1.
Temple, London
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The Royal Courts of Justice are just to the north and Temple tube station is located to the west in the City of Westminster. The wider Temple area is bound by the River Thames to the south, Surrey Street to the west, Strand and Fleet Street to the north. It contains many chambers, solicitors offices, as well as some notable legal institutions such as the Employment Appeal Tribunal. The International Institute for Strategic Studies has its headquarters at Arundel House, the name is recorded in the 12th century as Novum Templum, meaning New Temple. It is named after a church belonging to the Knights Templar, the Old Temple was located in Holborn. The name is shared with Inner Temple, Middle Temple, Temple Church, the Temple was originally the precinct of the Knights Templar whose Temple Church was named in honour of Solomons Temple in Jerusalem. The Knights had two halls, whose modern successors are the Middle Temple Hall and the Inner Temple Hall, only the Inner Temple Hall preserves elements of the medieval hall on the site, however. Upon the dissolution of the Knights Templar in 1312, the pope granted their possessions to the Knights Hospitaller. On Hughs death in 1326 the Inner Temple passed first to the mayor of London and then in 1333 to one William de Langford, in 1337 the Knights petitioned the king, now Edward III, to rectify the grant of consecrated land to a layman. Langford continued to hold Middle Temple at a reduced rent, in 1346, Langfords lease having by then expired, the Knights Hospitaller leased both Middle and Inner Temples to lawyers from St Georges Inn and Thavies Inn respectively. However lawyers had already occupied the Temple since 1320, when it belonged to the Earl of Lancaster, when the Knights Hospitaller were dissolved by Henry VIII in the Reformation, the barristers remained as tenants of the Crown, for an annual rent of £10 for each society. Their current tenure dates from a charter granted to them by James I in 1608, originally a grant of fee farm, the reversion was purchased from Charles II, finally giving the lawyers absolute title. The area of the Temple was increased when the River Thames was embanked by the Victoria Embankment, the original bank of the river can clearly be seen in a drop in ground level, for example in the Inner Temple Gardens or the stairs at the bottom of Essex Street. The area suffered damage due to enemy air raids in World War II and many of the buildings. Temple Church itself was badly damaged and had to be rebuilt. Nonetheless the Temple is rich with Grade I listed buildings, the core of the district lies in the City of London and consists of two Inns of Court, Inner Temple and Middle Temple. The Temple Church is roughly central to two inns and is governed by both of them. The Inns each have their own gardens, dining halls, libraries and administrative offices, most of the land is, however, taken up by buildings in which barristers practise from sets of rooms known as chambers
2.
International relations
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International relations is an academic and a public policy field, and so can be positive and normative, because it analyzes and formulates the foreign policy of a given State. As political activity, international relations dates from the time of the Greek historian Thucydides, in practice International Relations and International Affairs forms a separate academic program or field from Political Science, and the courses taught therein are highly interdisciplinary. The history of international relations based on sovereign states is often traced back to the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, prior to this the European medieval organization of political authority was based on a vaguely hierarchical religious order. Contrary to popular belief, Westphalia still embodied layered systems of sovereignty, the centuries of roughly 1500 to 1789 saw the rise of the independent, sovereign states, the institutionalization of diplomacy and armies. The French Revolution added to this the new idea that not princes or an oligarchy, such a state in which the nation is sovereign would thence be termed a nation-state. The term republic increasingly became its synonym, the same claim to sovereignty was made for both forms of nation-state. The particular European system supposing the sovereign equality of states was exported to the Americas, Africa, and Asia via colonialism, the contemporary international system was finally established through decolonization during the Cold War. While the nation-state system is considered modern, many states have not incorporated the system and are termed pre-modern, further, a handful of states have moved beyond insistence on full sovereignty, and can be considered post-modern. The ability of contemporary IR discourse to explain the relations of different types of states is disputed. What is explicitly recognized as international relations theory was not developed until after World War I, IR theory, however, has a long tradition of drawing on the work of other social sciences. The use of capitalizations of the I and R in international relations aims to distinguish the academic discipline of international relations from the phenomena of international relations. Similarly, liberalism draws upon the work of Kant and Rousseau, in the 20th century, in addition to contemporary theories of liberal internationalism, Marxism has been a foundation of international relations. International relations as a field of study began in Britain. IR emerged as an academic discipline in 1919 with the founding of the first IR professorship. Georgetown Universitys Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service is the oldest international relations faculty in the United States and this was rapidly followed by establishment of IR at universities in the US and in Geneva, Switzerland. The creation of the posts of Montague Burton Professor of International Relations at LSE, furthermore, the International History department at LSE developed a focus on the history of IR in the early modern, colonial and Cold War periods. The first university dedicated to the study of IR was the Graduate Institute of International Studies. The Committee on International Relations at the University of Chicago was the first to offer a graduate degree, in 2012, Ramon Llull University initiated the first International Relations degree in Barcelona, fully in English
3.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
4.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
5.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
6.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
7.
Denis Healey
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He was a Member of Parliament for 40 years and was the last surviving member of the cabinet formed by Harold Wilson after the Labour Partys victory in the 1964 general election. A major figure in the party, he was defeated in bids for the party leadership. To the public at large, Healey became well known for his bushy eyebrows, Denis Winston Healey was born in Mottingham, Kent, but moved with his family to Keighley in the West Riding of Yorkshire when he was aged five. His parents were Winifred Mary and William Healey and his middle name was in honour of Winston Churchill. Healey was one of two siblings and his father was an engineer who worked his way up from humble origins, studying at night school and eventually becoming head of a trade school. His paternal grandfather was a tailor from Enniskillen in Northern Ireland, early Healey was educated at Bradford Grammar School. In 1936, he won a scholarship to Balliol College. He there became involved in Labour politics, although he was not active in the Oxford Union Society, also while at Oxford, Healey joined the Communist Party in 1937 during the Great Purge, but left in 1940 after the Fall of France. At Oxford, Healey met future Prime Minister Edward Heath, whom he succeeded as president of Balliol College Junior Common Room, Healey achieved a double first degree, awarded in 1940. After graduation, Healey served in the Second World War as a gunner in the Royal Artillery but was commissioned as a lieutenant in April 1941. He was made an MBE in 1945 and he left the service with the rank of major. He became secretary of the department of the Labour Party, becoming a foreign policy adviser to Labour leaders. He was an opponent of the Communist Party at home. From 1948 to 1960 he was a councillor for the Royal Institute of International Affairs and he was a member of the Fabian Society executive from 1954 until 1961. Healey met Hans von Herwarth, the ex soldier Fridolin von Senger und Etterlin, the conference also included other leading British decisionmakers like Richard Crossman and the journalist Robin Day. Healey was elected to the House of Commons as MP for Leeds South East at a by-election in February 1952, following constituency boundary changes, he was elected for Leeds East at the 1955 general election, holding that seat until he retired as an MP in 1992. He was a moderate on the right during the series of splits in the Labour Party in the 1950s and he was a supporter and friend of Hugh Gaitskell. He persuaded Gaitskell to temper his support for British military action in 1956 when the Suez Canal was seized by the Nasser regime in Egypt
8.
