1.
Punk rock
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Punk rock is a rock music genre that developed in the early to mid-1970s in the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia. Rooted in 1960s garage rock and other forms of what is now known as proto-punk music, Punk bands typically produced short or fast-paced songs, with hard-edged melodies and singing styles, stripped-down instrumentation, and often political, anti-establishment lyrics. Punk embraces a DIY ethic, many bands self-produce recordings and distribute them through informal channels, the term punk was first used in relation to rock music by some American critics in the early 1970s, to describe garage bands and their devotees. The following year saw punk rock spreading around the world, for the most part, punk took root in local scenes that tended to reject association with the mainstream. An associated punk subculture emerged, expressing youthful rebellion and characterized by distinctive styles of clothing and adornment, by the beginning of the 1980s, faster, more aggressive styles such as hardcore and street punk had become the predominant mode of punk rock. Musicians identifying with or inspired by punk also pursued a range of other variations, giving rise to post-punk. At the end of the 20th century, punk rock had been adopted by the mainstream, as pop punk and punk bands such as Green Day. The first wave of rock was aggressively modern, distancing itself from the bombast. According to Ramones drummer Tommy Ramone, In its initial form, unfortunately, what happens is that people who could not hold a candle to the likes of Hendrix started noodling away. Soon you had endless solos that went nowhere, by 1973, I knew that what was needed was some pure, stripped down, no bullshit rock n roll. In critic Robert Christgaus description, It was also a subculture that rejected the political idealism. Technical accessibility and a DIY spirit are prized in punk rock, in the early days of punk rock, this ethic stood in marked contrast to what those in the scene regarded as the ostentatious musical effects and technological demands of many mainstream rock bands. Musical virtuosity was often looked on with suspicion, according to Holmstrom, punk rock was rock and roll by people who didnt have very many skills as musicians but still felt the need to express themselves through music. In December 1976, the English fanzine Sideburns published an illustration of three chords, captioned This is a chord, this is another, this is a third. The title of a 1980 single by the New York punk band Stimulators, inscribed a catchphrase for punks basic musical approach. The previous year, when the rock revolution began in Great Britain, was to be both a musical and a cultural Year Zero. As a Clash associate describes singer Joe Strummers outlook, Punk rock is meant to be our freedom, were meant to be able to do what we want to do. Scholar Daniel S. Traber argues that attaining authenticity in the identity can be difficult, as the punk scene matured, he observes
2.
Hardcore punk
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Hardcore punk is a punk rock music genre and subculture that originated in the late 1970s. It is generally faster, harder, and more aggressive than other forms of punk rock, New York punk had a harder-edged sound than its San Francisco counterpart, featuring anti-art expressions of masculine anger, energy and subversive humor. Hardcore punk generally disavows commercialism, the music industry and anything similar to the characteristics of mainstream rock. Hardcore sprouted underground scenes across the United States in the early 1980s, particularly in Washington, New York, New Jersey, and Boston—as well as in Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom. Hardcore has spawned the straight movement and its associated submovements, hardline. Hardcore was heavily involved with the rise of the independent record labels in the 1980s and it has also influenced various music genres that have experienced widespread commercial success, including alternative rock, thrash metal, emo and metalcore. While traditional hardcore has never experienced mainstream success, some of its early pioneers have garnered appreciation over time. In 2011, Rolling Stone writer David Fricke placed Greg Ginn of Black Flag 99th place in his 100 Greatest Guitarists list, although the music genre started in English-speaking western countries, notable hardcore scenes have existed in Italy, Brazil, Japan, Europe and the Middle East. The origin of the hardcore punk is uncertain. The Vancouver-based band D. O. A. may have helped to popularize the term with the title of their 1981 album, Hardcore 81. C. Hardcore historian Steven Blush said that the term hardcore is also a reference to the sense of being fed up with the existing punk, Blush also states that the term refers to an extreme, the absolute most Punk. One definition of the genre is a form of exceptionally harsh punk rock, like the Oi. subgenre of the UK, hardcore punk can be considered an internal music reaction. According to one writer, distressed by the artificiality of much post-punk, lacking the art-school grace of post-punk, hardcore punk favor low key visual aesthetic over extravagance and breaking with original punk rock song patterns. One of the important philosophies in the scene is authenticity. The pejorative term poseur is applied to those who associate with punk and adopt its stylistic attributes but are deemed not to share or understand the underlying values and philosophy. Joe Keithley, the vocalist of D. O. A. said in an interview, in the vein of earlier punk rock, most hardcore punk bands have followed the traditional singer/guitar/bass/drum format. The songwriting has more emphasis on rather than melody. Critic Steven Blush writes The Sex Pistols were still rocknroll. like the craziest version of Chuck Berry, Hardcore was a radical departure from that
3.
Anarcho-punk
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Anarcho-punk is punk rock that promotes anarchism. The term anarcho-punk is sometimes applied exclusively to bands that were part of the original anarcho-punk movement in the United Kingdom in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Some use the more broadly to refer to any punk or rock music with anarchist lyrical content, including crust punk, d-beat, folk punk, hardcore punk. Jello Biafra of the Dead Kennedys has cited the Yippies as an influence on his activism, the concept of anarcho-punk was quickly picked up on by bands like Flux of Pink Indians, Subhumans, Chumbawamba and Conflict. As the 1980s progressed, two new punk styles evolved out of anarcho-punk, d-beat and crust punk, d-beat was a faster, more brutal form of punk music, and was created by bands like Discharge and the Varukers. Crust punk mixed anarcho-punk with a metal sound, and was pioneered by bands such as Antisect, Sacrilege. Somewhat later on in the 1980s, grindcore developed out of anarcho-punk, similar to crust punk, but even more musically extreme, grindcore employed blast beats and incomprehensible death growls. Grindcore was pioneered by such as Napalm Death and Extreme Noise Terror. Parallel to the development of subgenres, many bands in the American hardcore punk scene adopted anarcho-punk ideology, including MDC. Simultaneously, anarcho-punk began to fuse elements of the new age travellers movement and neo-hippies. Consequently, elements of music, country, spoken word, traditional Irish music and jazz were being incorporated by diverse performers such as Annie Anxiety. By the end of the 1980s, the rave culture had an influence on anarcho-punk, with travelling sound systems such as Spiral Tribe. Another related offshoot is the UK traveller/crusty scene, with such as Back To The Planet. By the 2000s, anarcho-punk had become more diverse than in the 1970s. In addition to previously established subgenres, examples might include the irreverent Bus Station Loonies, hardcore punk artists Propagandhi, new wave performers such as Honey Bane and folk punk bands such as Blackbird Raum. Some anarcho-punk bands incorporate indie rock such as the Nation of Ulysses, Blyth Power, bands such as Axiom, Destroy and Disrupt have fused the grindcore and crust punk sounds. Digital hardcore often takes an anarchist stance in their lyrics, as typified by genre pioneers Atari Teenage Riot, digital hardcore mixes punk vocals with elements of many different genres, mainly hardcore techno, thrash metal, and noise music. Some anarcho-punks identified with anarcha-feminists, while others were anarcho-syndicalists, the Psalters are a folk punk band with an affiliation with Christian anarchism, though most anarcho-punk bands are generally critical of Christianity
4.
