1.
Russian Revolution
–
The Russian Revolution was a pair of revolutions in Russia in 1917, which dismantled the Tsarist autocracy and led to the eventual rise of the Soviet Union. The Russian Empire collapsed with the abdication of Emperor Nicholas II, in the second revolution that October, the Provisional Government was removed and replaced with a communist state. The February Revolution was a revolution focused around Petrograd, then capital of Russia, in the chaos, members of the Imperial parliament assumed control of the country, forming the Russian Provisional Government. The army leadership felt they did not have the means to suppress the revolution, the February Revolution took place in the context of heavy military setbacks during the First World War, which left much of the Russian Army in a state of mutiny. During this chaotic period there were frequent mutinies, protests and many strikes, when the Provisional Government chose to continue fighting the war with Germany, the Bolsheviks and other socialist factions campaigned for stopping the conflict. The Bolsheviks turned workers militias under their control into the Red Guards over which they exerted substantial control, the Bolsheviks appointed themselves as leaders of various government ministries and seized control of the countryside, establishing the Cheka to quash dissent. To end Russia’s participation in the First World War, the Bolshevik leaders signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in March 1918, soon after, civil war erupted among the Reds, the Whites, the independence movements and the non-Bolshevik socialists. It continued for years, during which the Bolsheviks defeated both the Whites and all rival socialists. In this way, the Revolution paved the way for the creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922, the Russian Revolution of 1905 was said to be a major factor to the February Revolutions of 1917. The events of Bloody Sunday triggered a line of protests, a council of workers called the St. Petersburg Soviet was created in all this chaos, and the beginning of a communist political protest had begun. World War I prompted a Russian outcry directed at Tsar Nicholas II and it was another major factor contributing to the retaliation of the Russian Communists against their royal opponents. However, the problems were merely administrative, and not industrial as Germany was producing great amounts of munitions whilst constantly fighting on two major battlefronts, the war also developed a weariness in the city, owing to a lack of food in response to the disruption of agriculture. Food scarcity had become a problem in Russia, but the cause of this did not lie in any failure of the harvests. As a result, they tended to hoard their grain and to revert to subsistence farming, thus the cities were constantly short of food. At the same time rising prices led to demands for wages in the factories. The outcome of all this, however, was a criticism of the government rather than any war-weariness. The original fever of excitement, which had caused the name of St. Heavy losses during the war also strengthened thoughts that Tsar Nicholas II was unfit to rule, the Liberals were now better placed to voice their complaints, since they were participating more fully through a variety of voluntary organizations
Russian Revolution
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Bolshevik forces marching on
Red Square
Russian Revolution
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Soldiers blocking
Narva Gate on
Bloody Sunday
Russian Revolution
–
Russian soldiers marching in Petrograd in February 1917
Russian Revolution
–
The Petrograd Soviet Assembly meeting in 1917
2.
Feminism
–
Feminism is a range of political movements, ideologies, and social movements that share a common goal, to define and advance political, economic, personal, and social rights for women. This includes seeking to establish opportunities for women in education. Feminists have also worked to promote autonomy and integrity, and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment. Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years and represent different viewpoints, some forms of feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle class, and educated perspectives. This criticism led to the creation of specific or multicultural forms of feminism, including black feminism. Charles Fourier, a Utopian Socialist and French philosopher, is credited with having coined the word féminisme in 1837, depending on the historical moment, culture and country, feminists around the world have had different causes and goals. Most western feminist historians assert that all working to obtain womens rights should be considered feminist movements. Other historians assert that the term should be limited to the modern feminist movement and those historians use the label protofeminist to describe earlier movements. The history of the modern western feminist movements is divided into three waves, each wave dealt with different aspects of the same feminist issues. The first wave comprised womens suffrage movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the second wave was associated with the ideas and actions of the womens liberation movement beginning in the 1960s. The second wave campaigned for legal and social equality for women, the third wave is a continuation of, and a reaction to, the perceived failures of second-wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s. First-wave feminism was a period of activity during the 19th century, in the UK and US, it focused on the promotion of equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights for women. This was followed by Australia granting female suffrage in 1902, in 1928 this was extended to all women over 21. In the U. S. notable leaders of this movement included Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing womens right to vote. These women were influenced by the Quaker theology of spiritual equality, in the United States, first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, granting women the right to vote in all states. During the late Qing period and reform movements such as the Hundred Days Reform, Chinese feminists called for womens liberation from traditional roles, later, the Chinese Communist Party created projects aimed at integrating women into the workforce, and claimed that the revolution had successfully achieved womens liberation. According to Nawar al-Hassan Golley, Arab feminism was closely connected with Arab nationalism, in 1899, Qasim Amin, considered the father of Arab feminism, wrote The Liberation of Women, which argued for legal and social reforms for women. He drew links between womens position in Egyptian society and nationalism, leading to the development of Cairo University, in 1923 Hoda Shaarawi founded the Egyptian Feminist Union, became its president and a symbol of the Arab womens rights movement
Feminism
–
International Women's Day rally in
Dhaka, Bangladesh, on 8 March 2005, organized by the National Women Workers Trade Union Centre
Feminism
–
Feminist Suffrage Parade in New York City, 6 May 1912
Feminism
–
After selling her home,
Emmeline Pankhurst, pictured in New York City in 1913, travelled constantly, giving speeches throughout Britain and the United States.
Feminism
–
Louise Weiss along with other Parisian
suffragettes in 1935. The newspaper headline reads "The Frenchwoman Must Vote."
3.
Woman
–
A woman is a female human. The term woman is usually reserved for an adult, with the girl being the usual term for a female child or adolescent. The term woman is sometimes used to identify a female human, regardless of age. Women with typical genetic development are usually capable of giving birth from puberty until menopause, the spelling of woman in English has progressed over the past millennium from wīfmann to wīmmann to wumman, and finally, the modern spelling woman. In Old English, wīfmann meant female human, whereas wēr meant male human, the medial labial consonants f and m in wīfmann coalesced into the modern form woman, while the initial element, which meant female, underwent semantic narrowing to the sense of a married woman. It is a misconception that the term woman is etymologically connected to womb. Womb is actually from the Old English word wambe meaning stomach, the symbol for the planet Venus is the sign also used in biology for the female sex. It is a representation of the goddess Venuss hand-mirror or an abstract symbol for the goddess. The Venus symbol also represented femininity, and in ancient alchemy stood for copper, alchemists constructed the symbol from a circle above an equilateral cross. Womanhood is the period in a life after she has passed through childhood and adolescence. The word woman can be used generally, to any female human or specifically. The word girl originally meant young person of either sex in English, in particular, previously common terms such as office girl are no longer widely used. Referring to a female human as a woman may, in such a culture, imply that she is sexually experienced. There are various words used to refer to the quality of being a woman, menarche, the onset of menstruation, occurs on average at age 12-13. The earliest women whose names are known through archaeology include, Neithhotep, the wife of Narmer, merneith, consort and regent of ancient Egypt during the first dynasty. She may have been ruler of Egypt in her own right, merit-Ptah, also lived in Egypt and is the earliest known female physician and scientist. Peseshet, a physician in Ancient Egypt, puabi, or Shubad – queen of Ur whose tomb was discovered with many expensive artifacts. Other known pre-Sargonic queens of Ur include Ashusikildigir, Ninbanda, kugbau, a taverness from Kish chosen by the Nippur priesthood to become hegemonic ruler of Sumer, and in later ages deified as Kubaba
Woman
–
the
Queen of Sheba
Woman
–
"The Life & Age of Woman - Stages of Woman's Life from the Cradle to the Grave",1849
Woman
–
Woman nursing her infant
Woman
–
Pregnant woman
4.
