1.
Belief
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Belief is the state of mind in which a person thinks something to be the case, with or without there being empirical evidence to prove that something is the case with factual certainty. Another way of defining belief sees it as a representation of an attitude positively oriented towards the likelihood of something being true. In the context of Ancient Greek thought, two related concepts were identified with regards to the concept of belief, pistis and doxa, simplified, we may say that pistis refers to trust and confidence, while doxa refers to opinion and acceptance. The English word orthodoxy derives from doxa, Jonathan Leicester suggests that belief has the purpose of guiding action rather than indicating truth. In epistemology, philosophers use the belief to refer to personal attitudes associated with true or false ideas. However, belief does not require active introspection and circumspection, for example, we never ponder whether or not the sun will rise. We simply assume the sun will rise, since belief is an important aspect of mundane life, according to Eric Schwitzgebel in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, a related question asks, how a physical organism can have beliefs. Epistemology is concerned with delineating the boundary between justified belief and opinion, and involved generally with a philosophical study of knowledge. The primary problem in epistemology is to exactly what is needed in order for us to have knowledge. Plato dismisses this possibility of a relation between belief and knowledge even when the one who opines grounds his belief on the rule. Among American epistemologists, Gettier and Goldman, have questioned the true belief definition. Mainstream psychology and related disciplines have traditionally treated belief as if it were the simplest form of mental representation, philosophers have tended to be more abstract in their analysis, and much of the work examining the viability of the belief concept stems from philosophical analysis. The concept of belief presumes a subject and an object of belief, Beliefs are sometimes divided into core beliefs and dispositional beliefs. For example, if asked do you believe tigers wear pink pajamas, a person might answer that they do not, despite the fact they may never have thought about this situation before. This has important implications for understanding the neuropsychology and neuroscience of belief, if the concept of belief is incoherent, then any attempt to find the underlying neural processes that support it will fail. Jerry Fodor is one of the defenders of this point of view. Most notably, philosopher Stephen Stich has argued for this understanding of belief. In these cases science hasnt provided us with a detailed account of these theories
2.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
3.
Bhaktivedanta Swami
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His mission was to propagate Gaudiya Vaishnavism, a school of Vaishnavite Hinduism that had been taught to him by his guru, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati, throughout the world. Born Abhay Charan De in Calcutta, he was educated at the prestigious local Scottish Church College, before adopting the life of a pious renunciant in 1950, he was married with children and owned a small pharmaceutical business. In 1959 he took a vow of renunciation and started writing commentaries on Vaishnava scriptures, as the founder of ISKCON, he emerged as a major figure of the Western counterculture, initiating thousands of young Americans. In respect to his achievements, religious leaders from other Gaudiya Vaishnava movements have also given him credit. He has been described as a leader, in the sense used by sociologist Max Weber, as he was successful in acquiring followers in the United States, Europe, India. In February 2014, ISKCONs news agency reported to have reached a milestone of distributing over half a billion books authored by Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, since he was born on the day of Nandotsava he was also called Nandulal. His parents, Sriman Gour Mohan De and Srimati Rajani De, were devout Vaishnavas and he received a European led education in the Scottish Church College. This school was reputed among Bengalis, many Vaishnava families sent their sons there. The professors, most of whom were Europeans, were known as sober, moral men, the college was located in north Calcutta, not far from Harrison Road where Abhays family lived. He graduated in 1920 with majors in English, philosophy and economics, however he rejected his diploma in response to Gandhis independence movement. At 22 years old Abhay married Radharani Devi, who was 11 years old, three years later, Radharani gave birth to Abhays first son. In 1922, when he first met his master, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura. In 1933 he became an initiated disciple of Bhaktisiddhanta. In 1944, he started the publication called Back to Godhead, for which he acted as writer, designer, publisher, editor, copy editor and distributor. He personally designed the logo, an effulgent figure of Caitanya Mahaprabhu in the left corner, with the motto, Godhead is Light. In 1947, the Gaudiya Vaishnava Society recognised his scholarship with the title Bhaktivedanta, meaning one who has realised that devotional service to the Supreme Lord is the end of all knowledge. His later well known name, Prabhupāda, is a Sanskrit title, literally meaning he who has taken the shelter of the feet of the Lord where prabhu denotes Lord. Also, at whose feet masters sit and this name was used as a respectful form of address by his disciples from late 1967 early 1968 onwards
4.
Foundation (nonprofit)
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A foundation is a legal category of nonprofit organization that will typically either donate funds and support to other organizations, or provide the source of funding for its own charitable purposes. Foundations incorporate private foundations and public foundations and this type of non-profit organization differs from a private foundation which is typically endowed by an individual or family. One of the characteristics of the legal entities existing under the status of Foundations, is a diversity of structures and purposes. Nevertheless, there are common structural elements that are the first observed under legal scrutiny or classification. Others may be provided by the authority at each particular jurisdiction. There is no commonly accepted legal definition in Europe for a foundation, there is a proposal for a European Foundation, a legal form that would be recognised throughout Europe, see European Foundation Project. The term foundation, in general, is used to describe a legal entity. Foundations as legal structures and/or legal persons, may have a diversity of forms, unlike a company, foundations have no shareholders, though they may have a board, an assembly and voting members. The foundation has a distinct patrimony independent of its founder, Foundations are often set up for charitable purposes, family patrimony and collective purposes. Foundations in Finland must have state approval and register at the National Board of Patents, a minimum capital of €25,000 is obligatory. A foundation can be created with any purpose and may have economic activity if this is specified in its Bylaws. There are not many Foundations in comparison to the rest of Europe, in practice public administration requires at least €1 million is considered necessary. States representatives have a seat in the Board. German regulations allow the creation of any foundation for public or private purposes in keeping with the concept of a gemeinwohlkonforme Allzweckstiftung, a foundation should not have commercial activities as its main purpose, but they are permitted if they serve the main purpose of the foundation. There is no minimum starting capital, although in practice at least is considered necessary, a German foundation can either be charitable or serve a private interest. If they engage in activities, only the commercially active part of the entity is taxed. A family foundation serving private interests is taxed like any other legal entity, there is no central register for German foundations. Only charitable foundations are subject to supervision by state authorities, family foundations are not supervised after establishment
5.
Philanthropy
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Philanthropy means etymologically, the love of humanity, in the sense of caring, nourishing, developing, and enhancing what it means to be human. In this meaning, it both the benefactor in their identifying and exercising their values, and the beneficiary in their receipt. A person who practices philanthropy is called a philanthropist, Philanthropy has distinguishing features from charity, not all charity is philanthropy, or vice versa, though there is a recognized degree of overlap in practice. The literal, classical definitions and understandings of the term philanthropy derive from its origins in the Greek φιλανθρωπία, the most conventional modern definition is private initiatives, for public good, focusing on quality of life. This combines the social scientific aspect developed in the century with the humanistic tradition. These distinctions have been analyzed by Olivier Zunz, and others, instances of philanthropy commonly overlap with instances of charity, though not all charity is philanthropy, or vice versa. The difference commonly cited is that charity relieves the pains of social problems, the first use of the noun form philanthrôpía came shortly thereafter, in the early Platonic dialogue Euthyphro. Socrates is reported to have said that his out of his thoughts freely to his listeners was his philanthrôpía. In the second century CE, Plutarch used the concept of philanthrôpía to describe superior human beings and this Classically synonymous troika, of philanthropy, the humanities, and liberal education, declined with the replacement of the classical world by Christianity. During the Middle Ages, philanthrôpía was superseded by Caritas charity, selfless love, Philanthropy was modernized by Sir Francis Bacon in the 1600s, who is largely credited with preventing the word from being owned by horticulture. Bacon considered philanthrôpía to be synonymous with goodness, which correlated with the Aristotelian conception of virtue, then in the 1700s, an influential lexical figurehead by the name of Samuel Johnson simply defined philanthropy as love of mankind, good nature. This definition still survives today and is cited more gender-neutrally as the love of humanity. However, it was Noah Webster who would more accurately reflect the usage in American English. The precise meaning of philanthropy is still a matter of some contention, nevertheless, there are some working definitions to which the community associated with the field of philanthropic studies most commonly subscribes. The Greeks adopted the love of humanity as an ideal, whose goal was excellence —the fullest self-development, of a body, mind, and spirit. The Platonic Academys philosophical dictionary defined Philanthropy as a state of well-educated habits stemming from love of humanity, just as Prometheus human-empowering gifts rebelled against the tyranny of Zeus, philanthropic was also associated with freedom and democracy. Both Socrates and the laws of Athens were described as philanthropic and democratic, gradually there emerged a non-religious agricultural infrastructure based on peasant farming organized into manors, which were, in turn, organized for law and order by feudalism. Francis Bacon in 1592 wrote in a letter that his vast contemplative ends expressed his philanthropic, Henry Cockeram, in his English dictionary, cited philanthropy as a synonym for humanity—thus reaffirming the Classical formulation
6.
Religious studies
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Religious studies, alternately known as the study of religion, is the multi-disciplinary academic field devoted to research into religious beliefs, behaviors, and institutions. It describes, compares, interprets, and explains religion, emphasizing systematic, historically based, Religious studies draws upon multiple disciplines and their methodologies including anthropology, sociology, psychology, philosophy, and history of religion. Religious studies originated in the 19th century, when scholarly and historical analysis of the Bible had flourished, early influential scholars included Friedrich Max Müller, in England, and Cornelius P. Tiele, in the Netherlands. Today religious studies is practiced by scholars worldwide, in its early years, it was known as Comparative Religion or the Science of Religion and, in the USA, there are those who today also know the field as the History of religion. The field is known as Religionswissenschaft in Germany and Sciences des religions in the French-speaking world, the term religion originated from the Latin noun religio, that was nominalized from one of three verbs, relegere, religare, and reeligere. During the Medieval Period, the religious was used as a noun to describe someone who had joined a monastic order. The religious studies scholar Walter Capps described the purpose of the discipline as to provide training, in directing and conducting inquiry regarding the subject of religion. At the same time, Capps stated that its purpose was to use prescribed modes and techniques of inquiry to make the subject of religion intelligible. Some scholars of religious studies are interested in studying the religion to which they belong. It has also argued that studying religion is useful in appreciating and understanding sectarian tensions. Throughout the history of studies, there have been many attempts to define the term religion. Other forms of definition are polythetic, producing a list of characteristics that are common to religion, in this definition there is no one characteristic that need be common to every form of religion. Conversely, other scholars of religious studies have argued that the discipline should reject the term religion altogether, in this perspective, religion is argued to be a Western concept that has been forced upon other cultures in an act of intellectual imperialism. According to scholar of religion Russell T. McCutcheon, many of the peoples that we study by means of this category have no equivalent term or concept whatsoever, there is, for instance, no word for religion in languages like Sanskrit. Before religious studies became a field in its own right, flourishing in the United States in the late 1960s, one of these figures was the famous pragmatist William James. His 1902 Gifford lectures and book The Varieties of Religious Experience examined religion from a perspective and is still influential today. His essay The Will to Believe defends the rationality of faith, Max Weber studied religion from an economic perspective in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, his most famous work. As a major figure in sociology, he has no doubt influenced later sociologists of religion, Émile Durkheim also holds continuing influence as one of the fathers of sociology
7.