Secretary of State for Defence
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Her Majestys Principal Secretary of State for Defence is an official within Her Majestys Government and head of the Ministry of Defence. The office is a British Cabinet level position, the post was created in 1964 as successor to the posts of Minister for Coordination of Defence and Minister of Defence. The position of Minister for Co-ordination of Defence was a British Cabinet-level position established in 1936 to oversee, the position was established by Prime Minister Baldwin in response to criticism that Britains armed forces were understrength compared to those of Nazi Germany. Despite this, Baldwins choice of the Attorney General Sir Thomas Inskip provoked widespread astonishment, a famous comment made in response to Inskips appointment was This is the most cynical appointment since Caligula made his horse a consul. In 1939 Inskip was succeeded by First Sea Lord Lord Chatfield, in April 1940 the position was formally wound up and the functions transferred to other Ministers. Colour key, Conservative none The post of Minister of Defence was responsible for co-ordination of defence, the post was a Cabinet level post and generally ranked above the three service ministers, some of whom, however, continued to also serve in Cabinet. On his appointment as Prime Minister in May 1940, Winston Churchill created for himself the new post of Minister of Defence, the post was created in response to previous criticism that there had been no clear single minister in charge of the prosecution of World War II. Colour key, Conservative Labour Labour Co-op none The post of Secretary of State for Defence was created on 1 April 1964
9.
Chancellor of the Exchequer
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The office is a British Cabinet-level position. The chancellor is responsible for all economic and financial matters, equivalent to the role of Secretary of the Treasury or Minister of Finance in other nations. The position is considered one of the four Great Offices of State, the Chancellor of the Exchequer is now always Second Lord of the Treasury as one of the Lords Commissioners for executing the office of Lord High Treasurer. Formerly, in cases when the Chancellorship was vacant, the Lord Chief Justice of the Kings Bench would act as Chancellor pro tempore, the last Lord Chief Justice to serve in this way was Lord Denman in 1834. The earliest surviving records which are the results of the audit, date from 1129–30 under King Henry I. The Chancellor controlled monetary policy as well as fiscal policy until 1997, the Chancellor also has oversight of public spending across Government departments. The current Chancellor of the Exchequer is Philip Hammond and he is entrusted with a certain amount of misery which it is his duty to distribute as fairly as he can. The Chancellor has considerable control over other departments as it is the Treasury which sets Departmental Expenditure Limits, the amount of power this gives to an individual Chancellor depends on his personal forcefulness, his status within his party and his relationship with the Prime Minister. Gordon Brown, who became Chancellor when Labour came into Government in 1997, had a personal power base in the party. One part of the Chancellors key roles involves the framing of the annual year budget, as of 2017, the first is the Autumn Budget, also known as Budget Day which forecasts government spending in the next financial year and also announces new financial measures. The second is a Spring Statement, also known as a mini-Budget, britains tax year has retained the old Julian end of year,24 March /5 April. From 1993, the Budget was in spring, preceded by an annual autumn statement. This was then called Pre-Budget Report, the Autumn Statement usually took place in November or December. The 1997,2001,2002,2003,2006,2007,2008,2012 and 2016 Budgets were all delivered on a Wednesday, although the Bank of England is responsible for setting interest rates, the Chancellor also plays an important part in the monetary policy structure. He sets the target which the Bank must set interest rates to meet. Under the Bank of England Act 1998 the Chancellor has the power of appointment of four out of nine members of the Banks Monetary Policy Committee – the so-called external members. The Act also provides that the Government has the power to give instructions to the Bank on interest rates for a period in extreme circumstances. This power has never officially used. At HM Treasury the Chancellor is supported by a team of four junior ministers
10.
Shangri-La Dialogue
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The forum gets its name from the Shangri-La Hotel in Singapore where it has been held since 2002. The summit serves to cultivate a sense of community among the most important policymakers in the defence, government delegations have made the best out of the meeting by holding bilateral meetings with other delegations on the sidelines of the conference. While primarily an inter-governmental meeting, the summit is attended by legislators, academic experts, distinguished journalists. Prior to the first summit, Asia lacked a regional security framework like Europe, earlier in 1996, US Defence Secretary William Perry and Thai Defence Minister Chavalit Yongchaiyudh each proposed separate initiatives to gather their counterparts in Asia but came to nothing. The only Track One multilateral Asian security forum was the ASEAN Regional Forum, in addition, the ARF was led by foreign ministers, leaving defence diplomacy and security cooperation in the region somewhat in want for a mechanism for defence ministers to interact. Invitations were essentially focused on the members of the ASEAN Regional Forum in order to serve as a regional security institution. Singapore was chosen as the location for the conference and with the Shangri-La Hotel as the venue. Nathan in February 2001 to propose the idea and Nathan offered to provide IDSS support until the IISS could run the conference independently, the idea was brought forward to the Singapore Cabinet and was approved to be supported by the Ministry of Defence. About a dozen deputy ministers and ministerial representatives attended the inaugural summit, the first summit was organized in six plenary sessions lasting for one and a half days. In 2003, the second summit expanded its invitation list to include chiefs of defence staff, the agenda this year was organized around five plenary sessions supplemented by two simultaneous off-the-record break-out groups. In 2004, the invitation list was further expanded to include participating countries most senior intelligence. The number of groups was increased to three. The IISS Asia office was opened this year, which allowed IISS to organize the summit completely independently, in 2005, Pakistan was represented for the first time. In 2006, the number of delegations had risen to 23 countries, with 17 being led by their defence ministers. The 2007 iteration of the Shangri-La Dialogue was a meeting as it attracted top-level participation from China. The Deputy Chief of the General Staff of the Peoples Liberation Army Lieutenant-General Zhang Qinsheng, subsequently, in 2008, Vietnam and Myanmar elevated their representation to deputy minister level. Then in 2009, Vietnam was represented at full ministerial status with General Phung Quang Thanh leading its delegation, in 2008, Laos was represented for the first time. The number of sessions increased from five to six, while the number of break-out groups increased from three to six
11.