Girl
–
A girl is a female human from birth through childhood and adolescence to attainment of adulthood when she becomes a woman. The term girl may also be used to mean a young woman, the English word girl first appeared during the Middle Ages between 1250 and 1300 CE and came from the Anglo-Saxon word gerle. The Anglo-Saxon word gerela meaning dress or clothing item also seems to have used as a metonym in some sense. Girl has meant any young unmarried woman since about 1530 and its first noted meaning for sweetheart is 1648. The earliest known appearance of girl-friend is in 1892 and girl next door, meant as a female or young woman with a kind of wholesome appeal. The word girl is sometimes used to refer to an adult female and this usage may be considered derogatory or disrespectful in professional or other formal contexts, just as the term boy can be considered disparaging when applied to an adult man. Hence, this usage is often deprecative and it can also be used deprecatively when used to discriminate against children. In casual context, the word has positive uses, as evidenced by its use in titles of popular music. It has been used playfully for people acting in a fashion or as a way of unifying women of all ages on the basis of their once having been girls. These positive uses mean gender rather than age, the status of girls throughout world history is closely related to the status of women in any culture. Where women enjoy an equal status with men, girls benefit from greater attention to their needs. In Ancient Egypt, the princess Neferure grew up under the reign of her mother, the woman Pharaoh Hatshepsut, women in Ancient Egypt had a relatively high status in society, and as the daughter of the pharaoh, Neferura was provided with the best education possible. Her tutors were the most trusted advisors of her mother and she grew up to take on an important role by taking on the duties of a queen while her mother was pharaoh. Despite the fact women and men had a great deal of equality in Ancient Egypt. For this reason, girls and boys education differed, boys could attend formal schools to learn how to read, write, and do math, while girls would be educated at home to learn the occupations of their mothers. Some women did become literate and were scholars, however, such as Hypatia, girls formal education has traditionally been considered far less important than that of boys. In Europe, exceptions were rare before the press and the Reformation made literacy more widespread. One notable exception to the neglect of girls literacy is Queen Elizabeth I
Girl
Girl
Girl
Girl
5.
Femininity
–
Femininity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with girls and women. Femininity is socially constructed, but made up of both socially-defined and biologically-created factors and this makes it distinct from the definition of the biological female sex, as both males and females can exhibit feminine traits. People who exhibit a combination of masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification. In some non-English speaking cultures, certain concepts or inanimate objects are considered feminine or masculine, tara Williams has suggested that modern notions of femininity in English speaking society began during the English medieval period at the time of the bubonic plague in the 1300s. Women in the Early Middle Ages were referred to simply within their traditional roles of maiden, wife, after the Black Death in England wiped out approximately half the population, traditional gender roles of wife and mother changed, and opportunities opened up for women in society. Prudence Allen has traced how the concept of woman changed during this period, the words femininity and womanhood are first recorded in Chaucer around 1380. Girls, second-wave feminists said, were then socialized with toys, games, television and school into conforming to feminine values, femininity is sometimes linked with sexual objectification and sexual appeal. Sexual passiveness, or sexual receptivity, is considered feminine while sexual assertiveness. Some queer theorists and other postmodernists, however, have rejected the sex /gender dichotomy as a dangerous simplification, an ongoing debate with regards to sex and psychology concerns the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behavior is due to socialization versus inborn factors. According to Diane F. Halpern, both play a role, but the relative importance of each must still be investigated. The nature versus nurture question, for example, is debated and is continually revitalized by new research findings. Some hold that feminine identity is partly a given and partly a goal to be sought, in 1959, researchers such as John Money and Anke Erhardt proposed the prenatal hormone theory. This theory, however, has been criticized on theoretical and empirical grounds, Money also argued that gender identity is formed during a childs first three years. In Carl Jungs school of psychology, the anima and animus are the two primary anthropomorphic archetypes of the unconscious mind. The anima and animus are described by Jung as elements of his theory of the collective unconscious, a domain of the unconscious that transcends the personal psyche. In the unconscious of the male, it finds expression as a feminine inner personality, anima, equivalently, in the unconscious of the female, it is expressed as a masculine inner personality, animus. In Western cultures, the ideal of feminine appearance has traditionally included long, flowing hair, clear skin, a narrow waist, in other cultures, however, expectations are different. For example, in parts of the world, underarm hair is not considered unfeminine
Femininity
–
In Egyptian mythology,
Isis is synonymous with femininity.
Femininity
–
The Birth of Venus (1486,
Uffizi) is a classic representation of femininity painted by
Sandro Botticelli.
Venus was a
Roman goddess principally associated with love, beauty and
fertility.
Femininity
–
Young Woman Drawing (1801,
Metropolitan Museum of Art) painted by
Marie-Denise Villers (possibly a self-portrait), depicts an independent feminine spirit.
Femininity
–
In some cultures, cosmetics are associated with femininity
6.
History of feminism
–
The history of feminism is the chronological narrative of the movements and ideologies aimed at equal rights for women. Other historians limit the term to the modern feminist movement and its progeny, modern Western feminist history is split into three time periods, or waves, each with slightly different aims based on prior progress. First-wave feminism of the 19th and early 20th centuries focuses on overturning legal inequalities, second-wave feminism broadened debate to include cultural inequalities, gender norms, and the role of women in society. Third-wave feminism refers to diverse strains of feminist activity, seen as both a continuation of the wave and a response to its perceived failures. People and activists who discuss or advance womens equality prior to the existence of the feminist movement are sometimes labeled as protofeminist, some scholars, however, criticize this terms usage. Around 24 centuries ago, Plato, according to Elaine Hoffman Baruch, for the political and sexual equality of women. One of the most important 17th-century feminist writers in the English language was Margaret Cavendish, the Age of Enlightenment was characterized by secular intellectual reasoning and a flowering of philosophical writing. Many Enlightenment philosophers defended the rights of women, including Jeremy Bentham, Marquis de Condorcet, other important writers of the time that expressed feminist views included Abigail Adams, Catharine Macaulay, and Hedvig Charlotta Nordenflycht. Bentham spoke for complete equality between sexes including the rights to vote and to participate in government and he opposed the asymmetrical sexual moral standards between men and women. In his Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, Bentham strongly condemned many countries common practice to deny womens rights due to allegedly inferior minds, Bentham gave many examples of able female regents. Nicolas de Condorcet was a mathematician, classical liberal politician, leading French Revolutionary, republican and he was also a fierce defender of human rights, including the equality of women and the abolition of slavery, unusual for the 1780s. He advocated for suffrage in the new government in 1790 with De ladmission des femmes au droit de cité. This was another plea for the French Revolutionary government to recognize the natural and political rights of women. De Gouges wrote the Declaration in the prose of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, perhaps the most cited feminist writer of the time was Mary Wollstonecraft, often characterized as the first feminist philosopher. Wollstonecraft identified the education and upbringing of women as creating their limited expectations based on a self-image dictated by the male perspective. Despite her perceived inconsistencies reflective of problems that had no easy answers, Wollstonecraft believed that both genders contributed to inequality. She took womens considerable power over men for granted, and determined that both would require education to ensure the necessary changes in social attitudes, given her humble origins and scant education, her personal achievements speak to her own determination. Wollstonecraft attracted the mockery of Samuel Johnson, who described her and her ilk as Amazons of the pen, based on his relationship with Hester Thrale, he complained of womens encroachment onto a male territory of writing, and not their intelligence or education
History of feminism
–
Christine de Pizan presents her book to Queen
Isabeau of Bavaria.
History of feminism
–
First edition print of
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
History of feminism
–
Author and scholar
Helen Kendrick Johnson opposed women's suffrage.
History of feminism
–
Florence Nightingale
7.