Spirituality
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Modern spirituality typically includes a belief in a supernatural realm, personal growth, a quest for an ultimate/sacred meaning, religious experience, or an encounter with ones own inner dimension. The meaning of spirituality has developed and expanded over time, the term spirituality originally developed within early Christianity, referring to a life oriented toward the Holy Spirit. The term spirit means animating or vital principle in man and animals and it is derived from the Old French espirit which comes from the Latin word spiritus and is related to spirare. In the Vulgate the Latin word spiritus is used to translate the Greek pneuma, the term spiritual, matters concerning the spirit, is derived from Old French spirituel, which is derived from Latin spiritualis, which comes from spiritus or spirit. The term spirituality is derived from Middle French spiritualité, from Late Latin spiritualitatem, there is no single, widely agreed definition of spirituality. A survey of reviews by McCarroll e. a. dealing with the topic of spirituality gave twenty-seven explicit definitions and this causes some difficulty in trying to study spirituality systematically, i. e. it impedes both understanding and the capacity to communicate findings in a meaningful fashion. To accomplish this, the re-formation is oriented at a mold, which represents the shape, in Judaism the Torah, in Christianity there is Christ, for Buddhism, Buddha. Houtman and Aupers suggest that modern spirituality is a blend of humanistic psychology, mystical and esoteric traditions, Spirituality is sometimes associated with philosophical, social, or political movements such as liberalism, feminist theology, and green politics. Some argue spirituality is intimately linked to resolving mental health issues, managing substance abuse, marital functioning, parenting, words translatable as spirituality first began to arise in the 5th century and only entered common use toward the end of the Middle Ages. In a Biblical context the term means being animated by God, to be driven by the Holy Spirit, in the 11th century this meaning changed. Spirituality began to denote the mental aspect of life, as opposed to the material and sensual aspects of life, in the 13th century spirituality acquired a social and psychological meaning. In the 17th and 18th century a distinction was made higher and lower forms of spirituality, A spiritual man is one who is Christian more abundantly. The word was associated with mysticism and quietism, and acquired a negative meaning. Modern notions of spirituality developed throughout the 19th and 20th century, mixing Christian ideas with westen esoteric traditions and elements of Asian, especially Indian, Spirituality became increasingly disconnected from traditional religious organisations and institutions. Ralph Waldo Emerson was a pioneer of the idea of spirituality as a distinct field, the Transcendentalists emphasised an intuitive, experiential approach of religion. Following Schleiermacher, an individuals intuition of truth was taken as the criterion for truth, in the late 18th and early 19th century, the first translations of Hindu texts appeared, which were also read by the Transcendentalists, and influenced their thinking. A major influence on modern spirituality was the Theosophical Society, which searched for secret teachings in Asian religions and it aims to present Hinduism as a homogenized ideal of Hinduism with Advaita Vedanta as its central doctrine. Due to the colonisation of Asia by the world, since the 19th century an exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia, which also influenced western religiosity
8.
Mayapur
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Mayapur is located on the banks of the Ganges river, at the point of its confluence with the Jalangi, near Nabadwip, West Bengal, India,130 km north of Kolkata. It is visited by over a million pilgrims annually, in 1886 a leading Gaudiya Vaisnava reformer Bhaktivinoda Thakur attempted to retire from his government service and move to Vrindavan to pursue his devotional life there. However, he saw a dream in which Lord Chaitanya ordered him to go to Nabadwip instead, after some difficulty, in 1887 Bhaktivinoda Thakur was transferred to Krishnanagar, a district center twenty-five kilometers away from Nabadwip, famous as the birthplace of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. Despite poor health, Thakur Bhaktivinoda finally managed to start regularly visiting Nabadwip to research places connected with Lord Chaitanya, soon he came to a conclusion that the site purported by the local brahmanas to be Lord Chaitanyas birthplace could not possibly be genuine. Across the Ganges in a northern direction I suddenly saw a large building flooded with golden light, I asked Kamala if he could see the building and he said that he could. But my friend Kerani Babu could see nothing, in the morning I went back to the roof and looked carefully back across the Ganges. I saw that in the place where I had seen the building was a stand of palm trees, inquiring about this area I was told that it was the remains of Lakshman Sens fort at Ballaldighi. He soon acquired a property in Surabhi-kunj near Mayapur to oversee the construction at Yogapith. For this purpose he organized, via Sajjana-tosani and special festivals, as well as personal acquaintances, Mayapur can be reached by boat, and more commonly by train or bus. ISKCON Mayapur travel services, The Gauranga Travels offers cars, and buses on prior booking as per the necessity of the visitor for a safe, ISKCON Kolkata operates regular bus service from Kolkata to Mayapur. Frequent train service is available to Krishnanagar, Nadia from Kolkatas Sealdah Station, during the visit one can see the huge headquarters of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness and a long stream of saffron-robed devotees chanting the Hare Krishna mantra. A main attraction in Mayapur is Srila Prabhupadas Pushpa Samadhi Mandir, the main shrine is surrounded by a museum depicting Srila Prabhupadas life, using fiberglass exhibits. In 2002, the International Society of Krishna Consciousness was planning to construct a garden in memory of George Harrison, another must visit is the Mayapur Chandrodaya Mandir. This temple has 3 main altars, Sri Sri Radha Madhava, Panca-tattva and this Pancha Tattva deities are the Largest Deities of Pancha tattva in the world. The Panca-tattva comprises Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Nityananda Prabhu, Advaita Acharya, Gadadhara Pandit, the headquarters of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness has been located in Mayapur since the 1970s. In addition, there are a number of other Gaudiya Vaishnava organisations in Mayapur, such as the Gaudiya Math
9.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
10.
Governing Body Commission
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The Governing Body Commission is the managerial authority of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness. ISKCONs founder, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, created the GBC in 1970 and since then it has met on a basis, usually in Mayapur. The GBC is organised largely through a system, with regional representatives attending to local matters. At the GBCs first annual meeting in Mayapur, Prabhupada guided the proceedings, zones of the world are assigned one or more secretaries regardless of whether there is an ISKCON community currently in the zone. The GBC is entrusted with both spiritual and secular leadership of the ISKCON communities, as well as the power to appoint new gurus, according to a GBC confidence survey, those holding critical views of the GBC were far less committed to ISKCON. In February 2009, Romapada Swami was elected GBC Chairman, succeeding Ramai Swami, according to the letter of 28 July 1970 A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada appointed the following members to the Governing Body Commission, all of them non-sannyasis. Improving the standard of temple management Promoting Krishna consciousness Distributing books, however, after Prabhupadas death many GBC members adopted lavish lifestyles. A number of schisms tested the notion of the authority of the GBC. In 1982 the GBC began the process of adding new gurus to the original eleven. In 1983 the GBC was announced to be the highest ecclesiastical authority of ISKCON, in 1985 the decision was made to lower the standard of living for ISKCON leadership. After much heated discussion, the GBC decided to relieve a number of leaders, the young leaders of the GBC sought the advice of one of Prabhupadas Gaudiya Math godbrothers, and endeavored to become more integrated in the broader Hindu community. In 1998 Malati Devi Dasi became the first woman appointed to the GBC, the second woman leader, Dina Sharana, was selected in 2009. However, a proposal had been discussed years previously. He is also a member of the faculty at Bhaktivedanta College, was born on 16 October 1950 in New York City, received a scholarship to Yale University at 17, and graduated in 1972. Upon graduation Devamrita Swami began to study the works of A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, and in 1974 he became a student of Prabhupada. He accepted the order of sanyasa in 1982. Was the commissions chairman in 2005, and now serves as the editor in chief of the Dandavats Vaishnava news agency, was born Philip Burbank in 1949, in Buffalo, New York
11.
Gaudiya Vaishnavism
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Gaudiya Vaishnavism is a Vaishnava religious movement founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in India. Gaudiya refers to the Gauḍa region with Vaishnavism meaning the worship of Vishnu or Krishna and its philosophical basis is primarily that of the Bhagavad Gita and Bhagavata Purana. The focus of Gaudiya Vaishnavism is the worship of Radha and Krishna. Most popularly, this takes the form of singing Radha and Krishnas holy names, such as Hare, Krishna and Rama, most commonly in the form of the Hare Krishna. The movement is referred to as the Brahma-Madhva-Gaudiya sampradaya, referring to its traditional origins in the succession of spiritual masters believed to originate from Brahma. It classifies itself as a tradition, seeing the many forms of Vishnu or Krishna as expansions or incarnations of the one Supreme God. According to Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy, consciousness is not a product of matter, all living beings, are distinct from their current body - the nature of the soul being eternal, immutable, and indestructible without any particular beginning or end. This is consistent with the concept of found throughout Hindu belief. Release from the process of samsara is believed to be achievable through a variety of yoga processes, however, within Gaudiya Vaishnavism it is bhakti in its purest state which is given as the ultimate aim, rather than liberation from the cycle of rebirth. God is worshiped as the eternal, all-knowing, omnipresent, all-powerful, names of God from other religious traditions, such as Allah and Jehovah, are also accepted as bona fide titles of the same Supreme Person. One of the aspects of Gaudiya Vaishnavism is that Krishna is worshiped specifically as the source of all Avataric incarnations of God. You are the eternal, transcendental, original person, the unborn, all the great sages such as Narada, Asita, Devala and Vyasa confirm this truth about You, and now You Yourself are declaring it to me. Krishna is described elsewhere as the father of all living beings and is worshiped within the Gaudiya tradition literally. In quality, the soul is described as being identical to God, the exact nature of this relationship is inconceivable to the human mind, but can be experienced through the process of Bhakti yoga. This philosophy serves as a meeting of two opposing schools of Hindu philosophy, pure monism and pure dualism, in practice Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy has much more in common with the dualistic schools, as Krishna is worshiped as a Supreme person. Gaudiya Vaishnavism, is a Vaishnava spiritual movement founded by Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in India in the 16th century, Gaudiya Vaishnavism was preceded by the Advaita Vedanta spiritual movement, popularized by Adi Shankara in India in the 8th century, and espoused Turiya and the Fourth Dimension. The Gaudiya Vaishnavism is interested in turiya-titah gopala and this is the Fifth Dimension, in which one comes face to face with Gopala Krishna in Braj, from adhoksaja to aprakrta, or from God consciousness to Krishna consciousness. The Turiya-Titah state of consciousness is also known as madhurya, or Krishna Caitanya, Gaudiya Vaishnavism concludes that Love is greater than ourselves, and it is the greatest aspect of God, one that he himself is motivated by
12.
Vaishnavism
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Vaishnavism is one of the major traditions within Hinduism along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism, its followers are called Vaishnavas, the tradition is notable for its avatar doctrine, wherein Vishnu is revered in one of many distinct incarnations. Of these, ten avatars of Vishnu are the most studied, Krishna, Rama, Narayana, Vāsudeva, Hari, Vithoba, Kesava, Madhava, Govinda and Jagannath are among the popular names used for the same supreme. The tradition has traceable roots to the 1st millennium BCE, as Bhagavatism, later developments led by Ramananda created a Rama-oriented movement, now the largest monastic group in Asia. The Vaishnava tradition has many sampradayas ranging from the medieval era Dvaita school of Madhvacharya to Vishishtadvaita school of Ramanuja, new Vaishnavism movements have been founded in the modern era such as the ISKCON of Prabhupada. The tradition is known for the devotion to an avatar of Vishnu. Key texts in Vaishnavism include the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Pancaratra texts, Krishnaism becomes associated with bhakti yoga in the medieval period. Although Vishnu was a Vedic solar deity, he is mentioned less often compared to Agni, Indra and other Vedic deities, other scholars state that there are other Vedic deities, such as water deity Nara, who together form the historical roots of Vaishnavism. The ancient emergence of Vaishnavism is unclear, the evidence inconsistent, according to Dalal, the origins may be in Vedic deity Bhaga, who gave rise to Bhagavatism. According to Preciado-Solís, the Vedic deities Nara and Narayana form one of the Vedic roots of Vaishnavism, according to Dandekar, Vaishnavism may have emerged from merger of several ancient theistic traditions, where the various deities were integrated as different avatars of the same god. In Dandekar theory, Vaishnavism emerged at the end of the Vedic period, closely before the urbanisation of northern India. This earliest phase was established the time of Pāṇini who, in his Astadhyayi and this was followed by a merger with the cult of Gopala-Krsna of the cowherd community of the Abhıras at the 4th century CE. The character of Gopala Krishna is often considered to be non-Vedic, according to Dandekar, such mergers consolidated the position of Krishnaism between the heterodox sramana movement and the orthodox Vedic religion. The Greater Krsnaism, states Dandekar, then merged with the Rigvedic Vishnu, syncretism of various traditions and Vedism resulted in Vaishnavism. At this stage that Vishnu of the Rig Veda was assimilated into non-Vedic Krishnaism, the appearance of Krishna as one of the Avatars of Vishnu dates to the period of the Sanskrit epics in the early centuries CE. The Bhagavad Gita was incorporated into the Mahabharata as a key text for Krishnaism, finally, the Narayana-cult was also included, which further brahmanized Vaishnavism. The Nara-Narayana cult may have originated in Badari, a ridge of the Hindu Kush. Purusa Narayana may have later turned into Arjuna and Krsna
13.
