1.
Non-governmental organization
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A non-governmental organization is a not-for-profit organization that is independent from states and international governmental organizations. They are usually funded by donations but some avoid formal funding altogether and are run primarily by volunteers, NGOs are highly diverse groups of organizations engaged in a wide range of activities, and take different forms in different parts of the world. Some may have charitable status, while others may be registered for tax exemption based on recognition of social purposes, others may be fronts for political, religious, or other interests. The number of NGOs worldwide is estimated to be 3.7 million, India is estimated to have had around 2 million NGOs in 2009, just over one NGO per 600 Indians, and many times the number of primary schools and primary health centres in India. China is estimated to have approximately 440,000 officially registered NGOs, NGOs are difficult to define, and the term NGO is not always used consistently. In some countries the term NGO is applied to an organization that in another country would be called an NPO, there are many different classifications of NGO in use. The most common focus is on orientation and level of operation, an NGOs orientation refers to the type of activities it takes on. These activities might include human rights, environmental, improving health, an NGOs level of operation indicates the scale at which an organization works, such as local, regional, national, or international. The term non-governmental organization was first coined in 1945, when the United Nations was created, later the term became used more widely. One characteristic these diverse organizations share is that their non-profit status means they are not hindered by short-term financial objectives. Accordingly, they are able to devote themselves to issues which occur across longer time horizons, such as change, malaria prevention. Public surveys reveal that NGOs often enjoy a degree of public trust. NGO/GRO types can be understood by their orientation and level of how they operate, charitable orientation often involves a top-down paternalistic effort with little participation by the beneficiaries. It includes NGOs with activities directed toward meeting the needs of the poor people, in the classical community development project, participation begins with the need definition and continues into the planning and implementation stages. There is maximum involvement of the beneficiaries with NGOs acting as facilitators, community-based organizations arise out of peoples own initiatives. They can be responsible for raising the consciousness of the poor, helping them to understand their rights in accessing needed services. City-wide organizations include organizations such as chambers of commerce and industry, coalitions of business, ethnic or educational groups, national NGOs include national organizations such as the YMCAs/YWCAs, professional associations and similar groups. Some have state and city branches and assist local NGOs and they can be responsible for funding local NGOs, institutions and projects and implementing projects
2.
Anti-personnel mine
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Anti-personnel mines are a form of mine designed for use against humans, as opposed to anti-tank mines, which are designed for use against vehicles. Anti-personnel mines may be classified into blast mines or fragmentation mines, the mines are often designed to injure, not kill, their victims in order to increase the logistical support required by enemy forces that encounter them. Some types of mines can also damage the tracks on armoured vehicles or the tires of wheeled vehicles. What makes them different from most anti-tank mines, however, is their smaller size and this process can be done manually, via dispensers on land vehicles, or from helicopters or aircraft. Alternatively, they can be dispensed by cargo-carrying artillery shells and their primary purpose is to blow the victims foot or leg off, disabling them. Injuring, rather than killing, the victim is viewed as preferable in order to increase the burden on the opposing force. When a person steps on a blast mine and activates it, the shock wave sends a huge compressive force upwards, ejecting the mine casing and any soil covering the mine along with it. When the blast wave hits the surface, it transfers the force into the subjects footwear. This results in a compression force being applied. In most cases, the foot is blown off by the blast wave. Different types of soil will result in different amounts of energy being transferred upward into the subjects foot, secondary injuries from a blast mine are often caused by the material that has been torn loose by the mines explosion. This consists of the soil and stones that were on top of the mine, parts of the victims footwear and this debris creates wounds typical of similar secondary blast effects or fragmentation. Special footwear, including combat boots or so-called blast boots, is only moderately protective against the effects of blast mines. Blast mines have little effect on armoured vehicles, but can damage a vehicle if it runs directly over the mine. Small blast mines will severely damage a tire, rendering it irreparable while some types could also damage adjacent running gear, the mine casing houses the components of the mine and protects it from its environment. Early mines, such as the used in the World War II era, had casings made of steel or aluminium. However, by the middle of the conflict, the British Army was using the first, practical, the Germans responded with mines that had a wooden or glass casing to make detection harder. Wooden mines had been used by the Russians in 1939, before the appearance of metal detectors, some, like the PP Mi-D mine, continued to be used into the 1980s as they were easy to make and hard to detect
3.