History of American women
–
This is a history of women in the United States since 1776, and of the Thirteen Colonies before that. The reliable sources on the topic were thin before the 1960s, since then the study of womens history has been a major scholarly and popular field, with many scholarly books and articles, museum exhibits, and courses in schools and universities. The roles of women were long ignored in textbooks and popular histories, by the 1960s, women were being presented as successful as male roles. An early feminist approach underscored their victimization and inferior status at the hands of men, in the 21st century writers have emphasized the distinctive strengths displayed inside the community of women, with special concern for minorities among women. The experiences of women during the colonial era varied somewhat from colony to colony, most of the British settlers were from England and Wales, with smaller numbers from Scotland and Ireland. Groups of families settled in New England, while individuals came to the Southern colonies, the American colonies absorbed the thousands of Dutch and Swedish settlers. After 1700 most immigrants to Colonial America arrived as indentured servants—young unmarried men and women seeking a new life in a richer environment. After the 1660s a steady flow of black slaves arrived, chiefly from the Caribbean, food supplies were much more abundant than in Europe, and there was an abundance of fertile land that needed farm families. However, the environment was hostile in the malaria-ridden South. The American-born children were immune from the forms of malaria. In New England, the Puritan settlers from England brought their religious values highly organized social structure with them. They believed a woman should be subordinate to her husband and dedicate herself to rearing God-fearing children to the best of her ability, there were ethnic differences in the treatment of women. Among Puritan settlers in New England, wives almost never worked in the fields with their husbands, in German communities in Pennsylvania, however, many women worked in fields and stables. German and Dutch immigrants granted women more control over property, which was not permitted in the local English law. Unlike English colonial wives, German and Dutch wives owned their own clothes and other items and were also given the ability to write wills disposing of the property brought into the marriage. The first English people to arrive in America were the members of the Roanoke Colony who came to North Carolina in July 1587, with 17 women,91 men, and 9 boys as the founding colonists. On August 18,1587, Virginia Dare was born, she was the first English child born in the territory of the United States and her mother was Eleanor Dare, the daughter of John White, governor of the Roanoke colony. It is not known what happened to the members of the Roanoke colony, however, it is likely that they were attacked by Native Americans, and those not killed were assimilated into the local tribes
History of American women
–
A stamp honoring
Virginia Dare, who in 1587 became the first English child born in what became the U.S.
History of American women
–
Colonial schoolhouse in
Hollis, New Hampshire
History of American women
–
Pocahontas (1595–1615) of Virginia
8.
History of Canadian women
–
The history of Canadian women covers half the population, but until recent years only comprised a tiny fraction of the historiography. In the 1660s the French government sent about 850 young women called Kings Daughters and they quickly found husbands among the predominantly male settlers, as well as a new life for themselves. They came mostly from families in the Paris area, Normandy. A handful were ex-prostitutes, but only one is known to have practiced that trade in Canada, as farm wives with very good nutrition and high birth rates they played a major role in establishing family life and enabling rapid demographic growth. They had about 30% more children than comparable women who remained in France, landry says, Canadians had an exceptional diet for their time. This was due to the abundance of meat, fish, and pure water, the good food conservation conditions during the winter. Besides household duties, some women participated in the fur trade and they worked at home alongside their husbands or fathers as merchants, clerks and provisioners. Some were widowed, and took over their husbands roles, a handful were active entrepreneurs in their own right. The elite young women were trained in intelligent philanthropy and civic responsibility and they seldom connected with the reform impulses of the middle class women, and for and were paternalistic in their views of the needs of working-class women. Outside the home, Canadian women had few domains which they controlled, an important exception came with Roman Catholic nuns, especially in Québec. Stimulated by the influence in France of The popular religiosity of the Counter Reformation, in the next three centuries women opened dozens of independent religious orders, funded in part by dowries provided by the parents of young nuns. The orders specialized in works, including hospitals, orphanages, homes for unwed mothers. In the first half of the century, about 2-3% of Québecs young women became nuns, there were 6600 in 1901. In Québec in 1917,32 different teaching orders operated 586 boarding schools for girls, at that time there was no public education for girls in Québec beyond elementary school. Hospitals were another specially, the first of which was founded in 1701, in 1936, the nuns of Québec operated 150 institutions, with 30,000 beds to care for the long-term sick, the homeless, and orphans. On a smaller scale, Catholic orders of nuns operated similar institutions in other provinces, the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s combined declericalization with the dramatic reforms of Vatican II. There was a change in the role of nuns. Many left the convent while very few young women entered, the Provincial government took over the nuns traditional role as provider of many of Quebecs educational and social services
History of Canadian women
–
Portrait of
Adelaide Hunter Hoodless, a Canadian advocate for the welfare of women and children. Photograph taken c. 1895.
History of Canadian women
–
One group of King's Daughters arrives at Quebec, 1667
History of Canadian women
–
Léa Roback (1903 – 2000) was a Canadian trade union organizer, social activist, pacifist, and feminist from Quebec
History of Canadian women
–
Henrietta Edwards (1849 – 1931) was a Canadian women's rights activist and reformer from Quebec. She was a member of the
The Famous Five.
9.
Suffrage in Australia
–
Suffrage in Australia refers to the right to vote for people living in Australia, including all its six component states and territories, as well as local councils. The colonies of Australia began to grant universal male suffrage during the 1850s, today, the right to vote at federal, state and local levels of government is enjoyed by all citizens of Australia over the age of 18 years. Upon first white settlement in New South Wales in 1788, the appointed Governors had autocratic powers within the colony, a legislative body, the New South Wales Legislative Council, was created in 1825, which was an appointed body whose function was to advise the Governor. On 24 August 1824,5 members were appointed to the Council, which increased to 7 members in 1825, and between 10 and 15 in 1829. Also in 1829, British sovereignty was extended to cover the whole of Australia, the first parliamentary elections in Australia took place in 1843 for the New South Wales Legislative Council under the New South Wales Constitution Act 1842. The Council had 36 members, of which 12 were appointed by the Governor, the right to vote was limited to men with a freehold valued at £200 or a householder paying rent of £20 per year, both very large sums at the time. In the 1850s, limited self-government was granted to South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales and Tasmania and this included indigenous people but they were not encouraged to enroll. Queensland gained self-government in 1859 and Western Australia in 1890, an innovative secret ballot was introduced in Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia. On 22 May 1856, the newly constituted New South Wales Parliament opened, the right to vote was extended to all adult males in 1858. In 1901, the six Australian colonies united to form the federal Commonwealth of Australia, only in South Australia and Western Australia did women have a vote. Tasmania retained a small property qualification for voting, but in the states all male British subjects over 21 could vote. Only in South Australia and Tasmania were indigenous Australians even theoretically entitled to vote, a few may have done so in South Australia. Western Australia and Queensland specifically barred indigenous people from voting, in 1902, the Commonwealth Parliament passed the Commonwealth Franchise Act 1902, which established a uniform franchise law for the federal Parliament. Besides granting Australian women the right to vote at a national level and this meant that Australia was the second country, after New Zealand, to grant womens suffrage at a national level, and the first country to allow women to stand for Parliament. By this provision, Indian people, for example, were disqualified to vote, the only exception was in relation to those who were entitled under Section 41 of the Australian Constitution to a vote. Section 41 states that any individual who has gained a right to vote at a state level, the then Solicitor-General, Robert Garran, interpreted the provision to mean that Commonwealth voting rights were granted by section 41 only to people who were already State voters in 1902. Also, those otherwise entitled voters who are subject to a crime carries a penalty of over one year in prison are disqualified to vote. There was also no representation for any of the territories of Australia, in the meantime, State franchise laws continued in force until each one chose to amend them
Suffrage in Australia
–
Parliament House, Canberra.
Suffrage in Australia
–
Boyle Travers Finniss became the first
Premier of South Australia in 1856 - and the first leader of an Australian colonial parliament elected by
universal male suffrage.
Suffrage in Australia
–
South Australian suffragette
Catherine Helen Spence (1825-1910). South Australian women achieved the right to vote and stand for parliament in 1895.
10.