Vishnu
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Vishnu is one of the principal deities of Hinduism, and the Supreme Being in its Vaishnavism tradition. Along with Brahma and Shiva, Vishnu forms a Hindu trinity, however and his avatars most notably include Krishna in the Mahabharata and Rama in the Ramayana. He is also known as Narayana, Jagannath, Vasudeva, Vithoba and he is one of the five equivalent deities worshipped in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta Tradition of Hinduism. In Hindu inconography, Vishnu is usually depicted as having a dark, or pale blue complexion and having four arms. He holds a padma in his left hand, Kaumodaki gada in his lower right hand, Panchajanya shankha in his upper left hand. A traditional depiction is Lord Vishnu reclining on the coils of Ananta, accompanied by his consort devi Lakshmi, yaska, the mid 1st-millennium BCE Vedanga scholar, in his Nirukta, defines Vishnu as viṣṇur viṣvater vā vyaśnoter vā, one who enters everywhere. He also writes, atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati, that which is free from fetters, the medieval Indian scholar Medhātithi suggested that the word Vishnu has etymological roots in viś, meaning to pervade, thereby connoting that Vishnu is one who is everything and inside everything. Vishnu is a Vedic deity, but not a prominent one when compared to Indra, Agni, just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the Rigveda, a 2nd millennium BCE Hindu text, are dedicated to Vishnu, and he finds minor mention in the other hymns. Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important characteristics in various hymns of Rig Veda and he is also described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth. In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra and his distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 refer to Vishnu, in section 7.99 of the Rgveda, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is Surya or Savitr, in hymn 7.99 of Rigveda, Indra-Vishnu are equivalent and produce the sun, with the verses asserting that this sun is the source of all energy and light for all. In other hymns of the Rigveda, Vishnu is a friend of Indra. In the Yajurveda, Taittiriya Aranyaka, Narayana sukta, Narayana is mentioned as the supreme being, the first verse of Narayana Suktam mentions the words paramam padam, which literally mean highest post and may be understood as the supreme abode for all souls. This is also known as Param Dhama, Paramapadam or Vaikuntha, Rig Veda 1.22.20 a also mentions the same paramam padam. In the Atharvaveda, the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic ocean appears, in post-Vedic mythology, this legend becomes one of the basis of many cosmogonic myth called the Varaha legend, with Varaha as an avatar of Vishnu. Several hymns of the Rigveda repeat the mighty deed of Vishnu called the Trivikrama and it is an inspiration for ancient artwork in numerous Hindu temples such as at the Ellora Caves, which depict the Trivikrama legend through the Vamana avatar of Vishnu. Trivikrama refers to the three steps or three strides of Vishnu
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Krishna
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Krishna is a major Hindu deity. He is one of the most widely revered and popular Indian divinities, worshipped as the incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu. Krishnas birthday is celebrated every year by Hindus on Janmashtami according to the lunisolar Hindu calendar, Krishna is also known by numerous names, such as Govinda, Mukunda, Madhusudhana, Vasudeva and Makhan chor in affection. The anecdotes and narratives of Krishnas life are generally titled as Krishna Leela and he is a central character in the Bhagavata Purana, the Bhagavad Gita, and is mentioned in many Hindu philosophical, theological and mythological texts. They portray him in various perspectives, a god-child, a prankster, a lover, a divine hero. The synonyms of Krishna have been traced to 1st millennium BCE literature, worship of Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan, sometimes referred to as Krishnaism, arose in the Middle Ages in the context of the Bhakti movement. Krishna-related literature has inspired performance arts such as Bharatnatyam, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Odissi. Since the 1960s, the worship of Krishna has also spread to the Western world, the name originates from the Sanskrit word Kṛṣṇa, which is primarily an adjective meaning black, dark or dark blue. The waning moon is called Krishna Paksha, relating to the adjective meaning darkening, the name is also interpreted sometimes as all attractive. As a name of Vishnu, Krishna is listed as the 57th name in the Vishnu Sahasranama, based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in idols as black or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by other names, epithets and titles. Among the most common names are Mohan enchanter, Govinda meaning chief herdsman, Gopala, some of the distinct names may be regionally important—for instance, Jagannatha, a popular incarnation of Puri, Odisha in eastern India. Krishna is represented in the Indian traditions in many ways, with common features. His iconography typically depicts him as black or dark reflecting his name, however ancient and medieval reliefs and stone-based arts depict him in the natural color of the material he is made from, both in India and in southeast Asia. In some texts, his skin is described as the color of Jambul. Krishna is often depicted wearing a peacock feather wreathe or crown, in this form, he usually stands with one leg bent in front of the other in the Tribhanga posture. He is sometimes accompanied by cows or a calf, symbolism for the divine herdsman Govinda, alternatively, he is shown as an amorous man with the gopis, often making music or playing pranks. In other icons, he is a part of the scene on the battlefield of the epic Mahabharata
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Rama
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Ram or Srī Rāmachandra is the seventh avatar of the god Vishnu. He is the figure of the Hindu epic Ramayana, which is the principal narration of the events connected to his incarnation on Earth, his ideals. Rama is one of the deities in Hinduism and especially of the various sects of Vaishnavism. Religious texts and scriptures based on his life have been a component in numerous cultures of South Asia. Along with Krishna, Rama is considered to be one of the most important avatars of Vishnu, in Rama-centric sects, he is considered the Supreme Being, rather than an avatar. His wife Sita is considered by Hindus to be an avatar of Lakshmi, Rama and his brothers Lakshmana, Bharata, and Shatrughna were the chaturvyuha expansions of Vishnu. Ramas life and journey is one of adherence to dharma despite harsh tests and obstacles and many pains of life, for the sake of his fathers honour, Rama abandons his claim to Ayodhyas throne to serve an exile of fourteen years in the forest. His wife Sita and brother Lakshmana decide to join him and all three spend the fourteen years in exile together, while in exile, Sita is kidnapped by Ravana, the king of Lanka. After a long and arduous search, Rama fights a colossal war against Ravanas armies, in a war of powerful and magical beings, greatly destructive weaponry, and huge battles, Rama slays Ravana in battle and liberates his wife. Having completed his exile, Rama returns to be crowned king in Ayodhya and eventually becomes emperor, He rules with happiness, peace, duty, prosperity, and justice, a period known as Rama Rajya. The legend of Rama is deeply influential and popular in the societies of the Indian subcontinent, Rama is revered for his unending compassion, courage, and devotion to religious values and duty. The deity Hanuman declared Rama to be a supreme being, and said that, by constant remembrance of Lord Rama, the name Rama appears repeatedly in Hindu scriptures. Besides the name of the protagonist of the Ramayana, the name is given to other heroes including Parashurama and Balarama. In the Vishnu sahasranama, Rama is the 394th name of Vishnu, in Sanskrit, the word Rama means charming. It is commonly given as a name to male children in India, additionally, the tales of Rama are reverently spoken of in the Mahabharata. The earliest documentation of Rama in Buddhism is in the Buddhist text of Dasharatha Jataka, the epic had many versions across Indias regions. However, other scriptures in Sanskrit also reflect the life of Ramayana, the followers of Madhvacharya believe that an older version of the Ramayana, the mula-Ramayana, previously existed. They consider it to have been more authoritative than the version by Valmiki, another important shortened version of the epic in Sanskrit is the Adhyatma Ramayana
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Dashavatara
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Dashavatara refers to the ten avatars of Vishnu, the Hindu god of preservation. Vishnu is said to descend in form of an avatar to restore cosmic order, the list of Dashavatara varies across sects and regions. The standard list is as follows, Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, sometimes, Krishna replaces Vishnu as the source of all avatars and Balarama takes Krishnas place in the list. In other versions, Krishna may be dropped from the list and substituted by regional deities like Vithoba, the order of the Dashavataras has been interpreted to be reflective of Darwinian evolution. The word Dashavatara derives from daśa, meaning ten and avatar, God Vishnu incarnates on Earth from time to time to eradicate evil forces, to restore the dharma and to liberate the worthy ones or devotees from the cycle of births and deaths. A similar thread appears in Buddhism, the Pāli Canon refers to 28 Buddhas, while the Mahayana tradition additionally has many Buddhas of celestial origin, for example Amitābha and Vairocana. The time till completion for Kali Yuga is in 427,000 years, at that time, the Supreme Personality of Godhead will appear on the earth. Acting with the power of pure spiritual goodness, He will rescue eternal religion, Matsya, the fish, from the Satya Yuga. Vishnu takes the form of a fish to save Manu from the deluge, after which he takes his boat to the new world along with one of every species of plant and animal, Kurma, the tortoise, from the Satya Yuga. Varaha, the boar, from the Satya Yuga and he appeared to defeat Hiranyaksha, a demon who had taken the Earth, or Prithvi, and carried it to the bottom of what is described as the cosmic ocean in the story. The battle between Varaha and Hiranyaksha is believed to have lasted for a thousand years, which the former finally won, Varaha carried the Earth out of the ocean between his tusks and restored it to its place in the universe. Narasimha, the half-man/half-lion, from the Satya Yuga, Vishnu descended as an anthropomorphic incarnation, with the body of a man and head and claws of a lion. He then disembowels the rakshasa at the threshold of his house, at dusk, with his claws. Vamana, a dwarf, from the Treta Yuga, the fourth descendant of Hiranyakashyap, Bali, with devotion and penance was able to defeat Indra, the god of firmament. This humbled the other deities and extended his authority over the three worlds, the gods appealed to Vishnu for protection and he descended as a boy Vamana. During a yajna of the king, Vamana approached him and Bali promised him for whatever he asked, Vamana asked for three paces of land. Bali agreed, and the dwarf then changed his size to that of a giant and he stepped over heaven in his first stride, and the netherworld with the second. Bali realized that Vamana was Vishnu incarnate, in deference, the king offered his head as the third place for Vamana to place his foot
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Matsya
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Matsya is the avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu in the form of a fish. Often listed as the first avatar in the lists of the ten avatars of Vishnu, Matsya is described to have rescued the first man, Manu. Matsya may be depicted as a giant fish, or anthropomorphically with a human torso connected to the half of a fish. The earliest accounts of the legend associate Matsya with the creator god Prajapati, however, Puranic scriptures incorporate Matsya as an avatar of Vishnu. When the flood destroys the world, Manu - in some versions accompanied by the seven great sages - survives by boarding the ark, which Matsya pulls to safety. In later versions of this story, the sacred texts Vedas are hidden by a demon, whom Matsya slays, Manu is rescued, the tale is in the tradition of the family of flood myths, common across cultures. Matsya is depicted in two forms, as a fish or in an anthropomorphic form. He holds in two of his hands the Sudarshana chakra and a shankha, the weapons of Vishnu. The other two make the gestures of varadamudra, which grants boons to the devotee, and abhayamudra. In another configuration, he might have all four attributes of Vishnu, namely the Sudarshana chakra, a shankha, a gada, the human torso generally wears a shawl and a garland. The shawl, worn over his elbows, may be wrapped such that the switch between the human torso and fish half is hidden, Matsya may be depicted alone or in a scene depicting his combat with a demon. A demon called Shankhasura emerging from a conch is sometimes depicted attacking Matsya with a sword as Matsya combats or kills him. Both of them may be depicted in the ocean, while the god Brahma and/or manuscripts or four men, in some scenes, Matsya is depicted as a fish pulling the boat with Manu and the seven great sages on it. Early accounts of the Deluge equate Matsya with the Vedic deity Prajapati, the Shatapatha Brahmana is the earliest extant text to mention Matsya and the flood myth in Hinduism. It identifies the fish with Prajapati-Brahma, the central characters are the fish and Vaivasvata Manu or Satyavrata who becomes the progenitor of mankind. In this version, Vaivasvata Manu, the legislator and the ancestor of two royal dynasties and who later become the progenitor of mankind. In this version, water is brought to Manu for his ablutions and while Manu was washing and taking bath, the tiny fish appealed to Manu to protect him so that he was not eaten by a bigger fish and in return promised to rescue Manu from an impending flood. The fish requested Manu to keep him in a jar and allow him to grow, as he outgrew the pit to transfer him into the ocean, where as a large fish, he will then become indestructible
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Kurma
