates were jailed for fraud, the London crash greatly weakened the optimism of American investment in markets overseas. In the days leading up to the crash, the market was severely unstable, periods of selling and high volumes were interspersed with brief periods of rising prices and recovery. On October 24, the market lost 11 percent of its value at the bell on very heavy trading. Several leading Wall Street bankers met to find a solution to the panic and chaos on the trading floor. The meeting included Thomas W. Lamont, acting head of Morgan Bank, Albert Wiggin, head of the Chase National Bank and they chose Richard Whitney, vice president of the Exchange, to act on their behalf. With the bankers financial resources behind him, Whitney placed a bid to purchase a block of shares in U. S. Steel at a price well above the current market. As traders watched, Whitney then placed similar bids on other blue chip stocks and this tactic was similar to one that ended the Panic of 1907. It succeeded in halting the slide, the Dow Jones Industrial Average recovered, closing with it down only 6.38 points for the day
29.
Roller container
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A roller container is a container type that can be carried by trucks to be pushed to ground level by help of a hook and level arm with the container possibly sliding on steel roller wheels. Its original usage was in the collection of bulk waste resulting in the creation of the DIN standards to be initiated by city cleaning companies, an additional part defines a transport frame mounted on specialized rail cars that allows easy intermodal transport for these container types. Another important area is in the containerization of firefighting equipment used as swap body containers of fire trucks, solution removable transport containers in road and rail transport already appeared in the 1930s. Since 1934 in the Netherlands used the system for waste transportation, permissible gross mass of the container was 3,000 kg and dimensions of 2.5 m ×2 m ×2 m. Reloading held by dragging rope winch tow car, after World War II system has been introduced to communicate by trains between Switzerland and the Netherlands. Present were representatives Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, Great Britain, Italy, the result of this meeting was the first after World War II European standard UIC590, also known as Pa-Behälter. This system has been implemented in Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, West Germany, Switzerland, along with the gradual popularization of large container type ISO, system Pa-Behälter was withdrawn from use by the railways. In the 1970s began to be used for the transport of waste in the system of a car. The roller containers come in a variety for specific usages. For bulk waste a common type has additional doors on one side. There are low height containers that allow easy dumping of green care waste, there are squeeze containers that compress the garbage. Roller containers for construction waste need additional stability, the DIN standard does not define the height nor most of the other sizes - it concentrates on the hook for lifting the container and the wheels that allow sliding on the ground. According to Marrel they have invented hooklift trucks marketing them since 1969 in the USA, there have been various heights and sizes of the hook with the ACTS roller container system standardizing on 1,570 mm. Hook heights of 54 and 36 are also in common use. The ACTS offers a loading principle from a container truck directly on to a rail car. There is no installation required for the process as the level arm of the truck can push the container on to a transport frame that is mounted on the rail car. The ACTS found wider usage first in Switzerland where rail transport to remote villages is often easier than running large trucks through narrow streets, rail transport of roller containers is now prevalent in German-speaking countries and neighbouring countries like the Netherlands and the Czech Republic. The roller container standards have become the basis of containerized firefighting equipment throughout Europe, the permanent mounting of equipment creates a large number of specialized fire trucks while containerization allows the use of only one transport truck with a level arm - in Germany it is called WLF. The AB units may be built from standard containers with equipment installed from different suppliers as required by the fire department
30.