New Red Archives
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New Red Archives is an independent record label based in Californias San Francisco Bay Area, mainly home to punk rock bands. Started in 1987, the label began by releasing punk and hardcore punk records on coloured vinyl, starting in summer 1990 after a re-location from Brooklyn, the label was based out of Hollywood. In 1996 The label signed a distribution deal with Dutch East India Trading. By 1998 the label had moved to San Francisco, starting in the early 2000s the label released CDs as well as vinyl, through the distribution company Lumberjack Mordam Music Group. In 2012 Cleopatra acquired New Red Archives entire catalog of releases, as of 2013, New Red Archives is a division of Cleopatra Records. List of record labels Official site
5.
AllMusic
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AllMusic is an online music guide service website. It was launched in 1991 by All Media Guide which later became All Media Network, AllMusic was launched in 1991 by Michael Erlewine of All Media Guide. The aim was to discographic information on every artist whos made a record since Enrico Caruso gave the industry its first big boost and its first reference book was published the following year. When first released onto the Internet, AMG predated the World Wide Web and was first available as a Gopher site, the AMG consumer web properties AllMusic. com, AllMovie. com and AllGame. com were sold by Rovi in July 2013 to All Media Network, LLC. All Media Network, LLC. was formed by the founders of SideReel. com. The following are contributors to AllMusic, as of this date, All Media Network also produced the AllMusic guide series that includes the AllMusic Guide to Rock, the All Music Guide to Jazz and the All Music Guide to the Blues. Vladimir Bogdanov is the president of the series, in August 2007, PC Magazine included AllMusic in its Top 100 Classic Websites list. All Media Network AllGame AllMovie SideReel All Music Guide to the Blues All Music Guide to Jazz Stephen Thomas Erlewine Official website
6.
MDC (band)
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MDC is an American punk rock band formed in Austin, Texas in 1979. The band was based in San Francisco, California, and are currently based in Portland. Originally formed as The Stains before changing their name, the band changed their name to a different initialism of MDC with every new record released. MDC eventually released material through ex-Dead Kennedys singer Jello Biafras independent Alternative Tentacles label, in the 1990s, Dictor published editorials for the internationally distributed fanzine Maximumrocknroll. MDCs initial run ended in 1995, and the band spent five years on hiatus before Dictor returned in 2000 with new band members and these bands frequently played together and established the Austin hardcore scene. They released one single as the Stains in 1981, featuring a version of the future MDC song John Wayne Was a Nazi backed with Born to Die. Both songs were released on the debut MDC album. By 1982 the band had relocated to San Francisco, California, the album is now widely considered a punk classic, and features songs such as John Wayne Was a Nazi, Dick for Brains, and the harsh criticism of the police, I Remember. Other targets of criticism devoid of irony included capitalism, homophobia, H. R. and MDCs Dave Dictor had an intense confrontation. Upon Bad Brains departure from the bill, they refused to return a loan owed to Big Boys and instead left a note that reportedly read, the incident resulted in the MDC song Pay to Come Along. For MDC,1982 ended with a tour of Europe with the Dead Kennedys which brought the greater exposure in the punk scene outside of the U. S. especially in the UK. It doesnt mean that we dont believe in everything that goes down on the first album. S, the EP broke new ground by addressing, in the lengthy liner notes and artwork, the growth of corporations and the violent suppression of Left-wing politics in Central America. In 1984 they released another EP, Millions of Dead Children, crawford intimated that the name change had been opportunistic, It was like they thought there was something to be gained politically from cops busting the heads of kids, the old Yippies routine. Onfrontational barricades politics are tactics that failed, only helped those they were intended to hurt, now that was an awful thing for me to say right. But when MDC met with Crass in England, Crass told them they were bothered by the name Millions of Dead Cops, so Mega Death Corporation was born. Smoke Signals was released in 1986, their second album featuring a diverse style than previously. This album also saw Gordon Frasers first appearance as main guitarist, in the same year, MDC backed Michelle Shocked on a version of her song Fogtown that appears as a hidden track on her breakthrough album, Short Sharp Shocked. Their third album, This Bloods for You, followed in 1987 and saw them continuing to showcase orthodox hardcore punk style and classic rock, themes again included intervention in Central America and criticism of the Reagan Administration
7.
Lead vocalist
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The lead vocalist, lead vocals or lead singer in popular music is typically the member of a group or band whose voice is the most prominent in a performance where multiple voices may be heard. The lead singer either leads the ensemble, or sets against the ensemble as the dominant sound. In vocal group performances, notably in soul and gospel music, and early rock and roll, as an example in rock music, Mick Jagger is the lead singer of The Rolling Stones. Similarly in soul music, Smokey Robinson was the singer of The Miracles. The practice of using a lead singer in vocal groups, however, has a longer history, songs of the late nineteenth century frequently used a leading solo voice, followed by a choral response by other singers. From these various points - including Motown - it went on to become a device in much rock. In some bands - most famously, The Beatles - the role of lead singer alternated, while in others - for example, there are as many types and styles of lead singer as there are styles and genres of music. However, the singer of a group or band is usually the main focus of audiences attention. The lead vocalist of a band is called the front man or front woman. Pink Floyd also can be considered a band with two front men, as both the guitarist David Gilmour and the bassist Roger Waters sang and wrote most of the songs. In the beginning of the career, however, Pink Floyds lead singer and guitarist was Syd Barrett. Particularly before the 1970s, many bands were named for the leader or founder, rather than the lead singer, examples include the Dave Clark Five and Harold Melvin. In modern rock music, the singer is often, but not always, also the bands leader. While lead singers or spokespersons for any musical ensembles can be called a front man, since the position commonly has an expanded role from simple lead vocalists, there have been cases in which the front man for a band is someone other than the lead vocalist. In many bands, such as The Who, Fall Out Boy, Led Zeppelin, Living Colour, Queen and Oasis, usually, this is derived from that guitarists specific role as a co-songwriter, co-founder and/or co-vocalist. Also in some cases, there are two frontmen, such as Underoath, with singers Spencer Chamberlain and Aaron Gillespie sharing vocal duties, another example is Blink-182, in which vocal duties are split between bassist Mark Hoppus and guitarist Tom DeLonge. Hoppus usually carries out most media either by himself or together with DeLonge, linkin Park has two vocalists as well, Chester Bennington and Mike Shinoda, both considered as frontmen. Another example is the metal band Metallica, in which James Hetfield
8.
