1.
Non-governmental organization
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A non-governmental organization is a not-for-profit organization that is independent from states and international governmental organizations. They are usually funded by donations but some avoid formal funding altogether and are run primarily by volunteers, NGOs are highly diverse groups of organizations engaged in a wide range of activities, and take different forms in different parts of the world. Some may have charitable status, while others may be registered for tax exemption based on recognition of social purposes, others may be fronts for political, religious, or other interests. The number of NGOs worldwide is estimated to be 3.7 million, India is estimated to have had around 2 million NGOs in 2009, just over one NGO per 600 Indians, and many times the number of primary schools and primary health centres in India. China is estimated to have approximately 440,000 officially registered NGOs, NGOs are difficult to define, and the term NGO is not always used consistently. In some countries the term NGO is applied to an organization that in another country would be called an NPO, there are many different classifications of NGO in use. The most common focus is on orientation and level of operation, an NGOs orientation refers to the type of activities it takes on. These activities might include human rights, environmental, improving health, an NGOs level of operation indicates the scale at which an organization works, such as local, regional, national, or international. The term non-governmental organization was first coined in 1945, when the United Nations was created, later the term became used more widely. One characteristic these diverse organizations share is that their non-profit status means they are not hindered by short-term financial objectives. Accordingly, they are able to devote themselves to issues which occur across longer time horizons, such as change, malaria prevention. Public surveys reveal that NGOs often enjoy a degree of public trust. NGO/GRO types can be understood by their orientation and level of how they operate, charitable orientation often involves a top-down paternalistic effort with little participation by the beneficiaries. It includes NGOs with activities directed toward meeting the needs of the poor people, in the classical community development project, participation begins with the need definition and continues into the planning and implementation stages. There is maximum involvement of the beneficiaries with NGOs acting as facilitators, community-based organizations arise out of peoples own initiatives. They can be responsible for raising the consciousness of the poor, helping them to understand their rights in accessing needed services. City-wide organizations include organizations such as chambers of commerce and industry, coalitions of business, ethnic or educational groups, national NGOs include national organizations such as the YMCAs/YWCAs, professional associations and similar groups. Some have state and city branches and assist local NGOs and they can be responsible for funding local NGOs, institutions and projects and implementing projects
2.
Anti-personnel mine
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Anti-personnel mines are a form of mine designed for use against humans, as opposed to anti-tank mines, which are designed for use against vehicles. Anti-personnel mines may be classified into blast mines or fragmentation mines, the mines are often designed to injure, not kill, their victims in order to increase the logistical support required by enemy forces that encounter them. Some types of mines can also damage the tracks on armoured vehicles or the tires of wheeled vehicles. What makes them different from most anti-tank mines, however, is their smaller size and this process can be done manually, via dispensers on land vehicles, or from helicopters or aircraft. Alternatively, they can be dispensed by cargo-carrying artillery shells and their primary purpose is to blow the victims foot or leg off, disabling them. Injuring, rather than killing, the victim is viewed as preferable in order to increase the burden on the opposing force. When a person steps on a blast mine and activates it, the shock wave sends a huge compressive force upwards, ejecting the mine casing and any soil covering the mine along with it. When the blast wave hits the surface, it transfers the force into the subjects footwear. This results in a compression force being applied. In most cases, the foot is blown off by the blast wave. Different types of soil will result in different amounts of energy being transferred upward into the subjects foot, secondary injuries from a blast mine are often caused by the material that has been torn loose by the mines explosion. This consists of the soil and stones that were on top of the mine, parts of the victims footwear and this debris creates wounds typical of similar secondary blast effects or fragmentation. Special footwear, including combat boots or so-called blast boots, is only moderately protective against the effects of blast mines. Blast mines have little effect on armoured vehicles, but can damage a vehicle if it runs directly over the mine. Small blast mines will severely damage a tire, rendering it irreparable while some types could also damage adjacent running gear, the mine casing houses the components of the mine and protects it from its environment. Early mines, such as the used in the World War II era, had casings made of steel or aluminium. However, by the middle of the conflict, the British Army was using the first, practical, the Germans responded with mines that had a wooden or glass casing to make detection harder. Wooden mines had been used by the Russians in 1939, before the appearance of metal detectors, some, like the PP Mi-D mine, continued to be used into the 1980s as they were easy to make and hard to detect
3.
Cluster munition
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A cluster munition is a form of air-dropped or ground-launched explosive weapon that releases or ejects smaller submunitions. Commonly, this is a bomb that ejects explosive bomblets that are designed to kill personnel. Other cluster munitions are designed to destroy runways or electric transmission lines, disperse chemical or biological weapons. Some submunition-based weapons can disperse non-munitions, such as leaflets, because cluster bombs release many small bomblets over a wide area, they pose risks to civilians both during attacks and afterwards. Unexploded bomblets can kill or maim civilians and/or unintended targets long after a conflict has ended, Cluster munitions are prohibited for those nations that ratify the Convention on Cluster Munitions, adopted in Dublin, Ireland in May 2008. The Convention entered into force and became binding international law upon ratifying states on 1 August 2010, as of 1 October 2015, a total of 118 states have joined the Convention, as 98 States parties and 20 Signatories. The first cluster bomb used operationally was the German SD-2 or Sprengbombe Dickwandig 2 kg and it was used in World War II to attack both civilian and military targets. The technology was developed independently by the United States, Russia, the US used the 20-lb M41 fragmentation bomb wired together in clusters of 6 or 25 with highly sensitive or proximity fuzes. From the 1970s to the 1990s cluster bombs became standard air-dropped munitions for many nations and they have been produced by 34 countries and used in at least 23. Artillery shells that employ similar principles have existed for decades and they are typically referred to as ICM shells. The US military slang terms for them are firecracker or popcorn shells, a basic cluster bomb consists of a hollow shell and then two to more than 2,000 submunitions or bomblets contained within it. Some types are dispensers that are designed to be retained by the aircraft after releasing their munitions, the submunitions themselves may be fitted with small parachute retarders or streamers to slow their descent. Modern cluster bombs and submunition dispensers are often multiple-purpose weapons, containing mixtures of anti-armor, anti-personnel, the submunitions themselves may also be multi-purpose, such as combining a shaped charge, to attack armour, with a fragmenting case, to attack infantry, material, and light vehicles. Modern multipurpose munitions may also have an incendiary effect, recently submunition-based weapons have been designed that deploy smart submunitions, using thermal and visual sensors to locate and attack particular targets, usually armored vehicles. Weapons of this include the US CBU-97 sensor-fuzed weapon, first used in combat during Operation Iraqi Freedom. Incendiary cluster bombs are intended to start fires, just as conventional incendiary bombs and they are specifically designed for this purpose, with submunitions of white phosphorus or napalm, and they often include anti-personnel and anti-tank submunitions to hamper firefighting efforts. When used in cities they have often preceded by the use of conventional explosive bombs to break open the roofs. One of the earliest examples is the so-called Molotov bread basket first used by the Soviet Union in the Winter War of 1939-40 and this type of munition was extensively used by both sides in the strategic bombings of World War II
4.
Human Rights Watch
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Human Rights Watch is an American-founded international non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on human rights. C. and Zurich. The organizations annual expenses totaled $50.6 million in 2011, Human Rights Watch was founded by Robert L. Bernstein as a private American NGO in 1978, under the name Helsinki Watch, to monitor the former Soviet Unions compliance with the Helsinki Accords. Helsinki Watch adopted a practice of naming and shaming abusive governments through media coverage. Americas Watch was founded in 1981 while bloody civil wars engulfed Central America, asia Watch, Africa Watch, and Middle East Watch were added to what was known as The Watch Committees. In 1988, all of these committees were united under one umbrella to form Human Rights Watch, pursuant to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Human Rights Watch opposes violations of what it considers basic human rights. This includes capital punishment and discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, HRW advocates freedoms in connection with fundamental human rights, such as freedom of religion and freedom of the press. These reports are used as the basis for drawing attention to abuses and pressuring governments. HRW has documented and reported violations of the laws of war. Human Rights Watch also supports writers worldwide, who are being persecuted for their work and are in need of financial assistance. The Hellman/Hammett grants are financed by the estate of the playwright Lillian Hellman in funds set up in her name and that of her long-time companion, the novelist Dashiell Hammett. In addition to providing assistance, the Hellman/Hammett grants help raise international awareness of activists who are being silenced for speaking out in defense of human rights. Each year, Human Rights Watch presents the Human Rights Defenders Award to activists around the world who demonstrate leadership, the award winners work closely with HRW in investigating and exposing human rights abuses. Human Rights Watch was one of six international NGOs that founded the Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers in 1998, Human Rights Watch is a founding member of the International Freedom of Expression Exchange, a global network of non-governmental organizations that monitor censorship worldwide. It also co-founded the Cluster Munition Coalition, which brought about an international convention banning the weapons, HRW employs more than 275 staff—country experts, lawyers, journalists, and academics – and operates in more than 90 countries around the world. The current executive director of HRW is Kenneth Roth, who has held the position since 1993, Roth conducted investigations on abuses in Poland after martial law was declared 1981. He later focused on Haiti, which had just emerged from the Duvalier dictatorship, roth’s awareness of the importance of human rights began with stories his father had told about escaping Nazi Germany in 1938. Roth graduated from Yale Law School and Brown University, HRW has been criticized for perceived bias by the national governments it has investigated for human rights abuses, and by NGO Monitor, and HRWs founder, and former Chairman, Robert L. Bernstein. Bias allegations include undue influence by United States government policy, HRW has routinely publicly responded to, and often rejected, criticism of its reporting and findings
5.