Cluster munition
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A cluster munition is a form of air-dropped or ground-launched explosive weapon that releases or ejects smaller submunitions. Commonly, this is a bomb that ejects explosive bomblets that are designed to kill personnel. Other cluster munitions are designed to destroy runways or electric transmission lines, disperse chemical or biological weapons. Some submunition-based weapons can disperse non-munitions, such as leaflets, because cluster bombs release many small bomblets over a wide area, they pose risks to civilians both during attacks and afterwards. Unexploded bomblets can kill or maim civilians and/or unintended targets long after a conflict has ended, Cluster munitions are prohibited for those nations that ratify the Convention on Cluster Munitions, adopted in Dublin, Ireland in May 2008. The Convention entered into force and became binding international law upon ratifying states on 1 August 2010, as of 1 October 2015, a total of 118 states have joined the Convention, as 98 States parties and 20 Signatories. The first cluster bomb used operationally was the German SD-2 or Sprengbombe Dickwandig 2 kg and it was used in World War II to attack both civilian and military targets. The technology was developed independently by the United States, Russia, the US used the 20-lb M41 fragmentation bomb wired together in clusters of 6 or 25 with highly sensitive or proximity fuzes. From the 1970s to the 1990s cluster bombs became standard air-dropped munitions for many nations and they have been produced by 34 countries and used in at least 23. Artillery shells that employ similar principles have existed for decades and they are typically referred to as ICM shells. The US military slang terms for them are firecracker or popcorn shells, a basic cluster bomb consists of a hollow shell and then two to more than 2,000 submunitions or bomblets contained within it. Some types are dispensers that are designed to be retained by the aircraft after releasing their munitions, the submunitions themselves may be fitted with small parachute retarders or streamers to slow their descent. Modern cluster bombs and submunition dispensers are often multiple-purpose weapons, containing mixtures of anti-armor, anti-personnel, the submunitions themselves may also be multi-purpose, such as combining a shaped charge, to attack armour, with a fragmenting case, to attack infantry, material, and light vehicles. Modern multipurpose munitions may also have an incendiary effect, recently submunition-based weapons have been designed that deploy smart submunitions, using thermal and visual sensors to locate and attack particular targets, usually armored vehicles. Weapons of this include the US CBU-97 sensor-fuzed weapon, first used in combat during Operation Iraqi Freedom. Incendiary cluster bombs are intended to start fires, just as conventional incendiary bombs and they are specifically designed for this purpose, with submunitions of white phosphorus or napalm, and they often include anti-personnel and anti-tank submunitions to hamper firefighting efforts. When used in cities they have often preceded by the use of conventional explosive bombs to break open the roofs. One of the earliest examples is the so-called Molotov bread basket first used by the Soviet Union in the Winter War of 1939-40 and this type of munition was extensively used by both sides in the strategic bombings of World War II
4.