International Union of Railways
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The UIC or International Union of Railways is an international rail transport industry body. The railways of Europe originated as separate concerns, and there were many border changes after World War I. Colonial railways were the responsibility of the mother country, into this environment the UIC was created on 20 October 1922, with the aim of standardising industry practices. Ticket revenue sharing was undertaken with the UIC Franc currency equivalent. UIC classification and UIC Country Codes allowed precise determination of rolling stock capabilities and ownership, the UICs mission is to promote rail transport at world level and meet the challenges of mobility and sustainable development. They were soon joined by the USSR, the Middle East, today, the UIC has 194 members across 5 continents. Of these there are,73 active members 68 associate members 53 affiliate members On 12 November, in order to provide a common understanding and reduce potential confusion, the UIC has established standard international railway terminology and a trilingual thesaurus of terms. The thesaurus was the result of cooperation with the European Conference of Ministers of Transport and was published in 1995, the UIC has established systems for the classification of locomotives and their axle arrangements, coaches and goods wagons. UIC plays an important role in standardization of parts, data. Therefore, UIC codes are developed since the beginning of UICs work, a new term for these UIC leaflets is used by UIC for better understanding, International Railway Standard. Some UIC codes are, UIC568 The 13-corded standardized connection cable with connector is used to transmit data, UIC 592-2 Large containers for transport on wagons - Technical conditions to be fulfilled by large containers accepted for use in international traffic. Describes the classes and categories of large containers, handling characteristics, identification markings, UIC 592-3 Large containers, swap bodies and transport frames for horizontal transhipment - Standard report on acceptance tests. UIC 592-4 Swap bodies for grab handling and spreader gripping - Technical conditions, Swap bodies are the removable superstructures of road transport vehicles. Their dimensions and some of their fittings are standardised, particularly dimensions, strength parameters and securing devices, of the road vehicle, UIC 596-5 Transport of road vehicles on wagons - Technical organisation - Conveyance of semi-trailers with P coding or N coding on recess wagons. This leaflet sets out regulations and provisions for semi-trailers with normal road transport characteristics for conveyance on fixed-recess carrier wagons, the provisions are valid for semi-trailers, gantry equipment/industrial trucks with grab handles, recess wagon types 1a and 1b in accordance with UIC Leaflet 571-4. UIC 596-6 Conveyance of road vehicles on wagons - Technical organisation - Conditions for coding combined-transport load units, the provisions aim to facilitate LU identification to speed-up international traffic movements. They are applicable to semi-trailers, swap bodies, roller units loaded on wagons, African Union of Railways, similar organisation focused on Africa Association of American Railroads International Union of Public Transport, which covers passenger railways, especially in cities
31.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
32.
Transportation Corps
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The Transportation Corps was established 31 July 1942 by Executive Order 9082. The Transportation Corps is a service support branch of the U. S. Army, and was headquartered at Fort Eustis, Virginia. It is also one of three U. S. Army logistics branches, the others being the Quartermaster Corps and the Ordnance Corps, the Transportation Corps is responsible for the movement of personnel and material by truck, rail, air, and sea. Its motto is Spearhead of Logistics, and it is currently the third smallest branch of the Army, the officer in charge of the branch for doctrine, training, and professional development purposes is the Chief of Transportation. The current Chief of Transportation is Brigadier General Jeffrey W. Drushal, during the American Civil War, transportation proved to be an integral part of military logistics through the organization of railroads as a viable and efficient means of military transportation. The US Army centralized the management of rail into the US Military Railroad, the Army Quartermaster purchased eight city class iron clads on the Mississippi River in February 1862, a full month before the USS Monitor and CSS Virginia set sail. City Point, Virginia in 1864 would become the largest port operation in the Western Hemisphere in 1864, by 1864, five of the nine divisions in the Quartermaster Department dealt exclusively with transportation. A substantial number of battles were won because of the commanders ability to swiftly and effectively move troops. Most wounded soldiers were carried away in a cart called a gondola. See also United States Military Railroad, Army transporters worked with both the civilian railroads and the maritime industry to pull together a successful intermodal operation. The American Expeditionary Force that deployed to France during World War I, the United States Army School for Truck Drivers had been established by 9 July 1918, and the Transportation Corps of the AEF was abolished after the war, The M. T. C. Subsequently conducted Transcontinental Motor Convoys in 1919 and 1920, on 9 March 1942 the Transportation Service was established as part of the Services of Supply, and on 31 July 1942 the Transportation Service became the Transportation Corps. In March 1942, the functions were consolidated into the Transportation Division of the newly created Services of Supply. By the end of the war the Transportation Corps had moved more than 30 million soldiers within the continental United States, as allied forces rapidly advanced across France in the summer of 1944 a special transportation operation nicked named the Red Ball Express was carried out. The Red Ball Express provided around the clock truck convoys from allied held ports to supply troops on the front, the story of the Red Ball Express was told in the 1950s movie Red Ball Express. The Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union extended from 1945 into 1991, spanning the Gulf War, when the Soviet Union cordoned off the city of Berlin in 1948, the Transportation Corps played a vital role in sustaining the city. Two years later, on 28 June 1950, President Harry S. Truman established the Transportation Corps as a permanent branch of the Army, during the Korean War, the Transportation Corps kept the UN Forces supplied through three winters. By the time the armistice was signed, the Transportation Corps had moved more than 3 million soldiers and 7 million tons of cargo, the Vietnam War saw the most diversified assortment of transportation units ever assembled
33.