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In Hinduism, Kurma is the second Avatar of Vishnu, succeeding Matsya and preceding Varaha. Like Matsya, this also occurred in Satya Yuga. The temples dedicated to Kurma are located in Kurmai, Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh, scripture indicates that the sage Durvasa had given a garland to Indra, the king of Gods. Indra placed the garland around his elephant, but the animal trampled it, Durvasa then cursed the gods to lose their immortality, strength, and divine powers. After losing the kingdom of heaven, they approached Vishnu for help and he advised that they had to drink the nectar of immortality to regain their glory. To obtain it, they needed to churn the ocean of milk, a body of water so large they needed Mount Mandara as the staff. The Devas were not strong enough to churn on their own, and declared peace with their foes, finally, Mount Mandara churned, but the force was so great the mountain began to sink into the ocean of milk. Taking the form of the turtle Kurma, Vishnu bore the mountain on his back as they churned the waters, fourteen precious things arose from the turbulent ocean, culminating with Dhanvantari, the physician of the gods, who brought with him the nectar of immortality. The Asuras immediately took the nectar, and quarreled amongst themselves, Vishnu then manifested himself as the beautiful Mohini and tricked the Asuras to retrieve the potion, which he then distributed to the Devas. Though the Asuras realized the trick, it was too late—the Devas had regained their powers, the name of the village Kurmai mentioned above originated as there is historical temple of Kurma Varadarajaswamy, god in this village. The temple located in Srikurmam in Srikakulam District, Andhra Pradesh, is also the Avatar of Kurma, Vishnu Media related to Kurma at Wikimedia Commons Hindu Gods, Kurma Indian Divinity, Kurma Avatar
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Varaha
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Varaha is the avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu in the form of a boar. Varaha is listed as third in the Dashavatara, the ten avatars of Vishnu. When the demon Hiranyaksha stole the earth and hid her in the primordial waters, Varaha slew the demon and retrieved the Earth from the ocean, lifting it on his tusks, and restored Bhudevi to her place in the universe. Varaha may be depicted completely as a boar or in a form, with a boars head. His consort, Bhudevi, the earth, is depicted as a young woman. The earth may be depicted as a mass of land too, like Vishnus first two avatars - Matsya and Kurma, the third avatar Varaha is depicted either in zoomorphic form as an animal, or anthropomorphically. The portrayal of the anthropomorphic Varaha is similar to the fourth avatar Narasimha, the sculpture may not resemble a boar realistically, and may have his features altered for stylistic purposes. The earth, personified as the goddess Bhudevi, clings to one of Varahas tusks, often the colossus is decorated by miniature figurines of gods and goddesses and other world creatures appearing all over his body, which signify the whole of creation. Such sculptures are found in Eran, Muradpur, Badoh, Gwalior, Jhansi, in the anthropomorphic form, Varaha often has a stylized boar face, like the zoomorphic models. The position and size of the tusks may also be altered, the ears, cheeks and eyes are generally based on human ones. Early sculptors in Udayagiri and Eran faced the issue of how to attach the head to the human body. However, in Badami, the problem was resolved by including a human neck, while some sculptures show a mane, it is dropped and replaced by a high conical crown - typical of Vishnu iconography - in others. Varaha sculptures generally look up to the right, there are rare instances of left-facing Varaha depictions. Varaha has four arms, two of which hold the Sudarshana chakra and shankha, while the two hold a gada, a sword, or a lotus or one of them makes the varadamudra. Varaha may be depicted with all of Vishnua attributes in his four hands, the Sudarshana chakra, the shankha, the gada, sometimes, Varaha may carry only two of Vishnus attributes, a shankha and the gada personified as a female called Gadadevi. Varaha is often shown with a muscular physique and in a heroic pose and he is often depicted triumphantly emerging from the ocean as he rescues the earth. The earth may be personified as the goddess Bhudevi in Indian sculpture, Bhudevi is often shown as a small figure in the icon. In later Indian paintings, the earth or a part of it is depicted lifted up by Varahas tusks
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Narasimha
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The avatar of Narasingha is evidenced in early epics, iconography, and temple and festival worship for over a millennium. Narasingha is often visualised as having a human torso and lower body, with a lion face and this image is widely worshipped in deity form by a significant number of Vaiṣṇava groups. Vishnu assumed this form on top of Himvat mountain and he is known primarily as the Great Protector who specifically defends and protects his devotees in times of need. Vishnu is believed to have taken the avatar to destroy the demon king Hiranyakashipu, the word Narasimha means lion-man/half man and half lion. There is also a reference in the Mahābhārata and a Gopāla Tapani Upaniṣad. The Ṛg Veda contains an epithet that has been attributed to Narasiṃha, the half-man, half-lion avatāra is described as, like some wild beast, dread, prowling, mountain-roaming. There is an allusion to a Namuci story in RV. VIII14.13, With waters foam you tore off, Indra and this short reference is believed to have culminated in the full puranic story of Narasiṃha. Bhagavata Purāṇa describes that Vishnu, in his previous avatar as Varāha, the younger brother of Hirṇayakṣa, Hiraṇyakaśipu, wanted revenge on Vishnu and his followers. He undertook many years of penance to take revenge on Viṣṇu, Brahma thus offers the demon a boon. Brahma replies that he himself is not immortal, so he cant grant immortality to anyone else. O my lord, O best of the givers of benediction, if you will grant me the benediction I desire. Grant me that I not die within any residence or outside any residence, during the daytime or at night, grant me that my death not be brought about by any weapon, nor by any human being or animal. Grant me that I not meet death from any entity, living or nonliving created by you, grant me, further, that I not be killed by any demigod or demon or by any great snake from the lower planets. Since no one can kill you in the battlefield, you have no competitor, therefore, grant me the benediction that I too may have no rival. Give me sole lordship over all the entities and presiding deities. Furthermore, give me all the mystic powers attained by long austerities, Hiraṇyakaśipu was happy thinking that he had won over death. Prior to this, while Hiraṇyakaśipu was performing austerities at Mandarācala Mountain, his home was attacked by Indra, at this point the Devarṣi Nārada intervenes to protect Kayādu, whom he describes as sinless. Thus, Prahlāda later begins to show symptoms of this training by Nārada, gradually becoming recognised as a devoted follower of Viṣṇu
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Vamana
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Vamana is described in the Puranas as the fifth avatar of Vishnu, and the first incarnation of the Second Age or Treta yuga. Vamana = a dwarf Upendra = younger brother of Indra Trivikrama = one who strode over the three worlds in three steps Aditi took Payovrata to propitiate Lord Vishnu, as a result, Vamana was born to Aditi and Kashyapa. He is the twelfth of the Adityas, the Bhagavata Purana describes that Vishnu descended as the Vamana avatar to restore the authority of Indra over the heavens, as it had been taken by Mahabali, a benevolent Asura King. Bali was the grandson of Hiranyakshipu, the grand son of Prahlada. Vamana, in the guise of a short Brahmin carrying a wooden umbrella, Mahabali consented, against the warning of his guru, Sukracharya. Vamana then revealed his identity and enlarged to gigantic proportions to stride over the three worlds and he stepped from heaven to earth with the first step, from earth to the netherworld with the second. King Mahabali, unable to fulfill his promise, offered his head for the third, Vamana then placed his foot and gave the king immortality for his humility. He was also allowed to return year to see the citizens of his country. The festival of Onam for some and first day of Diwali for some is related to this return of Mahabali, Mahabali is seen as a symbol of prosperity and love. In worshiping Mahabali and his ancestor Prahláda, he conceded sovereignty of Pátála, some texts also report that Vamana did not step into the netherworld, and instead gave its rule to Bali. In giant form, Vamana is known as Trivikrama
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Parasurama
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Parashurama is the sixth avatar of Vishnu in Hinduism. He is the son of Renuka and one of the saptarishis and he lived during the last Treta and Dvapara Yugas and is one of the Chiranjivi of Hinduism. Parashurama, a Brahmin, received his famous axe after undertaking terrible penance to please Shiva, Parashurama is most known for ridding the world of kshatriyas twenty-one times over after the mighty king Kartavirya Arjuna, not the famous one of Mahabharata, killed his father. As per the Mahabharata, Parashurama single-handedly successfully conquered the entire world, Parashurama conducted hundreds of Ashvamedhas and gave away the entire earth he conquered as alms to sage Kashyapa. He plays important roles in the Mahabharata and Ramayana, serving as mentor to Bhishma, Parashurama and Indrajit are believed to be the only humans who ever possessed the three ultimate weapons, the Brahmanda astra, Vaishnava astra and Pashupatastra. Parashurama was a disciple of Shiva and learned the scriptures and the arts of warfare from Shiva and he then acquired celestial weapons from Shiva and the other gods on Shivas instructions. Shiva personally trained Parashurama for decades in the art of warfare. The Bhargavastra was his personal celestial weapon, Parashurama also fought back the advancing seas to save the lands of Konkan and Kerala. Parashurama is worshipped as mūlapuruṣa, or male ancestral founder by some Anavil, Dravidulu, Bhumihar, Tyagi, Chitpavan, along with the sages Vyasa, Kripa and Dronas son Ashwatthama, Parashurama is considered to be foremost among the rishis in the Kaliyuga. Parashurama will also become one of the saptarishi in the 8th Manvantara, Parashurama is a mighty Maharathi and he will reappear as the martial instructor of Vishnus 10th avatar Kalki. The word Parashurama is derived from two words parashu meaning axe and rama, so literally, the word Parashurama means Rama with an axe. Though a Brahmin by birth, Parashurama expressed unusual interest in weapons, afterwards, Parashurama devoted himself in serving his parents and brothers, helping Jamadagni to run his hermitage. According to the Brahmanda Purana, when Parashurama was a teenager, Jamadagni permitted his son and Parashurama visited Richika in his hermitage. Richika and his wife welcomed him and Parashurama stayed with them for a few months, serving them, curious about his ancestors, Parashurama went to the hermitage of Richikas father Aurva and a few months later, he went to Aurvas father, Chyavana. Parashurama was devoted to them and they too gave him knowledge, many months later, Chyavana told Parashurama to meet his own father, Sage Bhrigu, the very progenitor of the Bhargava race himself. With Chyavanas instructions, Parashurama was able to enter Bhrigus hermitage, Parashurama lived with Bhrigu for many months and Bhrigu trained his descendant in performing harsh penances. Lord Shiva was pleased with this, and appeared before him, Parashurama expressed his desire to obtain celestial weapons and skills in warfare from the God. Shiva told him that he would grant the boon only when Parashurama proved himself to be a worthy soul, Shiva told Parashurama to undertake a Tirtha Yatra or holy pilgrimage. After years of penances, Shiva was pleased with Parashuramas devotion, Shiva ordered Parashurama to slay the Daityas and Danavas who were the enemies of the Devas, to which the latter agreed
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Balarama
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Balarama, also known as Baladeva, Balabhadra and Halayudha, is the elder brother of Krishna and is regarded generally as an avatar of Shesha. He is also considered as the Sankarshana form of Vishnu. He may have originated in Vedic times as a deity of agriculture, in Jainism, he is known as Baladeva. He is often depicted with a cup, pitcher, shield. The evil king Kansa, the brother of Devaki, was intent upon killing the children of his sister because of a prediction that he would die at the hands of her eighth son. Vishnu then impregnated the belly of Devaki with two strands of hair, one black, one white, to ensure their safety, their essence was transferred before birth to Rohini, who also desired a child. At birth, Krishna had a darker complexion, while Balarama was born fair, the other name of Balarama is Sankarshana, meaning a spirit transferred between two wombs. According to Bhagavata Purana, the name Sankarshana means, one who brings together two different families of King Yadus and Nanda Babas dynasties and he was named Rama, but because of his great strength he was called Balarama, Baladeva, or Balabhadra, meaning Strong Rama. He was born under Shravana nakshatra on Shraavana Purnima or Raksha Bandhan, one day, Nanda requested the presence of Sage Gargamuni, his priest, to name the newborn Krishna and Balarama. When the Garga arrived, Nanda, received him well and requested the naming ceremony, Gargamuni then reminded Nanda that Kamsa was looking for the son of Devaki and if he performed the ceremony in opulence, it would come to his attention. He attracts the Yadus to follow his instructions and therefore his name is Sankarshana, Balarama spent his childhood as a cow herder with his brother Krishna. He killed Dhenuka, an asura sent by Kansa, as well as Pralamba, after the evil king died, Balarama and Krishna went to the ashrama of sage Sandipani at Ujjain for study. He later married Revati, daughter of King Kakudmi, ruler of Kushasthali or Anarta Balarama taught both Duryodhana of the Kauravas and Bhima of the Pandavas the art of fighting with a mace. When war broke between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, Balarama cared for both sides and so remained neutral, when Bhima defeated Duryodhana by striking him in the groin with his mace, Balarama threatened to kill Bhima. This was prevented when Krishna reminded Balarama of the vow of Bhima—to kill Duryodhana by crushing the thigh he had exposed to Bhimas wife Draupadi, some scriptures describe a great white snake that left the mouth of Balarama, in reference to his identity as Ananta-Sesha. The place where he departed is situated near Somnath Temple in Gujarat, the local people of Veraval believe that in the cave near the temple place, the white snake who came out of Balaramas mouth got into that cave and went back to Paatal Lok. Narratives of Balarama are found in Mahabharata, Harivamsha, Bhagavata Purana, Krishna Charit Manas and he is classified in the Vyuha avatar Sankarshana where in Adishesha and Lakshmana are part of. Vyasa Mahabharata states that after Balaramas death, he turned into a white snake, so it can be concluded that Balarama is an avatar of Adishesha in Dwaparayuga, as Lakshmana was in Tretayuga and Patanjali in Kaliyuga