Dave Dictor
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Dave Dictor is an American musician, founder and singer of the punk rock band MDC and the bands label, R Radical Records. Dave is known for his lyrics and putting his political beliefs into practice, including involvement in the Rock Against Reagan campaign in the 1980s. David Dictor was raised in Long Island, N. Y. attended Boston University, in 1979, Dictor formed the Reejex that morphed into a band called the Stains with long term musical partner, Ron Posner. This later evolved into MDC in the fall of 1981, the band gave various projects different names with the MDC moniker, including Millions Of Dead Cops, Multi Death Corporation, Millions Of Dead Children, and Millions Of Damn Christians. In the early 2000s, MDC returned to a touring schedule. Yearly performing between 60 and 120 performances a year with the exception of 2014 where Dictor became deathly sick with a staph infection becoming bedridden for much of the year, Dictor also appeared in the 2006 film American Hardcore, the film based upon the book of the same name. The song I Remember also appears in the film and on the soundtrack, MDC lyrics have always decried racism and homophobia, for instance in the song Born To Die and in America So Straight. Over the years Dictor has been working on an acoustic project releasing a split EP with John the Baker in 2007 on Tank Crimes Records and he is working on his own biographical version of the American Hardcore story that he hopes to release 2015-2016. MDC has just completed, this summer of 2015, a 46 date tour of Europe and is working on a new album with Felix Griffin of DRI fame along with original guitarist Ron Posner and bassist Mike Smith. Dictor, Mike Smith with new comer Erin Cookman are working on an acoustic album release for 2016 with Die Laughing Records
9.
San Francisco Bay Area
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The San Francisco Bay Area is a populous region surrounding the San Francisco and San Pablo estuaries in Northern California. The region encompasses the cities and metropolitan areas of San Jose, San Francisco. The Bay Areas nine counties are Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin, Napa, San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Solano, and Sonoma. The combined statistical area of the region is the second-largest in California, the fifth-largest in the United States, the Bay Area has the second-most Fortune 500 Companies in the United States, and is known for its natural beauty, liberal politics, entrepreneurship, and diversity. The eastern side of the bay, consisting of Alameda and Contra Costa counties, is known locally as the East Bay, the inner East Bay is more densely populated, with generally older buildings, and a more ethnically diverse population. The word Lamorinda was coined by combining the names of the cities it includes, Lafayette, Moraga, walnut Creek is situated east of Lamorinda and north of the San Ramon Valley and, together with Concord, Martinez, and Pleasant Hill comprises Central Contra Costa County. The cities of Antioch, Pittsburg, Brentwood, Oakley and the areas surrounding them comprise East Contra Costa County. The Tri-Valley consists of the Amador, the Livermore, and the San Ramon Valleys, dublin and Pleasanton comprise the Amador Valley, Livermore lies in the Livermore Valley, and the San Ramon Valley consists of Alamo, Danville, Diablo and its namesake, San Ramon. The outer East Bay is connected to the inner East Bay by BART, Interstate 580 to the south, and State Routes State Route 4 to the north, the outer East Bays infrastructure was mostly built up after World War II. This area remains largely white demographically, although the Hispanic and Filipino populations have grown significantly over the past 2–3 decades, the region north of the Golden Gate Bridge is known locally as the North Bay. This area encompasses Marin County, Sonoma County, Napa County, the city of Fairfield, being part of Solano County, is often considered the easternmost city of the North Bay. With few exceptions, this region is affluent, Marin County is ranked as the wealthiest in the state. The North Bay is relatively rural compared to the remainder of the Bay Area, with areas of undeveloped open space, farmland. Santa Rosa in Sonoma County is the North Bays largest city, with a population of 167,815 and a Metropolitan Statistical Area population of 466,891, making it the fifth-largest city in the Bay Area. The North Bay is the section of the Bay Area that is not currently served by a commuter rail service. The area from San Francisco to the Silicon Valley, geographically part of the San Francisco Peninsula, is known locally as The Peninsula, many of these families are of foreign background and have significantly contributed to the diversity of the area. Whereas the term peninsula technically refers to the entire geographical San Franciscan Peninsula, in local terms, San Francisco is surrounded by water on three sides, the north, east, and west. The city squeezes roughly 870,000 people in under 47 square miles, on any given day, there can be as many as 1 million people in the city because of the commuting population and tourism
10.
Backronym
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A backronym or bacronym is a specially constructed phrase that is supposed to be the source of a word that is, or is claimed to be, an acronym. Backronyms may be invented with serious or humorous intent, or may be a type of false or folk etymology, the word is a combination of backward and acronym, and has been defined as a reverse acronym. Its earliest known citation in print is as bacronym in the November 1983 edition of the Washington Post monthly neologism contest. The newspaper quoted winning reader Meredith G. Williams of Potomac, Maryland, defining it as the same as an acronym, except that the words were chosen to fit the letters. An acronym is a derived from the initial letters of the words of a phrase, For example. By contrast, a backronym is constructed by creating a new phrase to fit an existing word, name. Backronyms are also used for comedic effect, as exemplified by NASAs C. O. L. B. E. R. T. NASA named its ISS treadmill the Combined Operational Load-Bearing External Resistance Treadmill after Stephen Colbert, the backronym was a lighthearted compromise in recognition of the comedians ability to sway NASAs online vote for the naming of an ISS module. Backronyms can be constructed for educational purposes, for example to form mnemonics, an example of such a mnemonic is the Apgar score, used to assess the health of newborn babies. Alcoholics Anonymous and other 12-step programs use backronyms as teaching tools, similar to such as one day at a time, or Let go, let God. For example, a slip may be expanded as Sobriety Losing Its Priority, backronyms are also created as jokes or as slogans, often expressing consumer loyalties or frustration. For example, the name of the restaurant chain Arbys is a play on the letters RB, referring to the companys founders, an advertising campaign in the 1980s created a backronym with the slogan America’s Roast Beef, Yes Sir. Many companies or products have spawned multiple humorous backronyms, with positive connotations asserted by supporters or negative ones by detractors. For example, the car company Ford was said to stand for First On Race Day, by aficionados, similar backronyms have been directed against many other automakers, such as Fix It Again Tony for Fiat. Backronyms have also coined by military personnel during wartime. The backronym for Spam, Something Posing As Meat, was said to have originated from jaundiced soldiers who were sick of eating canned meat. The British contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq was code-named Operation Telic, backronyms are sometimes created to name laws or programs. Commentators have noted a trend among US lawmakers to devise names that form a desired acronym
11.