First-wave feminism
–
First-wave feminism was a period of feminist activity and thought, that occurred within the time period of the 19th and early 20th century throughout the world. It focused on issues, primarily on gaining womens suffrage. Feminism has its source in the 18th century, specifically in the Enlightenment, in this cultural and philosophical movement there was a controversy over equality and gender differences. At the time appeared a new critical discourse that used the universal categories of political philosophy. Enlightenment movement therefore was not feminist at its roots, the political origins of feminism came from The French Revolution. Rousseaus political theory designed the exclusion of women from the field of property, so in the French Revolution the voice of women began to express themselves collectively. The term first-wave was coined in March 1968 by Martha Lear writing in The New York Times Magazine, at that time, the womens movement was focused on de facto inequalities, which it wished to distinguish from the objectives of the earlier feminists. According to Miriam Schneir, Simone de Beauvoir wrote that the first woman to take up her pen in defense of her sex was Christine de Pizan in the 15th century, heinrich Cornelius Agrippa and Modesta di Pozzo di Forzi worked in the 16th century. Marie Le Jars de Gournay, Anne Bradstreet and François Poullain de la Barre wrote in the 17th, Mary Wollstonecrafts most famous work, which is called Vindication, was created in 1792. Its previous feminist work was Poullain de la Barres Equality of sexes and this period was affected by Rousseaus philosophy, the Illustration. The father of the Illustration defined an ideal democratic society that was based on the equality of men, Mary Wollstonecraft based her work on the ideas of Rousseau. Although at first it seems to be contradictory, Wollstonecrafts idea was to expand Rousseaus democratic society and her later unfinished novel, Maria, or the Wrongs of Woman, earned her considerable criticism as she discussed womens sexual desires. She died young, and her widower, the philosopher William Godwin, quickly wrote a memoir of her that, contrary to his intentions, early Feminism was directly correlated with the abolitionist movements and as a result many famous feminists and activists began to have their voices heard. Some of these early activists include, Sojourner Truth, Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell, Jane Addams, and Dorothy Day. The first wave of feminism was led by white women in the middle class. The term Feminism was created like a political illustrated ideology at that period, Feminism emerged by the speech about the reform and correction of democracy based on equalitarian conditions. With Wollstonecrafts work, the illustrated feminist polemic was displayed, and as a result, Wollstonecraft is regarded as the grandmother of British feminism and her ideas shaped the thinking of the suffragettes, who campaigned for the womens vote. After generations of work, this was eventually achieved, in 1882, Rose Scott, a womens rights activist, began to hold a weekly salon meetings in her Sydney home, left to her by her late mother
First-wave feminism
–
A 1932 Soviet poster for
International Women's Day.
First-wave feminism
–
Louise Weiss along with other Parisian suffragettes in 1935. The newspaper headline reads, in translation, "THE FRENCHWOMAN MUST VOTE".
First-wave feminism
–
Tribute to the Suffragettes memorial in
Christchurch, New Zealand. The figures shown from left to right are
Amey Daldy,
Kate Sheppard,
Ada Wells and
Harriet Morison
First-wave feminism
–
Suffragist with banner, Washington DC, 1918
11.
Second-wave feminism
–
Second-wave feminism is a period of feminist activity and thought that first began in the early 1960s in the United States, and eventually spread throughout the Western world and beyond. In the United States the movement lasted through the early 1980s and it later became a worldwide movement that was strong in Europe and parts of Asia, such as Turkey and Israel, where it began in the 1980s, and it began at other times in other countries. Second-wave feminism also drew attention to violence and marital rape issues, establishment of rape crisis and battered womens shelters. This life was illustrated by the media of the time, for example television shows such as Father Knows Best. Before the second there were some important events which laid the groundwork for it. French writer Simone de Beauvoir had in the 1940s examined the notion of women being perceived as other in the patriarchal society and this book was translated from French to English and published in America in 1953. In 1960 the Food and Drug Administration approved the combined oral contraceptive pill and this made it easier for women to have careers without having to leave due to unexpectedly becoming pregnant. The administration of President Kennedy made womens rights a key issue of the New Frontier, There were also notable actions by women in wider society, presaging their wider engagement in politics which would come with the second wave. In 1961,50,000 women in 60 cities, mobilized by Women Strike for Peace, protested above ground testing of nuclear bombs, in 1963 Betty Friedan, influenced by The Second Sex, wrote the bestselling book The Feminine Mystique. Discussing primarily white women, she objected to how women were depicted in the mainstream media. She had helped conduct an important survey using her old classmates from Smith College. This survey revealed that the women who played a role at home, the women who stayed home showed feelings of agitation and sadness. She concluded that many of these women had emerged themselves in the idea that they should not have any ambitions outside their home. Friedan described this as The Problem That Has No Name, the perfect nuclear family image depicted and strongly marketed at the time, she wrote, did not reflect happiness and was rather degrading for women. This book is credited with having begun second-wave feminism. Though it is accepted that the movement lasted from the 1960s into the early 1980s. Friedan was referencing a movement as early as 1964, the movement grew with legal victories such as the Equal Pay Act of 1963, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Griswold v. Connecticut Supreme Court ruling of 1965. In 1966 Friedan joined other women and men to found the National Organization for Women, Friedan stepped down as president in 1969
Second-wave feminism
–
A Women's Liberation march in Washington, D.C., 1970
12.
Third-wave feminism
–
Third-wave feminism encompasses several diverse strains of feminist activity and study. Though exact boundaries are a subject of debate, it is marked as beginning in the early 1990s. It is a movement in the sense that its purpose includes redefining what it is to be a feminist. The third wave arose partially as a response to the failures of second-wave feminism. It attempts to expand feminism to include women with a set of identities recognising that women are of many colors, ethnicities, nationalities, religions. Thus it can be seen as a reaction to or continuation of second-wave feminism, the related concept of intersectionality was introduced in 1989, a few years before the third wave began, but it was during this wave that the concept was embraced. Rebecca Walker coined the term Third Wave to highlight the focus on queer, Walker sought to establish that third-wave feminism was not just a reaction, but a movement in itself, because womens issues were far from over. Third-wave feminists have broadened their goals, focusing on ideas like queer theory, unlike the determined position of second-wave feminists about women in pornography, sex work, and prostitution, third-wave feminists were rather ambiguous and divided about these themes. While some thought these sexual acts were degrading and oppressing women, there was a divide in opinion but third-wave feminism embraced differences, personal narratives, and individualism, instead of all having one agenda. The focus was less on political changes and more on individualistic identity, the shift from second wave feminism came about with many of the legal and institutional rights that were extended to women. In addition to these gains, third-wave feminists believed there needed to be further changes in stereotypes, media portrayals. The purpose was to celebrate diverse identities and abandon the victim feminism ideology, third-wave ideology focuses on a more post-structuralist interpretation of gender and sexuality. In Deconstructing Equality-versus-Difference, Or, the Uses of Poststructuralist Theory for Feminism, in the The local is global, third wave feminism, peace, and social justice, the authors explain third wave feminism offers five primary focuses, Responsible choice grounded in dialogue. Respect and appreciation for experiences and dynamic knowledge, use of personal narratives in both theorizing and political activism. Political activism as local, with connections and consequences. Riot grrrl was thought by some to be the beginning of third wave feminism and this was a movement based on hard core punk rock that talked about issues like rape, patriarchy, sexuality, women empowerment, and other feminist issues. They responded to the Anita Hill and Clarence Thomas court case as well, third-wave feminists such as Elle Green often focus on micro-politics, and challenge the second waves paradigm as to what is, or is not, good for women. Womens studies, and redsuited congresswomen – perhaps means that women today have really reaped what feminism has sown
Third-wave feminism
–
Kathleen Hanna was the lead singer of
Bikini Kill: a
riot grrrl band formed in 1990.
13.