Medico International
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Medico International is a government-supported humanitarian relief and human rights organization based in Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Its declared aim is to achieve the right to health globally. Medico has a budget of approximately 11 million Euro, provided by the German Federal Foreign Office and Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development ). With this large budget, Medico is a prominent member in what Dutch author Linda Polman has called and criticized as the humanitarian NGO industry, Medico works with partners from Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Middle East. Together with its partners Medico provides help during catastrophes and supports long-term activities, Medico International focuses on health supply, human rights, psycho-social work and migration. Citing the World Health Organization, is not only seen as the absence of decease but as a physical, psychological and social comfort, in this definition it goes along with the World Health Organization. Secondly Medico emphasizes a critical public and educational work, where it engages in debates as well as campaigning, Medico puts the sources of poverty and conflicts into focus and not only to support in the management of the consequences. This idea is reflected within its several publications—like the quarterly ‘rundschreiben’, Medico International is a registered association with a voluntary board. The psychologist Thomas Gebauer is the managing director, the office is divided into the three sections, public work, project monitoring and administration. Around 40 people work at the office in Frankfurt, with three offices, one in Israel/Palestine, one in Central America and one in Algeria. The most famous employee is the philosopher Thomas Seibert, the process of oversight and regulation of Medico activities and personnel is unclear. Founded in 2004, the Medico International Foundation supports activities with earnings and engages in debates, congresses, famous members of the board of trustees are the German cabaret artist Georg Schramm as well as the former Hessian minister Rupert von Plottnitz. Former members were the Psychoanalysts Paul Parin and Margarete Mitscherlich-Nielsen, Medico International was founded with the name ‘Medico Action’ in 1968. It started with the aim to collect medication for Biafra and delegated staff, due to those experiences, Medico changed its strategy fundamentally, adding a strong emphasis on political activism in conflict areas. Discussions came to the conclusion that for improving the situation long term the sources for poverty, since then Medico refrains from sending medical supply or personal from abroad short term but tries to support local initiatives, capacities and specialists. Long term projects came into the centre of Medicos work, in 1970s Medico focused on Primary Health Care and a community centred health support because of the stranding of a big health centre in cooperation with the government of Mali in 1973. A central perspective of this approach is the impossibility to achieve health care of everyone by centrally monitored projects from governments. Furthermore, everyone concerned needs to place in this process
6.
Physicians for Human Rights
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PHR headquarters are in New York City, with offices in Boston and Washington, D. C. The three Chilean doctors were released five weeks after Dr. Fines visit, in 1997, the organization shared the Nobel Peace Prize for medically documenting landmine injuries and serving as a leader in the International Campaign to Ban Landmines. Governments, United Nations agencies, international and national courts, and other rights organizations have all sought PHR’s forensic. The organization’s work has contributed to landmark decisions such as the 2016 conviction of Radovan Karadžić and these evaluations can then contribute to evidence for prosecutions or be used to bring attention to crimes. The IFP has performed forensic investigations for bodies such as the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, experts in the IFP range from forensic pathologists to forensic anthropologists, as well as analytical scientists such as firearm examiners. They perform forensic investigations, evaluations, monitoring, or review of other parties’ forensic work, PHR launched the Forensic Training Institute to strengthen local capacities for forensic investigations and documentation. The institute seeks to strengthen the ability of personnel to document torture, mass atrocities, sexual violence. It also trains legal and law enforcement professionals who seek redress via local, national, PHR’s FTI program has partners in Afghanistan, Burma, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Syria, Tajikistan, and the United States. PHR’s Program on Sexual Violence in Conflict Zones was launched in 2011, the program strengthens cross-sectoral responses to sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Kenya through training workshops for health care, law enforcement, and legal professionals. The program has an office at renowned gynecological surgeon Dr. Denis Mukwege’s Panzi Hospital, in Bukavu, to aid the documentation of sexual violence, PHR has developed MediCapt, an app allowing the secure digital recording and transmission of medical evidence. PHR’s Asylum Program advocates for improved conditions in U. S. immigration detention centers and documents abuses suffered by asylum seekers in their home countries and in U. S. care. PHR’s U. S. Anti-Torture Program was launched in 2003, PHR published a series of investigative reports documenting the U. S. government’s use of torture in pursuit of national security goals. ”Break Them Down, ” published in 2005, found evidence of the psychological torture employed by the military. Additional reports documented the physical and mental harm inflicted by interrogation practices. The research and investigations department at PHR documents human rights abuses around the world and their areas of research include attacks on health care and health personnel, mass atrocities, torture, and sexual violence across the globe. Notable investigations include,1988 — PHR researchers uncover evidence of the Iraqi government using chemical weapons on their Kurdish citizens,1996 — PHR teams exhumes mass graves in the Balkans. They provided evidence of ethnic cleansing to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and this work contributed to the ICTY’s conviction of Radovan Karadžić of war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity. 1996 — PHR sends a team to exhume mass graves in Rwanda,2004 — PHR researchers investigate mass killings in Darfur
7.
Mines Advisory Group
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The Mines Advisory Group is a non-governmental organization that assists people affected by landmines, unexploded ordnance, and small arms and light weapons. MAG takes an approach to landmine action. They focus on the impact of their work on local communities and this approach recognises that although the number of landmines in an area may be small, the effect on a community can be crippling. Targets are therefore determined locally, in response to liaison with affected communities, MAG field operations are managed and implemented by nationals of the affected countries, with MAG expatriate staff taking a monitoring and training role. MAG provides work for members of affected communities, with families of landmine victims taking an active role. MAG is based in Manchester, United Kingdom, and has a sister organisation, MAG America in Washington, as part of the International Campaign to Ban Landmines, MAG was co-laureate of the 1997 Nobel Peace Prize. MAG was formed in 1989 by Rae McGrath in response to landmines, the organisation initially served as an advisory group, publishing reports about the problems in Afghanistan and Cambodia based on their assessments between 1989 and 1991. Subsequent reports included Iraq, Somaliland and Angola, in 1992, MAG, along with other NGOs, formed the International Campaign to Ban Landmines. By 1992, MAG had raised sufficient funds to begin its first landmine clearance program in Iraq, Clearance programmes extended to Cambodia the same year, followed by Lao PDR and Angola in 1994. MAG also introduced mine risk education alongside their clearance programs to help minimise the risk to the local populations, MRE operations were extended to Rwanda and to refugee camps in Zaire and the former Zambia. In 1996, Lou McGrath became executive director and MAG established its headquarters in Manchester. MAG’s delivery of Humanitarian Mine Action is centred on the use of multi-skilled and these were developed by MAG in the mid-nineties in response to the varied needs of mine affected communities. Team members are trained in Community Liaison, information/data gathering, survey and assessment, mapping, logistics, minefield marking, MAG conducted its first emergency survey in Afghanistan in 1989 and conducted the first ever surveys in Cambodia and northern Iraq. In 1993, MAG conducted an emergency impact assessment of the problem in Moxico province, Angola. Mechanical capacities have formed an important element of MAG’s HMA toolbox for several years, machines have been used successfully to support manual clearance operations in a number of countries, including Angola, Cambodia, Kosovo, Iraq, Lebanon, Sri Lanka and Vietnam. MAG uses a variety of flails, heavy plant and adapted agricultural, current mechanical assets include the Tempest flail, Bozena 4 flail, Armtrac 100 flail, Minecat 230 flail and Digger D-2 flail. These assets can be used for a variety of tasks, including clearance of land, area reduction, the hazard posed by explosive ordnance is often highly significant in post-conflict situations. A large percentage of ordnance fails to detonate as designed and poses a threat to people trying to rebuild their lives in the aftermath of conflict
8.
Diana, Princess of Wales
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Diana, Princess of Wales, was the first wife of Charles, Prince of Wales, who is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Diana was born into a family of British nobility with royal ancestry and was the child and third daughter of John Spencer, Viscount Althorp. She grew up in Park House, situated on the Sandringham estate, in 1975, after her father inherited the title of Earl Spencer, she became known as Lady Diana Spencer. She came to prominence in February 1981 when her engagement to Prince Charles was announced and her wedding to the Prince of Wales on 29 July 1981, held at St Pauls Cathedral, reached a global television audience of over 750 million people. While married, Diana bore the titles Princess of Wales, Duchess of Cornwall, Duchess of Rothesay, the marriage produced two sons, the princes William and Harry, who were then respectively second and third in the line of succession to the British throne. As Princess of Wales, Diana undertook royal duties on behalf of the Queen and she was celebrated for her charity work and for her support of the International Campaign to Ban Landmines. She was involved with dozens of charities including Londons Great Ormond Street Hospital for children, Diana remained the object of worldwide media scrutiny during and after her marriage, which ended in divorce on 28 August 1996. Media attention and public mourning were extensive after her death in a car crash in Paris on 31 August 1997, Diana was born on 1 July 1961, in Park House, Sandringham, Norfolk. She was the fourth of five children of John Spencer, Viscount Althorp, the Spencer family has been closely allied with the British Royal Family for several generations. Both of Dianas grandmothers had served as ladies-in-waiting to Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, on 30 August 1961, Diana was baptised at St. Mary Magdalene Church, Sandringham, with wealthy commoners as godparents. Diana had three siblings, Sarah, Jane, and Charles and her infant brother, John, died shortly after his birth one year before Diana was born. The desire for an added strain to the Spencers marriage. Diana grew up in Park House, situated on the Sandringham estate, the Spencers leased the house from its owner, Queen Elizabeth II. The Royal Family frequently holidayed at the neighbouring Sandringham House, and Diana played with Princes Andrew, Diana was seven years old when her parents divorced. Her mother later had an affair with Peter Shand Kydd and married him in 1969, Diana lived with her mother in London during her parents separation in 1967, but during that years Christmas holidays, Lord Althorp refused to let Diana return to London with Lady Althorp. Shortly afterwards he won custody of Diana with support from his former mother-in-law, Ruth Roche, in 1972, Lord Althorp began a relationship with Raine, Countess of Dartmouth, the only daughter of Alexander McCorquodale and Dame Barbara Cartland. They married at Caxton Hall, London in 1976, as an upper-class child at the time, Diana was first educated under the supervision of her governess, Gertrude Allen. She began her education at Silfield Private School in Gayton, Norfolk, and moved to Riddlesworth Hall School, an all-girls boarding school near Diss
9.