Dead Kennedys
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Dead Kennedys are an American punk rock band that formed in San Francisco, California, in 1978. The band was one of the first American hardcore bands to make a significant impact in the United Kingdom, Dead Kennedys lyrics were usually political in nature, satirizing establishment political figures and authority in general, as well as popular culture and even the punk movement itself. During their initial incarnation between 1978 and 1986, they attracted considerable controversy for their lyrics and artwork. This culminated in an obscenity trial between 1985 and 1986, which resulted in a hung jury, the group released a total of four studio albums and one EP before disbanding in 1986. Following the bands dissolution, Biafra continued to collaborate and record other artists including D. O. A. NoMeansNo and his own bands Lard and the Guantanamo School of Medicine, in 2000, Jello Biafra lost an acrimonious legal case initiated by his former Dead Kennedys band mates over songwriting credits and unpaid royalties. In 2001, the band reformed without Biafra, various singers have since been recruited for vocal duties, the original band lineup consisted of Jello Biafra on vocals, East Bay Ray on guitar, Klaus Flouride on bass, and Ted on drums and percussion. This lineup recorded their first demos, in early to mid July, the band recruited 6025 as a rhythm guitarist. Their first live show was on July 19,1978 at Mabuhay Gardens in San Francisco and they were the opening act on a bill that included DV8 and Negative Trend with The Offs headlining. Dead Kennedys played numerous shows at local venues afterwards, due to the provocative name of the band, they sometimes played under pseudonyms, including The DKs, The Sharks, The Creamsicles and The Pink Twinkies. The bands real name generated controversy,22, the 15th anniversary of John F. Kennedys assassination. Despite mounting protests, the owner of Mabuhay declared, I cant cancel them NOW—theres a contract, not, apparently, the kind of contract some people have in mind. However, despite popular belief, the name was not meant to insult the Kennedy family,6025 left the band in March 1979 under somewhat unclear circumstances, generally considered to be musical differences. In June, the released their first single, California Über Alles, on Biafra and East Bay Rays independent label. The band followed with a poorly attended East Coast tour, being a new and fairly unknown band at the time, in early 1980, they recorded and released the single Holiday in Cambodia. In June, the recorded their debut album, Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables. The album reached number 33 on the UK Albums Chart, on March 25,1980, Dead Kennedys were invited to perform California Über Allesat the Bay Area Music Awards in an effort to give the event some new wave credibility, in the words of the organizers. The day of the performance was spent practicing the song they were asked to play, Weve gotta prove that were adults now
12.
Crass
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Crass were an English art collective and punk rock band formed in 1977 who promoted anarchism as a political ideology, a way of life and a resistance movement. Crass popularised the anarcho-punk movement of the subculture, advocating direct action, animal rights. The band used and advocated a DIY punk ethic approach to its sound collages, leaflets, Crass spray-painted stencilled graffiti messages in the London Underground system and on advertising billboards, coordinated squats and organised political action. The band was critical of punk subculture and youth culture in general, Crass promoted an anarchism which became more common in the punk-music scene. They are considered art punk in their use of tape collages, graphics, spoken word releases, poetry, the band was based around Dial House, an open-house community near Epping, Essex, and formed when Dial House founder Penny Rimbaud began jamming with Steve Ignorant. They produced So What. and Do They Owe Us A Living and they briefly called themselves Stormtrooper before choosing Crass in reference to a line in the David Bowie song Ziggy Stardust. Other friends and household members joined, and Crass played their first live gig at a street festival in Huntley Street. They planned to play five songs, but a neighbour pulled the plug after three, guitarist Steve Herman left the band soon afterwards, and was replaced by Phil Clancey, aka Phil Free. Joy De Vivre and Eve Libertine also joined around this time, other early Crass performances included a four-date tour of New York City, a festival gig in Covent Garden and regular appearances with the U. K. Subs at The White Lion, Putney and Action Space in central London, the latter performances were often poorly attended, The audience consisted mostly of us when the Subs played and the Subs when we played. Crass played two gigs at the Roxy Club in Covent Garden, London, after the incident the band took themselves more seriously, avoiding alcohol and cannabis before shows and wearing black, military surplus-style clothing on and offstage. They introduced their stage backdrop, a designed by Rimbauds friend Dave King. This gave the band a militaristic image, which led to accusations of fascism, Crass countered that their uniform appearance was intended to be a statement against the cult of personality, so no member would be identified as the leader. Using such deliberately mixed messages was part of Crass strategy of presenting themselves as a barrage of contradictions and this included using loud, aggressive music to promote a pacifist message, a reference to their Dadaist, performance-art backgrounds and situationist ideas. They pioneered multimedia presentation, using technology to enhance their performances. Crass first release was The Feeding of the 5000 in 1978, Workers at the record-pressing plant refused to handle it due to the allegedly blasphemous content of the song Asylum, and the record was released without it. In its place were two minutes of silence, entitled The Sound of Free Speech, a re-recorded, extended version of Asylum, renamed Reality Asylum, was shortly afterwards released on Crass Records as a 7 single and Crass were investigated by the police due to the songs lyrics. The band were interviewed at their Dial House home by Scotland Yards vice squad, and threatened with prosecution, however, Reality Asylum retailed at 45p, and was the first example of Crass pay no more than
13.
Subhumans (British band)
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Subhumans are an English punk rock band formed in the Warminster and Melksham area of Wiltshire in 1980. Vocalist Dick Lucas had formerly been in local band, The Mental. The bands musical style is classified as hardcore punk or anarcho-punk. The band was formed in 1980, guitarist Bruce and drummer Andy were accompanied by original bassist Grant, the band were initially known as Superhumans due to insistence from Bruces mother, but changed their name to Subhumans when Dick joined the band later the same year. By the end of 1980, drummer Andy had left and was replaced by Trotsky, the band released a demo in 1981. The groups debut EP, Demolition War, subsequently appeared on Spiderleg in December 1981, Subhumans released two more EPs in 1982, Reasons for Existence and Religious Wars, as well as founding their own record label, Bluurg Records. The bands first LP, The Day The Country Died was released in 1983 on Spiderleg Records, generally considered a classic of the anarcho-punk era, it was followed shortly after by the Evolution EP, which was also the bands first record to be released on their own label. But Aeroplanes Crash later that year, a 12 EP consisting of both studio and live tracks - the live tracks taken from an aborted live album. Towards the end of the year, original bassist Grant left the band, the following year, the band released their second album, From the Cradle to the Grave. The release demonstrated a musical development for the band, particularly with the title track - a progressive piece that took up the albums entire second side. It was followed by one last EP, Rats, in January 1985, Subhumans broke up at the end of 1985, after recording their third album Worlds Apart, with musical differences being cited as the main reason for the split. A final 12 record was recorded and released posthumously. Lucas subsequently joined Culture Shock in 1986 and then formed the ska punk band Citizen Fish in 1990. A second Subhumans compilation album was released the year, which comprised the two later EPs absent from the EP-LP release. Subhumans had a reunion for a couple of shows in about 1991, and a more comprehensive return in 1998. The band also recorded and released a new EP, Unfinished Business, in 1998, since then, Subhumans have recorded a new album, Internal Riot, and self-released it on Bluurg Records in September 2007. They toured in Europe throughout 2007, and a month-long U. S. tour began on 24 August that year and they have maintained a live presence ever since
14.