Fourth-wave feminism
–
The fourth wave of feminism refers to various, conflicting assessments of recent developments within the feminist movement. The definition and boundaries of the term are currently much contested, in 2005, Pythia Peay first argued for the existence of a fourth wave of feminism, combining justice with religious spirituality. However, this component is not present in most other definitions for the term. Jennifer Baumgardner identifies fourth-wave feminism as starting in 2008 and continuing into the present day, researcher Diana Diamond defines fourth-wave feminism as a movement that combines politics, psychology, and spirituality in an overarching vision of change. Kira Cochrane, author of All the Rebel Women, The Rise of the Fourth Wave of Feminism, I know people who are considered third-wave feminists who are 20 years older than me. After the interviewers suggestion that perhaps we had moved forward into a wave of feminism. According to NOW Toronto, the internet has created a culture, in which sexism or misogyny can be called out. This online feminism aspect of the wave has impacted how companies market to women so that they are not called out for sexism in their marketing strategies. The addition of advanced technology along with broader ideas of equal rights set the newest wave apart from the former. In 2014, Rhiannon Lucy Cosslett and Holly Baxter released their book The Vagenda, the authors consider themselves fourth-wave feminists. Like their website The Vagenda, their aims to flag. In November 2015, a group of working with Clio Visualizing History launched Click. This digital history exhibit examines the history of American feminism from the era of World War Two to the present, the exhibit has three major sections, Politics and Social Movements, Body and Health, and Workplace and Family. There are also interactive timelines linking to a vast array of sources documenting the history of American feminism, the fourth wave of feminism is often said to have started in 2008, and many social networks were finding their footing not long beforehand. Twitter, a network that is most popular with the 18-29 age group, was created in 2006. When Wendy Davis staged her 13-hour filibuster to prevent a bill from passing. But for those who couldnt, they were able to show their solidarity through using the hashtag #StandWithWendy. Similarly, girls of all ages protested the often sexist questions directed at female celebrities by tweeting the hashtag #askhermore, Social media like Twitter allows women to spread awareness of issues much farther than was ever possible in the past
Fourth-wave feminism
–
Christine de Pizan presents her book to Queen
Isabeau of Bavaria.
Fourth-wave feminism
–
First edition print of
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
Fourth-wave feminism
–
Author and scholar
Helen Kendrick Johnson opposed women's suffrage.
Fourth-wave feminism
–
Florence Nightingale
14.
Feminist movements and ideologies
–
A variety of movements of feminist ideology have developed over the years. They vary in goals, strategies, and affiliations and they often overlap, and some feminists identify themselves with several branches of feminist thought. Mainstream feminism is an umbrella term for feminist movements which do not fall into either the socialist or radical feminist camps. The mainstream feminist movement traditionally focused on political and legal reform, and has its roots in first-wave feminism, mainstream feminism was historically also called liberal feminism or bourgeois feminism. Mainstream feminism overlaps with modern liberal feminism, although feminism is a somewhat broader term. Mainstream feminists are sometimes criticized by feminists for being part of a system of patriarchy. Liberal feminism asserts the equality of men and women political and legal reform. Liberal feminists sought to abolish political, legal and other forms of discrimination of women to allow them the same opportunities as men, liberal feminists sought to alter the structure of society to ensure the equal treatment of women. More recently, liberal feminism has additionally taken on a narrow meaning which emphasizes womens ability to show and maintain their equality through their own actions. In this sense, liberal feminism uses the interactions between men and women as the place from which to transform society. It generally views patriarchy as a manifestation of involuntary hierarchy, anarcha-feminists believe that the struggle against patriarchy is an essential part of class struggle and of the anarchist struggle against the state. In essence, the philosophy sees anarchist struggle as a component of feminist struggle. Susan Brown puts it, as anarchism is a philosophy that opposes all relationships of power. Important historic anarcha-feminists include Emma Goldman, Federica Montseny, Voltairine de Cleyre, Maria Lacerda de Moura, in the Spanish Civil War, an anarcha-feminist group, Mujeres Libres, linked to the Federación Anarquista Ibérica, organized to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas. Contemporary anarcha-feminist writers/theorists include Germaine Greer, L, Susan Brown, and the eco-feminist Starhawk. Contemporary anarcha-feminist groups include Bolivias Mujeres Creando, Radical Cheerleaders, the Spanish anarcha-feminist squat La Eskalera Karakola, socialist feminism connects the oppression of women to Marxist ideas about exploitation, oppression and labor. Socialist feminists think unequal standing in both the workplace and the domestic sphere holds women down, socialist feminists see prostitution, domestic work, childcare, and marriage as ways in which women are exploited by a patriarchal system that devalues women and the substantial work they do. Socialist feminists focus their energies on far-reaching change that affects society as a whole, rather than on an individual basis
Feminist movements and ideologies
–
Emma Goldman, pioneer
anarcha-feminist author and activist.
Feminist movements and ideologies
–
Clara Zetkin and
Rosa Luxemburg, 1910.
Feminist movements and ideologies
–
Angela Davis speaking at the University of Alberta on 28 March 2006
Feminist movements and ideologies
–
Judith Butler at a lecture at the
University of Hamburg.
15.
Anarcha-feminism
–
Anarcha-feminism, also called anarchist feminism and anarcho-feminism, combines anarchism with feminism. It generally views patriarchy as a manifestation of involuntary coercive hierarchy, anarcha-feminists believe that the struggle against patriarchy is an essential part of class conflict and the anarchist struggle against the state and capitalism. In essence, the philosophy sees anarchist struggle as a component of feminist struggle. Susan Brown claims that, as anarchism is a philosophy that opposes all relationships of power. Contrary to popular belief and contemporary association with radical feminism, anarcha-feminism is not an inherently militant party and it is described to be an anti-authoritarian, anti-capitalist, anti-oppressive philosophy, with the goal of creating an equal ground between males and females. The term anarcha-feminism suggests the social freedom and liberty of women, mikhail Bakunin opposed patriarchy and the way the law to the absolute domination of the man. He argued that qual rights must belong to men and women so that women could become independent, Bakunin foresaw the end of the authoritarian juridical family and the full sexual freedom of women. Proudhon, on the hand, viewed the family as the most basic unit of society and of his morality. Since the 1860s, anarchisms radical critique of capitalism and the state has been combined with a critique of patriarchy, anarcha-feminists thus start from the precept that modern society is dominated by men. Authoritarian traits and values—domination, exploitation, aggression, competition, etc. —are integral to hierarchical civilizations and are seen as masculine, in contrast, non-authoritarian traits and values—cooperation, sharing, compassion, sensitivity—are regarded as feminine, and devalued. Anarcha-feminists have thus espoused creation of a non-authoritarian, anarchist society and they refer to the creation of a society, based on cooperation, sharing, mutual aid, etc. as the feminization of society. Anarcha-feminism began with late 19th and early 20th century authors and theorists such as anarchist feminists Emma Goldman, Voltairine de Cleyre, in the Spanish Civil War, an anarcha-feminist group, Mujeres Libres, linked to the Federación Anarquista Ibérica, organized to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas. According to this Nietzschean concept of Federica Montsenys, women could realize through art, in China, the anarcho-feminist He Zhen argued that without womens liberation, society could not be liberated. A similar paper with the name was reportedly published later in Montevideo. La Voz de la Mujer described itself as “dedicated to the advancement of Communist Anarchism. ”Its central theme was the multiple natures of women’s oppression. An editorial asserted, “We believe that in society, nothing. Its beliefs can be seen from its attack on marriage and upon male power over women and its contributors, like anarchist feminists elsewhere, developed a concept of oppression that focused on gender. They saw marriage as an institution which restricted women’s freedom
Anarcha-feminism
–
Cover of La Voz de la Mujer, pioneering Argentinian anarcha-feminist publication
Anarcha-feminism
–
A purple and black flag is often used to represent Anarcha-feminism.