Singapore
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Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its size by 23%. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce. Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index. Although income inequality is high, 90% of homes are owner-occupied, 38% of Singapores 5.6 million residents are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger. There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in 1824 the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations
12.
Persian Gulf
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The Persian Gulf is a mediterranean sea in Western Asia. The body of water is an extension of the Indian Ocean through the Strait of Hormuz, the Shatt al-Arab river delta forms the northwest shoreline. The Persian Gulf was a battlefield of the 1980–1988 Iran–Iraq War and it is the namesake of the 1991 Gulf War, the largely air- and land-based conflict that followed Iraqs invasion of Kuwait. The gulf has many fishing grounds, extensive coral reefs, and abundant pearl oysters, the body of water is historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf. Some Arab governments refer to it as the Arabian Gulf or The Gulf, the name Gulf of Iran is used by the International Hydrographic Organization. The Persian Gulf is geologically young, having been formed around 15,000 years ago. Its length is 989 kilometres, with Iran covering most of the northern coast, the Persian Gulf is about 56 km wide at its narrowest, in the Strait of Hormuz. The waters are very shallow, with a maximum depth of 90 metres. Various small islands lie within the Persian Gulf, some of which are the subject of territorial disputes between the states of the region. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the Persian Gulfs southern limit as The Northwestern limit of Gulf of Oman and this limit is defined as A line joining Ràs Limah on the coast of Arabia and Ràs al Kuh on the coast of Iran. The Persian Gulf and its areas are the worlds largest single source of crude oil. Safaniya Oil Field, the worlds largest offshore oilfield, is located in the Persian Gulf, large gas finds have also been made, with Qatar and Iran sharing a giant field across the territorial median line. Using this gas, Qatar has built up a substantial liquefied natural gas, the oil-rich countries that have a coastline on the Persian Gulf are referred to as the Persian Gulf States. In 550 BC, the Achaemenid Empire established the first ancient empire in Persis, consequently, in the Greek sources, the body of water that bordered this province came to be known as the Persian Gulf. In the travel account of Pythagoras, several chapters are related to description of his travels accompanied by the Achaemenid king Darius the Great, to Susa and Persepolis, and the area is described. This water channel separates the Iran Plateau from the Arabia Plate, has enjoyed an Iranian Identity since at least 2200 years ago. Before being given its present name, the Persian Gulf was called many different names, the classical Greek writers, like Herodotus, called it the Red Sea. In Babylonian texts, it was known as the sea above Akkad, the name of the gulf, historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf after the land of Persia, has been disputed by some Arab countries since the 1960s
13.
Bahrain
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Bahrain, officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, is a small Arab monarchy in the Persian Gulf. Bahrains population is 1,234,567, including 666,172 non-nationals and it is 780 km2 in size, making it the third smallest nation in Asia after the Maldives and Singapore. Bahrain is the site of the ancient Dilmun civilisation and it has been famed since antiquity for its pearl fisheries, which were considered the best in the world into the 19th century. Bahrain was one of the earliest areas to convert to Islam, following a period of Arab rule, Bahrain was occupied by the Portuguese in 1521, who in turn were expelled in 1602 by Shah Abbas I of the Safavid dynasty under the Persian Empire. In 1783, the Bani Utbah clan captured Bahrain from Nasr Al-Madhkur and it has since been ruled by the Al Khalifa royal family, in the late 1800s, following successive treaties with the British, Bahrain became a protectorate of the United Kingdom. Formerly a state, Bahrain was declared a Kingdom in 2002, in 2011, the country experienced protests inspired by the regional Arab Spring. Bahrain had the first post-oil economy in the Persian Gulf, since the late 20th century, Bahrain has invested in the banking and tourism sectors. Many large financial institutions have a presence in Manama, the countrys capital, Bahrain has a high Human Development Index and was recognised by the World Bank as a high income economy. In Arabic, Bahrayn is the form of bahr, so al-Bahrayn means the two seas, although which two seas were originally intended remains in dispute. The term appears five times in the Quran, but does not refer to the modern island—originally known to the Arabs as Awal— but rather to all of Eastern Arabia. Today, Bahrains two seas are generally taken to be the bay east and west of the island. In addition to wells, there are areas of the sea north of Bahrain where fresh water bubbles up in the middle of the water as noted by visitors since antiquity. An alternate theory with regard to Bahrains toponymy is offered by the al-Ahsa region, another supposition by al-Jawahari suggests that the more formal name Bahri would have been misunderstood and so was opted against. Until the late Middle Ages, Bahrain referred to the region of Eastern Arabia that included Southern Iraq, Kuwait, Al-Hasa, Qatif, the region stretched from Basra in Iraq to the Strait of Hormuz in Oman. This was Iqlīm al-Bahrayns Bahrayn Province, the exact date at which the term Bahrain began to refer solely to the Awal archipelago is unknown. The entire coastal strip of Eastern Arabia was known as Bahrain for a millennium, the island and kingdom were also commonly spelled Bahrein into the 1950s. Bahrain was home to the Dilmun civilization, an important Bronze Age trade centre linking Mesopotamia, Bahrain was later ruled by the Assyrians and Babylonians. From the 6th to 3rd century BC, Bahrain was part of the Persian Empire ruled by the Achaemenian dynasty, by about 250 BC, Parthia brought the Persian Gulf under its control and extended its influence as far as Oman
14.
Private company limited by guarantee
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In British and Irish company law, a company limited by guarantee is an alternative type of corporation used primarily for non-profit organisations that require legal personality. A company limited by guarantee does not usually have a capital or shareholders. The guarantors give an undertaking to contribute an amount in the event of the winding up of the company. A company limited by guarantee can distribute its profits to its members, if allowed to by its articles of association, Limited companies can convert to a Community Interest Company which feature an asset lock which prevents the extraction of profits. Like a private company limited by shares, a limited by guarantee must include the suffix Limited in its name. One condition of this exclusion is that the company does not distribute profits, until 1981, it was possible in the United Kingdom to form a company limited by guarantee with share capital. Under section 5 of the Companies Act 2006, new companies cannot be formed as a limited by guarantee with a share capital. The railway infrastructure provider Network Rail, domain name registry Nominet UK, England and Wales Cricket Board and IXPs LINX, Australia also has companies limited by guarantee, Cricket Australia being one example. Community interest company Company Private limited company by shares Companies Act 2006, Office of Public Sector Information
15.