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Gautama Buddha in Hinduism
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Gautama Buddha is viewed as an avatar of the god Vishnu in Vaishnava Hinduism. The Buddha is described in important Hindu scriptures, including almost all the major puranas and they portray him with two roles, preaching non-theistic Vedic views in order to restore the Dharma and criticizing animal sacrifice. Another important scripture that mentions him as an avatar is Parasharas Brihat Parashara Hora Shastra, Buddha is often described as a yogi or yogācārya and as a sannyāsi. His father is usually called Śuddhodhana, which is consistent with the Buddhist tradition and he is described as beautiful, of yellow skin, and wearing brown-red or red robes. Only a few mention the worship of Buddha, e. g. the Varahapurana states that one desirous of beauty should worship him. The foolish Jina, imagined him to be his son, thus the lord Sri Hari expertly deluded Jina and other demons by his strong words of non-violence. In many puranas, the Buddha is described as an incarnation of Vishnu who incarnated in order to bring either demons or mankind close to the Vedic dharma. The Bhavishya Purana contains the following, At this time, reminded of the Kali Age, the god Vishnu became born as Gautama, the Shakyamuni, then Shuddodana ruled for twenty years, and Shakyasimha for twenty. At the first stage of the Kali Age, the path of the Vedas was destroyed and those who sought refuge with Vishnu were deluded. This pattern changed in the eighth century, the Buddha was replaced as the supreme, imperial deity by one of the Hindu gods. Previously the Buddha had been accorded imperial-style worship and this also was the same period of time the Buddha was made into an avatar of Vishnu. Some sources say that it was Sugata Buddha, also called Adi-Buddha, O Lord Hari, who have assumed the form of Buddha. O Buddha of compassionate heart, you decry the slaughtering of poor animals performed according to the rules of Vedic sacrifice, radhakrishnan, If a Hindu chants the Vedas on the banks of the Ganges. If the Japanese worship the image of Buddha, if the European is convinced of Christs mediatorship and it is their deepest apprehension of God and Gods fullest revelation to them. A number of figures in modern Hinduism, including Mahatma Gandhi, have been inspired by the life and teachings of the Buddha. B. R. Ambedkar denied that Buddha was an incarnation of Vishnu, among the 22 vows he gave to the Dalit Buddhist movement, the 5th vow is I do not and shall not believe that Lord Buddha was the incarnation of Vishnu. I believe this to be madness and false propaganda. Their motive was to absorb Buddhism into their religion and he further expresses that this strategy worked in India to uproot Buddhism from the land of its origin
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Kalki
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In Hinduism, Kalki is the tenth avatar of the god Vishnu in the current Mahayuga, foretold to appear at the end of Kali Yuga, the current epoch. The Purana scriptures foretell that Kalki will be atop a horse with a drawn blazing sword. He is the harbinger of the end time in Hindu eschatology, in Tibetan Buddhism Kalachakra tradition,25 rulers of the Shambhala Kingdom held the title of Kalki, Kulika or Kalki-king. During Vaishakha, the first fortnight in Shukla Paksha is dedicated to fifteen deities, in this tradition, the twelth day is Vaishakha Dwadashi and is dedicated to Madhava, another name for Kalki. The name Kalki is derived from the Sanskrit word kalā which means any practical art, the name Kalki may be a metaphor for eternity or time as kalā has the secondary meaning of a part including time or atoms. The name Kalki may also be derived from the Sanskrit word kalka which means filth, so, the name Kalki can also be meant destroyer of the filth. There are numerous interpretations of Vedic traditions, avatara means descent and refers to a descent of the divine into the material realm in the Avataris self same form. The Garuda Purana lists ten avatars, with Kalki being the tenth, one of the earliest mentions of Kalki is in the Vishnu Purana, dated to after the Gupta Empire. At village/community of Shmbhal, principally of great soul brahmins, on the 12th of the waxing moon in the month of Madhwa Lord Vishnu arrived. This amounts to just 12 days per any given year, furthermore as there is one day per year of Lord Sri Maha Vishnu. जातं ददृशतुः पुत्रं पितरौ हृष्ट-मानसौ।। जातं jatam + ददृशतुः dadastu + पुत्रं putram + पितरौ pitarau + हृष्ट hrshta + मानसौ manasau, then the parents were mentally overjoyed by their son being born. This points to the sun sign of Aries, in the month of Chaitra, the fifteen days in Shukla paksha are dedicated to fifteen gods or deities. Each day of the Chaitra month is dedicated to a different god, the 12th day of Chaitra Shukla Pakshaya is dedicated to Lord Sri Maha Vishnu. There is a description of his background in other sources of scripture, Vishnuyasha refers to the father of Kalki as a devotee of Vishnu while Sumati refers to His mother in Shambhala. Also it is written in Kalki Purana that he will have four brothers who are Sumanta, Prajna, the Agni Purana predicts that at the time of his birth, evil kings will feed on the pious. Kalki will be born son of Vishnuyasha in the mythic Shambhala and he will have Yajnavalkya as his spiritual guru. Parashurama, the avatar of Vishnu is a Chiranjivi and in scripture is believed to be alive. He will be a martial preceptor of Kalki, teaching him military science, warfare arts, the purana also relates that Hari, will then give up the form of Kalki, return to heaven and the Krita or Satya Yuga will return as before
26.
Mohini
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Mohini is the only female avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu. She is portrayed as an enchantress, who maddens lovers, sometimes leading them to their doom, Mohini is introduced into the Hindu mythology in the narrative epic of the Mahabharata. Here, she appears as a form of Vishnu, acquires the pot of Amrita from thieving asuras, many different legends tell of her various exploits and marriages, including union with Shiva. These tales relate, among other things, the birth of the god Shasta and the destruction of Bhasmasura, Mohinis main modus operandi is to trick or beguile those she encounters. She is worshipped throughout Indian culture, but mainly in Western India, where temples are devoted to her depicted as Mahalasa, the consort of Khandoba, a regional avatar of Shiva. The name Mohini comes from the verb root moha, meaning to enchant, perplex, or disillusion, in the Baiga culture of Central India, the word mohini means erotic magic or spell. The name also has a connotation of the essence of female beauty. The earliest reference to a Mohini-type goddess appears in the Samudra manthan episode of the 5th century BCE Hindu epic Mahabharata, the Amrita, or nectar of immortality, is produced by the churning of the Ocean of Milk. The Deva and the Asura fight over its possession, the Asuras contrive to keep the Amrita for themselves, angering the Devas. Vishnu, wise to their plan, assumes the form of an enchanting damsel and she uses her allure to trick the Asuras into giving her the Amrita, and then distributes it amongst the Devas. Rahu, an Asura, disguises himself as a god and tries to drink some Amrita himself, Surya and Chandra quickly inform Vishnu, and he uses the Sudarshana Chakra to decapitate Rahu, leaving the head immortal. Rahu and Ketu are both regarded as celestial bodies that assume ones destiny, the other major Hindu epic, Ramayana, narrates the Mohini story briefly in the Bala Kanda chapter. This same tale is recounted in the Vishnu Purana four centuries later. In the original text, Mohini is referred to as simply an enchanting, in later versions, Mohini is described as the maya of Vishnu. Later still, the name of the avatar becomes Mohini from the phrase describing his deliberate false appearance. Once the Mohini legend became popular, it was retold, revised, the tales of Mohini-Vishnu also increased among devotional circles in various regions. The same expanded Mahabharata version of the story is recounted in the Bhagavata Purana in the 10th century CE. Here, Mohini becomes an avatar of Vishnu
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Nara-Narayana
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Nara-Narayana is a Hindu deity pair. Nara-Narayana is the avatar of the God Vishnu on earth. In the concept of Nara-Narayana, the human soul Nara is the companion of the Divine Narayana. The Hindu epic Mahabharata identifies the God Krishna with Narayana and Arjuna - the chief hero of the epic - with Nara, the legend of Nara-Narayana is also told in the scripture Bhagavata Purana. Hindus believe that the pair dwells at Badrinath, where their most important temple stands, the Nara-Narayana pair is frequently worshipped in temples of the Swaminarayan Faith. Nara means human, and Narayana refers to the name of the deity, in epic poetry, they are the sons of Dharma by Murti or Ahimsa and emanations of Vishnu, Arjuna being identified with Nara, and Krishna with Narayana. - Mahabharata, Harivamsa and Purana. Narayana is Vishnu while Nara is Shesha Nara-Narayana are depicted jointly or separately in images, when depicted separately, Nara is portrayed with two hands and wearing deer skin while Narayana is shown on the right in the usual form of Vishnu. Sometimes, both of them are depicted identical to each other and they are depicted four-armed holding a mace, a discus, a conch and a lotus, resembling Vishnu. Arjuna and Krishna are often referred to as Nara-Narayana in the Mahabharata and are considered part incarnations of Nara and Narayana respectively, in a previous life, the duo were born as the sages Nara and Narayana, and who performed great penances at the holy spot of Badrinath. Nara and Narayana were the Fourth Avatar of Lord Vishnu, the twins were sons of Dharma, the son of Brahma and his wife Murti or Ahimsa. They live at Badrika performing severe austerities and meditation for the welfare of the world and these two inseparable sages took avatars on earth for the welfare of mankind. Legend has it that once Lord Shiva tried to bring the fame of Nara and Narayana before the entire world. To do that, he hurled his own potent weapon Paashupathastra at the meditating rishis, the power of their meditation was so intense that the astra lost its power before them. Lord Shiva stated that this happened since the duo were jnanis of the first order constantly in the state of Nirvikalpa Samadhi, the Bhagavata Purana tells the story of the birth of Urvashi from the sages Nara-Narayana. Once, sages Nara-Narayana were meditating in the shrine of Badrinath situated in the Himalayas. Their penances and austerities alarmed the gods, so Indra, the King of Devas, sent Kamadeva, Vasanta and apsaras to inspire them with passion, the sage Narayana took a flower and placed it on his thigh. Immediately there sprung from it a beautiful nymph whose charms far excelled those of the celestial nymphs, Narayana sent this nymph to Indra with them, and from her having been produced from the thigh of the sage, she was called Urvashi. In Badrinath Temples sanctorium, to the far side of the stone image of Badri-Vishala, are the images of Nara. Also, the Nara and Narayana peaks tower over Badrinath, in Vanaparvan, Krishna says to Arjuna, O invincible one, you are Nara and I am Hari Narayana, and we, the sages Nara-Narayana, have come to this world at the proper time
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Hayagriva
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Hayagriva, also spelt Hayagreeva, is a horse-headed avatar of the Lord Vishnu in Hinduism. In Sanskrit, Hayagrīva means haya=Horse, grīva=Neck, in Hinduism, Lord Hayagriva is an avatar of shri Vishnu. He is worshipped as the God of knowledge and wisdom, with a human body, symbolically, the story represents the triumph of pure knowledge, guided by the hand of God, over the demonic forces of passion and darkness. Origins about the worship of Hayagriva have been researched, some of the early evidences dates back to 2,000 BCE, Hayagriva is one of the prominent deity in Vaishnava tradition. His blessings are sought when beginning study of sacred and secular subjects. Special worship is conducted on the day of the moon in August and on Mahanavami. He is also hailed as Hayasirsa and it is very popular among devotees of Hayagrīva. His beauty, like fresh cut crystal, is an auspicious brilliance that never decays, may this Lord of speech who showers such cooling rays of grace on me be forever manifest in my heart. In the Mahavairocana-sutra translated and copied in 1796 by I-hsing it says and his body is the color of the sun at dawn. He wears flaming effulgence and skulls as a garland and his nails are long and sharp, his face shows a pair of bare tiger’s fangs. His hair is that of a burning lion’s mane. He is awesomely powerful and this is the fierce Vidyaraja of the Lotus section. He is just like a horse-jewel of a Cakravartin that wanders the four continents, nowhere and never does he rest, having all the great and this is his nature, and therefore he possesses this terrible and all-mighty light. Many others submit to him at first sight. This is because though he is fierce and terrible, his heart is full of compassion. ”-- Hayagrīva Stotram, v.32 Later on Hayagriva is referred to as the “Horse necked one”, Defender of faith”, the “Terrible executioner”, the “Excellent Horse”, and the “Aerial horse”. This said, the Horse Avatar of Lord Vishnu is seen as pulling the sun up to the every day. This relationship is the classic nonduality of the Hindu tantra, marichi represents the essence of the power of creation of the cosmos, and is the in/yin half of Dainichi Nyôrai. Whereas Hayagriva represents the other aspect, that of the manifestation of the power of yin/in as action. In other words, Hayagriva represents the manifestation of yin/in as the power and this is the very definition of tantra, that of action
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Lakshmi