Anarcha-feminism
–
Lucifer the Lightbearer, an influential American free love journal
Anarcha-feminism
–
Emma Goldman
16.
Atheist feminism
–
Atheist feminism is a movement that advocates feminism within atheism. Atheist feminists also oppose religion as a source of female oppression and inequality, believing that the majority of the religions are sexist. The first known feminist who was also an atheist was Ernestine Rose and her open confession of disbelief in Judaism when she was a teenager brought her into conflict with her father and an unpleasant relationship developed. In order to force her into the obligations of the Jewish faith, her father, without her consent, betrothed her to a friend, instead of arguing her case in a Jewish court, she went to a secular court, pleaded her own case, and won. She lectured in England and America and was described by Samuel P, putnam 3 as one of the best lecturers of her time. He wrote that no man could meet her in debate. This was the first petition drive done by a woman in New York, Ernestine continued to increase both the number of the petitions and the names until such rights were finally won in 1848, with the passing of the Married Womens Property Act. Others who participated in the work for the bill included Susan B, anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott and Frances Wright, who were all anti-religious. Ernestine later joined a group of freethinkers who had organized a Society for Moral Philanthropists, in 1845 she was in attendance at the first national convention of infidels. Ernestine Rose also introduced the agitation on the subject of womens suffrage in Michigan in 1846 and she attended the Womens Rights Convention in the Tabernacle, New York City, on September 10,1853, and spoke at the Hartford Bible Convention in 1854. It was in March of that year, also, that she took off with Susan B, anthony on a speaking tour to Washington, D. C. Anthony arranged the meetings and Ernestine Rose did all of the speaking, after this successful tour, anthony embarked on her own first lecture tour. Later, in October 1854, Ernestine Rose was elected president of the National Womens Rights Convention at Philadelphia, anthony supported her in this fight, declaring that every religion — and none — should have an equal right on the platform. When he asks for colleges to educate ministers, tell him you must educate woman and she appeared again in Albany, New York, for the State Womens Rights Convention in early February 1861, the last one to be held until the end of the Civil War. On May 14,1863, she shared the podium with Elizabeth Cady Stanton and she was in attendance at the American Equal Rights Association meeting in which there was a schism and on May 15,1869, she joined with Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Lucy Stone to form a new organization, the National Woman Suffrage Association and she died at Brighton, England, on August 4,1892, at age eighty-two. The most prominent other people to advocate for feminism as well as atheism in the 1800s were Elizabeth Cady Stanton. In 1885 Elizabeth wrote an essay entitled Has Christianity Benefited Woman, arguing that it had in fact hurt womens rights, and stating, All religions thus far have taught the headship and superiority of man, the inferiority and subordination of woman
Atheist feminism
–
Ernestine Rose was a feminist and was an atheist, well before the label "atheist feminist" existed.
Atheist feminism
–
Elizabeth Cady Stanton in her later years
Atheist feminism
–
A portrait of
Matilda Gage
17.
Ecofeminism
–
Ecofeminism is a term that links feminism with ecology. Its advocates say that society has led to a harmful split between nature and culture. Early ecofeminists propagated that the split can only be healed by the feminine instinct for nurture, Ecofeminism describes movements and philosophies that link feminism with ecology. This movement seeks to eradicate all forms of injustice, not just injustice against women. The term is believed to have coined by the French writer Françoise dEaubonne in her book Le Féminisme ou la Mort. All of these groups have been subject to oppression, domination, exploitation. Ecofeminists believe that these connections are illustrated through traditionally feminine values such as reciprocity, nurturing and cooperation, the marginalization is evident in the gendered language used to describe nature and the animalized language used to describe women. Some discourses link women specifically to the environment because of their social role as a nurturer and caregiver. As there are different types of feminism and different beliefs held by feminists. In the 1993 essay entitled Ecofeminism, Toward Global Justice and Planetary Health authors Greta Gaard, the essay provides a wealth of data and statistics in addition to laying out the theoretical aspects of the ecofeminist critique. They hold that these four factors have brought us to what ecofeminists see as a separation between nature and culture that is the source of our planetary ills. Vandana Shiva says that women have a connection to the environment through their daily interactions. She says that women in subsistence economies who produce wealth in partnership with nature, have been experts in their own right of holistic, Shiva blames this failure on the Wests patriarchy, and the patriarchal idea of what development is. According to Shiva, patriarchy has labeled women, nature, Ecofeminism was coined as a term in the 1970s. Women participated in the movements, specifically preservation and conservation. Beginning in the late 20th century, women worked in efforts to protect wildlife, food, air and these efforts depended largely on new developments in the environmental movement from influential writers, such as Henry David Thoreau, Aldo Leopold, John Muir, and Rachel Carson. Fundamental examples of efforts in the 20th century are the books Silent Spring by Rachel Carson. These works truly opened Americans eyes to the harm they were perpetuating
Ecofeminism
–
Art
Ecofeminism
–
Fields
18.
Feminism in France
–
Feminism in France has its origins in the French Revolution. A few famous figures emerged during the 1871 Paris Commune, including Louise Michel, Russian-born Elisabeth Dmitrieff, Nathalie Lemel, in November 1789, at the very beginning of the French Revolution, the Womens Petition was addressed to the National Assembly but not discussed. Although various feminist movements emerged during the Revolution, most politicians followed Rousseaus theories as outlined in Emile, the philosopher Condorcet was a notable exception who advocated equal rights for both sexes. The Société fraternelle de lun et lautre sexe was founded in 1790 by Claude Dansart, the following year, Olympe de Gouges published the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen. This was a letter addressed to Queen Marie Antoinette which requested actions in favour of womens rights, Gouges was guillotined two years later, days after the execution of the Girondins. In February 1793, Pauline Léon and Claire Lacombe created the exclusively-female Société des républicaines révolutionnaires, viewed by the historian Daniel Guérin as a sort of feminist section of the Enragés, they participated in the fall of the Girondins. Lacombe advocated giving weapons to women, however, the Society was outlawed by the revolutionary government in the following year. The feminist movement expanded again in Socialist movements of the Romantic generation, women freely adopted new lifestyles, inciting indignation in public opinion. They claimed equality of rights and participated in the abundant literary activity, such as Claire Démars Appel au peuple sur laffranchissement de la femme, on the other hand, Charles Fouriers Utopian Socialist theory of passions advocated free love. His architectural model of the phalanstery community explicitly took into account womens emancipation, the Bourbon Restoration re-established the prohibition of divorce in 1816. The 1848 Revolution became the occasion of an expression of the feminist movement. Womens political activities led several of them to be proscribed as the other Forty-Eighters, some women organized a feminist movement during the Commune, following up on earlier attempts in 1789 and 1848. The feminist writer André Léo, a friend of Paule Minck, was active in the Womens Union. The association demanded equality, wage equality, right of divorce for women. The Womens Union also participated in several commissions and organized cooperative workshops. The Russian Anne Jaclard, who declined to marry Dostoievsky and finally became the wife of Blanquist activist Victor Jaclard, founded with André Léo the newspaper La Sociale. She was also a member of the Comité de vigilance de Montmartre, along with Louise Michel and Paule Minck, victorine Brocher, close to the IWA activists and founder of a cooperative bakery in 1867, also fought during the Commune and the Bloody Week. A female battalion from the National Guard defended the Place Blanche during the repression, in 1909, French noblewoman and feminist Jeanne-Elizabeth Schmahl founded the French Union for Womens Suffrage to advocate for womens right to vote in France
Feminism in France
–
First page of
Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen
Feminism in France
–
Louise Michel.
Feminism in France
–
Perspective view of the urban area of Fourier's phalanstery.
Feminism in France
–
Jeanne Schmahl visiting the French Premier
Aristide Briand in 1909
19.