Butthole Surfers
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Butthole Surfers is an American rock band formed by singer Gibby Haynes and guitarist Paul Leary in San Antonio, Texas in 1981. The band has had numerous changes, but its core lineup of Haynes, Leary. Teresa Nervosa served as drummer from 1983 to 1985,1986 to 1989. The band has employed a variety of bass players, most notably Jeff Pinkus. Butthole Surfers have an appetite for psychoactive drugs, an evident influence on their sound. Although they were respected by their peers and attracted a devoted fanbase, the album contained the hit single Pepper which climbed to number one on Billboards Modern Rock Tracks chart that year. Butthole Surfers formed at Trinity University in San Antonio, Texas during the late 1970s, though it was their overall strangeness and shared taste in non-mainstream music that caused them to become friends, both appeared to be headed for very conventional careers. In 1981, Haynes and Leary published the magazine Strange V. D. which featured photos of abnormal medical ailments, after being caught with one of these pictures at work, Haynes left the accounting firm and moved to Southern California. Leary, at the one semester shy of his degree, dropped out of college. Haynes and Leary played their show at a San Antonio night club, The Bonham Exchange, in 1981. By 1982, the band were backed by the rhythm section composed of bassist Quinn Mathews. The band did not gain a following in San Antonio, during a brief concert at the Tool and Die club in San Francisco, Dead Kennedys frontman and Alternative Tentacles overseer Jello Biafra witnessed their performance and became a fervent fan. Biafra invited the group to open for Dead Kennedys and T. S. O. L, the band then returned to San Antonio to record at BOSS Studios. However, the Mathews brothers did not enter the studio with Haynes and Leary, the bass position was taken over by Bill Jolly, who would play on Butthole Surfers next two releases, and a number of drummers participated. The last of these, King Coffey, is still with the band to this day, the album cover, like the many bizarre illustrations that would accompany Surfers succeeding work, was designed by the band itself. Teeming with humor, Butthole Surfers laid the foundation for what was to come and it influenced at least one future superstar in Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain, who listed it as one of his ten favorite albums in his Journals. Cobain later went on to list the album Pee Pee the Sailor by Butthole Surfers as one of the fifty most influential albums for Nirvanas sound, Cobain would later meet his wife, Courtney Love of Hole, at a Butthole Surfers/L7 concert in 1991. She and Coffey would drum in unison on separate, stand-up kits, with her arrival, the bands core classic lineup — Haynes, Leary, Coffey, and Nervosa — was in place
15.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
17.
Album cover
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An album cover is the front of the packaging of a commercially released audio recording product, or album. In the case of all types of records, it also serves as part of the protective sleeve. Around 1910, 78-rpm records replaced the cylinder as the medium for recorded sound. These were invariably made out of paper, limiting conservability. Generally the sleeves had a circular cutout allowing the label to be seen. Records could be laid on a shelf horizontally or stood upright on an edge, german record company Odeon pioneered the album in 1909 when it released the Nutcracker Suite by Tchaikovsky on four double-sided discs in a specially designed package. The practice of issuing albums does not seem to have taken up by other record companies for many years. Beginning in the 1920s, bound collections of empty sleeves with a paperboard or leather cover were sold as record albums that customers could use to store their records. These empty albums were sold in both 10- and 12-inch sizes, starting in the 1930s, record companies began issuing collections of 78-rpm records by one performer or of one type of music in specially assembled collections. These albums of several 78-rpm records could include a collection of songs related by either performer or style, or extended-length classical music. In 1938, Columbia Records hired Alex Steinweiss as its first art director and he is credited with inventing the concept of album covers and cover art, replacing the plain covers used before. After his initial efforts at Columbia, other companies followed his lead. By the late 1940s, record albums for all the companies featured their own colorful paper covers in both 10- and 12-inch sizes. Some featured reproductions of art while others utilized original designs. From the 1950s through to the 1980s, the 12 LP record, the LP format remains in use for occasional new releases, though other formats have largely supplanted it. The size of the typical cardboard LP sleeve cover is 12.375 in square, since the mid-1990s, the compact disc has become the most common form of physically-distributed music products. Packaging formats vary, including the common plastic jewel-case. Typically the album cover component of these packages is approximately 4.75 in square, the cover became an important part of the culture of music
18.
Nuclear disarmament
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Nuclear disarmament refers to both the act of reducing or eliminating nuclear weapons and to the end state of a nuclear-weapons-free world, in which nuclear weapons are completely eliminated. There have been many large demonstrations and protests. On June 12,1982, one million people demonstrated in New York Citys Central Park against nuclear weapons and it was the largest anti-nuclear protest and the largest political demonstration in American history. In recent years, some U. S. elder statesmen have also advocated nuclear disarmament, the four have created the Nuclear Security Project to advance this agenda. Organisations such as Global Zero, an international group of 300 world leaders dedicated to achieving nuclear disarmament, have also been established. Proponents of nuclear disarmament say that it would lessen the probability of nuclear war occurring, critics of nuclear disarmament say that it would undermine deterrence. In 1945 in the New Mexico desert, American scientists conducted Trinity, even before the Trinity test, national leaders debated the impact of nuclear weapons on domestic and foreign policy. On August 6,1945, towards the end of World War II, subsequently, the world’s nuclear weapons stockpiles grew. Operation Crossroads was a series of nuclear tests conducted by the United States at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean in the summer of 1946. Its purpose was to test the effect of weapons on naval ships. Pressure to cancel Operation Crossroads came from scientists and diplomats, manhattan Project scientists argued that further nuclear testing was unnecessary and environmentally dangerous. A Los Alamos study warned the water near a recent surface explosion will be a witchs brew of radioactivity, to prepare the atoll for the nuclear tests, Bikinis native residents were evicted from their homes and resettled on smaller, uninhabited islands where they were unable to sustain themselves. Radioactive fallout from nuclear testing was first drawn to public attention in 1954 when a Hydrogen bomb test in the Pacific contaminated the crew of the Japanese fishing boat Lucky Dragon. One of the fishermen died in Japan seven months later, the incident caused widespread concern around the world and provided a decisive impetus for the emergence of the anti-nuclear weapons movement in many countries. The anti-nuclear weapons movement grew rapidly because for many people the atomic bomb encapsulated the very worst direction in which society was moving, Peace movements emerged in Japan and in 1954 they converged to form a unified Japanese Council Against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs. Japanese opposition to the Pacific nuclear weapons tests was widespread, CND organised Aldermaston marches into the late 1960s when tens of thousands of people took part in the four-day events. On November 1,1961, at the height of the Cold War and it was the largest national womens peace protest of the 20th century. In 1958, Linus Pauling and his wife presented the United Nations with the petition signed by more than 11,000 scientists calling for an end to nuclear-weapon testing, Pauling started the International League of Humanists in 1974
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Imperialism