Human Rights Watch
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Human Rights Watch is an American-founded international non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on human rights. C. and Zurich. The organizations annual expenses totaled $50.6 million in 2011, Human Rights Watch was founded by Robert L. Bernstein as a private American NGO in 1978, under the name Helsinki Watch, to monitor the former Soviet Unions compliance with the Helsinki Accords. Helsinki Watch adopted a practice of naming and shaming abusive governments through media coverage. Americas Watch was founded in 1981 while bloody civil wars engulfed Central America, asia Watch, Africa Watch, and Middle East Watch were added to what was known as The Watch Committees. In 1988, all of these committees were united under one umbrella to form Human Rights Watch, pursuant to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Human Rights Watch opposes violations of what it considers basic human rights. This includes capital punishment and discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, HRW advocates freedoms in connection with fundamental human rights, such as freedom of religion and freedom of the press. These reports are used as the basis for drawing attention to abuses and pressuring governments. HRW has documented and reported violations of the laws of war. Human Rights Watch also supports writers worldwide, who are being persecuted for their work and are in need of financial assistance. The Hellman/Hammett grants are financed by the estate of the playwright Lillian Hellman in funds set up in her name and that of her long-time companion, the novelist Dashiell Hammett. In addition to providing assistance, the Hellman/Hammett grants help raise international awareness of activists who are being silenced for speaking out in defense of human rights. Each year, Human Rights Watch presents the Human Rights Defenders Award to activists around the world who demonstrate leadership, the award winners work closely with HRW in investigating and exposing human rights abuses. Human Rights Watch was one of six international NGOs that founded the Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers in 1998, Human Rights Watch is a founding member of the International Freedom of Expression Exchange, a global network of non-governmental organizations that monitor censorship worldwide. It also co-founded the Cluster Munition Coalition, which brought about an international convention banning the weapons, HRW employs more than 275 staff—country experts, lawyers, journalists, and academics – and operates in more than 90 countries around the world. The current executive director of HRW is Kenneth Roth, who has held the position since 1993, Roth conducted investigations on abuses in Poland after martial law was declared 1981. He later focused on Haiti, which had just emerged from the Duvalier dictatorship, roth’s awareness of the importance of human rights began with stories his father had told about escaping Nazi Germany in 1938. Roth graduated from Yale Law School and Brown University, HRW has been criticized for perceived bias by the national governments it has investigated for human rights abuses, and by NGO Monitor, and HRWs founder, and former Chairman, Robert L. Bernstein. Bias allegations include undue influence by United States government policy, HRW has routinely publicly responded to, and often rejected, criticism of its reporting and findings
5.
Medico International
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Medico International is a government-supported humanitarian relief and human rights organization based in Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Its declared aim is to achieve the right to health globally. Medico has a budget of approximately 11 million Euro, provided by the German Federal Foreign Office and Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development ). With this large budget, Medico is a prominent member in what Dutch author Linda Polman has called and criticized as the humanitarian NGO industry, Medico works with partners from Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Middle East. Together with its partners Medico provides help during catastrophes and supports long-term activities, Medico International focuses on health supply, human rights, psycho-social work and migration. Citing the World Health Organization, is not only seen as the absence of decease but as a physical, psychological and social comfort, in this definition it goes along with the World Health Organization. Secondly Medico emphasizes a critical public and educational work, where it engages in debates as well as campaigning, Medico puts the sources of poverty and conflicts into focus and not only to support in the management of the consequences. This idea is reflected within its several publications—like the quarterly ‘rundschreiben’, Medico International is a registered association with a voluntary board. The psychologist Thomas Gebauer is the managing director, the office is divided into the three sections, public work, project monitoring and administration. Around 40 people work at the office in Frankfurt, with three offices, one in Israel/Palestine, one in Central America and one in Algeria. The most famous employee is the philosopher Thomas Seibert, the process of oversight and regulation of Medico activities and personnel is unclear. Founded in 2004, the Medico International Foundation supports activities with earnings and engages in debates, congresses, famous members of the board of trustees are the German cabaret artist Georg Schramm as well as the former Hessian minister Rupert von Plottnitz. Former members were the Psychoanalysts Paul Parin and Margarete Mitscherlich-Nielsen, Medico International was founded with the name ‘Medico Action’ in 1968. It started with the aim to collect medication for Biafra and delegated staff, due to those experiences, Medico changed its strategy fundamentally, adding a strong emphasis on political activism in conflict areas. Discussions came to the conclusion that for improving the situation long term the sources for poverty, since then Medico refrains from sending medical supply or personal from abroad short term but tries to support local initiatives, capacities and specialists. Long term projects came into the centre of Medicos work, in 1970s Medico focused on Primary Health Care and a community centred health support because of the stranding of a big health centre in cooperation with the government of Mali in 1973. A central perspective of this approach is the impossibility to achieve health care of everyone by centrally monitored projects from governments. Furthermore, everyone concerned needs to place in this process
6.