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Lakshmi is the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune and prosperity. She is the wife and shakti of Vishnu, a god in Hinduism. Lakshmi is also an important deity in Jainism and found in Jain temples, Lakshmi was also a goddess of abundance and fortune for Buddhists, and was represented on the oldest surviving stupas and cave temples of Buddhism. In Buddhist sects of Tibet, Nepal and southeast Asia, goddess Vasudhara mirrors the characteristics, Lakshmi is also called Sri or Thirumagal because she is endowed with six auspicious and divine qualities, or gunas, and is the divine strength of Vishnu. In Hindu religion, she was born from the churning of the primordial ocean, when Vishnu descended on the Earth as the avatars Rama and Krishna, Lakshmi descended as his respective consort Sita and Rukmini. In the ancient scriptures of India, all women are declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi, the marriage and relationship between Lakshmi and Vishnu as wife and husband is the paradigm for rituals and ceremonies for the bride and groom in Hindu weddings. Lakshmi is considered another aspect of the supreme goddess principle in the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism. She typically stands or sits like a yogin on a pedestal and holds lotus in her hand. Her iconography shows her with four hands, which represent the four goals of life considered important to the Hindu way of life, dharma, kāma, artha. Archaeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the recognition and reverence for Lakshmi by the 1st millennium BCE, Lakshmis iconography and statues have also been found in Hindu temples throughout southeast Asia, estimated to be from the second half of the 1st millennium CE. The festivals of Diwali and Sharad Purnima are celebrated in her honor, Lakshmi is one of many Hindu deities whose meaning and significance evolved in ancient Sanskrit texts. Lakshmi is mentioned once in Rigveda, but the context suggests that the word does not mean goddess of wealth and fortune, the good are welcomed, while the bad urged to leave. In some chapters of Atharva Veda, Lakshmi connotes the good, later, Lakshmi is referred to as the goddess of fortune, identified with Sri and regarded as wife of Viṣṇu. For example, in Shatapatha Brahmana, variously estimated to be composed between 800 BCE and 300 BCE, Sri is part of one of many theories, in ancient India, about the creation of universe. In Book 9 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Sri emerges from Prajapati, after his meditation on creation of life. Sri is described as beautiful, resplendent and trembling woman at her birth with immense energy, the gods were bewitched, desire her and immediately become covetous of her. The gods approach Prajapati and request permission to kill her and then take her powers, Prajapati refuses, tells the gods that males should not kill females and that they can seek her gifts without violence. The hymns of Shatapatha Brahmana thus describe Sri as a goddess born with and personifying a diverse range of talents, in the Epics of Hinduism, such as in Mahabharata, Lakshmi personifies wealth, riches, beauty, happiness, loveliness, grace, charm and splendour
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Radha
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Radha is also the principal god of worship in the Nimbarka Sampradaya, as Nimbarka, the founder of the tradition, declared that Radha and Krishna together constitute the absolute truth. Radha is the most important gopi in Rasa lila with Lord Krishna, Radha is often referred to as Rādhārānī or Rādhikā in speech, prefixed with the respectful term Srimati. The word Radha can also mean longing, the Sanskrit term Rādhā means “Fortunate, Successful”. In Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇavism it is understood that the origin of name Rādhā are Sanskrit words ārādha, the accurate understanding would be service, specifically devotional service, since it comes from love and thus is joyful. In the Vaishnava devotional or bhakti traditions of Hinduism that focus on Krishna, for some of the adherents of these traditions, her importance approaches or even exceeds that of Krishna. She is considered to be his original shakti, the goddess in both the Nimbarka Sampradaya and following the advent of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu also within the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition. Radha Chalisa mentions that Krishna accompanies one who chants Radha with pure heart, other gopis are usually considered to be self willing maidservants of Radha. Radharanis superiority is seen in Krishnas flute, which repeats the name Radha, between Radha and Rukmini, Radha is superior. Radhas connection to Krishna is of two types, svakiya-rasa and parakiya-rasa, the Gaudiya tradition focuses upon parakiya-rasa as the highest form of love, wherein Radha and Krishna share thoughts even through separation. The love the feel for Krishna is also described in this esoteric manner as the highest platform of spontaneous love of God. Nimbarka was the first Vaishnava acharya to disseminate teachings about Radha, barsana and Vrindavan in Mathura District, Northern India contain a large number of temples dedicated to both Radha and Krishna, including the Radhavallabh Temple. Sri Sri Radha Parthasarathi Mandir in Delhi is also the Radha krishna Temple, krsna, The Supreme Personality of Godhead by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada Hindu Goddesses, Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions by David Kinsley Hawley J. S. Wulff The Divine Consort, Radha and the Goddesses of India, Beacon Press, Boston, Radha by Krishna Dharabasi, a Nepali novel awarded with Madan Puraskar, Most prestigious literary award
31.
Sita
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Sita, also known as Siya, Vaidehi, Janaki, Maithili, or Bhoomija, is the central female character of the Hindu epic Ramayana and daughter of King Janaka of Videha and his wife queen Sunaina. She was the sister of Urmila and cousins Mandavi and Shrutakirti. She is consort of Hindu god Rama and is an avatar of Lakshmi, goddess of wealth and she is esteemed as a paragon of spousal and feminine virtues for all Hindu women. Sita is known for her dedication, self-sacrifice, courage and purity, Sita is described as the daughter of the earth goddess Bhūmi and the adopted daughter of King Janaka of Mithila and Queen Sunaina. In her youth, she marries Rama, the prince of Ayodhya, after marriage, she goes to exile with her husband and brother-in-law Lakshmana. While in exile, the settle in the Dandaka forest, from where she is abducted by Ravana. She is imprisoned in the Ashoka Vatika of Lanka by Ravana, until she is rescued by Rama, who slays her captor. After the war, Rama asks Sita to undergo Agni Pariksha by which she proves her purity before she is accepted by Rama, which for the first time made his brother Lakshmana get angry at him. In some versions of the epic, the fire-god Agni creates Maya Sita, at Agni Pariksha, Maya Sita and the real Sita exchange places again. While some texts mention that Maya Sita is destroyed in the flames of Agni Pariksha, others narrate how she is blessed, Some scriptures also mention her previous birth being Vedavati, a woman Ravana tries to molest. After proving her purity, Rama and Sita return to Ayodhya, after few months, Sita becomes pregnant which brought doubt to the Kingdom. Rama then sends Sita away on exile, Lakshmana is the one who leaves Sita in the forests near sage Valmikis ashrama after Rama banishes her from the kingdom. Years later, Sita returns to her mother, the Earths womb, the goddess is best known by the name Sita, derived from the Sanskrit word sīta, furrow. According to Ramayana, Janaka found her while ploughing as a part of a yagna, the word Sīta was a poetic term, its imagery redolent of fecundity and the many blessings coming from settled agriculture. The Sita of the Ramayana may have named after a more ancient Vedic goddess Sita. In the Vedic period, she was one of the associated with fertility. A Vedic hymn recites, In Harivamsa, Sita has been invoked as one of the names of goddess Arya, The Kausik-sutra, Sita is known by many epithets. She is called Jānaki as the daughter of Janaka and Maithili as the princess of Mithila, as the wife of Rama, she is called Ramā
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Hanuman
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Hanuman is an ardent devotee of Rama. He is one of the figures in the Hindu epic Ramayana. As one of the Chiranjivi, he is mentioned in several other texts, including the Mahabharata. Hanuman participated in Ramas war against the demon king Ravana, several later texts also present him as an incarnation of Shiva. He is the son of Anjana and Kesari and is described as the son of the wind-god Pawan. The Sanskrit texts mention several legends about how Hanuman got his name, one legend is that Indra, the king of the gods, struck Hanumans jaw during his childhood. The child received his name from the Sanskrit words Hanu and -man, the name thus means one with prominent or disfigured jaw. Another theory says the name derives from the Sanskrit words Han and maana, some Jain texts mention that Hanuman spent his childhood on an island called Hanuruha, which is the origin of his name. According to another theory, the name Hanuman derives from the word for male monkey. Linguistic variations of Hanuman include Hanumat, Anuman, Hanumantha, Hanumanthudu, other names of Hanuman include, Anjaneya, Anjaniputra, Anjaneyar, Anjaneyudu, Anjanisuta all meaning the son of Anjana. Similar in meaning to - Vaanaraanaamadheesham, shreeraamadootam, the one who is the messenger of Rama. Atulita Bala Dhaamam, the one who is the repository of incomparable strength, hemshailaabha Deham, the one whose body resembles a golden mountain. Danujvana Krushanum, the one who is the destroyer of forces of demons, gyaaninaam Agraganyam, the one who is considered foremost among knowledgeable beings. Sakala Guna Nidhaanam, the one who is the repository of all the virtues, raghupati Priya Bhaktam, the one who is the dearest of all devotees to Rama. Sankata Mochana, the one who liberates from dangers In the 3rd chapter of Kishkindha Kaanda of Valmiki Ramayana, summarized as follows, Ablest sentence maker. The knower of all Vedas and Scriptures, scholar in nine schools of grammars. Possessing faultless speech and facial features Hanuman is mentioned in both the Hindu epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, the word Vrsakapi or Vrishakapi, later used as an epithet for Hanuman, is mentioned in the Rigveda. Some writers, such as Nilakantha believe that the Vrishakapi of Rigveda alludes to Hanuman, however, other scholars believe that Hanuman is not mentioned in the Vedic mythology, the Vrsakapi of Rigveda refers to another deity or is a common name for the monkeys
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Shesha
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In Hinduism, Shesha, also known as Sheshanaga or Adishesha, is the nagaraja or king of all nāgas and one of the primal beings of creation. In the Puranas, Shesha is said to all the planets of the universe on his hoods. He is sometimes referred to as Ananta Shesha, which translates as endless-Shesha or Adishesha first Shesha and it is said that when Adishesa uncoils, time moves forward and creation takes place, when he coils back, the universe ceases to exist. Vishnu is often depicted as resting on Shesha, Shesha is considered a servant and a manifestation of Vishnu. He is said to have descended to Earth in two forms or avatars, Lakshmana, brother of Rama, Balarama, brother of Krishna. Shesha in Sanskrit texts, especially relating to mathematical calculation. But in Sanskrit it also means 6 shesham as the sheshanaga has been depicted to have many heads, Shesha is generally depicted with a massive form that floats coiled in space, or on the ocean of bliss, to form the bed on which Vishnu lies. Sometimes he is shown as five-headed or seven-headed, but more commonly as a many thousand-headed serpent and his name means that which remains, from the Sanskrit root śiṣ, because when the world is destroyed at the end of the kalpa, Shesha remains as he is. In the Bhagavadgita of Chapter 10, verse 29, Shri Krishna while describing 75 of his common manifestations, declares, anantaś ca asmi nāgānāṁ, Of the nagas, as per the Mahabharata, Shesha was born to sage Kashyap and his wife Kadru. Kadru gave birth to a snakes, of which Shesha was the eldest. After Shesha, Vasuki, Airavata and Takshaka were born, in order, a lot of Sheshas brothers were cruel and were bent upon inflicting harm on others. They were even unkind to Garuda, who was Kashyapa’s son through Vinatha, Shesha, disgusted by the cruel acts of his brothers, left his mother and kin, and took to austere penances. He lived on air and meditated in places including Gandhamadhana, Badrikashrama, Gokarna, Pushkara and his penances were so severe that his flesh, skin and muscles dried up and merged with his frame. Brahma, convinced of his Sheshas will, asked Shesha to request a boon, Shesha asked that he be able to keep his mind under control so that he could continue to perform ascetic penances. Brahma then asked a favour of Shesha, to go beneath the unstable earth, Shesha agreed and went to the netherworld and stabilized her with his hood. He is known to support her even today, thus making Patala his perennial residence, Shesha is also depicted as floating in the ocean of the changing world, forming the bed of Maha Vishnu. Since he is known as Adishesha and because he is Anantashesha or simply Ananta and he is said to live since before the creation of the universe. When the universe is towards its end, he creates 11 rudras from him to destroy the universe for a new one to be created and he expands himself as garbhodakshayi-vishnu in the beginning of the universe to create Brahma
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Hindu texts
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Hindu texts are manuscripts and historic literature related to any of the diverse traditions within Hinduism. A few texts are shared resources across these traditions and broadly considered as Hindu scriptures and these include the Vedas and the Upanishads. There are two classifications of Hindu texts, Shruti – that which is heard, and Smriti – that which is remembered. The Śruti refers to the body of most authoritative, ancient religious texts, without any author and it includes the four Vedas including its four types of embedded texts - the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the early Upanishads. The Smriti texts are a body of Hindu texts attributed to an author. Many ancient and medieval Hindu texts were composed in Sanskrit, many others in regional Indian languages, in modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other Indian languages and some in Western languages. This verbal tradition of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, the Vedas are a large body of Hindu texts originating in ancient India, before about 300 BCE. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature, hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeya, which means not of a man, superhuman and impersonal, authorless. Vedas are also called śruti literature, distinguishing them from religious texts. The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations, in the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma. There are four Vedas, the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas, and the Upanishads. The Upanishads are a collection of Hindu texts which contain some of the philosophical concepts of Hinduism. The Upanishads are commonly referred to as Vedānta, variously interpreted to either the last chapters, parts of the Veda or the object. The concepts of Brahman and Ātman are central ideas in all the Upanishads, the Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions. Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are known. More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main Upanishads. The mukhya Upanishads are found mostly in the part of the Brahmanas and Aranyakas and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, some in all likelihood pre-Buddhist, of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of the Muktika canon, composed from about the start of common era through medieval Hinduism