Keith Tantlinger
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Keith Walton Tantlinger was a mechanical engineer and inventor. As Vice President of Engineering at the Fruehauf Trailer Corporation his inventions played a role in containerization. After its initial order of containers from Brown Trailer, Sea-Land switched to containers made by the Strick division of the Fruehauf Trailer Company, in 1958 Tantlinger left Sea-Land and became chief engineer at Fruehauf, where he continued to work with containers. In the course of his career, Tantlinger was granted 79 United States patents. Many of his patents related to commercial highway freight trailers and transit buses, Tantlinger was born in Orange, California, on March 22,1919. He was educated the University of California, Berkeley, where he was awarded a degree in mechanical engineering. During World War II, he worked for the Douglas Aircraft Company and they had a daughter, Susan Tantlinger, and they later divorced. On September 10,1981, he married Wanda Mae Gunnell Delinger in Las Vegas, in 2010, Tantlinger was awarded the Gibbs Brothers Medal by the National Academy of Sciences for his role in developing the expansion of world trade. He died in Escondido, California, on August 27,2011, K. W. Tantlinger USPO Patent for Container Crane Apparatus K. W. Tantlinger USPO Patent for Container Stacking System The Fruehauf Trailer Historical Society
34.
Spokane, Washington
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Spokane is a city in the state of Washington, in the northwestern United States. It is the seat of Spokane County, and the economic and cultural center of the Spokane Metropolitan Area, the Greater Spokane Area, the city, along with the whole Inland Northwest, is served by Spokane International Airport,5 miles west of downtown Spokane. According to the 2010 Census, Spokane had a population of 208,916, making it the second largest city in Washington and the 102nd largest city in the United States. The first humans to live in the area, the Spokane people, known as the birthplace of Fathers Day, Spokane is officially nicknamed the Lilac City. David Thompson explored the area with the expansion and establishment of the North West Companys Spokane House in 1810. This trading post was the first long-term European settlement in Washington, completion of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1881 brought settlers to the Spokane area, and that same year it was officially incorporated as a city with the name of Spokan Falls. In the late 19th century, gold and silver were discovered in the Inland Northwest, the local economy depended on mining, timber, and agriculture until the 1980s. Spokane hosted the first environmentally themed Worlds Fair at Expo 74, many of the older Romanesque Revival-style buildings in the downtown area were designed by architect Kirtland Kelsey Cutter after the Great Fire of 1889. The city also features Riverfront and Manito parks, the Smithsonian-affiliated Northwest Museum of Arts and Culture, the Davenport Hotel, and the Fox and Bing Crosby theaters. The Cathedral of Our Lady of Lourdes serves as the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Spokane, the Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist represents the Anglican community. Gonzaga University was established in 1887 by the Jesuits, and the private Presbyterian Whitworth University opened three years later in north Spokane, in sports, the Gonzaga Bulldogs collegiate basketball team competes at the Division I level. Professional and semi-professional sports teams include the Spokane Indians in Minor League Baseball, Spokane Empire in arena football, as of 2010, Spokanes only major daily newspaper, The Spokesman-Review, has a daily circulation of over 76,000. The first humans to live in the Spokane area arrived between 13,000 and 8,000 years ago and were hunter-gatherer societies that lived off plentiful game. The Spokane tribe, after which the city is named, are believed to be either their direct descendants, when asked by early white explorers, the Spokanes said their ancestors came from up North. Early in the 19th century, the Northwest Fur Company sent two white fur trappers west of the Rocky Mountains to search for fur. These were the first white men met by the Spokanes, who believed they were sacred, the explorer-geographer David Thompson, working as head of the North West Companys Columbia Department, became the first European to explore the Inland Empire. Crossing what is now the Canada–US border from British Columbia, Thompson wanted to expand the North West Company further south in search of furs, after establishing the Kullyspell House and Saleesh House trading posts in what are now Idaho and Montana, Thompson then attempted to expand further west. He sent out two trappers, Jacques Raphael Finlay and Finan McDonald, to construct a fur trading post on the Spokane River in Washington and trade with the local Indians
35.