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Imperialism is an action that involves a country extending its power by the acquisition of territories. It may also include the exploitation of these territories, an action that is linked to colonialism, colonialism is generally regarded as an expression of imperialism. However, both are examples of imperialism, the word imperialism originated from the Latin word imperium, which means supreme power. It first became common in Great Britain, during the 1870s and was used with a negative connotation, the term was and is mainly applied to Western political and economic dominance, especially in Asia and Africa, in the 19th and 20th centuries. Its precise meaning continues to be debated by scholars, some writers, such as Edward Said, use the term more broadly to describe any system of domination and subordination organised with an imperial center and a periphery. This definition encompasses both nominal empires and neocolonialism, the word empire comes from the Latin word imperium, for which the closest modern English equivalent would perhaps be sovereignty, or simply rule. The greatest distinction of an empire is through the amount of land that a nation has conquered and expanded, Political power grew from conquering land, however cultural and economic aspects flourished through sea and trade routes. A distinction about empires is that although political empires were built mostly by expansion overland, economic, some of the main aspects of trade that went overseas consisted of animals and plant products. European empires in Asia and Africa have come to be seen as the forms of imperialism. European expansion caused the world to be divided by how developed, the two main regions are the core and the periphery. The core consists of areas of income and profit, the periphery is on the opposing side of the spectrum consisting of areas of low income. These critical theories of Geo-politics have led to increased discussion of the meaning and this idea from Lenin stresses how important new political world order has become in our modern era. Geopolitics now focuses on states becoming major players in the market, some states today are viewed as empires due to their political. The term imperialism is often conflated with colonialism, however scholars have argued that each have their own distinct definition. Imperialism and colonialism have been used in order to describe ones superiority, domination, colonialism in modern usage also tends to imply a degree of geographic separation between the colony and the imperial power. Thus it can be said that imperialism includes some form of colonialism, colonialism is seen to be the architect deciding how to start dominating areas and then imperialism can be seen as creating the idea behind conquest cooperating with colonialism. Colonialism is when the imperial nation begins a conquest over an area, colonialisms core meaning is the exploitation of the valuable assets and supplies of the nation that was conquered and the conquering nation then gaining the benefits from the spoils of the war. The meaning of imperialism is to create an empire, by conquering the states lands
20.
Radiation
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In physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or through a material medium. Radiation is often categorized as either ionizing or non-ionizing depending on the energy of the radiated particles, Ionizing radiation carries more than 10 eV, which is enough to ionize atoms and molecules, and break chemical bonds. This is an important distinction due to the difference in harmfulness to living organisms. A common source of ionizing radiation is radioactive materials that emit α, β, or γ radiation, consisting of helium nuclei, electrons or positrons, gamma rays, X-rays and the higher energy range of ultraviolet light constitute the ionizing part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The lower-energy, longer-wavelength part of the spectrum including visible light, infrared light, microwaves and this type of radiation only damages cells if the intensity is high enough to cause excessive heating. Ultraviolet radiation has some features of both ionizing and non-ionizing radiation and these properties derive from ultraviolets power to alter chemical bonds, even without having quite enough energy to ionize atoms. The word radiation arises from the phenomenon of waves radiating from a source and this aspect leads to a system of measurements and physical units that are applicable to all types of radiation. This law does not apply close to a source of radiation or for focused beams. Radiation with sufficiently high energy can ionize atoms, that is to say it can knock electrons off atoms, ionization occurs when an electron is stripped from an electron shell of the atom, which leaves the atom with a net positive charge. Because living cells and, more importantly, the DNA in those cells can be damaged by this ionization, thus ionizing radiation is somewhat artificially separated from particle radiation and electromagnetic radiation, simply due to its great potential for biological damage. While an individual cell is made of trillions of atoms, only a fraction of those will be ionized at low to moderate radiation powers. If the source of the radiation is a radioactive material or a nuclear process such as fission or fusion. Particle radiation is subatomic particles accelerated to relativistic speeds by nuclear reactions, because of their momenta they are quite capable of knocking out electrons and ionizing materials, but since most have an electrical charge, they dont have the penetrating power of ionizing radiation. The exception is neutron particles, see below, there are several different kinds of these particles, but the majority are alpha particles, beta particles, neutrons, and protons. Roughly speaking, photons and particles with energies above about 10 electron volts are ionizing, particle radiation from radioactive material or cosmic rays almost invariably carries enough energy to be ionizing. The radiation is invisible and not directly detectable by human senses, as a result, in some cases, it may lead to secondary emission of visible light upon its interaction with matter, as in the case of Cherenkov radiation and radio-luminescence. Ionizing radiation has many uses in medicine, research and construction. Ultraviolet, of wavelengths from 10 nm to 125 nm, ionizes air molecules, causing it to be absorbed by air
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Pollution
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Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution, Air pollution has always accompanied civilizations. Pollution started from prehistoric times when man created the first fires, metal forging appears to be a key turning point in the creation of significant air pollution levels outside the home. The burning of coal and wood, and the presence of horses in concentrated areas made the cities the cesspools of pollution. The Industrial Revolution brought an infusion of untreated chemicals and wastes into local streams that served as the water supply, king Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke became a problem. But the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow and it was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. London also recorded one of the extreme cases of water quality problems with the Great Stink on the Thames of 1858. Pollution issues escalated as population growth far exceeded view ability of neighborhoods to handle their waste problem, reformers began to demand sewer systems, and clean water. In 1870, the conditions in Berlin were among the worst in Europe. There were no toilets in the streets or squares. Visitors, especially women, often became desperate when nature called, in the public buildings the sanitary facilities were unbelievably primitive. As a metropolis, Berlin did not emerge from a state of barbarism into civilization until after 1870. Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881, as historian Martin Melosi notes, The generation that first saw automobiles replacing the horses saw cars as miracles of cleanliness. By the 1940s, however, automobile-caused smog was an issue in Los Angeles. Other cities followed around the country early in the 20th century. Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of Los Angeles and Donora, Pennsylvania in the late 1940s, Air pollution would continue to be a problem in England, especially later during the industrial revolution, and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog of 1952. Awareness of atmospheric pollution spread widely after World War II, with fears triggered by reports of fallout from atomic warfare. Then a non-nuclear event, The Great Smog of 1952 in London and this prompted some of the first major modern environmental legislation, The Clean Air Act of 1956
22.