Jody Williams
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She was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1997 for her work toward the banning and clearing of anti-personnel mines. She served as the coordinator of the International Campaign to Ban Landmines from early 1992 until February 1998. Three weeks later, she and the ICBL were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, at that time, she became the tenth woman – and third American woman – in its almost hundred-year history to receive the Prize. If you think that singing and looking at a rainbow will suddenly make peace appear then you’re not capable of meaningful thought, or understanding the difficulties of the world. Since 2007, Williams has been the Sam and Cele Keeper Professor in Peace, prior to that she had been a Distinguished Visiting Professor of Global Justice at the College since 2003. Professor Williams continues to be recognized for her contributions to human rights and she is the recipient of fifteen honorary degrees, among other recognitions. In 2004, she was named by Forbes magazine as one of the 100 most powerful women in the world in its first such listing and her work includes articles for magazines and newspapers around the world and chapters to numerous books. Williams also co-authored a seminal book on the crisis in 1995, After the Guns Fall Silent. It was released at the end of March 2008 by Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, in March 2013, her memoir, My Name Is Jody Williams, A Vermont Girl’s Winding Path to the Nobel Peace Prize was released
10.
Nobel Peace Prize
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Per Alfred Nobels will, the recipient is selected by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, a five-member committee appointed by the Parliament of Norway. Since 1990, the prize is awarded on 10 December in Oslo City Hall each year, the prize was formerly awarded in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law, the Norwegian Nobel Institute, and the Parliament. Due to its nature, the Nobel Peace Prize has, for most of its history. Alfred Nobels will further specified that the prize be awarded by a committee of five chosen by the Norwegian Parliament. Nobel died in 1896 and he did not leave an explanation for choosing peace as a prize category, as he was a trained chemical engineer, the categories for chemistry and physics were obvious choices. The reasoning behind the peace prize is less clear, some Nobel scholars suggest it was Nobels way to compensate for developing destructive forces. His inventions included dynamite and ballistite, both of which were used violently during his lifetime, ballistite was used in war and the Irish Republican Brotherhood, an Irish nationalist organization, carried out dynamite attacks in the 1880s. Nobel was also instrumental in turning Bofors from an iron and steel producer into an armaments company and it is unclear why Nobel wished the Peace Prize to be administered in Norway, which was ruled in union with Sweden at the time of Nobels death. The Norwegian Nobel Committee speculates that Nobel may have considered Norway better suited to awarding the prize, the Norwegian Parliament appoints the Norwegian Nobel Committee, which selects the Nobel Peace Prize laureate. Each year, the Norwegian Nobel Committee specifically invites qualified people to submit nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize, the statutes of the Nobel Foundation specify categories of individuals who are eligible to make nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. Nominations by committee members can be submitted up to the date of the first Committee meeting after this deadline. In 2009, a record 205 nominations were received, but the record was again in 2010 with 237 nominations, in 2011. Nominations from 1901 to 1956, however, have released in a database. Nominations are considered by the Nobel Committee at a meeting where a short list of candidates for review is created. Advisers usually have some months to complete reports, which are considered by the Committee to select the laureate. The Committee seeks to achieve a decision, but this is not always possible. The Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway on 10 December each year, the Peace Prize is the only Nobel Prize not presented in Stockholm. The Nobel laureate receives a diploma, a medal, and a document confirming the prize amount, as of 2013, the prize was worth 10 million SEK
11.
Ottawa Treaty
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To date, there are 162 state parties to the treaty. One state has signed but not ratified the treaty, while 34 UN states, including the United States, Russia and China, are non-signatories,1939 Landmines are first used widely in World War II. 1977 During the Geneva Convention, one provision is amended to prohibit the targeting of civilian populations by indiscriminate weapons in wartime,1980 The Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons limits the use of landmines against persons. 1991 Six NGOs supporting a ban of landmines begin organizing the International Campaign to Ban Landmines,1993 The First International NGO Conference on Landmines is held in London, organised by the ICBL and acknowledging Jody Williams as the organizations coordinator. The US Department of State publishes its report Hidden Killer, The Global Problem with Uncleared Landmines,1995 The first national law to ban anti-personnel landmines is passed in Belgium. 1996 Canada launches the Ottawa Process to ban landmines by hosting a meeting among like-minded,1997 The Ottawa Treaty is adopted, opened for signature, and signed by 122 states. Jody Williams and the ICBL are awarded the Nobel Peace Prize,1998 The treaty reaches its 40th ratification, triggering its entry into force the next year. The ICBL launches the Landmine Monitor initiative to verify compliance with the treaty,1999 The treaty becomes binding international law on 1 March 1999. 2003 The first stockpile destruction deadlines are met by all parties with stockpiles. 2012 The ICBL marks its 20th anniversary, within ten years after ratifying the treaty, the country should have cleared all of its mined areas. This is a task for many countries, but at the annual meetings of the States Parties they may request an extension. The treaty also calls on States Parties to provide assistance to mine-affected persons in their own country, the treaty covers only anti-personnel mines, it does not address mixed mines, anti-tank mines, remote-controlled claymore mines, anti-handling devices, and other static explosive devices. Signatory nations have destroyed more than 48 million stockpiled mines since the entry into force on 1 March 1999. One hundred and fifty-seven countries have completed the destruction of their stockpiles or declared that they did not possess stockpiles to destroy, Article 3 of the treaty permits countries to retain landmines for use in training in mine detection, mine clearance, or mine destruction techniques. 72 countries have taken this option, of this group,26 States Parties retain fewer than 1,000 mines. Only two have retained more than 10,000 mines, Turkey and Bangladesh, a total of 83 States Parties have declared that they do not retain any antipersonnel mines, including 27 states that stockpiled antipersonnel mines in the past. El Salvador finished clearing its landmines before joining the Treaty, at the November–December 2009 Cartagena Summit for a Mine-Free World, Albania, Greece, Rwanda, and Zambia were also declared mine-free. On 2 December 2009, Rwanda was declared free of landmines and it followed a three-year campaign by 180 Rwandan soldiers, supervised by the Mine Awareness Trust and trained in Kenya, to remove over 9,000 mines laid in the country between 1990 and 1994
12.
Uganda Landmine Survivors Association
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The Uganda Landmine Survivors Association is a non-governmental organization, focused primarily on advocacy and victim assistance throughout Uganda. The organization was founded in April 2005 in order to campaign against the use, production and transfer of landmines, cluster munitions, there are 2,039 estimated victims of antipersonnel mines living in Uganda. Decades of violence and incivility have forced some 1.8 million people to leave their homes in Northern Uganda, there is also significant contamination in the Western region of Uganda, stemming from conflict on the Congolese border. Moreover, victims are often shunned by their families for fear of becoming a burden, while the landmine problem in Uganda is less severe than countries like Angola, Mozambique and Afghanistan, the nature of the weapon has made it difficult to overcome. According to Ugandan officials, there are more than 350 suspected hazardous areas in the country, international Campaign to Ban Landmines Convention on Cluster Munitions Uganda Landmine Survivors Association Web Site
13.
Convention on Cluster Munitions
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The Convention on Cluster Munitions is an international treaty that prohibits the use, transfer and stockpile of cluster bombs, a type of explosive weapon which scatters submunitions over an area. The convention was adopted on 30 May 2008 in Dublin, and was opened for signature on 3 December 2008 in Oslo and it entered into force on 1 August 2010, six months after it was ratified by 30 states. As of April 2016,108 states have signed the treaty and 100 have ratified it or acceded to it, weapons containing submunitions which all individually weigh at least 20 kg are also excluded. A limited number of prohibited weapons and submunitions can be acquired and kept for training in, a varying proportion of submunitions dispersed by cluster bombs fail to explode on impact and can lie unexploded for years until disturbed. The sometimes brightly colored munitions are not camouflaged, but have compared to toys or Easter eggs. The 2006 Lebanon War provided momentum for the campaign to ban cluster bombs, the United Nations estimated that up to 40% of Israeli cluster bomblets failed to explode on impact. Norway organized the independent Oslo process after discussions at the traditional disarmament forum in Geneva fell through in November 2006, the cluster munitions ban process, also known as the Oslo Process, began in February 2007 in Oslo. The Oslo Process held meetings in Lima in May 2007 and Vienna in December 2007, in February 2008,79 countries adopted the Wellington Declaration, setting forth the principles to be included in the convention. Delegates from 107 nations agreed to the draft of the treaty at the end of a ten-day meeting held in May 2008 in Dublin. Its text was adopted on 30 May 2008 by 107 nations. The treaty was opposed by a number of countries that produce or stockpile significant quantities of munitions, including China, Russia. In 2006, Barack Obama voted to support a measure to limit use of the bombs, while his general election opponent John McCain. According to the Pentagons 2008 policy, cluster munitions are actually humane weapons, blanket elimination of cluster munitions is therefore unacceptable due not only to negative military consequences but also due to potential negative consequences for civilians. The treaty allows certain types of weapons with submunitions that do not have the indiscriminate area effects or pose the same unexploded ordnance risks as the prohibited weapons and these must contain no more than nine submunitions, and no submunition may weigh less than 4 kilograms. Each submunition must have the capability to detect and engage a target object and contain electronic self-destruct. Weapons containing submunitions which each weigh at least 20 kg are also excluded, australia, which supports the treaty, stated that the convention does not prohibit the SMArt 155 artillery shell that it has bought, which releases two self-guided self-destructing submunitions. David Miliband, who was Britains foreign secretary under Labour, approved the use of a loophole to manoeuvre around the ban and allow the US to keep the munitions on British territory. Prior to the Dublin meeting, the United Kingdom was thought to be one of a group of nations in a pivotal role whereby their cooperation could make or break the treaty
14.