Physicians for Human Rights
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PHR headquarters are in New York City, with offices in Boston and Washington, D. C. The three Chilean doctors were released five weeks after Dr. Fines visit, in 1997, the organization shared the Nobel Peace Prize for medically documenting landmine injuries and serving as a leader in the International Campaign to Ban Landmines. Governments, United Nations agencies, international and national courts, and other rights organizations have all sought PHR’s forensic. The organization’s work has contributed to landmark decisions such as the 2016 conviction of Radovan Karadžić and these evaluations can then contribute to evidence for prosecutions or be used to bring attention to crimes. The IFP has performed forensic investigations for bodies such as the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, experts in the IFP range from forensic pathologists to forensic anthropologists, as well as analytical scientists such as firearm examiners. They perform forensic investigations, evaluations, monitoring, or review of other parties’ forensic work, PHR launched the Forensic Training Institute to strengthen local capacities for forensic investigations and documentation. The institute seeks to strengthen the ability of personnel to document torture, mass atrocities, sexual violence. It also trains legal and law enforcement professionals who seek redress via local, national, PHR’s FTI program has partners in Afghanistan, Burma, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Syria, Tajikistan, and the United States. PHR’s Program on Sexual Violence in Conflict Zones was launched in 2011, the program strengthens cross-sectoral responses to sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Kenya through training workshops for health care, law enforcement, and legal professionals. The program has an office at renowned gynecological surgeon Dr. Denis Mukwege’s Panzi Hospital, in Bukavu, to aid the documentation of sexual violence, PHR has developed MediCapt, an app allowing the secure digital recording and transmission of medical evidence. PHR’s Asylum Program advocates for improved conditions in U. S. immigration detention centers and documents abuses suffered by asylum seekers in their home countries and in U. S. care. PHR’s U. S. Anti-Torture Program was launched in 2003, PHR published a series of investigative reports documenting the U. S. government’s use of torture in pursuit of national security goals. ”Break Them Down, ” published in 2005, found evidence of the psychological torture employed by the military. Additional reports documented the physical and mental harm inflicted by interrogation practices. The research and investigations department at PHR documents human rights abuses around the world and their areas of research include attacks on health care and health personnel, mass atrocities, torture, and sexual violence across the globe. Notable investigations include,1988 — PHR researchers uncover evidence of the Iraqi government using chemical weapons on their Kurdish citizens,1996 — PHR teams exhumes mass graves in the Balkans. They provided evidence of ethnic cleansing to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and this work contributed to the ICTY’s conviction of Radovan Karadžić of war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity. 1996 — PHR sends a team to exhume mass graves in Rwanda,2004 — PHR researchers investigate mass killings in Darfur
7.
Mines Advisory Group
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The Mines Advisory Group is a non-governmental organization that assists people affected by landmines, unexploded ordnance, and small arms and light weapons. MAG takes an approach to landmine action. They focus on the impact of their work on local communities and this approach recognises that although the number of landmines in an area may be small, the effect on a community can be crippling. Targets are therefore determined locally, in response to liaison with affected communities, MAG field operations are managed and implemented by nationals of the affected countries, with MAG expatriate staff taking a monitoring and training role. MAG provides work for members of affected communities, with families of landmine victims taking an active role. MAG is based in Manchester, United Kingdom, and has a sister organisation, MAG America in Washington, as part of the International Campaign to Ban Landmines, MAG was co-laureate of the 1997 Nobel Peace Prize. MAG was formed in 1989 by Rae McGrath in response to landmines, the organisation initially served as an advisory group, publishing reports about the problems in Afghanistan and Cambodia based on their assessments between 1989 and 1991. Subsequent reports included Iraq, Somaliland and Angola, in 1992, MAG, along with other NGOs, formed the International Campaign to Ban Landmines. By 1992, MAG had raised sufficient funds to begin its first landmine clearance program in Iraq, Clearance programmes extended to Cambodia the same year, followed by