Political demonstration
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Actions such as blockades and sit-ins may also be referred to as demonstrations. Demonstrations can be nonviolent or violent, or can begin as nonviolent, sometimes riot police or other forms of law enforcement become involved. In some cases this may be in order to try to prevent the protest from taking place at all, in other cases it may be to prevent clashes between rival groups, or to prevent a demonstration from spreading and turning into a riot. Demonstrations are a form of activism, usually taking the form of a gathering of people in a rally or walking in a march. Thus, the opinion is demonstrated to be significant by gathering in a associated with that opinion. Demonstrations can be used to show a viewpoint regarding a public issue, a demonstration is usually considered more successful if more people participate. There are many types of demonstrations, including a variety of elements and these may include, Marches, in which a parade demonstrate while moving along a set route. Rallies, in which people gather to listen to speakers or musicians, picketing, in which people surround an area. Nudity, in which they protest naked - here the antagonist may give in before the demonstration happens to avoid embarrassment, Demonstrations are sometimes spontaneous gatherings, but are also utilized as a tactical choice by movements. They often form part of a campaign of nonviolent resistance. Demonstrations are usually physical gatherings, but virtual or online demonstrations are certainly possible, topics of demonstrations often deal with political, economic, and social issues. Clashes between demonstrators and counter-demonstrators may turn violent, government-organized demonstrations are demonstrations which are organized by a government. The Islamic Republic of Iran, the Peoples Republic of China, Republic of Cuba, sometimes the date or location chosen for the demonstration is of historical or cultural significance, such as the anniversary of some event that is relevant to the topic of the demonstration. Locations are also chosen because of some relevance to the issue at hand. Protest marches and demonstrations are a nonviolent tactic. They are thus one tactic available to proponents of strategic nonviolence, some demonstrations and protests can turn, at least partially, into riots or mob violence against objects such as automobiles and businesses, bystanders and the police. Police and military authorities often use force or less-lethal weapons, such as tasers, rubber bullets, pepper spray. Sometimes violent situations are caused by the preemptive or offensive use of weapons which can provoke, destabilize
23.
Obi (publishing)
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An obi is a strip of paper looped around a book or other product. This extends the term obi used for Japanese clothing, it is written with the same kanji and it is also referred to as a tasuki, or more narrowly as obigami. Many books in Japan are supplied with an obi, which is added outside any dust jacket. However, a book in a slipcase may have an obi around the slipcase, in English, the term belly-band is sometimes used instead. The term is used for a strip that is looped over one side or folded over the top of LP albums released in Japan. Obi are unique to Japan and are used to provide the title of the product, track listings, price, catalog number and it is used by the consumer to determine what is included in the album or book, and the store can use the information for ordering. Obi are sometimes used on boxes for collectible toys and figures, products with an obi have become popular with some collectors, as products with the obi intact can fetch premium prices, and are collectible items in their own right. A used/second hand record or CD with an still intact obi may be more than the same with the obi missing
24.
Anti-nuclear movement
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The anti-nuclear movement is a social movement that opposes various nuclear technologies. Some direct action groups, environmental groups, and professional organisations have identified themselves with the movement at the local, national, the initial objective of the movement was nuclear disarmament, though since the late 1960s opposition has included the use of nuclear power. Many anti-nuclear groups oppose nuclear power and nuclear weapons. The formation of parties in the 1970s and 1980s was often a direct result of anti-nuclear politics. Scientists and diplomats have debated nuclear weapons policy since before the bombings of Hiroshima. The public became concerned about nuclear testing from about 1954. In 1963, many countries ratified the Partial Test Ban Treaty which prohibited atmospheric nuclear testing, some local opposition to nuclear power emerged in the early 1960s, and in the late 1960s some members of the scientific community began to express their concerns. In the early 1970s, there were protests about a proposed nuclear power plant in Wyhl. The project was cancelled in 1975 and anti-nuclear success at Wyhl inspired opposition to power in other parts of Europe. Nuclear power became an issue of public protest in the 1970s. A protest against nuclear power occurred in July 1977 in Bilbao, Spain, following the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, an anti-nuclear protest was held in New York City, involving 200,000 people. The largest protest was held on June 12,1982, when one million people demonstrated in New York City against nuclear weapons, a 1983 nuclear weapons protest in West Berlin had about 600,000 participants. In May 1986, following the Chernobyl disaster, an estimated 150,000 to 200,000 people marched in Rome to protest against the Italian nuclear program. In the US, public opposition preceded the shutdown of the Shoreham, Yankee Rowe, Millstone 1, Rancho Seco, Maine Yankee, and many other nuclear power plants. For many years after the 1986 Chernobyl disaster nuclear power was off the agenda in most countries. The 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents undermined the nuclear power industrys proposed renaissance and revived nuclear opposition worldwide. As of 2016, countries such as Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Malaysia, New Zealand, Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland are phasing-out nuclear power. Globally, more nuclear reactors have closed than opened in recent years
25.
Articles of Faith (band)
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Articles of Faith was a Chicago-based hardcore punk band originally active between 1981 and 1985. The bands later work is credited with songwriting and with foreshadowing the emo sound. AoF typically showed funk, reggae and jazz influences, accompanied by lyrics bemoaning the difficulty of finding freedom, while the bands influence was blunted by being based in Chicago, it maintained close musical and thematic ties to the Washington DC / Dischord Records scene. Drummer Bill Richman, a member of the Revolutionary Communist Party briefly left the band in 1984 due to the waning of the political emphasis. Bondi had already left Chicago by the time AoF disbanded in 1985, the original lineup reunited for a European tour in 1991. The final show of tour was recorded and issued as part of the Your Choice Live series. Frontman Vic Bondi was originally a protest singer with decidedly leftist views and he went on to form Alloy, and Jones Very after AoFs demise. At the time of AoFs original breakup Bondi was working as an instructor at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Bondis subsequent day jobs included working on Microsofts Encarta as managing editor of the Encarta Interactive English Learning edition, Bondi resurfaced with another politically charged band, Report Suspicious Activity in 2006, and was featured prominently in the documentaries American Hardcore and You Werent There. In 2010, Articles of Faith reunited for an appearance at Riot Fest in Chicago, groups who have cited Articles of Faith as a prominent influence include NOFX, Heroin and Disfear
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Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
27.
Neon Christ
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Neon Christ was an American hardcore punk band from Atlanta, Georgia. Pioneers of powerviolence, the band was formed in 1983 by Randy DuTeau, William DuVall, Danny Lankford, for a brief spell in 1985, they added a second guitarist named Shawn Devine. The song Ashes to Ashes was included as the track on the International P. E. A. C. E. Benefit Compilation, a 1984 double album, released on R Radical Records and they toured throughout the Atlanta area, playing alongside other notable acts such as Corrosion of Conformity and Dead Kennedys. The band played one show in February 1986 before going their separate ways for the next two decades. Neon Christ reunited for a show on February 2,2008 in Lawrenceville. The reception that they got inspired them to work with director Edgar Johnson on creating a film called All Alone Together, Neon Christ. William DuVall said of the project, Neon Christ on Myspace Neon Christ discography, forum, and marketplace at Discogs All Alone Together, Neon Christ and Atlanta Hardcore
28.
Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
29.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
30.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
31.