Geneva Call
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Geneva Call is a neutral and impartial non-governmental organization based in Geneva, Switzerland. Geneva Call was created in 1998, one year after the Ottawa Treaty was signed, however, Geneva Call took little action until March 2000, at a conference organized by the Swiss Campaign to Ban Landmines called Engaging Non-State Actors in a Landmine Ban. This conference, the first of its kind, created a foundation for approaching armed non-State actors about a landmine ban, Geneva Call is a non-profit organization under Swiss law. It is headed by a board composed of personalities with expertise in international law, in the thematic issues that compose Geneva Calls mission. One member of the board, Elisabeth Decrey-Warner, also serves as the president of Geneva Call. The board is organizing an advisory council consisting of experts in Geneva Calls work. She was a member of the Swiss Federal Council from 2003 to the end of 2011, Elisabeth Decrey-Warner, the Executive President and co-founder of Geneva Call, has worked for over 25 years with NGOs on issues relating to refugees, torture, disarmament and humanitarian norms. Her work was recognized in 2005 when she was nominated for Switzerland as one of the 1000 Women for the Nobel Peace Prize, ms Decrey Warner was a member of the Parliament of the Republic and Canton of Geneva for 12 years and was elected its President in 2000. She is currently a member of the Advisory Board of the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces as well as of the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining. Ms. Decrey Warner was nominated among the 100 most influential people in violence reduction in armed conflict and was awarded the prestigious Hessen Peace Prize in 2012, in 2013, she was awarded the French Legion of Honour. She was recently awarded an Honorary Doctorate by the University of Geneva, mr. Köhli uses cycling competitions as an opportunity to promote awareness for mine action. Geneva Call engages with armed non-State actors to encourage them to comply with international humanitarian norms and these international humanitarian norms are enshrined in the Geneva Conventions and other international treaties. This expansion was envisioned in Geneva Call’s founding statutes and has also encouraged by armed non-State actors themselves. They cannot become parties to relevant international treaties, and are generally precluded from participating in norm-making processes, consequently, they may not feel bound to abide by rules that they have neither put forward nor formally adhered to. Sometimes they are not aware of their obligations under IHL. The Deed of Commitment process gives them the opportunity to express their agreement to abide by humanitarian norms. The struggle against anti-personnel mines was the focus of Geneva Call. Geneva Call engages armed non-State actors to reduce the impact of anti-personnel mines on the population by promoting the ban
15.
Violent non-state actor
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Violent non-state actors, also known as armed non-state actors, are non-state actors, i. e. The term has been used in papers published by the U. S. military. There are many reasons why violent non-state actors develop, in the United States there are fears that the gangs have gotten so out of control they may become violent non-state actors. Thomas, Kiser and Casebeer in 2005 asserted that VNSA play a prominent, often destabilizing role in nearly every humanitarian, phil Williams, in an overview article, states that violent non-state actors have become a pervasive challenge to nation-states in the 21st century. Williams argues that VNSAs develop out of state governance but also contribute to further undermining governance by the state. This causes the family, tribe, clan etc. to become the reference points for political action. According to Williams, globalization has not only, challenged individual state capacity to manage economic affairs, it has also provided facilitators and force multipliers for VNSAs. Transnational flows of arms, for example, are no longer under the surveillance of states. With the onset of globalization, development of social capital and alliances. However, humanitarian agencies too often fail to engage strategically with VNSAs, in their opinion further study is necessary to identify ways in which humanitarian agencies can develop productive dialogue with VNSAs. Modeling Violent Non-State Actors, A Summary of Concepts and Methods, Colorado, Institute for Information Technology Applications, United States Air Force Academy. Deterring Violent Non-State Actors in the New Millenium, archived from the original on March 6,2008. Briefing Paper, Talking to the side, Humanitarian engagement with armed non-state actors. Thomas, Troy S. Casebeer, William D, Violent Non-State Actors, Countering Dynamic Systems. Archived from the original on March 1,2009, shultz, Richard H. Farah, Douglas, Lochard, Itamara V. Armed Groups, A Tier-One Security Priority, USAF Institute for National Security Studies, USAF Academy. Thomas, Troy S. Kiser, Stephen D. Casebeer, zurich, International Relations and Security Network. Violent Non-State Actors in World Politics, thomas, Troy S. Kiser, Stephen D
16.
Swiss Foundation for Mine Action
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The Swiss Foundation for Mine Action is a Swiss non-governmental organization involved in mine action. FSD stands for Fondation Suisse de Déminage, the French name of the organization, FSD is politically, ideologically and religiously independent. FSD is based in Geneva, has national offices in its countries of operation as well as a logistical. From 2005 FSD was joined by its French partner FSD France, and from 2007 by CROSSTECH SA, fSDs focus is on locating and destroying landmines and unexploded ordnance to prevent accidents. In 2017, FSD is leading mine action operations in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Colombia, South Sudan, previously, FSD has intervened in Bosnia, Croatia, Kosovo, Albania, Iraq, Pakistan, Angola, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and elsewhere. Major sources of financing are public and private funds, but also organizations, like in Sudan where the programme is supported by UN MAO. In 2007, FSD was also funded by ECHO for the clearance of cluster bombs in southern Lebanon, as a foundation under Swiss law, the FSD operates under the supervision of the Swiss federal authorities. Its accounts are audited by BDO which took over from KPMG in 2015, the FSD has held the ZEWO quality label certifying its reliability since 2003 and FSD is an ISO9001 certified. In 2005, the FSD was joined by its French partner and this independent, neutral organization is subject to the French 1901 law on associations. The purpose of new organization is to extend the humanitarian mine clearance activities already carried out by the FSD into other sectors such as Mine Risk Education. Implementing projects under the mandate of the European Commission and promoting mine action in the French-speaking part of the world are also among its aims, ottawa Treaty Mine clearance agencies Demining FSD Website FSD France Website SA
17.
Mine clearance agencies
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A mine clearance agency, or demining agency, is an organization involved in removal of landmines and Unexploded Ordnance for military, humanitarian, or commercial reasons. Demining includes mine clearance, as well as surveying, mapping and marking of hazardous areas, the broader realm of mine action also includes advocacy, victim assistance, antipersonnel mine stockpile destruction, mine risk education and research. This means that all the mines and ERW affecting the places where people live must be cleared. Mines are cleared and the areas are thoroughly verified so that they can say without a doubt that the land is now safe, Humanitarian mine clearance agencies are usually funded by governments and private donations. Germany, the UK, and Denmark are also significant donors, APOPO trains Giant pouched rats from East Africa to detect landmines. This unusual idea has been developed into a technology by a group of Belgian and Tanzanian researchers. It has further partnered in demining with Menschen gegen Minen, Norwegian Peoples Aid, Accelerated Demining Programme, Handicap International, danChurchAid is one of the major Danish humanitarian non governmental organisations, working with churches and non-religious civil organizations to assist the poorest of the poor with dignity. DCA Mine Action is currently involved in mine action programmes in Albania, Eritrea, Lebanon, Sudan. Danish Demining Group was established in 1997 and today functions as a Humanitarian Mine Action unit within the Danish Refugee Council, hence benefiting from synergies in cooperation. As of August 2012, DDG is operating with clearance of mines and explosive remnants of war in Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Sri Lanka, South Sudan, Uganda, DDG also works with armed violence reduction in several countries. DEMIRA is an international, humanitarian, non-governmental organization registered in Germany, the Golden West Humanitarian Foundation is an American non-profit organization that developed mine clearance technology. The HALO Trust is a non-political, non-religious, non-governmental mine clearance organisation registered in Britain, founded in 1988, it is the largest humanitarian demining NGO in the world with over 7,000 deminers and mine clearers in 10 countries. By early 2006 HALO has cleared over 5,000,000 mines, HALO has a very simple mission statement, Getting mines out of the ground, now. Handicap International is one of the 6 founding members of the International Campaign to Ban Landmines which received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1997, Handicap International France and Belgium are involved into Mine Risk Education and demining projects in Afghanistan, Kosovo, Mozambique, and Somalia. Horizon Organisation for Post Conflict Environment Management is an ex-servicemens endeavour NGO founded by senior retired Indian Army Officers in 2001, Horizon OPCEM is the first Indian NGO by, of and for Indian Ex Servicemen, dedicated to Post Conflict Environment Management with core competence in Humanitarian Demining. Founded by retired officers of the Indian Army in 2001, it was registered as a Society on 16 Jan 2002, Horizon OPCEM has done 7 Humanitarian Demining Projects in Sri Lanka and has received funding from the Norwegian Peoples Aid. INTERSOS is an independent no-profit humanitarian organization committed to assist the victims of natural disasters and it was founded in 1992 with the active support of Italian Trade Unions. Japan Mine Action Service is a Japanese Nonprofit organization established in 2002 that is headed by an expert who retired from the Self-Defense Force
18.
Demining
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Demining or mine clearance is the process of removing land mines from an area, while minesweeping describes the act of detecting mines. There are two types of mine detection and removal, military and humanitarian. Minesweepers use many tools in order to accomplish their task, there also are or have been other methods developed to detect mines, including the use of trained marine mammals, bacteria, acoustics, and other more exotic methods. In the combat zone, the process is referred to as mine clearance, according to the doctrine of the U. S. and other armies, mine clearance is carried out by combat engineers. The military priority is to breach the minefield quickly in order to create a path for troops or ships. Speed is vital, both for reasons and because units attempting to breach the minefield may be under enemy fire. Both anti-personnel mines and anti-tank mines must be removed, although only in the lanes through which troops or vehicles are planned to advance. The risk to sappers is far greater because they may be called upon to perform clearance as tactics dictate, including in all-weather conditions, command may accept casualties in the process. Furthermore, it is accepted that mine clearance will be imperfect, one advantage is that, in military operations, sappers are dealing with recently laid mines that respond predictably to clearance, have not migrated, and have not degraded. In this they are aided by technical intelligence on the current adversarys mines. In these mine clearance operations, the methods that are applied for detection and removal are quicker, in times of relative peace, the process of mine removal is referred to as demining. This is a thorough, time-intensive process that seeks to locate all mines so that the land or sea area may be returned to normal use. It is vital that this process be exhaustive, in this context demining is one of the tools of mine action. Coordinated by Mine Action Coordination Centers run by the United Nations or a host government, in post-conflict areas, minefields are often contaminated with a mixture of explosive remnants of war that includes unexploded ordnance as well as landmines. In that context, the humanitarian effort is often referred to as battle area clearance. In some situations, clearing landmines is a condition before other humanitarian programs can be implemented. There is an organization, APOPO, that is training African rats to detect landmines much as dogs do, in many circumstances, the only method that meets the United Nations requirements for effective humanitarian demining, the International Mine Action Standards, is manual detection and disarmament. The process is slow, expensive and dangerous, although demining can be safer than construction work if procedures are followed rigorously
19.