Registered charity
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A charitable organization is a type of non-profit organization. It differs from types of NPOs in that it centers on philanthropic goals as well as social well-being. The legal definition of charitable organization varies according to the country, the regulation, tax treatment, and the way in which charity law affects charitable organizations also varies. Financial figures are important indicators to assess the sustainability of a charity. This information can impact a charitys reputation with donors and societies, and thus, Charitable organizations often depend partly on donations from for-profit-organizations. Such donations to charitable organizations represent a form of corporate philanthropy. Until the mid-18th century, charity was mainly distributed through parish relief, churches, almshouses, Charities were also responsible for education, health, housing and even prisons. It was in the Enlightenment era that charitable and philanthropic activity among voluntary associations, societies, gentlemans clubs, and mutual associations began to flourish in England and the upper-classes increasingly adopted a philanthropic attitude toward the disadvantaged. This new social activism was channeled into the establishment of charitable organizations and this emerging upper-class fashion for benevolence resulted in the incorporation of the first charitable organizations. This was the first such charity in the world and served as the precedent for incorporated associational charities everywhere. Jonas Hanway, another notable philanthropist of the era established The Marine Society in 1756 as the first seafarers charity, by 1763, the Society had recruited over 10,000 men and it was incorporated by an Act of Parliament in 1772. Hanway was also instrumental in establishing the Magdalen Hospital to rehabilitate prostitutes and these organizations were funded by subscription and run as voluntary associations. Charities also began to adopt campaigning roles, where they would champion a cause, the process was however a lengthy one being finally concluded when Saudi Arabia abolished slavery in 1962. This period also saw growing philosophical debate between those who championed state intervention and those who believed that private charities should provide welfare, thomas Malthus, the political economist, criticized poor relief for paupers on economic and moral grounds and proposed leaving charity entirely to the private sector. His views were influential and informed the Victorian laissez-faire attitude toward state intervention for the poor. During the 19th century, a profusion of charitable organizations were set up to alleviate the conditions of the working class in the slums. The Labourers Friend Society, chaired by Lord Shaftesbury in the United Kingdom in 1830, was set up to working class conditions. This included the promotion of allotment of land to labourers for cottage husbandry that later became the allotment movement and this was one of the first housing associations, a philanthropic endeavour that flourished in the second half of the nineteenth century brought about by the growth of the middle class
16.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
17.
Manama, Bahrain
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Manama is the capital and largest city of Bahrain, with an approximate population of 157,000 people. Long an important trading center in the Persian Gulf, Manama is home to a diverse population. Manama became the capital, and was the gateway to the main Bahrain Island. Manama was designated as the capital of Arab culture for the year 2012 by the Arab League, the name is derived from the Arabic word المنامة meaning the place of rest or the place of dreams. There is evidence of settlement on the northern coastline of Bahrain dating back to the Bronze Age. The Dilmun civilisation inhabited the area in 3000 BC, serving as a key regional trading hub between Mesopotamia, Magan and the Indus Valley civilisation. Approximately 100,000 Dilmun burial mounds were found across the north and central regions of the country, despite the discovery of the mounds, there is no significant evidence to suggest heavy urbanisation took place during the Dilmun era. It is believed that the majority of the lived in rural areas. Evidence of an ancient large rural population was confirmed by one of Alexander the Greats ship captains, a vast system of aqueducts in northern Bahrain helped facilitate ancient horticulture and agriculture. The commercial network of Dilmun lasted for almost 2,000 years and this was followed by Babylonian and Achaemenid rule, which later gave way to Greek influence during the time of Alexander the Greats conquests. In the first century AD, the Roman writer Pliny the Elder wrote of Tylos, the Hellenic name of Bahrain in the classical era, the island came under the control of the Parthian and Sassanid empires respectively, by which time Nestorian Christianity started to spread in Bahrain. By 410-420 AD, a Nestorian bishopric and monastery was established in Al Dair, following the conversion of Bahrain to Islam in 628 AD, work on one of the earliest mosques in the region, the Khamis Mosque, began as early as the seventh century AD. During this time, Bahrain was engaged in long distance marine trading, in 1330, under the Jarwanid dynasty, the island became a tributary of the Kingdom of Hormuz. The town of Manama was mentioned by name for the first time in a dating to 1345 AD. Bahrain, particularly Manama and the settlement of Bilad Al Qadeem, became a centre of Shia scholarship and training for the ulema. The ulema would help fund pearling expeditions and finance grain production in the areas surrounding the city. In 1521, Bahrain fell to the expanding Portuguese Empire in the Persian Gulf, the Portuguese consolidated their hold on the island by constructing the Bahrain Fort, on the outskirts of Manama. After numerous revolts and an expanding Safavid empire in Persia, the Portuguese were expelled from Bahrain, the Safavids, sidelining Manama, designated the nearby town of Bilad Al Qadeem as the provincial capital
18.
The Guardian
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The Guardian is a British daily newspaper, known from 1821 until 1959 as the Manchester Guardian. Along with its sister papers The Observer and The Guardian Weekly, The Guardian is part of the Guardian Media Group, the Scott Trust became a limited company in 2008, with a constitution to maintain the same protections for The Guardian. Profits are reinvested in journalism rather than to the benefit of an owner or shareholders, the Guardian is edited by Katharine Viner, who succeeded Alan Rusbridger in 2015. In 2016, The Guardians print edition had a daily circulation of roughly 162,000 copies in the country, behind The Daily Telegraph. The newspaper has an online UK edition as well as two international websites, Guardian Australia and Guardian US, the newspapers online edition was the fifth most widely read in the world in October 2014, with over 42.6 million readers. Its combined print and online editions reach nearly 9 million British readers, notable scoops include the 2011 News International phone hacking scandal, in particular the hacking of murdered English teenager Milly Dowlers phone. The investigation led to the closure of the UKs biggest selling Sunday newspaper, and one of the highest circulation newspapers in the world, in 2016, it led the investigation into the Panama Papers, exposing the then British Prime Minister David Camerons links to offshore bank accounts. The Guardian has been named Newspaper of the Year four times at the annual British Press Awards, the paper is still occasionally referred to by its nickname of The Grauniad, given originally for the purported frequency of its typographical errors. The Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by cotton merchant John Edward Taylor with backing from the Little Circle and they launched their paper after the police closure of the more radical Manchester Observer, a paper that had championed the cause of the Peterloo Massacre protesters. They do not toil, neither do they spin, but they better than those that do. When the government closed down the Manchester Observer, the champions had the upper hand. The influential journalist Jeremiah Garnett joined Taylor during the establishment of the paper, the prospectus announcing the new publication proclaimed that it would zealously enforce the principles of civil and religious Liberty. Warmly advocate the cause of Reform, endeavour to assist in the diffusion of just principles of Political Economy and. Support, without reference to the party from which they emanate, in 1825 the paper merged with the British Volunteer and was known as The Manchester Guardian and British Volunteer until 1828. The working-class Manchester and Salford Advertiser called the Manchester Guardian the foul prostitute, the Manchester Guardian was generally hostile to labours claims. The Manchester Guardian dismissed strikes as the work of outside agitators –, if an accommodation can be effected, the occupation of the agents of the Union is gone. CP Scott made the newspaper nationally recognised and he was editor for 57 years from 1872, and became its owner when he bought the paper from the estate of Taylors son in 1907. Under Scott, the moderate editorial line became more radical, supporting William Gladstone when the Liberals split in 1886
19.