Semi-monocoque
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The term semi-monocoque refers to a stressed shell structure that is similar to a true monocoque, but which derives at least some of its strength from conventional reinforcement. Semi-monocoque construction is used for, among other things, aircraft fuselages, car bodies, semi-monocoque aircraft fuselages differ from true monocoque construction through being reinforced with longitudinal stringers. The Mooney range of four aircraft, for instance, use a steel tube truss frame around the passenger compartment with monocoque behind. The British ARV Super2 light aircraft has a fuselage constructed mainly of aluminium alloy, the cockpit is a stiff monocoque of Supral alloy, but aft of the cockpit bulkhead, the ARV is conventionally built, with frames, longerons and stressed skin forming a semi-monocoque. Peter Williams 1973 Formula 750 TT-winning JPS Norton racer was an example of a semi-monocoque motorcycle
36.
Malcom McLean
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Malcom Purcell McLean was an American businessman. He was an entrepreneur who developed the modern intermodal shipping container. McLean was born in Maxton, North Carolina in 1914, in 1935, when he finished high school at Winston-Salem, his family didnt have enough money to send him to college. But there was enough for Malcolm to buy a used truck, the same year, McLean, his sister, Clara McLean, and his brother, Jim McLean, founded McLean Trucking Co. Based out of Red Springs, North Carolina, McLean Trucking started out hauling empty tobacco barrels – with Malcom as one of the drivers, the idea of transporting trucks on ships was put into practice before World War II. In 1926 regular connection of the passenger train from London to Paris, Golden Arrow/Fleche dOr, by Southern Railway. For transport of passengers baggage four containers were used and these containers were loaded in London or Paris and carried to ports, Dover or Calais, on flat cars in the UK and “CIWL Pullman Golden Arrow Fourgon of CIWL” in France. In the early 1950s McLean decided to use of the containers commercially. By 1952, he was developing plans to carry his companys trucks on ships along the U. S, atlantic coast, from North Carolina to New York. It soon became apparent that trailerships, as they were called, would be inefficient because of the waste in potential cargo space on board the vessel. The original concept was modified into loading just the containers, not the chassis, onto the ships, at the time, U. S. regulations would not allow a trucking company to own a ship line. McLean secured a loan for $500 million and in January 1956 bought two World War II T-2 tankers, which he converted to carry containers on and under deck. McLean oversaw the construction of wooden shelter decks, known as Mechano decking and this was a common practice in World War II for the carriage of oversized cargo, such as aircraft. It took several months to refit the ships, construct containers to carry on and below the vessels decks and design trailer chassis to allow removable containers. As the Ideal-X left the Port of Newark, Freddy Fields, Fields replied, Id like to sink that son of a bitch. McLean flew to Houston to be on hand when the ship safely docked, in 1956, most cargo was loaded and unloaded by hand by longshoremen. Hand-loading a ship cost $5.86 a ton at that time, using containers, it cost only 16 cents a ton to load a ship, a 39-fold savings. Containerization also greatly reduced the time to load and unload ships, McLean knew A ship earns money only when shes at sea, and based his business on that efficiency
37.
SS Ideal X
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SS Ideal X, a converted World War II T-2 oil tanker, was the first commercially successful container ship. Built by The Marinship Corporation during World War II as Potrero Hills, in 1955, the ship was modified to carry shipping containers and rechristened Ideal X. It was not the first container ship, however, the Clifford J. Rodgers, operated by the White Pass and Yukon Route, made its debut in 1955. In 1959, the vessel was acquired by Bulgarian owners, who rechristened her Elemir, the Elemir suffered extensive damage during heavy weather on February 8,1964, and was sold in turn to Japanese breakers. She was finally scrapped on October 20,1964, in Hirao, cudahy, Brian J. Box boats, how container ships changed the world. The Containership Revolution, Malcom McLeans 1956 Innovation Goes Global, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies. The Box, How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller, vessel data at Dept. of Transportation
38.
Matson, Inc.