Land mine
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A land mine is an explosive device concealed under or on the ground and designed to destroy or disable enemy targets, ranging from combatants to vehicles and tanks, as they pass over or near it. Such a device is typically detonated automatically by way of pressure when a target steps on it or drives over it, a land mine may cause damage by direct blast effect, by fragments that are thrown by the blast, or by both. The name originates from the ancient practice of mining, where tunnels were dug under enemy fortifications or troop formations. These killing tunnels were at first collapsed to destroy targets located above, nowadays, in common parlance, land mine generally refers to devices specifically manufactured as anti-personnel or anti-vehicle weapons. The use of mines is controversial because of their potential as indiscriminate weapons. They can remain dangerous many years after a conflict has ended, harming the economy, to date,162 nations have signed the treaty. To act as passive area-denial weapons, land mines are currently used in large quantities mostly for this first purpose, thus their widespread use in the demilitarized zones of likely flashpoints such as Cyprus, Afghanistan and Korea. As of 2013, the governments that still laid land mines were Myanmar in its internal conflict. Land mines continue to kill or injure at least 4,300 people every year, even decades after the ends of the conflicts for which they were placed. This claim is dubious, as gunpowder warfare did not develop in China until the advent of the flamethrower in the 10th century, while the land mine was not seen in China until the late 13th century. Explosive land mines were being used in 1277 by the Chinese during the Song dynasty against an assault of the Mongols, the invention of this detonated enormous bomb was credited to one Lou Qianxia of the 13th century. The wad of the mine was made of wood, carrying three different fuses in case of defective connection to the touch hole. Pieces of bamboo are sawn into sections nine feet in length, all septa in the bamboo being removed, save only the last, boiling oil is next poured into and left there for some time before being removed. The fuse starts from the bottom, and is compressed into it to form an explosive mine, the gunpowder fills up eight-tenths of the tube, while lead or iron pellets take up the rest of the space, then the open end is sealed with wax. A trench five feet in depth is dug, the fuse is connected to a firing device which ignites them when disturbed. Further description of how this flint device operated was not made until a Chinese text of 1606 AD revealed that a drive had been used to work the steel wheel. Besides the use of steel wheels providing sparks for the fuses, there were other methods used as well, when the weapons were removed from the mound, this movement disturbed the bowl beneath them where the butt ends of the staffs were, which in turn ignited the fuses. According to the Wubei Huolongjing volume of the 17th century, the formula for this slow-burning incandescent material allowed it to burn continuously for 20 to 30 days without going out
20.
Aki Ra
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Aki Ra is a former Khmer Rouge conscripted child soldier who works as a deminer and museum curator in Siem Reap, Cambodia. He has devoted his life to removing landmines in Cambodia and to caring for young landmine victims, Aki Ra states that since 1992 he has personally removed and destroyed as many as 50,000 landmines, and is the founder of the Cambodian Landmine Museum. Aki Ra is unsure of his age, but believes he was born in 1970 or 1973 and his parents were killed by the Khmer Rouge. Orphaned in a Khmer Rouge camp, he was taken in by a woman named Yourn who raised him, like many others, he soon became a child soldier once his strength became sufficient to make him useful to local Khmer Rouge military commanders. When the Vietnamese army invaded Cambodia with the intention of toppling the Khmer Rouge political regime, later he enlisted with the Kampuchean Peoples Revolutionary Armed Forces formed by the new government, the Peoples Republic of Kampuchea. His duties included placing landmines along the area on Cambodias border with Thailand. The name Aki Ra was given to him by a Japanese acquaintance and is not his birth name and he was born Eoun Yeak, but one of his supervisors once compared his efficiency to AKIRA, a heavy-duty appliance company in Japan. Having laid thousands of landmines as a soldier, Aki Ra found employment as a deminer with the UN in 1991, after leaving UNMAS in 1992, he continued disarming and removing mines in his community. Having no demining tools, he used a knife, a hoe, a Leatherman and he would defuse the landmines and UXOs he found in small villages and bring home the empty casings. Sometimes he would sell them as scrap to help fund his work, thus began the Cambodian Landmine Museum. He conducted informal mine risk education groups to teach people about the dangers of unexploded ordnance, while working in these villages he found many injured and abandoned children. He brought them home to live with him and his wife Hourt, some of the children who moved to their home were also street kids from Siem Reap and Phnom Penh. Eventually he brought home over two dozen boys and girls, in early 2009, a boy came to live with Aki Ra and Hourt who had lost an arm and most of a hand to a cluster munition. He was working with his uncle in a field near Battambang, Aki Ra found him in the hospital and told his family about the Museum. He now lives there and attends school, today,29 children live at the Cambodia Landmine Museum Relief Center. Funds from the museum are dedicated to the support of these children to feed them, clothe them. Cambodian government authorities soon tried to close down the museum, and Aki Ra was required to cease his uncertified demining activities after being imprisoned in 2001. In 2005 he went to London where he was trained on ordnance disposal from the International School of Security and it is certified by the Cambodian Mine Action Authority which also regularly inspects ordnance displayed in the museum
21.
Manitoba Campaign to Ban Landmines
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The Manitoba Campaign to Ban Landmines was Canadas only provincial campaign to ban landmines. It was a registered organization in the province of Manitoba. The MBCBL was a member of the 1997 Nobel Peace Prize co-laureate International Campaign to Ban Landmines, Mines Action Canada, the MBCBL was launched on 1 March 2002 at a ceremony at the Manitoba Legislature in Winnipeg. Premier Gary Doer and Deputy Premier Jean Friesen attended the ceremony and were joined by students from a number of Winnipeg area schools. The main goals of the MBCBL were to raise awareness in Manitoba of the landmine crisis. Much of the MBCBLs outreach work was focused on engaging with schools throughout Manitoba, in early 2005, the MBCBL launched a fundraising campaign for the One Love Project in Rwanda which raised nearly $40,000. The One Love Project builds and repairs prostheses and orthoses for landmine survivors and its orthopedic workshop is based in Kigali, and its mobile clinic travels to all of Rwandas twelve provinces. In 2007, the One Love Project began to expand its operations into neighbouring Burundi, in 2008, the MBCBL added the National Committee for Demining and Rehabilitation in Jordan to its fundraising efforts. In 2014, the MBCBL underwent a change in focus and was rebranded as Manitobans Against Indiscriminate Weapons, the new non-profit organization continues to focus on the landline issue but has added cluster munitions and other indiscriminate weapons to its mandate
22.
Ken Rutherford (political scientist)
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Kenneth R. Rutherford is co-founder of the Landmine Survivors Network and a researcher in the field of political science. While studying political science at the University of Colorado in the mid-1980s, since graduating in 1985, he has worked for international aid agencies in Bosnia, Kenya, Mauritania, Senegal and Somalia, and was a Fulbright Scholar in Jordan. Rutherford began his career as a Peace Corps volunteer in Mauritania. During this period he was contracted by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees to assist in refugee camps on the border between Mauritania and Senegal. He returned to the US to earn his MBA at the University of Colorado, then in 1993 went to work for the International Rescue Committee in Kenya and Somalia, together with Jerry White he co-founded Landmine Survivors Network in 1995 which later became Survivor Corps. He and White accompanied Princess Diana on her last humanitarian mission to visit landmine survivors in Bosnia-Herzegovina in August 1997, Rutherford was a prominent leader in the International Campaign to Ban Landmines which won the 1997 Nobel Peace Prize. In 2000, he earned his doctorate in Political Science from Georgetown University and he was Associate Professor of Political Science at Missouri State University from 2002 until 2010. In 2005, Rutherford went to Jordan on a Fulbright Fellowship where he taught politics at the University of Jordan in Amman. In 2008 Rutherford played a key role in the drafting of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and he was a board member of Survivor Corps until it closed in September 2010. In February 2010, Rutherford became Director of the Center for International Stabilization and Recovery, in his capacity as CISR Director, he oversees and participates in post-conflict missions and projects in numerous countries worldwide, including Burundi, Iraq, Tajikistan and Vietnam. He currently serves on the board of directors of Legacies of War, Friendship Industries, the Shenandoah Valley Civil War Roundtable, on December 16,1993, while working for the International Rescue Committee in Somalia, Rutherfords vehicle struck a landmine, injuring him severely. After a medical evacuation during which he bled to death, one leg was amputated to save his life. He has since spoken to the United States Congress against landmines, “It was an experience that fundamentally altered my life for the good, ” Rutherford said. “It crystallized my vision of what I believe I was put on this Earth to do and he has contributed book reviews to Armed Forces and Society, and National Security Studies Journal. Rutherford is the author of Humanitarianism Under Fire, The US and UN Intervention in Somalia, Rutherford also contributed to the chapter on Bosnia-Herzegovina in the 1998 Report for Special Operations and Low Intensity Conflict Office. The organization he was associated with, International Campaign to Ban Landmines, Rutherford is also the 2013–2014 recipient of the Human Security Award from the Center for Unconventional Security Affairs at the University of California-Irvine. As an advocate for people with disabilities affected by landmines, he has presented in more than 30 countries, testifying before U. S. Congress and he has also appeared on Dateline, Nightline, The View and National Public Radios Morning Edition and All Things Considered. In June 2013, he was included among the one hundred most influential people in armed violence reduction by the London-based organization Action on Armed Violence. S
23.