Lao PDR and Angola in 1994. MAG also introduced mine risk education alongside their clearance programs to help minimise the risk to the local populations, MRE operations were extended to Rwanda and to refugee camps in Zaire and the former Zambia. In 1996, Lou McGrath became executive director and MAG established its headquarters in Manchester. MAG’s delivery of Humanitarian Mine Action is centred on the use of multi-skilled and these were developed by MAG in the mid-nineties in response to the varied needs of mine affected communities. Team members are trained in Community Liaison, information/data gathering, survey and assessment, mapping, logistics, minefield marking, MAG conducted its first emergency survey in Afghanistan in 1989 and conducted the first ever surveys in Cambodia and northern Iraq. In 1993, MAG conducted an emergency impact assessment of the problem in Moxico province, Angola. Mechanical capacities have formed an important element of MAG’s HMA toolbox for several years, machines have been used successfully to support manual clearance operations in a number of countries, including Angola, Cambodia, Kosovo, Iraq, Lebanon, Sri Lanka and Vietnam. MAG uses a variety of flails, heavy plant and adapted agricultural, current mechanical assets include the Tempest flail, Bozena 4 flail, Armtrac 100 flail, Minecat 230 flail and Digger D-2 flail. These assets can be used for a variety of tasks, including clearance of land, area reduction, the hazard posed by explosive ordnance is often highly significant in post-conflict situations. A large percentage of ordnance fails to detonate as designed and poses a threat to people trying to rebuild their lives in the aftermath of conflict
8.
Diana, Princess of Wales
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Diana, Princess of Wales, was the first wife of Charles, Prince of Wales, who is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Diana was born into a family of British nobility with royal ancestry and was the child and third daughter of John Spencer, Viscount Althorp. She grew up in Park House, situated on the Sandringham estate, in 1975, after her father inherited the title of Earl Spencer, she became known as Lady Diana Spencer. She came to prominence in February 1981 when her engagement to Prince Charles was announced and her wedding to the Prince of Wales on 29 July 1981, held at St Pauls Cathedral, reached a global television audience of over 750 million people. While married, Diana bore the titles Princess of Wales, Duchess of Cornwall, Duchess of Rothesay, the marriage produced two sons, the princes William and Harry, who were then respectively second and third in the line of succession to the British throne. As Princess of Wales, Diana undertook royal duties on behalf of the Queen and she was celebrated for her charity work and for her support of the International Campaign to Ban Landmines. She was involved with dozens of charities including Londons Great Ormond Street Hospital for children, Diana remained the object of worldwide media scrutiny during and after her marriage, which ended in divorce on 28 August 1996. Media attention and public mourning were extensive after her death in a car crash in Paris on 31 August 1997, Diana was born on 1 July 1961, in Park House, Sandringham, Norfolk. She was the fourth of five children of John Spencer, Viscount Althorp, the Spencer family has been closely allied with the British Royal Family for several generations. Both of Dianas grandmothers had served as ladies-in-waiting to Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, on 30 August 1961, Diana was baptised at St. Mary Magdalene Church, Sandringham, with wealthy commoners as godparents. Diana had three siblings, Sarah, Jane, and Charles and her infant brother, John, died shortly after his birth one year before Diana was born. The desire for an added strain to the Spencers marriage. Diana grew up in Park House, situated on the Sandringham estate, the Spencers leased the house from its owner, Queen Elizabeth II. The Royal Family frequently holidayed at the neighbouring Sandringham House, and Diana played with Princes Andrew, Diana was seven years old when her parents divorced. Her mother later had an affair with Peter Shand Kydd and married him in 1969, Diana lived with her mother in London during her parents separation in 1967, but during that years Christmas holidays, Lord Althorp refused to let Diana return to London with Lady Althorp. Shortly afterwards he won custody of Diana with support from his former mother-in-law, Ruth Roche, in 1972, Lord Althorp began a relationship with Raine, Countess of Dartmouth, the only daughter of Alexander McCorquodale and Dame Barbara Cartland. They married at Caxton Hall, London in 1976, as an upper-class child at the time, Diana was first educated under the supervision of her governess, Gertrude Allen. She began her education at Silfield Private School in Gayton, Norfolk, and moved to Riddlesworth Hall School, an all-girls boarding school near Diss
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