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Matson, Inc. is a public shipping company which was founded in 1882. The company provides shipping services Pacific-wide, mainly to and from the Hawaiian islands, Matson is credited with introducing mass tourism to Hawaii with the opening of the historic Moana Hotel and the Royal Hawaiian Hotel in Waikiki on the island of Oahu. William Matson was the founder of the Matson Navigation Company and he was born in Lysekil in Västra Götaland County, Sweden, and orphaned during childhood. He arrived in San Francisco after a trip around Cape Horn in 1867, working aboard the Spreckels family yacht, he struck up a friendship with tycoon Claus Spreckels, who financed many of Matsons new ships. In 1882 the three-masted schooner Emma Claudina ran to the Hawaiian Islands, the enterprise began in the carrying of merchandise, especially of plantation stores, to the islands and returning with cargoes of sugar. This led to gradually expanding interests at both ends of the line, increased commerce brought a corresponding interest in Hawaii as a tourist attraction, which soon prompted the construction of the Moana Hotel in 1901. More steamships continued to join the fleet, when Captain Matson died in 1917, the Matson fleet comprised 14 of the largest, fastest and most modern ships in the Pacific passenger-freight service. The decade from the mid-1920s to the mid-1930s marked a significant period of Matson expansion, in 1925, the company established Matson Terminals, Inc. a wholly owned subsidiary, to perform stevedoring and terminal services for its fleet. With increasing passenger traffic to Hawaiʻi, Matson built a luxury liner. At the time, Malolo was the fastest ship in the Pacific and its success led to the building of the luxury liners Mariposa, Monterey and Lurline between 1930 and 1932. Matsons famed white ships were instrumental in the development of tourism in Hawaii, in addition, beginning in 1927, with the construction of the Royal Hawaiian Hotel, Matsons Waikiki hotels provided tourists with luxury accommodations both ashore and afloat. In addition, Matson commissioned artists to design memorable keepsake menus for the voyages, the company later sold the building to Pacific Gas and Electric Company, whose General Office was next door at 245 Market. PG&E has incorporated the former Matson building into its General Office complex, for a brief period after World War II, Matson operated a luxurious airline using Douglas DC-4 aircraft between the Pacific Coast and Hawaii. The airline ultimately ceased operations because of pressure from Pan American World Airways. Today, Matson continues to ship cargo across the Pacific and plays a key role in the economy of Hawaii, the West Coast and the trading of goods from east to west. On December 1,2011, Matsons then-parent company Alexander & Baldwin announced that its board of directors approved a plan to split A&B, as part of the plan, Matson would leave Oakland, California to become a Honolulu-based company. The two companies are now traded separately, in 2015 Matson, Inc. acquired Horizon Lines, formerly its main competitor in the United States domestic market, for $469 million. Primarily a conveyor of cargo, Matson also introduced into service a number of passenger liners to capitalize on the burgeoning tourist trade, in 1926 Matson took over the Oceanic Steamship Company, operating three trans-Pacific liners, including Sonoma
39.
International Maritime Organization
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The IMO was established in Geneva in 1948 and came into force ten years later, meeting for the first time in 1959. Headquartered in London, United Kingdom, the IMO has 172 Member States, IMO is governed by an assembly of members and is financially administered by a council of members elected from the assembly. The work of IMO is conducted through five committees and these are supported by technical subcommittees, other UN organisations may observe the proceedings of the IMO. Observer status is granted to qualified non-governmental organisations, IMO is supported by a permanent secretariat of employees who are representative of the organisations members. Hitherto such international conventions had been initiated piecemeal, notably the Safety of Life at Sea Convention, the first meetings of the newly formed IMCO were held in London in 1959. More recently SOLAS has been amended to bring a focus on maritime security through the International Ship. The IMO has also increased its focus on air emissions from ships, in January 1959, IMO began to maintain and promote the 1954 OILPOL Convention. Under the guidance of IMO, the convention was amended in 1962,1969, as oil trade and industry developed, many people in the industry began to recognize a need for further improvements in regards to oil pollution prevention at sea. Among other things, the accident forced the industry and public to question the efficacy of standing regulations. This incident prompted a series of new conventions, IMO held an emergency session of its Council to deal with the need to readdress regulations pertaining to maritime pollution. In 1969, the IMO Assembly decided to host a gathering in 1973 dedicated to this issue. The goal at hand was to develop an international agreement for controlling general environmental contamination by ships out at sea. During the next few years IMO brought to the forefront a series of measures designed to prevent large ship accidents and it also detailed how to deal with the environmental threat caused by routine ship duties such as the cleaning of oil cargo tanks or the disposal of engine room wastes. Interestingly enough in terms of tonnage the afore-mentioned was a problem than accidental pollution. The most significant thing to come out of conference was the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships,1973. It covers not only accidental and operational oil pollution but also different types of pollution by chemicals, goods in packaged form, sewage, garbage, the original MARPOL was signed on 17 February 1973, but did not come into force due to lack of ratifications. The current convention is a combination of 1973 Convention and the 1978 Protocol and it entered into force on 2 October 1983. As of May 2013,152 states, representing 99.2 per cent of the worlds shipping tonnage, are involved in the convention, in 1983 the IMO established the World Maritime University in Malmö, Sweden
40.