Henry Dunant
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Henry Dunant, also known as Henri Dunant, was the founder of the Red Cross, and the first recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. The 1864 Geneva Convention was based on Dunants ideas, in 1901 he received the first Nobel Peace Prize together with Frédéric Passy, making Dunant the first Swiss Nobel laureate. Dunant was a Swiss businessman and social activist, during a business trip in 1859, he was witness to the aftermath of the Battle of Solferino in modern-day Italy. He recorded his memories and experiences in the book A Memory of Solferino which inspired the creation of the International Committee of the Red Cross in 1863, Dunant was born in Geneva, Switzerland, the first son of businessman Jean-Jacques Dunant and Antoinette Dunant-Colladon. His family was devoutly Calvinist and had significant influence in Geneva society and his parents stressed the value of social work, and his father was active helping orphans and parolees, while his mother worked with the sick and poor. His father worked in a prison and an orphanage, Dunant grew up during the period of religious awakening known as the Réveil, and at age 18 he joined the Geneva Society for Alms giving. On 30 November 1852, he founded the Geneva chapter of the YMCA, in 1849, at age 21, Dunant was forced to leave the Collège Calvin due to poor grades, and he began an apprenticeship with the money-changing firm Lullin et Sautter. After its successful conclusion, he remained as an employee of the bank, in 1853, Dunant visited Algeria, Tunisia, and Sicily, on assignment with a company devoted to the colonies of Setif. Despite little experience, he fulfilled the assignment. Inspired by the trip, he wrote his first book with the title An Account of the Regency in Tunis, however, the land and water rights were not clearly assigned, and the colonial authorities were not especially cooperative. As a result, Dunant decided to directly to French emperor Napoléon III. France was fighting on the side of Piedmont-Sardinia against Austria, who had occupied much of todays Italy, napoleons headquarters were located in the small city of Solferino. Dunant wrote a book full of praise for Napoleon III with the intention to present it to the emperor. Dunant arrived in Solferino on the evening of 24 June 1859, twenty-three thousand wounded, dying and dead remained on the battlefield, and there appeared to be little attempt to provide care. Shocked, Dunant himself took the initiative to organize the population, especially the women and girls, to provide assistance to the injured. They lacked sufficient materials and supplies, and Dunant himself organized the purchase of needed materials and he convinced the population to service the wounded without regard to their side in the conflict as per the slogan Tutti fratelli coined by the women of nearby city Castiglione delle Stiviere. He also succeeded in gaining the release of Austrian doctors captured by the French, after returning to Geneva early in July, Dunant decided to write a book about his experiences, which he titled Un Souvenir de Solferino. It was published in 1862 in an edition of 1,600 copies and was printed at Dunants own expense, within the book, he described the battle, its costs, and the chaotic circumstances afterwards
24.
Charles Albert Gobat
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Gobat was born on 21 May 1843 at Tramelan, Switzerland. He was the son of a Protestant pastor and the nephew of Samuel Gobat and he was educated at the University of Basel, University of Heidelberg, University of Bern, and University of Paris. He received his doctorate in law, summa cum laude, from the University of Heidelberg in 1867, after completing his Ph. D, Gobat began his practicing law in Bern and also lectured on French civil law at Bern University. He then opened an office in Delémont in the canton of Bern, after practicing law for fifteen years, he became involved in politics and education. In 1882, he was appointed superintendent of instruction for the canton of Bern. He was a progressive in educational philosophy and he made important reforms in the education system. He also pursued a career in politics and he was elected to many important positions. He was elected to the Grand Council of Bern in 1882, in both politics and education, he was a liberal reformer. In 1902, he sponsored legislation which applied the principle of arbitration to commercial treaties. Gobat worked with the Inter-Parliamentary Union, which was founded by William Randal Cremer, in 1892 he became the president of the unions fourth conference, which was held in Bern and which founded the Bureau Interparlementaire. He served as secretary of the bureau, an information office dealing with peace movements, international conciliation. The third conference of the union, held in Rome in 1891, established the International Peace Bureau, in 1902, Gobat jointly received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1902 with Élie Ducommun for their leadership of the Permanent International Peace Bureau. After the death of Élie Ducommun in 1906, Gobat took over the direction of the International Peace Bureau, Gobat died on 16 March 1914 in Bern, Switzerland. While attending meeting of the conference at Bern, he arose as if to speak but collapsed. Biography of Charles Albert Gobat Nobel Committee Information on 1902 peace prize about Charles Albert Gobat
25.
Randal Cremer
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Sir William Randal Cremer usually known by his middle name Randal, was an English Liberal Member of Parliament, a pacifist, and a leading advocate for international arbitration. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1903 for his work with the arbitration movement. Cremer was born to a family in the southern English town of Fareham. His father was a coachman but abandoned the family soon after Randal was born and his mother raised Cremer along with his two sisters, ensuring Randal received an education at a local Methodist school. Randal augmented his knowledge by attending free lectures, the young Cremer was apprenticed as a builder, soon developing into a skilled carpenter. Moving to London 1852, Cremer became active as a union organiser, Cremer was elected as the Secretary of the International Workingmens Association in 1865, but resigned two years later in 1867 as he felt the organisation was becoming too radical. While heavily involved in campaigning for causes, and respected by Marx. From as early as his first unsuccessful run for Parliament in 1868 and he was elected as Liberal Member of Parliament for Haggerston in the Shoreditch district of Hackney from 1885 to 1895, and from 1900 until his death, from pneumonia in 1908. Using his platform as an MP, Cremer cultivated allies on both continental Europe and across the Atlantic, including Frédéric Passy, William Jennings Bryan and Andrew Carnegie. In recognition of his work in the movement, Cremer won the Nobel Peace Prize. He also was named a Chevalier of the French Légion dhonneur, Randal Cremer Primary School, in Haggerston, is named in his honour. Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Randal Cremer
26.
Institut de Droit International
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The Institut de Droit international is an organization devoted to the study and development of international law, whose membership comprises the worlds leading public international lawyers. In 1904 the Institute received the Nobel Peace Prize, the Statute stipulates that the number of members and associates under the age of 80 cannot be over 132. The organisation attempts to have members broadly distributed around the world, the organisation holds biannual congresses for the study of international law as it currently exists, and passes resolutions proposing modifications to international law. It does not comment on specific disputes, while its recommendations cover international law in its many forms, some of its resolutions particularly pertain to human rights law and peaceful dispute resolution. It is for this reason that the received the Nobel Peace Prize. The organization remains active, with a held in Naples in Sept 2009. The location of the institutes headquarters rotates according to the origin of the Secretary General and its current members include, amongst other prominent lawyers and legal academics, judges of the International Criminal Court. The Institut publishes its Annuaire, containing the reports of the commissions, deliberations of the plenary sessions, the records of the administrative sessions including elections are also included in the Annuaire. The American Journal of International Law, official website Nobel Committee page on the 1904 Peace Prize
27.
Bertha von Suttner
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Bertha Felicitas Sophie Freifrau von Suttner was a Czech-Austrian pacifist and novelist. In 1905 she was the first woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, becoming the second female Nobel laureate after Marie Curies 1903 award. Suttner was born on 9 June 1843 at Palais Kinsky in the Obecní dvůr district of Prague and her father was a member of the House of Kinsky via descent from Vilém Kinský. She was additionally disadvantaged because her father, as a son, had no great estates or other financial resources to be inherited. Suttner was baptised at the Church of Our Lady of the Snows, soon after her birth, Suttners mother moved to live in Brno with her guardian Landgrave Friedrich Michael zu Fürstenberg. Her older brother Arthur was sent to a school, at the age of six. In 1855 Suttners aunt Loffe and cousin Elvira joined the household, Elvira, whose father was a private tutor, was of a similar age to Suttner and intellectually precocious, introducing Suttner to the pleasures of literature and philosophy. Suttners mother and aunt suffered from delusions of clairvoyance and thus elected to gamble at Wiesbaden in the summer of 1856 and their losses were so heavy that they were forced to move to Vienna. During this trip Suttner received a proprosal from Prince Philipp zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg which was declined due to her tender age, the family returned to Wiesbaden in 1859, the second trip was similarly unfortunate, and they had to relocate to a small property in Klosterneuburg. Shortly after this turn of events, Suttner wrote her first published work, the novella Endertraüme im Monde, in 1864, the family summered at Bad Homburg which was also a fashionable gambling destination among the aristocracy of the era. Suttner befriended the Georgian aristocrat Ekaterine Dadiani, Princess of Mingrelia, seeking a career as an opera singer as an alternative to marrying money, Suttner undertook an intensive course of lessons, working on her voice for over four hours a day. Despite tuition from the eminent Gilbert Duprez in Paris in 1867 and she suffered from stage fright and was unable to project well in performance. In the summer of 1872 she was engaged to Prince Adolf zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Hohenstein who died at sea while travelling to America to escape his debts in October. In 1873, she found employment as a tutor and companion to the four daughters of Karl von Suttner, the Suttner family lived in the Innere Stadt of Vienna three seasons of the year, and summered at Schloss Harmannsdorf in Lower Austria. Suttner had a relationship with her four young students, who nicknamed her Boulotte due to her corpulence. She soon fell in love with her charges elder brother, Arthur Gundaccar and they were engaged but unable to marry due to the Suttners disapproval. In 1876, with her employers encouragement, Suttner answered an advertisement which led to her briefly becoming secretary. In the few weeks of her employment Suttner and Nobel developed a friendship, however, Suttner remained committed to Arthur and returned shortly to Vienna to marry him in secrecy, in the church of St. Aegyd in Gumpendorf
28.