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Vedas
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The Vedas are a large body of knowledge texts originating in the ancient Indian subcontinent. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature, Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeya, which means not of a man, superhuman and impersonal, authorless. Vedas are also called śruti literature, distinguishing them from religious texts. The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancient sages after intense meditation, in the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma. The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were created by Rishis, after inspired creativity. There are four Vedas, the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas, and the Upanishads. Some scholars add a fifth category – the Upasanas, the various Indian philosophies and denominations have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their authority are classified as orthodox. Other śramaṇa traditions, such as Lokayata, Carvaka, Ajivika, Buddhism and Jainism, despite their differences, just like the texts of the śramaṇa traditions, the layers of texts in the Vedas discuss similar ideas and concepts. The Sanskrit word véda knowledge, wisdom is derived from the root vid- to know and this is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *u̯eid-, meaning see or know. The noun is from Proto-Indo-European *u̯eidos, cognate to Greek εἶδος aspect, not to be confused is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense véda, cognate to Greek οἶδα oida I know. Root cognates are Greek ἰδέα, English wit, etc, the Sanskrit term veda as a common noun means knowledge. The term in some contexts, such as hymn 10.93.11 of the Rigveda, means obtaining or finding wealth, property, a related word Vedena appears in hymn 8.19.5 of the Rigveda. It was translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith as ritual lore, as studying the Veda by the 14th century Indian scholar Sayana, as bundle of grass by Max Müller, Vedas are called Maṛai or Vaymoli in parts of South India. Marai literally means hidden, a secret, mystery, in some south Indian communities such as Iyengars, the word Veda includes the Tamil writings of the Alvar saints, such as Divya Prabandham, for example Tiruvaymoli. The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts, the Samhitas date to roughly 1700–1100 BC, and the circum-Vedic texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BC, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BC, or the Late Bronze Age, Michael Witzel gives a time span of c.1500 to c. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th century BC the only record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period
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Upanishads
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The Upanishads are a collection of ancient Sanskrit texts that contain some of the central philosophical concepts of Hinduism, some of which are shared with Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Early Upanishads are considered by Hindus as part of their scriptures that discuss the nature of ultimate reality, the Upanishads are commonly referred to as Vedānta, variously interpreted to mean either the last chapters, parts of the Veda or the object, the highest purpose of the Veda. The concepts of Brahman and Ātman are central ideas in all the Upanishads, the Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions. Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are known. More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main Upanishads. The mukhya Upanishads are found mostly in the part of the Brahmanas and Aranyakas and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, five of them in all likelihood pre-Buddhist, of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of the Muktika canon, composed from about the last centuries of 1st-millennium BCE through about 15th-century CE. New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued to be composed through the modern and modern era. Along with the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutra, the mukhya Upanishads provide a foundation for the later schools of Vedanta, among them. With the translation of the Upanishads in the early 19th century they started to attract attention from a western audience. Arthur Schopenhauer was deeply impressed by the Upanishads and called it the production of the highest human wisdom, modern era Indologists have discussed the similarities between the fundamental concepts in the Upanishads and major western philosophers. The Sanskrit term Upaniṣad translates to sitting down near, referring to the student sitting down near the teacher while receiving esoteric knowledge, monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary adds that, According to native authorities Upanishad means setting to rest ignorance by revealing the knowledge of the supreme spirit. Adi Shankara explains in his commentary on the Kaṭha and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad that the word means Ātmavidyā, other dictionary meanings include esoteric doctrine and secret doctrine. The word appears in the verses of many Upanishads, such as the verse of the 13th volume in first chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad. The authorship of most Upanishads is uncertain and unknown, Radhakrishnan states, almost all the early literature of India was anonymous, we do not know the names of the authors of the Upanishads. The Vedic texts themselves assert that they were created by Rishis, after inspired creativity. Women, such as Maitreyi and Gargi participate in the dialogues and are credited in the early Upanishads. There are exceptions to the tradition of the Upanishads and other Vedic literature
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Bhagavad Gita
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The Bhagavad Gita, often referred to as simply the Gita, is a 700-verse Hindu scripture in Sanskrit that is part of the Hindu epic Mahabharata. The Gita is set in a framework of a dialogue between Pandava prince Arjuna and his guide and charioteer Lord Krishna. Inserted in this appeal to kshatriya dharma is a dialogue, between diverging attitudes concerning methods toward the attainment of liberation. The Bhagavad Gita was exposed to the world through Sanjaya, who senses and cognises all the events of the battlefield, Sanjaya is Dhritarashtras advisor and also his charioteer. The Bhagavad Gita presents a synthesis of the concept of Dharma, theistic bhakti, the ideals of moksha through jnana, bhakti, karma. Numerous commentaries have been written on the Bhagavad Gita with widely differing views on the essentials, the setting of the Gita in a battlefield has been interpreted as an allegory for the ethical and moral struggles of the human life. The Bhagavad Gitas call for selfless action inspired many leaders of the Indian independence movement including Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi referred to the Gita as his spiritual dictionary. The epic Mahabharata is traditionally ascribed to the Sage Vyasa, the Bhagavad Gita, theories on the date of composition of the Gita vary considerably. Scholars accept dates from the century to the second century BCE as the probable range. Professor Jeaneane Fowler, in her commentary on the Gita, considers second century BCE to be the date of composition. It is estimated that the text probably reached something of a form by the early Gupta period. The actual dates of composition of the Gita remain unresolved, there is no reference to the Bhagavad Gita in Buddhist literature, the Tripitaka. The Buddha refers to 3 Vedas rather than 4 Vedas, as per general perception in many dialogues, so, there is doubt about whether the Bhagavad Gita was widely known about during the lifetime of Gautama Buddha. Due to its presence in the Mahabharata, the Bhagavad Gita is classified as a Smriti text or that which is remembered. The smriti texts of the period between 200 BCE and 100 CE belong to the emerging Hindu Synthesis, proclaiming the authority of the Vedas while integrating various Indian traditions and religions. Acceptance of the Vedas became a criterion for defining Hinduism over and against the heterodoxies. The so-called Hindu Synthesis emerged during the early Classical period of Hinduism, the Bhagavad Gita is the sealing achievement of this Hindu Synthesis, incorporating various religious traditions. According to Hiltebeitel, Bhakti forms an ingredient of this synthesis
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Ramayana
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The Ramayana is an ancient Indian epic poem which narrates the struggle of the divine prince Rama to rescue his wife Sita from the demon king Ravana. Along with the Mahabharata, it forms the Sanskrit Itihasa, the Ramayana is one of the largest ancient epics in world literature. It consists of nearly 24,000 verses, divided into seven Kandas, in Hindu tradition, it is considered to be the adi-kavya. It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying characters like the ideal father, the ideal servant, the ideal brother, the ideal wife. The Ramayana was an important influence on later Sanskrit poetry and Hindu life, like the Mahabharata, the Ramayana is not just a story, it presents the teachings of ancient Hindu sages in narrative allegory, interspersing philosophical and ethical elements. The name Ramayana is a compound of the name Rāma and ayana. According to Hindu tradition—and according to the Ramayana itself—the epic belongs to the genre of itihasa like Mahabharata, the definition of itihāsa is a narrative of past events which includes teachings on the goals of human life. According to Hindu tradition, Ramayana takes place during a period of known as Treta Yuga. In its extant form, Valmikis Ramayana is a poem of some 24,000 verses. The text survives in several thousand partial and complete manuscripts, the oldest of which is a manuscript found in Nepal. A Times of India report dated 18 December 2015 informs about discovery of a 6th-century manuscript of the Ramayana at the Asiatic Society library, the Ramayana text has several regional renderings, recensions and subrecensions. Goldman differentiates two major regional recensions, the northern and the southern, scholar Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that the Ramayana, like the Mahabharata, is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind. There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last chapters of Valmikis Ramayana were composed by the original author. Most Hindus still believe they are parts of the book, in spite of some style differences. Some cultural evidence, such as the presence of sati in Mahabharata but not in the body of Ramayana. By tradition, the text belongs to the Treta Yuga, second of the four eons of Hindu chronology, Rama is said to have been born in the Treta yuga to king Dasharatha in the Ikshvaku dynasty. The names of the characters are all known in late Vedic literature, however, nowhere in the surviving Vedic poetry is there a story similar to the Ramayana of Valmiki. Also, in the epic Mahabharata, there is a version of Ramayana known as Ramopakhyana and this version is depicted as a narration to Yudhishthira
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Mahabharata
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The Mahābhārata is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Rāmāyaṇa. The Mahābhārata is a narrative of the Kurukṣetra War and the fates of the Kaurava. It also contains philosophical and devotional material, such as a discussion of the four goals of life or puruṣārtha, traditionally, the authorship of the Mahābhārata is attributed to Vyāsa. There have been attempts to unravel its historical growth and compositional layers. The oldest preserved parts of the text are thought to be not much older than around 400 BCE, the text probably reached its final form by the early Gupta period. The title may be translated as the tale of the Bhārata dynasty. According to the Mahābhārata itself, the tale is extended from a version of 24,000 verses called simply Bhārata. The Mahābhārata is the longest known epic poem and has described as the longest poem ever written. Its longest version consists of over 100,000 śloka or over 200,000 individual verse lines, and long prose passages. About 1.8 million words in total, the Mahābhārata is roughly ten times the length of the Iliad and the Odyssey combined, or about four times the length of the Rāmāyaṇa. W. J. Johnson has compared the importance of the Mahābhārata in the context of civilization to that of the Bible, the works of Shakespeare. The epic is traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyāsa, who is also a character in the epic. Vyāsa described it as being itihāsa and he also describes the Guru-shishya parampara, which traces all great teachers and their students of the Vedic times. The first section of the Mahābhārata states that it was Gaṇeśa who wrote down the text to Vyasas dictation, the epic employs the story within a story structure, otherwise known as frametales, popular in many Indian religious and non-religious works. It is recited by the sage Vaiśampāyana, a disciple of Vyāsa, the text has been described by some early 20th-century western Indologists as unstructured and chaotic. Hermann Oldenberg supposed that the poem must once have carried an immense tragic force. Moritz Winternitz considered that only unpoetical theologists and clumsy scribes could have lumped the parts of disparate origin into an unordered whole, Research on the Mahābhārata has put an enormous effort into recognizing and dating layers within the text. Some elements of the present Mahābhārata can be traced back to Vedic times, the background to the Mahābhārata suggests the origin of the epic occurs after the very early Vedic period and before the first Indian empire was to rise in the third century B. C
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Puranas