International Longshoremen's Association
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The ILA has approximately 200 local affiliates in port cities in these areas. The roots of the International Longshoremens Association date to colonial America when the arrival of ships bearing goods from Europe was greeted with cries for Men ‘long shore, as America began to develop a fledgling economy, and the ships increased, longshore work became a full-time occupation. As the nation matured, many new immigrants congregated in the cities, hoping to work, especially along the coast. The number of professional longshoremen grew by thousands, by the early 19th century, the longshoreman of the day eked out a meager existence along the North Atlantic coast. Their working conditions were wretched and their wages pitiful, many were new to the country and unfamiliar with the customs and language. Exploitation was the order of the day, thus, by mid-century, the longshoremen had begun to organize. In 1864, the first modern longshoremens union was formed in the port of New York it was called the Longshoremens Union Protective Association and it joined the American Federation of Labor in 1895 and renamed itself the International Longshoremens Association several years later when it admitted Canadian longshoremen to membership. Organized and led by an Irish tugboat worker named Daniel Keefe, the organization had as many as 100,000 members on the Great Lakes, the East Coast, the West Coast, nevertheless, Keefe successfully expanded membership in the newborn union to include large numbers of dockworkers. The late 19th century was a time of economic upheaval which saw periods of almost full employment and union expansion followed by depression, lower wages. There were bitter divisions among the Irish immigrants and their non-white counterparts and these divisions were to some extent exacerbated and often exploited by business interests seeking to turn the unions against themselves. Various unions, such as LUPA and the Knights of Labor, competed with one another, LUPA was disbanded before the start of the 20th century. But other labor unions fought back, there were countless wildcat and/or organized work stoppages resulting in violence and massive losses in wages. Between 1881 and 1905 there were more than 30,000 strikes, in 1892, delegates from eleven ports convened in Detroit where they adopted the by-laws of the Longshoremens Chicago local and the name National Longshoremens Association of The United States. By 1895, the name was changed to International Longshoremens Association to reflect the growing numbers of Canadian members, shortly thereafter, the ILA affiliated with the American Federation of Labor. As the start of the 20th century loomed, the ILA had approximately 50,000 members, by 1905, membership had doubled to 100,000, half of which were scattered throughout the rest of the country. ILA leaders focused on eliminating independent stevedoring firms and securing closed shop contracts, Keefe bargained with employers, guaranteeing uninterrupted work in return for badly needed improvements in working conditions and wage increases. Daniel Keefe retired as President of the ILA in 1908, succeeded by another Great Lakes tugboat man, oConnors presidency spanned twelve of the ILAs most intriguing and influential years. So powerful and well equipped was the Lake Carriers Association that Lakes shipping ran almost regularly despite the union walk out, in the end, the ILA was almost alone on the Lakes
41.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
42.
Twenty-foot equivalent unit
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The twenty-foot equivalent unit is an inexact unit of cargo capacity often used to describe the capacity of container ships and container terminals. Also, it is common to designate 45-foot containers as 2 TEU, the standard intermodal container is designated as twenty feet long and 8 feet wide. The twistlocks on a ship are put at a distance so that two standard twenty-foot containers have a gap of three inches which allows a single forty-foot container to be put on top, the forty-foot containers have found wider acceptance, as they can be pulled by semi-trailer truck. The length of such a combination is within the limits of national road regulations in many countries, requiring no special permission. As some road regulations allow longer trucks, there are variations of the standard forty-foot container — in Europe. Containers with a length of 48 feet or 53 feet are restricted to transport in the United States. Although longer than 40 feet, these variants are put in the class of forty-foot equivalent units. Container ships only take 40-foot and 20-foot containers below deck, plus 45-foot containers above deck, ninety percent of the containers that container ships carry are 40-foot units. As container ships carry 90% of the freight, at least 81% of the worlds freight moves via 40-foot containers. As the TEU is a unit, it cannot be converted precisely into other units. The related unit forty-foot equivalent unit, however, is defined as two TEU, the most common dimensions for a 20-foot container are 20 feet long,8 feet wide, and 8 feet 6 inches high, for a volume of 1,360 cubic feet. However, both 9-foot-6-inch-tall High cube and 4-foot-3-inch half height containers are also reckoned as 1 TEU and this gives a volume range of 680 to 1,520 cubic feet for one TEU. While the TEU is not itself a measure of mass, some conclusions can be drawn about the mass that a TEU can represent. The maximum gross mass for a 20-foot dry cargo container is 24,000 kilograms, subtracting the tare mass of the container itself, the maximum amount of cargo per TEU is reduced to approximately 21,600 kilograms. Similarly, the gross mass for a 40-foot dry cargo container is 30,480 kilograms. After correcting for tare weight, this gives a capacity of 26,500 kilograms. Twenty-foot, heavy tested containers are available for goods such as heavy machinery. These containers allow a maximum weight of 67,200 pounds, an empty weight of 5,290 pounds, Container ship Container terminal Containerization List of unusual units of measurement Panama Canal toll system shipping ton Maersk Shipping
43.