Theodore Roosevelt
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Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was an American statesman, author, explorer, soldier, naturalist, and reformer who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. As a leader of the Republican Party during this time, he became a force for the Progressive Era in the United States in the early 20th century. Born a sickly child with debilitating asthma, Roosevelt successfully overcame his health problems by embracing a strenuous lifestyle and he integrated his exuberant personality, vast range of interests, and world-famous achievements into a cowboy persona defined by robust masculinity. Home-schooled, he began a lifelong naturalist avocation before attending Harvard College and his first of many books, The Naval War of 1812, established his reputation as both a learned historian and as a popular writer. Upon entering politics, he became the leader of the faction of Republicans in New Yorks state legislature. Returning a war hero, he was elected governor of New York in 1898, the state party leadership distrusted him, so they took the lead in moving him to the prestigious but powerless role of vice presidential candidate as McKinleys running mate in the election of 1900. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously across the country, helping McKinleys re-election in a victory based on a platform of peace, prosperity. Following the assassination of President McKinley in September 1901, Roosevelt succeeded to the office at age 42, making conservation a top priority, he established a myriad of new national parks, forests, and monuments intended to preserve the nations natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America, where he began construction of the Panama Canal and he greatly expanded the United States Navy and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project the United States naval power around the globe. His successful efforts to end the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize, elected in 1904 to a full term, Roosevelt continued to promote progressive policies, but many of his efforts and much of his legislative agenda were eventually blocked in Congress. Roosevelt successfully groomed his close friend, William Howard Taft, to succeed him in the presidency, after leaving office, Roosevelt went on safari in Africa and toured Europe. Returning to the United States, he became frustrated with Tafts approach, failing to win the Republican presidential nomination in 1912, Roosevelt founded his own party, the Progressive, so-called Bull Moose Party, and called for wide-ranging progressive reforms. The split among Republicans enabled the Democrats to win both the White House and a majority in the Congress in 1912, Republicans aligned with Taft nationally would control the Republican Party for decades. Frustrated at home, Roosevelt led an expedition to the Amazon basin. During World War I, he opposed President Woodrow Wilson for keeping the country out of the war, and offered his military services, although planning to run again for president in 1920, Roosevelt suffered deteriorating health and died in early 1919. Roosevelt has consistently ranked by scholars as one of the greatest American presidents. Historians admire Roosevelt for rooting out corruption in his administration, but are critical of his 1909 libel lawsuits against the World and his face was carved into Mount Rushmore, alongside those of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln. Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27,1858, at East 20th Street in New York City and he was the second of four children born to socialite Martha Stewart Mittie Bulloch and glass businessman and philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt Sr
29.
Ernesto Teodoro Moneta
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Ernesto Teodoro Moneta was an Italian journalist, nationalist, revolutionary soldier and later a pacifist and Nobel Peace Prize Laureate. He adopted the motto In varietate unitas, at age 15, Moneta participated in the Five Days of Milan. He later attended the academy in Ivrea. In 1859 he joined Garibaldis Expedition of the Thousand, and also fought in the ranks of the Italian army against the Austrians in 1866, subsequently, he became an international peace activist, despite his strong Italian nationalism. Between 1867 and 1896 he was editor of the Milan democratic paper Il Secolo, in 1887 he founded the Lombard Association for Peace and Arbitration, which called for disarmament and envisaged the creation of a League of Nations. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1907, in the last years of his life, however, Monetas Italian nationalism reasserted itself and got the better of his pacifism. He expressed public support for both the Italian Conquest of Libya in 1912 and Italys entry into the First World War in 1915, ernesto Teodoro Moneta Monograph at nobel-winners. com Nobel Lectures, Peace 1901-1925, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam. Nobel Foundation Biography Società per la pace e la giustizia internazionale
30.
Fredrik Bajer
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Fredrik Bajer was a Danish writer, teacher, and pacifist politician who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1908. The son of a clergyman, Bajer served as an officer in the Danish army and he was discharged in 1865, and moved to Copenhagen where he became a teacher, translator and writer. He entered the Danish Parliament in 1872 as a member of Folketinget and he supported many peace organizations, both inside Denmark and Europe-wide, and helped guide the passage of a bill to reach arbitration agreements with Sweden and Norway. Always we must bear in mind that law has to be substituted for power, Nobel Committee information on 1908 laureates
31.
Auguste Beernaert
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Auguste Marie François Beernaert was the 14th Prime Minister of Belgium from October 1884 to March 1894. Born in Ostend in 1829, he entered the faculty of law at the Catholic University of Leuven at age 17 and he finished five years later with greatest distinction. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1873, and became Minister of Public Works under Jules Malou, greatly improving the rail, canal, after his tenure as Prime Minister, he represented Belgium at the Hague conventions of 1899 and 1907. He was also co-winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1909 for his work at the Permanent Court of Arbitration and he was chosen as president of the panel established under the rules of that organization in the Sarvarkar Case in 1911. A year later, he died in Lucerne, Switzerland
32.
Paul-Henri-Benjamin d'Estournelles de Constant
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Paul-Henri-Benjamin Balluet dEstournelles, Baron de Constant de Rebecque, was a French diplomat and politician, advocate of international arbitration and winner of the 1909 Nobel Prize for Peace. After studying law and Oriental languages at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris, in 1890 he was posted to London as the French chargé daffaires, where he played a role in averting war with Britain over colonial disputes. Frustrated by the limitations of diplomatic service, he ran for parliament in 1895, in 1904 Estournelles de Constant ran for and won a seat in the Senate, where he served until the end of his career in 1924. As a deputy and senator, Estournelles de Constant concerned himself with colonial issues and he advocated the elimination of colonial seats in the French parliament, preferring a policy of establishing protectorates to the traditional republican programme of colonial assimilation. In particular, he opposed the establishment of French colonial rule in Madagascar. In domestic affairs, he was concerned particularly with what the terminology of the day called outrages against morality, on the other hand, he was a Dreyfusard and argued in favour of placing Émile Zolas remains in the Panthéon for Zolas part in the Dreyfus Affair. Above all, though, Estournelles de Constant dedicated himself to the cause of improving international relations and he represented France at both Hague Peace Conferences, and outlined a vision of a European union. Estournelles de Constant wrote historical and political works and even dabbled in playwriting, in addition, he was a regular contributor to the newspapers Le Temps, La Revue de Paris, and La Revue des deux mondes. Married to an American, Daisy Sedgwick Berend, he travelled extensively in. Estournelles de Constants name may be encountered in numerous variants, the title reflects the form standardized by the Bibliothèque nationale de France. Dictionnaire des parlementaires français, Notices biographiques sur les ministres, députés et sénateurs français de 1889 à1940, Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 1960–70. Stéphane Tison, Paul dEstournelles de Constant, concilier les nations pour éviter la guerre, Rennes, Presses universitaires de Rennes,2015. Laurent Barcelo, Paul dEstournelles de Constant, Lexpression dune idée européenne, Paris, LHarmattan,1995
33.
International Peace Bureau
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The International Peace Bureau, founded in 1891, is one of the worlds oldest international peace federations. IPB was founded under the name Permanent International Peace Bureau, from 1912 onward it used the name International Peace Bureau. Between 1946 and 1961, it was known under the name International Liaison Committee of Organizations for Peace – ILCOP, the organisation was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1910 as a link between the peace societies of the various countries. In 1913 Henri La Fontaine was also awarded the Prize head of the International Peace Bureau, as of 2012, eleven other Nobel Peace Prize laureates have been members of the IPB. Established in 1992, the Seán MacBride Peace Prize is awarded by the International Peace Bureau to a person or organisation that has done outstanding work for peace and it is named after Seán MacBride, chairman of the IPB from 1968–74 and president from 1974-1985. 1905, Bertha von Suttner, writer and honorary vice-president of IPB,1907, Ernesto Moneta, IPB Council Member. 1908, Fredrik Bajer, honorary president of IPB,1911, Alfred Fried, IPB Council Member. 1913, Henri La Fontaine, president of IPB,1927, Ludwig Quidde, IPB Council Member. 1974, Seán Mac Bride, IPB Chairman and President, herz, Ulrich, The International Peace Bureau, History, Aims, Activities. From Nobel Lectures, Peace 1901-1925, Editor Frederick W. Haberman, Elsevier Publishing Company, official website The Castle of Peace / Society of Peace
34.
Tobias Asser
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Tobias Michel Karel Asser was a Dutch lawyer and legal scholar of Jewish background. In 1911, he won the Nobel Prize for Peace for his role in the formation of the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the First Hague Conference, Tobias Michel Karel Asser was born on 28 April 1838 in Amsterdam in the Netherlands. He was son of Carel Daniel Asser, and grandson of Carel Asser and he studied law at the University of Amsterdam and Leiden University and was law professor at the University of Amsterdam. Asser co-founded the Revue de Droit International et de Législation Comparée with John Westlake and he also co-founded the Institut de Droit International. In 1880 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and he was a delegate of the Netherlands to both Hague Peace Conferences in 1899 and 1907. His work in the creation of the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the first conference earned him the Nobel Peace Prize in 1911. He also took a hand in the establishment of what would become the Hague Academy of International Law, Asser died on 29 July 1913 in The Hague. A research institute in the fields of Private and Public International Law, European Law, Asser Instituut, based in The Hague, Netherlands. List of Jewish Nobel laureates Tobias Michael Carel Asser, biography in the Jewish Encyclopedia Tobias Asser, biography at NobelPrize. org
35.