Dicks (band)
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The Dicks were an American punk rock band from Austin, Texas, originally formed in 1980. They initially disbanded in 1986 before reforming in 2004, Dicks are considered influential in introducing the sound of hardcore punk and incorporating blues rock influences into their sound. The band went through two distinct incarnations in the early 1980s, changing its lineup when singer Gary Floyd moved from Austin to San Francisco in 1983, a version of its original lineup was revived when the band reunited in 2004. As a political band with socialist lyrics during the Reagan era, Floyd was one of a handful of openly gay musicians in the 1980s punk scene. Dicks were formed in Austin in 1980 by Gary Floyd, Buxf Parrott, Pat Deason and their first single Dicks Hate The Police, released in 1980, brought them much attention and is now regarded as a classic hardcore punk record. In the song Gary Floyd sings from the perspective of a policeman who abuses his power by going after minorities and taking his anger out on civilians. Dicks often played shows with fellow pioneering Texas hardcore bands MDC, The Offenders and The Big Boys, Dicks were unique for their era in that some of their songs, such as Saturday Night at the Bookstore and Off Duty Sailor, addressed issues of homophobia and sexual identity. In 1983, Floyd left Texas for San Francisco and, with new members Tim Carroll, Sebastian Fuchs, and Lynn Perko, the LP Kill From The Heart was released in 1983 on SST Records and These People followed in 1985 on Alternative Tentacles. The group disbanded in 1986, although occasional one-off reunion shows featuring the Austin lineup occurred through the 80s and 90s, San Antonios Butthole Surfers ended their 1984 album Psychic. Another Mans Sac with the cowpunk anthem Gary Floyd in tribute to the Dicks bandleader, Dicks saw a resurgence in popularity at the onset of the grunge craze when Sub Pop Records released a cover of Dicks Hate The Police by Seattle band Mudhoney. Soon after, Chicago noise rockers The Jesus Lizard released their version of Dicks Wheelchair Epidemic. Gary Floyd later started Sister Double Happiness in San Francisco in 1986, after that band ended he formed and primarily played in Europe with The Gary Floyd Band, an overview of this material, Backdoor Preacher Man, is available in the United States. Toward the late 1990s, Floyd played in Black Kali Ma, Floyd is now in a band called the Buddha Brothers. Buxf Parrott and Pat Deason, of the original Dicks, play in the Austin, Perko went on to join Imperial Teen. Parrott and Deason played in Trouser Trout and Parrott and Taylor also played in Pretty Mouth, since 2004, Dicks have played a series of reunion concerts in Austin and elsewhere. The lineup for the shows consists of the original Dicks, with the exception of Glen Taylor and his role has been filled by three other Austin guitarists, Mark Kenyon, Brian McGee, and Davy Jones. At the 2009 Austin Music Awards show, Jesus Lizard singer David Yow joined the band onstage for Wheelchair Epidemic, at the same show, Dicks were inducted into the Texas Music Hall of Fame. The Dicks announced that their show will be October 30,2016 at Grizzly Hall in Austin, Texas, however due to popular demand
32.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
33.
West Germany
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West Germany is the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG in the period between its creation on 23 May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990. During this Cold War era, NATO-aligned West Germany and Warsaw Pact-aligned East Germany were divided by the Inner German border, after 1961 West Berlin was physically separated from East Berlin as well as from East Germany by the Berlin Wall. This situation ended when East Germany was dissolved and its five states joined the ten states of the Federal Republic of Germany along with the reunified city-state of Berlin. With the reunification of West and East Germany, the Federal Republic of Germany, enlarged now to sixteen states and this period is referred to as the Bonn Republic by historians, alluding to the interwar Weimar Republic and the post-reunification Berlin Republic. The Federal Republic of Germany was established from eleven states formed in the three Allied Zones of occupation held by the United States, the United Kingdom and France, US and British forces remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Its population grew from roughly 51 million in 1950 to more than 63 million in 1990, the city of Bonn was its de facto capital city. The fourth Allied occupation zone was held by the Soviet Union, as a result, West Germany had a territory about half the size of the interbellum democratic Weimar Republic. At the onset of the Cold War, Europe was divided among the Western and Eastern blocs, Germany was de facto divided into two countries and two special territories, the Saarland and divided Berlin. The Federal Republic of Germany claimed a mandate for all of Germany. It took the line that the GDR was an illegally constituted puppet state, though the GDR did hold regular elections, these were not free and fair. For all practical purposes the GDR was a Soviet puppet state, from the West German perspective the GDR was therefore illegitimate. Three southwestern states of West Germany merged to form Baden-Württemberg in 1952, in addition to the resulting ten states, West Berlin was considered an unofficial de facto 11th state. It recognised the GDR as a de facto government within a single German nation that in turn was represented de jure by the West German state alone. From 1973 onward, East Germany recognised the existence of two German countries de jure, and the West as both de facto and de jure foreign country, the Federal Republic and the GDR agreed that neither of them could speak in the name of the other. The first chancellor Konrad Adenauer, who remained in office until 1963, had worked for an alignment with NATO rather than neutrality. He not only secured a membership in NATO but was also a proponent of agreements that developed into the present-day European Union, when the G6 was established in 1975, there was no question whether the Federal Republic of Germany would be a member as well. With the collapse of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1989, symbolised by the opening of the Berlin Wall, East Germany voted to dissolve itself and accede to the Federal Republic in 1990. Its five post-war states were reconstituted along with the reunited Berlin and they formally joined the Federal Republic on 3 October 1990, raising the number of states from 10 to 16, ending the division of Germany
34.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
35.
Los Violadores
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Los Violadores was a punk band from Argentina and the pioneers of the genre in Latin America. Los Violadores was founded in 1981 by guitarist Hari B, the rest of the band included Stuka, Pil Trafa and Sergio Gramatika. In their first years, sometimes they had to perform under the name of Los Voladores because the censorship of the government did not allow the original name of Los Violadores. After a while, Hari left the band and Stuka took his place at the guitar, with El Polaco taking on the bass and his first success was the song Represión published in his first LP Los Violadores, produced by Michel Peyronel. In 1985 the band released the song Uno, dos, ultraviolento which immediately bought attention to them as one of the pioneer of rock in Argentina. By 1985 some tension began to grow within the band, caused by differences in the direction between Pil Trafa and Stuka. Stuka wanted to incorporate some post-punk and gothic influences, favouring the sounds of The Cure and U2, Pil Trafa wanted a straightforward punk sound. In 1992 he began his tour with bands like Attaque 77 and 2 Minutos. El Polaco Zelazek summon Anel Paz to become part of Los Violadores in replace of Stuka and they recorded the album Otra Patada en los Huevos, and they perform the historic returns shows of the band at Cemento, in December 1995. In 2000 Stuka rejoined the band but in 2003 left once again, Los Violadores disbanded in May 2011, with the split announced by Pil Trafa. 1983 - Los violadores 1985 - ¿Y ahora qué pasa, eh.1986 - Uno, dos,1991 - Otro festival de la exageración 1996 - Otra patada en los huevos 2004 - Y va. com. ar Interview with Los Violadores vocalist Pil Trafa
36.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
37.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
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