Roll forming
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Roll forming, also spelled rollforming, is a type of rolling involving the continuous bending of a long strip of sheet metal into a desired cross-section. The strip passed through sets of rolls mounted on stands, each set performing only an incremental part of the bend. Roll forming is ideal for producing parts with long lengths. A variety of profiles can be produced, but each profile requires a carefully crafted set of roll tools. Design of the rolls starts with a pattern, which is the sequence of profile cross-sections. The roll contours are then derived from the flower pattern profiles, roll-formed sections may have advantages over extrusions of a similar shapes. Roll formed parts may be lighter, with thinner walls possible than in the extrusion process. Parts can be made having a finish or already painted, in addition, the roll forming process is more rapid and takes less energy than extrusion. Roll forming machines are available that produce shapes of different sizes, variations in size are achieved by making the distances between the rolls variable by manual adjustment or computerized controls, allowing for rapid changeover. These specialized mills are prevalent in the light gauge framing industry where metal studs, for example, a single mill may be able to produce metal studs of different web, flange and lip dimensions, from different gauges of galvanized steel sheet. Roll forming lines can be set up with multiple configurations to punch, features may be added in a hole, notch, embossment, or shear form by punching in a roll forming line. These part features can be done in an application, in a mid-line punching application or a post punching application. Some roll forming lines incorporate only one of the punch or cutoff applications. Roll forming is, among the processes, one of the simplest. It typically begins with a coil of sheet metal, between 1 inch and 20 inches. In width, and 0.004 inches and 0.125 inches thick, supported on an uncoiler. The strip is fed through a guide to properly align the material as it passes through the rolls of the mill. Roll sets are mounted one over the other on a pair of horizontal parallel shafts supported by a stand
44.
Plywood
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Plywood is a sheet material manufactured from thin layers or plies of wood veneer that are glued together with adjacent layers having their wood grain rotated up to 90 degrees to one another. It is a wood from the family of manufactured boards which includes medium-density fibreboard. All plywoods bind resin and wood fibre sheets to form a composite material, there is usually an odd number of plies, so that the sheet is balanced—this reduces warping. Because plywood is bonded with grains running against one another and with an odd number of composite parts, the word ply derives from the French verb plier, to fold, from the Latin verb plico, from the ancient Greek verb πλέκω. In 1797 Samuel Bentham applied for patents covering several machines to produce veneers, in his patent applications, he described the concept of laminating several layers of veneer with glue to form a thicker piece – the first description of what we now call plywood. Samuel Bentham was a British naval engineer with many shipbuilding inventions to his credit. Veneers at the time of Bentham were flat sawn, rift sawn or quarter sawn, i. e. cut along or across the log manually in different angles to the grain and thus limited in width and length. One can thus presume that rotary lathe plywood manufacture was a process in France in the 1860s. Plywood was introduced into the United States in 1865 and industrial production started shortly after, in 1928, the first standard-sized 4 ft by 8 ft plywood sheets were introduced in the United States for use as a general building material. Artists use plywood as a support for paintings to replace traditional canvas or cardboard. Ready-made artist boards for oil painting in three-layered plywood were produced, in India, plywood is more commonly called Kitply after a leading brand which pioneered the concept of waterproof plywood in the early 1970s. A typical plywood panel has face veneers of a higher grade than the core veneers, the principal function of the core layers is to increase the separation between the outer layers where the bending stresses are highest, thus increasing the panels resistance to bending. As a result, thicker panels can span greater distances under the same loads, in bending, the maximum stress occurs in the outermost layers, one in tension, the other in compression. Bending stress decreases from the maximum at the layers to nearly zero at the central layer. Shear stress, by contrast, is higher in the center of the panel, the most common dimension is 1.2 by 2.4 metres or the slightly larger imperial dimension of 4 feet ×8 feet. Plies vary in thickness from 1.4 mm to 4.3 mm, the number of plies—which is always odd—depends on the thickness and grade of the sheet. Roofing can use the thinner 5/8 plywood, subfloors are at least 3/4 thick, the thickness depending on the distance between floor joists. T&G plywood is usually found in the 1/2 to 1 range, hardwood plywood is made out of wood from angiosperm trees and used for demanding end uses
45.