Carl Bildt
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Nils Daniel Carl Bildt is a Swedish politician and diplomat who was Prime Minister of Sweden from 1991 to 1994. He was the leader of the Moderate Party from 1986 to 1999, Bildt served as Swedens Minister for Foreign Affairs from October 2006 to October 2014. From 1999 to 2001, he served as the United Nations Secretary-Generals Special Envoy for the Balkans, Bildt was born on 15 July 1949 in Halmstad, Halland, to an old Norwegian-Danish-Swedish noble family traditionally domiciled in Bohus county. Bildts father Daniel Bildt was a major in the reserves of the now defunct Halland Regiment. Daniel Bildt married Kerstin Andersson-Alwå in 1947, Carl Bildts brother, Nils, was born in 1952. Bildt was married to Kerstin Zetterberg from 1974–75, to Mia Bohman from 1984–97, Bildt has three children, two from his second marriage and one from his third marriage. Bildt became a Member of Parliament in 1979, although he served instead as State Secretary for Policy Coordination in the reformed non-socialist government after that election, as an MP in the early eighties, he became noted as an incisive and combative debater on foreign affairs. Bildt was elected leader of the Moderate Party in 1986, succeeding Ulf Adelsohn, in 1991, the Social Democrats were defeated by a four-party coalition led by Bildts Moderate Party. On 4 October 1991, Bildt became the first conservative prime minister in Sweden in 61 years, long a champion of European integration and Swedens participation in this, negotiating membership in the European Union was a priority for the Bildt premiership. The accession was supported by a referendum in November, and Sweden entered the EU as full member on January 1,1995, by that time his governing coalition had lost its majority in the September 1994 elections, in spite of his Moderate party making slight gains. The economic program of the government was focused primarily on a series of reforms aiming at improving competitiveness. These reforms were controversial at the time, and the government also had to deal with a rapid increase in unemployment as well as public deficits during 1991 and 1992. The period was marked by an economic crisis. These problems were reinforced by the crisis in other European countries. As a result, Sweden in November 1992 was forced to abandon its policy of an exchange rate. As part of the effort to handle the crisis, the government was able to conclude an agreement with the Social Democratic opposition on some of its expenditure-cutting measures. By 1994 the economy was registering strong growth, and the deficits were declining, in this he worked closely together with the leaders of the three countries as well as with Russia Foreign Minister Andrei Kozyrev. Bildt was a champion of the internet and information technologies
20.
Karl Eikenberry
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Karl Winfrid Eikenberry is a retired United States Army lieutenant general who served as the U. S. ambassador to Afghanistan from April 2009 to July 2011. He is currently the Oksenberg-Rohlen Fellow and Director of the U. S, Asia Security Initiative at the Walter H. Shorenstein Asia-Pacific Research Center. He also is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations, the American Academy of Diplomacy, Eikenberry was born in 1951 and graduated from Goldsboro High School in Goldsboro, North Carolina, in 1969. He then attended the United States Military Academy at West Point and he received an M. A. in East Asian Studies from Harvard University, where he would later return as a National Security Fellow at the John F. Kennedy School of Government. He also earned an M. A. in political science from Stanford University, in the Army, Eikenberry commanded and held staff positions in airborne, ranger, and mechanized infantry units in the United States, Korea, and Europe. He also served as Assistant Army Attaché and later as the Defense Attaché in the United States Embassy in the Peoples Republic of China, Eikenberry served two tours of duty in the war in Afghanistan. His first tour in Afghanistan, from September 2002 to September 2003, Security Coordinator for Afghanistan and the second position was the Chief of the Office of Military Cooperation-Afghanistan. In his role as Chief of the OMC-A he was the architect of the strategy that established the new Afghan National Army. Eikenberry succeeded Lieutenant General David Barno as Commander, Combined Forces Command-Afghanistan and he also commanded the military task force sent to Pakistan to provide humanitarian assistance and disaster relief in the wake of the October 8th,2005 Kashmir earthquake. He completed his career in Brussels, Belgium as the Deputy Chairman of the NATO Military Committee. On January 29,2009, the New York Times reported that President Barack Obama had chosen Eikenberry to be the next U. S. ambassador to Afghanistan, the choice of a career army officer for the sensitive post was described by The Times as highly unusual. On April 3,2009, the Senate confirmed Eikenberrys nomination, the official announcement of his nomination was made on March 11. Following his confirmation as ambassador, he retired from the U. S. military with the rank of Lieutenant General on April 28,2009. In November 2009, Eikenberry sent two classified cables to his superiors in which he assessed the proposed U. S. strategy in Afghanistan, a description of the content of the cables was leaked soon after. In June 2010, General McChrystal was described in a Rolling Stone profile as feeling blindsided by Eikenberrys statements in the leaked cables, Perry Fellow in International Security at the Center for International Security and Cooperation. S. Asia-Pacific strategy and Sino American relations, counter-insurgency and state-building strategies, Eikenberry, Karl W. Explaining and Influencing Chinese Arms Transfers. Institute for National Strategic Studies, National Defense University, archived from the original on June 9,2007. Eikenberry, Karl W. Ambassador Eikenberrys Cables on U. S, Eikenberry, Karl W. Hennessy, John L. Sheehan, James J. Kennedy, David M. and Perry, William J
21.