Equity feminism
–
Equity feminism is a form of liberal feminism discussed since the 1980s, specifically a kind of classically liberal or libertarian feminism. Barry Kuhle asserts that equity feminism is compatible with evolutionary psychology, distinctions have been made between conservative and radical forms of equity feminism. Many young conservative women have accepted equity feminism, there are differences between this and equality feminism or social feminism or difference feminism
Equity feminism
–
Cover of the first edition
20.
Lipstick feminism
–
Lipstick feminism is a variety of third-wave feminism that seeks to embrace traditional concepts of femininity, including the sexual power of women, alongside feminist ideas. Lipstick feminism, on the hand, embraces the concepts of womanhood and the female sexuality emitted from a womans body. Lipstick feminism also seeks to reclaim certain derogatory words and turn them into tools for their cause such as the word slut as seen in the slut walk movement. In the U. S. television series, The West Wing, the female protagonist decides it is empowering, while determining that sex-negativism distracts from important issues like pay equity and honest-to-God sexual harassment. F. R. Levy, Female Chauvinist Pigs, sylvia Walby, The Future of Feminism
Lipstick feminism
–
Haute-couture image of a self-empowered woman.
Lipstick feminism
–
Lipstick feminism: A woman student primping before entering a classroom.
Lipstick feminism
–
A protestor opposed to
slut-shaming during
SlutWalk New York City.
21.
Maternal feminism
–
Maternal feminism is the belief of many early feminists that women as mothers and caregivers had an important but distinctive role to play in society and in politics. It incorporates reform ideas from feminism, and combines the concepts of maternalism and feminism. It was a widespread philosophy among women in the British Empire, particularly Canada. The concept was attacked by later feminists as accepting the paternalist view of society, christina Hoff Sommers, a critic of late 20th century feminism, has defined maternal feminism as a recognition that the sexes are equal but different. Sommers contrasts the egalitarian feminism of Mary Wollstonecraft to the maternal feminism of Hannah More, Wollstonecraft thought, men and women were essentially the same in their spirits and souls, deserving of the same rights. According to Sommers, Hannah met women where they were and she believed there was a feminine nature and that women were caring and nurturing, different from men but deserving of equality. More was very popular in her day, but if she is remembered now it is for accepting and rationalizing the patriarchal system of her day. The conservative English authors Frances Trollope and Elizabeth Gaskell both thought that women should be educated so they would be less dependent on men. Trollope thought that financially secure women should go beyond providing moral education to their children and her novels repeatedly show how a young heroine can improve a corrupt society through her moral influence. In the United States, women became active in social reform in the early 1830s, when the Female Moral Reform Society was founded in 1834 there was considerable criticism of the fact that respectable women were discussing prostitution. The protofeminism of this society was lost as it evolved into a charity running homes for reformed prostitutes, however, the WCTU saw women purely as wives and mothers, accepting the constraints of maternal feminism. Maternal feminism reached its peak at a time when the British Empire was still expanding fast, talking of this period Veronica Strong-Boag said, Women themselves, like virtually everyone else in Canadian society, identified their sex with a maternal role. A re-invigorated motherhood, the occupation for virtually all women. The growth of feminism at the expense of the new woman in Britain. The Anglo-Saxon birth rate seemed to be falling while the infant mortality rate was rising, there was concern about a shortage of Britons to fill the empty spaces of the empire. Racism and imperialism thus contributed to support for maternal feminism, edith Wrigley, wife of George Weston Wrigley, edited the womens column in Citizen and Country, a newspaper that supported the Canadian Socialist League. She was also active in the Womans Christian Temperance Union, in her column The Kingdom of the Home Wrigley expressed the maternal feminist position that love and purity, the values of the home, should also become the guiding principles of politics. Margaret Haile ran in the 1902 provincial election for the CSL in North Toronto and she was said to be the first woman in the British Empire to compete in a political election
Maternal feminism
–
Hannah More (1745–1833), an early exponent of maternal feminism.
Maternal feminism
–
Elizabeth Gaskell (1810–1865)
Maternal feminism
–
Lady Aberdeen, head of the
National Council of Women of Canada
Maternal feminism
–
Nellie McClung (1873–1951) played a leading role in the maternal feminist movement in Canada
22.
Postcolonial feminism
–
Postcolonial feminism is a form of feminism that developed as a response to feminism seemingly focusing solely on the experiences of women in Western cultures. Postcolonial feminism argues that by using the woman as a universal group, women are then only defined by their gender and not by social class, race, ethnicity. Postcolonial feminists also work to incorporate the ideas of indigenous and other Third World feminist movements into mainstream Western feminism, Third World feminism stems from the idea that feminism in Third World countries is not imported from the First World, but originates from internal ideologies and socio-cultural factors. Postcolonial feminism is sometimes criticized from mainstream feminism arguing that postcolonial feminism weakens the wider feminist movement by dividing it and it is also often criticized for its Western bias which will be discussed further below. The history of modern feminist movements can be divided into three waves, thus, the first wave of feminism almost exclusively addressed the issues of these women who were relatively well off. The first-wavers focused on absolute rights such as suffrage and overturning other barriers to legal gender equality and this population did not include the realities of women of color who felt the force of racial oppression or economically disadvantaged women who were forced out of the home and into blue-collar jobs. In efforts to move away from ‘grand narratives’ stemmed from ‘globalization’, Postcolonial feminism, in contrast, also relates gender issues to other spheres of influence within society. This particular strain of feminism promotes a wider viewpoint of the layers of oppression that exist within any given society. Postcolonial feminism began simply as a critique of both Western feminism and postcolonial theory, but later became a method of analysis to address key issues within both fields. Postcolonial feminism also seeks to illuminate the tendency of Western feminist thought to apply its claims to women around the world because the scope of feminist theory is limited, in this way, postcolonial feminism attempts to account for perceived weaknesses within both postcolonial theory and within Western feminism. Chandra Talpade Mohanty, a principal theorist within the movement, addresses this issue in her seminal essay Under Western Eyes, in this essay, Mohanty asserts that Western feminists write about Third World women as a composite, singular construction that is arbitrary and limiting. This creates a dynamic where Western feminism functions as the norm against which the situation in the world is evaluated. Mohantys primary initiative is to allow Third World women to have agency and she accuses western feminists of theoretical reductionism when it comes to Third World women. Her major problem with western feminism is that it too much time in ideological nit-picking instead of formulating strategies to redress the highlighted problems. The most prominent point that Crowley makes in her article is that ethnography can be essential to problem solving, Postcolonial feminism began as a criticism of the failure of Western feminism to cope with the complexity of postcolonial feminist issues as represented in Third World feminist movements. Postcolonial feminists seek to incorporate the struggle of women in the global South into the wider feminist movement, Western feminists and feminists outside of the West also often differ in terms of race and religion, which is not acknowledged in Western feminism and can cause other differences. Postcolonial feminists do not agree that women are a universal group, the aim of the postcolonial feminist critique to traditional Western feminism is to strive to understand the simultaneous engagement in more than one distinct but intertwined emancipatory battle. This is significant because feminist discourses are critical and liberatory in intent and are not thereby exempt from inscription in their internal power relations, ali Suki highlights the lack of representation of women of color in feminist scholarship comparing the weight of whiteness similar to the weight of masculinities
Postcolonial feminism
–
Feminism logo originating in 1970
Postcolonial feminism
–
Audre Lorde wrote about postcolonial feminism and race.
23.