Sheet metal
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Sheet metal is metal formed by an industrial process into thin, flat pieces. It is one of the forms used in metalworking and it can be cut. Countless everyday objects are fabricated from sheet metal, thicknesses can vary significantly, extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm are considered plate. Sheet metal is available in flat pieces or coiled strips, the coils are formed by running a continuous sheet of metal through a roll slitter. The thickness of metal is in the USA commonly specified by a traditional. The larger the number, the thinner the metal. Commonly used steel sheet metal ranges from 30 gauge to about 7 gauge, in the rest of the world, the sheet metal thickness is given in millimeters. There are many different metals that can be made into metal, such as aluminium, brass, copper, steel, tin, nickel. Sheet metal of iron and other materials with high permeability, also known as laminated steel cores, has applications in transformers. Historically, an important use of metal was in plate armor worn by cavalry. Sheet metal workers are known as tin bashers, a name derived from the hammering of panel seams when installing tin roofs. Grade 304 is the most common of the three grades and it offers good corrosion resistance while maintaining formability and weldability. Available finishes are #2B, #3, and #4, grade 303 is not available in sheet form. Grade 316 possesses more corrosion resistance and strength at elevated temperatures than 304 and it is commonly used for pumps, valves, chemical equipment, and marine applications. Available finishes are #2B, #3, and #4, grade 410 is a heat treatable stainless steel, but it has a lower corrosion resistance than the other grades. It is commonly used in cutlery, the only available finish is dull. Grade 430 is popular grade, low cost alternative to series 300s grades, used when high corrosion resistance is not a primary criteria. Common grade for appliance products, often with a brushed finish, aluminum is also a popular metal used in sheet metal due to its flexibility, wide range of options, cost effectiveness, and other properties
46.
Corrugated galvanised iron
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Corrugated galvanised iron or steel is a building material composed of sheets of hot-dip galvanised mild steel, cold-rolled to produce a linear corrugated pattern in them. The corrugations increase the strength of the sheet in the direction perpendicular to the corrugations. Normally each sheet is manufactured longer in its strong direction, CGI is lightweight and easily transported. It was and still is used especially in rural and military buildings such as sheds. Its unique properties were used in the development of countries like Australia from the 1840s, corrugated iron is equivalent to tin roof. CGI was invented in the 1820s in Britain by Henry Robinson Palmer, architect and it was originally made from wrought iron. It proved to be light, strong, corrosion-resistant, and easily transported, in Australia and New Zealand particularly it has become part of the cultural identity, and fashionable architectural use has become common. For roofing purposes, the sheets are laid somewhat like tiles, with an overlap of one and half corrugations. CGI is also a construction material for industrial buildings throughout the world. Wrought iron CGI was gradually replaced by mild steel from around the 1890s, galvanized sheets with simple corrugations are also being gradually displaced by 55% Al-Zn coated steel or coil-painted sheets with complex profiles. Today the corrugation process is carried out using the process of roll forming and this modern process is highly automated to achieve high productivity and low costs associated with labour. In the corrugation process sheet metal is pulled off huge rolls, after the sheet metal passes through the rollers it is automatically sheared off at a desired length. The standard shape of corrugated material is the round wavy style, many materials today undergo the corrugation process. The most common materials are ferrous alloys but may also span to stainless steels, copper and aluminium are also used. Regular ferrous alloys are the most common due to price and availability, common sizes of corrugated material can range from a very thin 30 gauge to a relatively thick 6 gauge. Thicker or thinner gauges may also be produced, other materials such as plastic and fibreglass are also given the corrugated look. Many applications are available for products including using them with metal sheets to allow light to penetrate below. The corrugations are described in terms of pitch and depth and it is important for the pitch and depth to be quite uniform, in order for the sheets to be easily stackable for transport, and to overlap neatly when joining two sheets
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