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The word Puranas literally means ancient, old, and it is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore. Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in languages, several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva. The Puranas genre of literature is found in both Hinduism and Jainism, the content is highly inconsistent across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves inconsistent. The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of authors over the centuries, in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated. There are 18 Maha Puranas and 18 Upa Puranas, with over 400,000 verses, the first versions of the various Puranas were likely composed between the 3rd- and 10th-century CE. The Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism and they have been influential in the Hindu culture, inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism. The religious practices included in them are considered Vaidika, because they do not preach initiation into Tantra, the Bhagavata Purana has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre, and is of non-dualistic tenor. The Puranic literature wove with the Bhakti movement in India, vyasa, the narrator of the Mahabharata, is hagiographically credited as the compiler of the Puranas. The date of the production of the written texts does not define the date of origin of the Puranas and they existed in an oral form before being written down, and were incrementally modified well into the 16th century. An early occurrence of the term purana is found in the Chandogya Upanishad, translated by Patrick Olivelle as the corpus of histories, importantly, the most famous form of itihāsapurāṇaṃ is the Mahabharata. The term also appears in the Atharvaveda 11.7.24, the extant Puranas, states Coburn, are not identical to the original Puranas. In the 19th century, F. E. Pargiter believed the original Purana may date to the time of the redaction of the Vedas. Wendy Doniger, based on her study of indologists, assigns approximate dates to the various Puranas and she dates Markandeya Purana to c.250 CE, Matsya Purana to c. 250–500 CE, Vayu Purana to c.350 CE, Harivamsa and Vishnu Purana to c.450 CE, 350–950 CE, Vamana Purana to c. 450–900 CE, Kurma Purana to c, 550–850 CE, and Linga Purana to c. Of the many texts designated Puranas the most important are the Mahāpurāṇas or the major Puranas and these are said to be eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six, though they are not always counted in the same way. The difference between Upapuranas and Mahapuranas has been explained by Rajendra Hazra as, a Mahapurana is well known, the Upapuranas are eighteen in number, with disagreement as to which canonical titles belong in that list of eighteen. The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are devoted to Ganesha, the Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which extols the goddess Durga, has become a basic text for Devi worshipers
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Vishnu Purana
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The Vishnu Purana is one of the eighteen Mahapuranas, a genre of ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism. It is an important Pancharatra text in the Vaishnavism literature corpus, the manuscripts of Vishnu Purana have survived into the modern era in many versions. More than any other major Purana, the Vishnu Purana presents its contents in Pancalaksana format – Sarga, Pratisarga, Vamśa, Manvañtara, the Vishnu Purana is among the shorter Purana texts, with about 7,000 verses in extant versions. It primarily centers around the Hindu god Vishnu and his avatars such as Krishna, the Purana, states Wilson, is pantheistic and the ideas in it, like other Puranas, are premised on the Vedic beliefs and ideas. Vishnu Purana, like all major Puranas, attributes its author to be sage Veda Vyasa, the actual author and date of its composition are unknown and contested. Estimates range of its range from 1st millennium BCE to early 2nd-millennium CE. The text was composed and rewritten in layers over a period of time. The Padma Purana categorizes Vishnu Purana as a Sattva Purana, the composition date of Vishnu Purana is unknown and contested, with estimates widely disagreeing. Rajendra Chandra Hazra, 275-325 CE Ramachandra Dikshitar, 700-300 BCE, Roy, Rocher states that the date of the Visnu Purana is as contested as that of any other Purana. Vishnu Purana like all Puranas has a complicated chronology, each titled work consists of material that has grown by numerous accretions in successive historical eras. Thus no Purana has a date of composition. It is as if they were libraries to which new volumes have been added, not necessarily at the end of the shelf. Many of the extant manuscripts were written on palm leaf or copied during the British India colonial era, the extant text comprises six aṃśas and 126 adhyāyas. The first part has 22 chapters, the part consists 16 chapters, the third part comprises 18 chapters. The fifth and the parts are the longest and the shortest part of the text. The textual tradition claims that the original Vishnu Purana had 23,000 verses, the text is composed in metric verses or sloka, wherein each verse has exactly 32 syllables, of which 16 syllables in the verse may be free style per ancient literary standards. The Vishnu Purana is an exception in that it presents its contents in Vishnu worship-related Pancalaksana format – Sarga, Pratisarga, Vamśa, Manvañtara, and Vamśānucaritam. Vishnu Purana opens as a conversation between sage Maitreya and his guru, Parashara, with the asking, what is the nature of this universe
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Bhagavata Purana
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The Bhāgavata Purāṇa is one of Hinduisms eighteen great Puranas. Composed in Sanskrit and available in almost all Indian languages, it promotes bhakti to Krishna integrating themes from the Advaita philosophy of Adi Shankara. The Bhagavata Purana, like other puranas, discusses a range of topics including cosmology, genealogy, geography, mythology, legend, music, dance, yoga. As it begins, the forces of evil have won a war between the benevolent devas and evil asuras and now rule the universe, the Bhagavata Purana is a revered text in Vaishnavism, a Hindu tradition that reveres Vishnu. The text presents a form of religion that competes with that of the Vedas, wherein bhakti ultimately leads to self-knowledge, liberation and bliss. However the Bhagavata Purana asserts that the nature and outer form of Krishna is identical to the Vedas. An oft-quoted verse is used by some Krishna sects to assert that the text itself is Krishna in literary form, the date of composition is probably between the eighth and the tenth century CE, but may be as early as the 6th century CE. Manuscripts survive in numerous inconsistent versions revised through the 18th century creating various recensions both in the languages and across different Indian languages. The text consists of twelve books totalling 332 chapters and between 16,000 and 18,000 verses depending on the recension, the tenth book, with about 4,000 verses, has been the most popular and widely studied. Bhagavata means devoted to, follower of Bhagavat – the sacred, an alternative interpretation of Bhagavata is devotees of the Adorable One. Bhagavata Purana therefore means Ancient Tales of Followers of the Lord, the Bhagavata is widely recognized as the best-known and most influential of the Puranas and, along with the Itihasa and other puranas, is sometimes referred to as the Fifth Veda. It is the source of popular stories of Krishnas childhood told for centuries on the Indian subcontinent. The Bhagavata declares itself the essence of all the Upanishads and derivative Smritis, One who has enjoyed the nectar of its rasa never has any desire for anything else. In northern and western India the Bhagavata Purana has influenced the Hari Bhakti Vilasa, the text complements the Pancharatra Agama texts of Vaishnavism. While the text focuses on Krishna Lord Narayana himself appears and explains how Brahma, the Bhagavata Purana is also significant in asserting that Yoga practice is a form of Bhakti. The Bhagavata Purana, in verse 2.9.32, modern scholarship dates its composition to between 500 CE to 1000 CE, but most likely between 800 and 1000 CE. A version of the text existed no later than 1030 CE, within this range, scholars such as R. C. Postmodern scholars have suggested alternate theories, the Puranas are a type of traditional Hindu texts that took form during the medieval period, often both informed by earlier material and undergoing later interpolations
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Naradiya Purana
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The Naradiya Purana or Narada Purana (Sanskrit, नारद पुराण, are two Sanskrit texts, one of which is a major Purana of Hinduism, while the other is a minor Purana. Both are Vaishnavism texts, and have been a cause of confusion in Purana-related scholarship, to prevent confusion, some scholars sometimes refer to the minor Purana as Brihannaradiya Purana. The Naradiya Purana is notable for dedicating eighteen chapters on other Puranas and it is also notable for its verses extolling Buddha in chapter 1.2. Manuscripts of nearly all the major Puranas acknowledge the existence of a major Purana named either Narada or Naradiya, yet, unlike other Puranas which either appear in the major Purana or minor Purana lists, the Narada text appears in both lists. This caused significant confusion to 19th and early 20th century Indologists, later discovered manuscripts and scholarship established that the Narada or Naradiya is the major Purana, Brihannaradiya is the Upapurana. The Naradiya Purana consists of two bhagas, with the first called Purvabhaga and second called Uttarabhaga, the Purvabhaga has four padas with the total of 125 chapters. The Uttarabhaga has 82 chapters, which embeds the Rukmangada-carita, the Brihannarada Purana has no parts or padas, and a total of 38 adhyayas. The Narada Purana texts, like other Puranas, exist in numerous versions, the Naradiya Purana, states Hazra, was likely composed after the Brihannarada Purana. Rocher states that the date of each Purana remains unclear. Dimmitt and van Buitenen state that it is difficult to ascertain when, where, why and by whom the major and minor Puranas were written, As they exist today, each titled work consists of material that has grown by numerous accretions in successive historical eras. Thus no Purana has a date of composition. It is as if they were libraries to which new volumes have been added, not necessarily at the end of the shelf. The Padma Purana categorizes Naradiya Purana as a Sattva Purana, scholars consider the Sattva-Rajas-Tamas classification as entirely fanciful and there is nothing in this text that actually justifies this classification. The Brihannaradiya Purana is focussed on the bhakti of Vishnu and it describes the festivals and ritual ceremonies of Vaishnavism. Many chapters of the text are part of Mahatmya glorifying river Ganges, pilgrimage and travel centers such as Prayag, the text also includes chapters on ethics and duties of Varna and Ashramas, vrata and summaries on Sanskara. The text glorifies Radha as the one soul and love manifests as all Hindu goddesses. The texts secular description and verse of praises are not limited to different traditions of Hinduism, for example, chapter 1.2 extols Buddha.5.16 of the Shiva Purana, chapter 54 of the Matsya Purana and various minor Puranas. Chapters 92 through 109 of Purvabhaga are notable for summarizing the 18 major Puranas, other topics covered in the verses of Uttarabhaga include flora and fauna, food, music, dance, dress, jewelry, weapons and theories on war
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Sri Vaishnavism
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Sri Vaishnava Sampradaya or Sri Vaishnavism is a denomination within the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism. The name is derived from Sri referring to goddess Lakshmi as well as a prefix that means sacred, revered, and god Vishnu who are together revered in this tradition. The tradition traces its roots to the ancient Vedas and Pancaratra texts in Sanskrit, tradition is based on the Vishistadvaita vedanta philosophy derived from Sanskrit Veda and Tamil Divya Prabandham. The tradition split into two sub-traditions around the 16th-century called the Vadakalai and Thenkalai, the name Srivaishnavism is derived from two words, Sri and Vaishnavism. The word Sri refers to goddess Lakshmi as well as a prefix that means sacred, revered, the word Vaishnavism refers to a tradition that reveres god Vishnu as the supreme god. The followers of Srivaishnavism are known as Srivaishnava, the historical basis of Sri Vaishnavism is in the syncretism of two developments. Sri Vaishnavism developed in Tamil Nadu in the 10th century, after Nathamuni returned from a pilgrimage to Vrindavan in north India, nathamunis ideas were continued by Yamunacharya, who maintained that the Vedas and Pancaratras are equal, devotional rituals and bhakti are important practices. The legacy of Yamunacharya was continued by Ramanuja, but they never met, Ramanuja, a scholar who studied in an Advaita Vedanta monastery and disagreed with some of the ideas of Advaita, became the most influential leader of Sri Vaishnavism. Around the 18th century, the Sri Vaishnava tradition split into the Vatakalai and Tenkalai, the Vatakalai placed more emphasis on the Sanskrit traditions, while the Tenkalai relied more on the Tamil traditions. This theological dispute between the Vedic and Bhakti traditions traces it roots to the debate between Srirangam and Kanchipuram monasteries between the 13th and 15th century, the debate then was on the nature of salvation and the role of grace. Along with Vishnu, and like Shaivism, the reality and truth is considered in Sri Vaishnavism to be the divine sharing of the feminine and the masculine, the goddess. Sri is regarded as the preceptor of the Sri Vaishnava sampradaya, goddess Sri has been considered inseparable from god Vishnu, and essential to each other, and to the act of mutual loving devotion. Sri and Vishnu act and cooperate in the creation of everything that exists, according to some medieval scholars of Srivashnava theology, states John Carman, Sri and Vishnu do so using divine knowledge that is unsurpassed and through love that is an erotic union. In contrast, in Shaivism, the goddess is the energy and power of Shiva and she is the equal with different roles, supreme in the role of creator and destroyer. Sri Vaishnavisms philosophical foundation was established by Ramanuja, who started his Vedic studies with Yadava Prakasha in an Advaita Vedanta monastery and he brought Upanishadic ideas to this tradition, and wrote texts on qualified monism, called Vishishtadvaita in the Hindu tradition. His ideas are one of three subschools in Vedanta, the two are known as Adi Shankaras Advaita and Madhvacharyas Dvaita. Ramanujas Vishishtadvaita asserts that Atman and Brahman are different, a difference that is never transcended, God Vishnu alone is independent, all other gods and beings are dependent on Him. While the 13th- to 14th-century Madhvacharya asserted both qualitative and quantitative pluralism of souls, Ramanuja asserted qualitative monism and quantitative pluralism of souls, according to Sri Vaishnavism theology, moksha can be reached by devotion and service to the Lord and detachment from the world
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