Charles Guthrie, Baron Guthrie of Craigiebank
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Born in Chelsea, London into a Scottish landed family, Guthrie was the elder son of Ronald Guthrie and Nina Guthrie. He was educated at Harrow School and the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst and he was promoted to lieutenant on 1 June 1961 and captain on 25 July 1965. He returned to the Welsh Guards in Münster in 1970 and, following his promotion to major on 31 December 1970, in the Jubilee Honours of 1977 he was appointed a Member of the Royal Victorian Order, on 31 December 1984 this rank was reclassified as Lieutenant. He was appointed Commanding Officer of 1st Battalion Welsh Guards in 1977 in which role he was deployed to Berlin. Promoted to colonel on 31 December 1979, he undertook a tour of duty in Northern Ireland in Spring 1980 for which he was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire, in 1980 he was also briefly Commander of British Forces in the New Hebrides. He then spent two years as Colonel on the General Staff for Military Operations at the Ministry of Defence, promoted to brigadier on 31 December 1981, he became Brigade Commander of 4th Armoured Brigade in 1982. In 1984 he was made Chief of Staff for 1st British Corps in Bielefeld, on 24 November 1987 Guthrie became Assistant Chief of the General Staff at the Ministry of Defence. He was appointed Commander of Northern Army Group and British Army of the Rhine on 7 January 1992 and, following promotion to general on 14 February 1992, became ADC to the Queen on 13 July 1993. He then became Chief of the General Staff on 15 March 1994, as CGS, he was responsible for providing strategic military advice to the British Government on the deployment of troops for the Bosnian War. He went on to be Chief of the Defence Staff on 2 April 1997, in which role he advised the British Government on the conduct of the Kosovo War, before retiring in 2001. He was created a Life Peer, as Baron Guthrie of Craigiebank, of Craigiebank in the City of Dundee, in June 2001, however, Guthrie has been criticised by George Monbiot for an alleged lack of understanding of international law. Guthrie also clashed with Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown in 2008 over military funding, in 2007 Guthrie co-authored a book on Ethics in Modern Warfare with Michael Quinlan, former Permanent Secretary at the Ministry of Defence. Guthrie was promoted to the rank of field marshal in June 2012. Guthrie represented HRH The Prince of Wales at the Cenotaph on Remembrance Sunday 2012 where he was photographed wearing the epaulettes of a field marshal and he is also a member of the Top Level Group of UK Parliamentarians for Multilateral Nuclear Disarmament and Non-proliferation, established in October 2009. Guthrie is President of several charities, including Action Medical Research, the Federation of London Youth Clubs and the Progressive Supranuclear Palsy Association. He is a Deputy Lieutenant for Dorset, a Roman Catholic convert, he became a Knight of Malta and is a Patron of the Catholic homeless charities Cardinal Hume Centre and Caritas Anchor House. He became Chancellor of Liverpool Hope University in July 2013 and he was one of several contributors to a 2013 book on public sector management. In August 2014, Guthrie was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to Septembers referendum on that issue and his interests include tennis, opera and travel
22.
The Stimson Center
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The Stimson Center is a nonprofit, nonpartisan institution devoted to enhancing international peace and security through a combination of analysis and outreach. The Centers stated approach is pragmatic ― seeking to provide policy alternatives, solve problems, Stimson seeks to offer decision-makers pragmatic solutions and policy-relevant information and analysis. Barry Blechman and Michael Krepon founded the Stimson Center in 1989, Stimson is currently led by Chairman of the Board Lincoln P. Bloomfield, Jr. and President and CEO Brian Finlay. The Stimson Center is funded by contracts, grants from foundations and other donations. Stimsons Budgeting for Foreign Affairs and Defense program seeks to improve American national security at a lower cost to the American people and it also works to strengthen the capacity and capability of the US government to frame, resource, and execute foreign and national security policies and programs. The East Asia program conducts research on regional security issues and offers insights and recommendations for policymakers in the U. S. The program analyzes the dynamics of cross-Strait relations, including the exchange of ideas, the Managing Across Boundaries initiative develops government responses at the national, regional, and international levels, and accelerates public-private partnerships to mitigate these threats. The Middle East program explores issues that affect regional security from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf, the program’s Gulf Security work analyzes traditional and nontraditional security issues impacting the Gulf States and their neighbors. In 2015, the program is monitoring the regional security repercussions of the Iran nuclear negotiations, the South Asia program seeks to reduce nuclear dangers in South Asia by focusing on risks associated with the accelerating arms competition between India and Pakistan. These risks are amplified by the activities of terrorist groups and political instability in the region, the program has championed confidence-building and nuclear risk-reduction measures in South Asia for over twenty years. The South Asia program analyzes U. S. crisis management on the subcontinent, producing case studies of the “Twin Peaks” and Mumbai crises, and identifying future challenges. The program seeks to empower a generation of strategic analysts in South Asia by means of the South Asian Voices website, conferences. Stimson’s Space Security program seeks to advance an International Code of Conduct for responsible space-faring nations and it focuses on how to reduce clear and present dangers facing every space-faring nation. The Transforming Conflict and Governance program examines whether and how international conflict management and it focuses in particular on violence against civilians and its prevention and the impact of climate change on the livelihoods of vulnerable populations, including those in zones of conflict. The program takes advantage of growing local and global e-connectivity to limit violence, ranked 24th of the Top Think Tanks in the United States according to University of Pennsylvania’s 2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report. Winner of the MacArthur Foundation’s Award for Creative and Effective Institutions in 2013, given 5-Star rating by Transparify’s 2015 report, How Transparent are Think Tanks about Who Funds Them 2015. Brian Finlay Ambassador Lincoln P. Bloomfield, Jr, former Ambassador Thomas R. Pickering Barry Blechman Michael Krepon The Henry L. Stimson Center
23.