Alfred Hermann Fried
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Alfred Hermann Fried was an Austrian Jewish pacifist, publicist, journalist, co-founder of the German peace movement, and winner of the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1911. Born in Vienna, Austria-Hungary, Fried left school at the age of 15, in 1883 he moved to Berlin, where he opened a bookshop of his own in 1887. Following the publication by Bertha von Suttner of Die Waffen nieder. in 1889, he, in articles published within Die Waffen nieder. and its successor, Die Friedenswarte, he articulated his pacifist philosophy. In 1892 he was a co-founder of the German Peace Society and he was one of the fathers of the idea of a modern organisation to assure worldwide peace. Fried was a prominent member of the Esperanto-movement, in 1903 he published the book Lehrbuch der internationalen Hilfssprache Esperanto. In 1911 he received the Nobel Peace Prize together with Tobias Asser, during the First World War he lived in Switzerland and died in Vienna in 1921. Abschied von Wien The German Emperor and the Peace of the World, translated into French by Jean Lagorgette as Les Bases du pacifisme, Le Pacifisme réformiste et le pacifisme «révolutionnaire». 2nd ed. Leipzig, Verlag der «Friedens-Warte»,1911, «Intellectual Starvation in Germany and Austria», in Nation,110 367–368. «The League of Nations, An Ethical Institution», in Living Age,306 440–443, the Restoration of Europe, transl. by Lewis Stiles Gannett. Der Weltprotest gegen den versailler Frieden, Leipzig, Verlag der Neue Geist,1920. Die zweite Haager Konferenz, Ihre Arbeiten, ihre Ergebnisse, und ihre Bedeutung, pass & Garleb, Berlin 18x12cm II, 120p. 2nd edition, Stuttgart, Franckhsche Verlagshandlung,1905 18x12cm 91, 5p. 3rd edition, Stuttgart, Franckhsche Verlagshandlung,1905 18x12cm 91p, Princeton University Press, Princeton 1975, ISBN 0-691-10036-5. Walter Göhring, Verdrängt und Vergessen – Friedensnobelpreisträger, kremayr & Scheriau, Wien 2006, ISBN 978-3-218-00768-9 Bernhard Kupfer, Lexikon der Nobelpreisträger. Patmos, Düsseldorf 2001, ISBN 3-491-72451-1 Petra Schönemann-Behrens, „Organisiert die Welt“, leben und Werk des Friedensnobelpreisträgers Alfred Hermann Fried. Pazifist im Ersten Weltkrieg – Illusion und Vision, VDM, Saarbrücken 2010, ISBN 978-3-639-25061-9 About Alfred Hermann Fried Alfred Hermann Fried ( Nobel biography
36.
Elihu Root
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Elihu Root was an American lawyer and statesman who served as the Secretary of War under two presidents, including President Theodore Roosevelt. He moved frequently between high-level appointed government positions in Washington, D. C. and private-sector legal practice in New York City. For that reason, he is considered to be the prototype of the 20th century political wise man, advising presidents on a range of foreign. He was elected by the legislature as a U. S. Senator from New York and served one term, 1909–1915, Root was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1912. Root was a lawyer, whose clients included major corporations. Root served as president or chairman of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, the Carnegie Institution of Washington, as Secretary of War under McKinley and Roosevelt, Root designed American policies for the new colonial possessions, especially the Philippines and Cuba. His role in suppressing a Filipino revolt angered anti-imperialist activists at home and he was a strong advocate of what became the Panama Canal, and he championed the Open Door to expand world trade with China. He restructured the National Guard into a reserve, and created the Army War College for the advanced study of military doctrine. In the United States Senate, Root was part of the conservative Republican support network for President William Howard Taft and he played a central role at the Republican National Convention in 1912 in getting Taft renominated. By 1916–17, he was a proponent of preparedness, with the expectation the United States would enter World War I. President Woodrow Wilson sent him to Russia in 1917 in an effort to establish an alliance with the new revolutionary government that had replaced the czar. Root supported Wilsons vision of the League of Nations, but with reservations along the proposed by Republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge. Elihu Root was born in Clinton, New York, to Oren Root and Nancy Whitney Buttrick and his father was professor of mathematics at Hamilton College. After studying at schools, including Williston Seminary, where he was a classmate of G. Stanley Hall. Despite his parents encouragement to become a Presbyterian minister, Root went to New York City to attend New York University School of Law and his brother Oren then became a minister and followed in their fathers footsteps as Mathematics professor at Hamilton. After admission to the New York bar, Root went into practice as a lawyer. While mainly focusing on law, Root was a junior defense counsel for William Boss Tweed during his corruption trial
37.
Henri La Fontaine
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Henri La Fontaine, was a Belgian international lawyer and president of the International Peace Bureau. He received the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1913 because he was the leader of the peace movement in Europe. La Fontaine was born in Brussels on 22 April 1854 and studied law at the Free University of Brussels and he was admitted to the bar in 1877 and established a reputation as an authority on international law. He and his sister Léonie La Fontaine were early advocates for rights and suffrage. In 1893, he became professor of law at the Free University of Brussels. He served as chairman of the Senate from 1919 to 1932. La Fontaine took an early interest in the International Peace Bureau, founded in 1882 and he served as president of the Bureau from 1907 until his death in 1943. World War I convinced La Fontaine that the world would establish a court when peace returned. He proposed a number of members, including Joseph Hodges Choate, Elihu Root, Charles William Eliot. La Fontaine also promoted the idea of unification of the worlds pacifist organizations and he was a member of the Belgian delegation to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 and to the League of Nations Assembly. In other efforts to foster peace, he founded the Centre Intellectuel Mondial and proposed such organizations as a world school and university. In 1907, with Paul Otlet, he founded the Union of International Associations and he also is the co-founder of Institut International de Bibliographie along with Paul Otlet. It was in this role that he and Otlet attended the World Congress of Universal Documentation in 1937, Henri La Fontaine was a freemason, and a member of the lodge Les Amis Philanthropes in Brussels. He died on 14 May 1943 in Brussels, list of peace activists Rines, George Edwin, ed. Lafontaine, Henri. Nobel Committee information on La Fontaine www. nobel-winners. com information about Henri La Fontaine - the above Wikipedia article is based on text from this source, works by or about Henri La Fontaine in libraries Lafontaine, Henri. History of the Union of International Associations
38.
International Committee of the Red Cross
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The International Committee of the Red Cross is a humanitarian institution based in Geneva, Switzerland and a three-time Nobel Prize Laureate. State parties to the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols of 1977 and 2005 have given the ICRC a mandate to protect victims of international and internal armed conflicts, such victims include war wounded, prisoners, refugees, civilians, and other non-combatants. The ICRC is part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement along with the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and 190 National Societies. It is the oldest and most honoured organization within the Movement and one of the most widely recognized organizations in the world, having won three Nobel Peace Prizes in 1917,1944, and 1963. When he arrived in the town of Solferino on the evening of 24 June, he witnessed the Battle of Solferino. In a single day, about 40,000 soldiers on both sides died or were wounded on the field. Henry Dunant was shocked by the aftermath of the battle, the suffering of the wounded soldiers. He completely abandoned the original intent of his trip and for days he devoted himself to helping with the treatment. He succeeded in organizing an overwhelming level of assistance by motivating the local population to aid without discrimination. Back in his home in Geneva, he decided to write a book entitled A Memory of Solferino which he published with his own money in 1862 and he sent copies of the book to leading political and military figures throughout Europe. In addition, he called for the development of international treaties to guarantee the neutrality and protection of wounded on the battlefield as well as medics. On 9 February 1863 in Geneva, Henry Dunant founded the Committee of the Five as a commission of the Geneva Society for Public Welfare. Their aim was to examine the feasibility of Dunants ideas and to organize a conference about their possible implementation. Eight days later, the five men decided to rename the committee to the International Committee for Relief to the Wounded, in October 1863, the international conference organized by the committee was held in Geneva to develop possible measures to improve medical services on the battle field. The states and kingdoms represented by delegates were Baden, Bavaria, France, Britain, Hanover, Hesse, Italy, the Netherlands, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Saxony, Sweden. Only one year later, the Swiss government invited the governments of all European countries, as well as the United States, Brazil, sixteen countries sent a total of twenty-six delegates to Geneva. On 22 August 1864, the conference adopted the first Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field. Representatives of 12 states and kingdoms signed the convention, Baden, Belgium, Denmark, France, Hesse, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Prussia, Switzerland, Spain, and Württemberg
39.
Woodrow Wilson
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Thomas Woodrow Wilson was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921. Born in Staunton, Virginia, he spent his years in Augusta, Georgia and Columbia. In 1910, he was the New Jersey Democratic Partys gubernatorial candidate and was elected the 34th Governor of New Jersey, while in office, Wilson reintroduced the spoken State of the Union, which had been out of use since 1801. Leading the Congress that was now in Democratic hands, he oversaw the passage of progressive legislative policies unparalleled until the New Deal in 1933. The Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, through passage of the Adamson Act that imposed an 8-hour workday for railroads, he averted a railroad strike and an ensuing economic crisis. Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality, Wilson faced former New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes in the presidential election of 1916. By a narrow margin, he became the first Democrat since Andrew Jackson elected to two consecutive terms, Wilsons second term was dominated by American entry into World War I. In April 1917, when Germany had resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and sent the Zimmermann Telegram, the United States conducted military operations alongside the Allies, although without a formal alliance. During the war, Wilson focused on diplomacy and financial considerations, leaving military strategy to the generals, loaning billions of dollars to Britain, France, and other Allies, the United States aided their finance of the war effort. On the home front, he raised taxes, borrowing billions of dollars through the publics purchase of Liberty Bonds. In his 1915 State of the Union Address, Wilson asked Congress for what became the Espionage Act of 1917, the crackdown was intensified by his Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer to include expulsion of non-citizen radicals during the First Red Scare of 1919–1920. Wilson staffed his government with Southern Democrats who implemented racial segregation at the Treasury, Navy and he gave department heads greater autonomy in their management. Following his return from Europe, Wilson embarked on a tour in 1919 to campaign for the treaty. The treaty was met with concern by Senate Republicans, and Wilson rejected a compromise effort led by Henry Cabot Lodge. Due to his stroke, Wilson secluded himself in the White House, disability having diminished his power, forming a strategy for re-election, Wilson deadlocked the 1920 Democratic National Convention, but his bid for a third-term nomination was overlooked. Wilson was a devoted Presbyterian and Georgist, and he infused his views of morality into his domestic and he appointed several well known radically progressive single taxers to prominent positions in his administration. His ideology of internationalism is now referred to as Wilsonian, an activist foreign policy calling on the nation to promote global democracy and he was the third of four children of Joseph Ruggles Wilson and Jessie Janet Woodrow. Wilsons paternal grandparents immigrated to the United States from Strabane, County Tyrone, Ireland and his mother was born in Carlisle, England, the daughter of Rev. Dr. Thomas Woodrow from Paisley, Scotland, and Marion Williamson from Glasgow
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