Maleeha Lodhi
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Maleeha Lodhi PhD is a Pakistani political scientist who serves as Pakistans Representative to the United Nations, the first woman to hold the position. Previously, she served as Pakistans envoy to the Court of St Jamess and she returned to Pakistan in 1986 to become the editor of The Muslim, making her the first woman to edit a national newspaper in Asia. In 1990, she moved to become the editor of The News International. In 1994, she was appointed by Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto as Pakistans envoy to the United States and she was once again appointed to the same position in 1999 by President Musharraf until 2002 when she completed her tenure and moved on to be High Commissioner to the UK. In 2001, Lodhi became a member of the United Nations Secretary Generals Advisory Board on Disarmament, in 2003, President Musharraf appointed her as Pakistans High Commissioner to the United Kingdom at the Court of St Jamess, where she remained until 2008. Between 2008 and 2010, she served as a resident fellow at the Institute of Politics at the Kennedy School at Harvard University, Lodhi is one of Pakistans prominent diplomats. Lodhi is the recipient of the Hilal-i-Imtiaz for Public Service and holds a fellowship from the London School of Economics since 2004. From the London Metropolitan University in 2005 and she is the author of two books, Pakistan, the External Challenge and Pakistan’s Encounter with Democracy Her latest is a book edited by her in 2010, Pakistan, Beyond the Crisis State. Lodhi was born in Lahore, Punjab, to an upper-middle-class family and her father was the chief executive of a British-based oil company and was the first Pakistani head of a British company in Pakistan. Lodhi was married to a banker in London, but they divorced five years of marriage. Together, they have a son named Faisal, who is now married, Lodhi first received her school education in Lahore and Rawalpindi, but moved to United Kingdom. She attended the London School of Economics in 1972 to study economics and she received her BSc in Economics, specializing in political science in 1976, worked towards attaining PhD in political science, which she was awarded in 1980. Her doctoral thesis was on Bhutto, The Pakistan Peoples Party and political development in Pakistan, Lodhi returned to Pakistan in 1986 after martial law had been lifted. Her phones were tapped and she was followed by intel sleuths all the time and she joined and edited the English language newspaper The Muslim in 1987, making her the first woman in Asia to edit a national daily newspaper. In 1990 she moved to become the editor of The News International where she remained until 1993 when she was appointed by Benazir Bhutto as the countrys envoy to the United States. She re-joined The News International 1997 as its editor and remained until 1999. Since 2001, she has served on the UN Secretary Generals Advisory Board on Disarmament Affairs. According to the Los Angeles Times, During a trip of three U. S. senators to Islamabad, Benazir Bhutto introduced Lodhi by saying Meet Maleeha
24.
Moeletsi Mbeki
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He is a member of the executive council of the International Institute for Strategic Studies which is based in London. He is the brother of former President Thabo Mbeki and son of ANC leader Govan Mbeki. He has been a frequent critic of President Mbeki, Moeletsi Goduka Mbeki has a strong background in journalism, with a resume that includes a Harvard University Nieman Fellowship and time at the BBC. He often acts as a commentator in South Africa, and is the author of a paper titled Perpetuating Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa. He was a consultant for the ANC in the 90s, and is currently the chairman of Endemol South Africa, a TV production house. He has also director of Comazar, which rehabilitates and grants concessions to railway networks in Africa. In 2003 it was revealed by John Perlman that the SABC had blacklisted a lot of political commentators, Moeletsi generated some controversy when he said that Africa was governed better under colonial rule than today. In October 2006 Moeletsi Mbeki applied for an order to have Jonathan Moyo jailed the next time he visits South Africa and he has been known to oppose certain Black Economic Empowerment deals in South Africa and has written articles for the Cato Institute, a USA-based libertarian think tank. With his book “Architects of Poverty, Why African Capitalism Needs Changing” in 2009 he has triggered a debate about governance, ethics and moral values in African governance processes
25.
George Robertson, Baron Robertson of Port Ellen
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He served as Defence Secretary for the United Kingdom from 1997 to 1999, before taking up his NATO position and becoming a life peer as Baron Robertson of Port Ellen, of Islay in Argyll and Bute. Born in Port Ellen, Isle of Islay, Scotland, the son of a policeman, he was educated at Dunoon Grammar School and studied economics at the Queens College, Dundee. When he was 15 years of age, he was involved with protests against US nuclear submarines docking in Britain, during his time at University he played a full part in student life. Notably he wrote a column for the student newspaper Annasach, launched in 1967, Robertson used his newspaper column to back the new University and encouraged his fellow students to take a University of Dundee degree. In 1968 Robertson was one of a number of Dundee students to invade the pitch during a match at St. Andrews involving a team from the Orange Free State to protest against apartheid. The same year he organised a 24-hour work-in by students in the university library in opposition to proposed cuts by the government in student grants, Lord Robertson married Sandra Wallace on 1 June 1970. They are the parents of three children, Robertson was wearing a seat belt at the time and attributes his survival to this factor. He was challenged for the seat by the SNP candidate, Margo MacDonald, Robertson retained the constituency with an increased majority and obtained 51% of the overall vote. He was re-elected to Parliament at the five subsequent general elections, was Chairman of the Labour Party in Scotland, in 1995, Robertson said that Devolution will kill Nationalism stone dead while he was Shadow Secretary of State for Scotland. This quote was designed to assuage fears that devolution would provide a platform for the Scottish National Party. Robertsons quote is frequently recalled, usually in a mocking fashion, robertsons three children are former pupils of the school in Dunblane where gunman Thomas Hamilton murdered 16 children and their teacher in 1996. After the massacre, Robertson, a resident of the town. He was also a key figure in the subsequent campaign that led to the ban on handguns in Great Britain, in 2003, the Sunday Herald newspaper ran an article entitled Should the Dunblane dossier be kept secret. A reference to documents relating to the Cullen Inquiry into the massacre which are to remain classified for 100 years. In a discussion board on the website, anonymous contributors claimed that Robertson had signed a recommendation for a gun licence for Thomas Hamilton in his capacity as Hamiltons MP. In fact, Robertson had never been the gunmans MP, Robertson sued the Sunday Herald and the paper settled by paying him a five-figure sum plus costs. A subsequent action by Robertson, related to the terms of the apology, was unsuccessful. The first case became an important test case as to whether publishers can be responsible for comments posted on their websites
26.
All Souls College, Oxford
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All Souls College is a constituent college of the University of Oxford in England. Unique to All Souls, all of its members automatically become Fellows, All Souls is one of the wealthiest colleges in Oxford, with a financial endowment of £286. 4m. However, since the Colleges principal source of revenue is its endowment, All Souls is a registered charity under English law. The college is located on the side of the High Street adjoining Radcliffe Square to the west. To the east is The Queens College with Hertford College to the North, the current Warden is Sir John Vickers, a graduate of Oriel College, Oxford. The College was founded by Henry VI of England and Henry Chichele, the Statutes provided for the Warden and forty fellows – all to take Holy Orders, twenty-four to study arts, philosophy and theology, and sixteen to study civil or canon law. Today the College is primarily a research institution. The College now has no undergraduate members, All Souls did once have them, especially in the early 17th century on the instigation of Robert Hovenden, in order to provide the fellows with servientes. The admission of undergraduates for this purpose was abandoned in the 19th century, the All Souls Library was founded through a bequest from Christopher Codrington, a Fellow of the College. Christopher Codrington bequeathed books worth £6,000, in addition to £10,000 in currency and this bequest allowed the library to be built and endowed. Christopher Codrington was born in Barbados, and amassed his fortune from his sugar planation in the West Indies, the library was completed in 1751, and has been in continuous use since then. The modern library comprises some 185,000 items, about a third of which were published before 1800, the collections are particularly strong in Law and History. Built between 1438 and 1442, the chapel remained largely unchanged until the Commonwealth, Oxford, having been a largely Royalist stronghold, suffered under the Puritans wrath. The 42 misericords date from the Chapels building, and show a resemblance to the misericords at Higham Ferrers, both may have been carved by Richard Tyllock. Christopher Wren was a Fellow from 1653, and in 1658 produced a sundial for the College and this was originally placed on the South wall of the Chapel, until it was moved to the quadrangle in 1877. During the 1660s a screen was installed in the Chapel, which was based on a design by Wren, however, this screen needed to be rebuilt by 1713. By the mid-19th century the Chapel was in great need of renovation, each year several dozen typically do so. Two examination fellows are elected each year, although the college has awarded a single place in previous years
27.
Statoil
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Statoil ASA, is a Norwegian multinational oil and gas company headquartered in Stavanger, Norway. It is a fully integrated petroleum company operations in thirty-six countries. By revenue, Statoil is ranked by Forbes Magazine as the eleventh largest oil and gas company. The company has about 23,000 employees, Statoil was formed by the 2007 merger of Statoil with the oil and gas division of Norsk Hydro. As of 2013, the Government of Norway is the largest shareholder in Statoil with 67% of the shares, the ownership interest is managed by the Norwegian Ministry of Petroleum and Energy. The company is headquartered and led from Stavanger, while most of their operations are currently led from Fornebu. Statoil is the largest operator on the Norwegian continental shelf, with 60% of the total production, the company also has processing plants at Kolsnes, Kårstø, Mongstad, Tjeldbergodden, and Melkøya. Statoil has offices that are looking for possible ventures in the countries of Mexico, Qatar, the company has processing plants in Belgium, Denmark, France, and Germany. In 2006, Statoil was given approval to implement the worlds largest carbon sequestration project as a means to mitigate carbon emissions to the atmosphere, in September 2007, Statoil and the Brazilian oil company Petrobras signed a deal aimed at expanding exploration, sub-sea, and biofuels cooperation. After the merger with Hydro, Statoil became a partner in Brazils offshore Peregrino oil field, under the agreement Statoil became a partner on six offshore licenses, as well as expanding biofuels production. Petrobras and Statoil announced plans to create dozens of refineries in Brazil, on 4 March 2008, Statoil bought Anadarko Petroleum Corporations 50% share of the Peregrino oil field for 1.8 billion USD. At the time of acquiring the license, the recovery factor was estimated to be 9%. However, with the current reservoir depletion plan of the calling for the use of produced water injection and rock compaction. On 24 May 2010, Statoil sold a 40% stake in the Peregrino field to Sinochem, the Chinese state-controlled oil company, for a sum of $3.07 billion, but retained 60%. On 7 April 2010, Statoil announced finding oil and gas reserves in the Fossekall prospect just north of the Norne oil field in the Norwegian Sea. In May 2010, Noble Energy, Inc. operator of the Deep Blue exploration well on Green Canyon 723 in the deepwater Gulf of Mexico successfully reached a depth of 32,684 feet, Statoil holds a 15.625 per cent interest in the Deep Blue well. In April 2011, Statoil announced a new find at the Skrugard prospect in the northern Norwegian Sea north of the Snøhvit field off Hammerfest. The find was seen as a key find as it could lead to more finds in the region, in September 2011 the company announced a large new find at its Aldous Major South prospect on the Norwegian continental shelf
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Anne-Marie Slaughter
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Anne-Marie Slaughter is an international lawyer, foreign policy analyst, political scientist and public commentator. She is the current President and CEO of New America and a president of the American Society of International Law. She subsequently served as the Director of Policy Planning for the U. S. State Department from January 2009 until February 2011 under U. S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. During her academic career, she has taught at Princeton University, the University of Chicago, Slaughter was born and raised in Charlottesville, Virginia, the daughter of a Belgian mother, Anne Marie Denise, and an American father, Edward Ratliff Slaughter, Jr. a lawyer. Her paternal grandfather was Edward Slaughter, a player, athletic coach. Anne-Marie Slaughter, who went by Anne-Marie Burley, was a matron of honor at Jeffrey Toobins wedding. She received her B. A. from the Woodrow Wilson School at Princeton University in 1980, where she graduated magna cum laude and received a certificate in European cultural studies. Mentored by Richard H. Ullman, she won the Daniel M. Sachs Memorial Scholarship, one of Princetons top honors, which provides for two years of study at Worcester College, Oxford University. After receiving her M. Phil. in International Affairs from Oxford University in 1982, she studied at Harvard Law School and she continued at Harvard after graduation as a researcher for her academic mentor, the international lawyer Abram Chayes. In 1992, she received her D. Phil. in International Relations from Oxford and she is a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. She then moved to Princeton to serve as dean of the Woodrow Wilson School and she held that post from 2002 to 2009, when she accepted an appointment at the US State Department. During the academic year 2007–2008, Slaughter was a fellow at the Shanghai Institute for International Affairs. In 2011, she returned to Princeton as a professor, as a scholar, Slaughter has had a focus on integrating the study of international relations and international law, using international relations theory in international legal theory. She has been active as a teacher of numerous students in both law and political science, as well as other graduate and undergraduate students. At Princeton University, she is currently jointly appointed in the Politics Department and the Woodrow Wilson School, Slaughter was Director of the International Legal Studies Program at Harvard Law School from 1994–2002, and a Professor at Harvards Kennedy School of Government from 2001–2002. During her tenure as dean of the Woodrow Wilson School, she was credited with building the faculty, research. She was credited with rebuilding Princetons international relations faculty, including hiring a bevy of well-respected senior scholars including Robert Keohane, Helen Milner and she also retained or hired influential right-of-center scholars including Aaron Friedberg and Thomas Christensen. Slaughter responded to claims by pointing to the dozens of public lectures by independent academics, journalists