Black feminism
–
Black feminism is a school of thought stating that sexism, class oppression, gender identity and racism are inextricably bound together. The way these concepts relate to other is called intersectionality. The term intersectionality theory was first coined by legal scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw in 1989, in her work, Crenshaw discussed Black feminism, which argues that the experience of being a black woman cannot be understood in terms of being black or of being a woman. Instead, each concept should be considered independently while including the interactions that frequently reinforce each other, feminism at its core is a radical political movement to end sexist oppression. The Combahee River Collective argued in 1974 that the liberation of black women entails freedom for all people, since it would require the end of racism, sexism, and class oppression. Black feminism became popular in the 1960s, in response to the sexism of the Civil Rights Movement, from the 1970s to 1980s, black feminists formed various groups which addressed the role of black women in black nationalism, gay liberation, and second-wave feminism. In the 1990s, the Anita Hill controversy placed black feminism in a mainstream light, Black feminist theories reached a wider audience in the 2010s, as a result of social media advocacy. Proponents of black feminism argue that women are positioned within structures of power in fundamentally different ways from white women. The distinction of black feminism has birthed the derisive tag white feminist, critics of black feminism argue that racial divisions weaken the strength of the overall feminist movement. Among the theories that evolved out of the black feminist movement are Alice Walkers womanism, but we do have females oppression in common. This means that we can begin to talk to women with this common factor and start building links with them and thereby build. The following year, in 1970, the Third World Womens Alliance published the Black Women’s Manifesto, role integration advocates the complementary recognition of man and woman, not the competitive recognition of same. A group of women in the SNCC openly challenged the way women were treated when they issued the SNCC Position Paper, the paper listed 11 events in which women were treated as subordinate to men. When Stokely Carmichael was elected Chair of SNCC, he reoriented the path of the organization towards Black Power, thus, white women lost their influence and power in SNCC, Mary King and Casey Hayden left, to become active in pursuing equality for women. By the latter half of the 1960s, more women were in charge of SNCC projects than during the first half, despite these improvements, the SNCCs leadership positions were occupied by men during the entirety of its existence. The second-wave feminist movement emerged in the 1960s, led by Betty Friedan, Black women were alienated by the main planks of the second-wave feminist movement. For example, earning the power to work outside of the home was not an accomplishment for black women, many black women had to work both inside and outside the home for generations due to poverty. White feminists at the time advocated for the liberation of birth control and these women tried to show the connections between racism and male dominance in society
Black feminism
–
Angela Davis speaking at the
University of Alberta on March 28, 2006
24.
White feminism
–
Such feminism is regarded by some authors to be in opposition to intersectionality and black feminism. First-wave feminism began in the 19th century and continued into the early 20th century and it was a movement predominantly organized and defined by middle-class, educated white women, and concentrated mostly on issues pertaining to them. There is little evidence that women participated in the British suffragette effort. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton fought against allowing black men the right to vote before white women in the United States of America. Second-wave feminism, particularly at its outset, was shaped by middle-class, educated white women. During the second and third-wave feminist periods, scholars from marginalised communities began to back against the way feminist movements had been essentializing the experiences of women. This work, as well as that by other scholars, argued that women should recognise that they, like men of colour. Todays feminists often emphasize intersectional perspectives in their work, despite this, some have argued that feminist media continues to overrepresent the struggles of straight, middle class, white women. The position held by certain modern feminist authors that racism is not an element of society that needs to be concerned with has also been cited as exemplifying white feminism. It has also argued that the beliefs of some feminists that hijabs, burqas. Notably, many Muslim women have spoken out in defense of the their religious dress practices, white feminism portrays a view of feminism that can be separated from issues of class, race, ability, and other oppressions. An example of feminism in the present day can be seen in the work of Emily Shire, the politics editor at Bustle. Furthermore, members of groups have spoken out about the harmful influence they argue the phenomenon of white feminism has on both marginalised people and the feminist movement as a whole
White feminism
–
Angela Davis speaking at the
University of Alberta on March 28, 2006
25.
Social feminism
–
Social feminism is a term used to describe feminist movements that advocate for social rights and special accommodations for women. It was first used to describe members of the suffrage movement in the late nineteenth. They saw obtaining the vote mainly as a means to achieve their reform goals rather than a goal in itself. After women gained the right to vote, social feminism continued in the form of labor feminists who advocated for protectionist legislation, the term is widely used, although some historians have questioned its validity. William L. ONeill introduced the term social feminism in his 1969 history of the feminist movement Everyone Was Brave, The Rise and he used the term to cover women involved in municipal civic reform, settlement houses and improving labor conditions for women and children. For them, ONeill said, womens rights was not an end in itself, ONeill contrasted social feminism with the hard-core feminism of women such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony who saw obtaining womens rights or womens suffrage as the main objective, Social feminists typically accepted stereotypes of women as compassionate, nurturing and child-centered, while ONeills hard-core feminists were often alienated from these conventions. Naomi Black in Social Feminism distinguishes social feminism from equity feminism, equity feminism may be liberal, Marxist or socialist, but it demands equal rights for women within the male-defined framework. Social feminism, either maternal, cultural or radical, is based on female values and it aims to expand the role of women beyond the private sphere, and to fundamentally transform society. Social feminist organizations should therefore exclude men to maintain their distinctive female characteristics and they should not attempt to be like men, since their distinctive nature may be a strength in politics. There is inevitably a risk that social feminists will align with conservative causes, in the short term social feminism is separatist, but in the longer term it is transformative, since men have lost the exclusive power of decision-making. Social feminism is sometimes identified with maternal feminism and this philosophy considers that mothering should be used as a model for politics, and womens maternal instincts uniquely qualify them to participate in a female sphere. However, women are not all necessarily maternalist, and maternal thinking does not necessarily promote the goals of social feminism, in France in the 1890s feminism was mainly confined to bourgeois women. Women such as Eugénie Potonié-Pierre try to broaden the movement by combining their social concerns with their feminism, the Fédération Française des Sociétés Féministes was founded at the start of 1892 and held a well-attended congress in 13–15 May 1892, with both social feminists, mainstream feminists and socialists. The congress did not succeed in developing practical proposals or a coherent policy and their cautious attempts at social feminism were not successful. Instead, a womens movement developed within the socialist movement. Durand saw social feminism as more than an expression of concern about social issues and she felt that working women would create the feminist revolution, although bourgeois women would remain in control. She included moderate socialists on the organizing committee, most of the 500 attendees at the congress were wealthy women
Social feminism
–
Elizabeth Cady Stanton supported various reform causes before focusing exclusively on women's rights.
Social feminism
–
Eugénie Potonié-Pierre was a French leader of social feminism.
Social feminism
–
Jane Addams was a social feminist who supported women's suffrage.
26.
Socialist feminism
–
Socialist feminism rose in the 1960s and 1970s an offshoot of the feminist movement and New Left that focuses upon the interconnectivity of the patriarchy and capitalism. Socialist feminists argue that liberation can only be achieved by working to end both the economic and cultural sources of womens oppression, Socialist feminists reject radical feminisms main claim that patriarchy is the only or primary source of oppression of women. Rather, socialist feminists assert that women are unable to be due to their financial dependence on males. Women are subjects to the rulers in capitalism due to an uneven balance in wealth. They see economic dependence as the force of womens subjugation to men. Further, socialist feminists see womens liberation as a part of larger quest for social, economic. Socialist feminists attempted to integrate the fight for liberation with the struggle against other oppressive systems based on race. Socialist feminists thus consider how the sexism and gendered division of labor of each era is determined by the economic system of the time. Those conditions are expressed through capitalist and patriarchal relations. Socialist feminists, thus reject the Marxist notion that class and class struggle are the defining aspects of history. Marx asserted that when class oppression was overcome, gender oppression would vanish as well, for example, they observe that womens class status is generally derivative of her husbands class or occupational status. e. g. A secretary that marries her boss assumes his class status, in 1972, the Chicago Womens Liberation Union published Socialist Feminism, A Strategy for the Womens Movement, which is believed to be the first to use the term socialist feminism, in publication. On the other hand, the Socialist Party USA is an example of a socialist feminist party which is not explicitly Marxist, Socialist feminism is an inclusive way of creating social change. We value synthesis and cooperation rather than conflict and competition and it generally views patriarchy as a manifestation of involuntary coercive hierarchy that should be replaced by decentralized free association. Anarcha-feminists believe that the struggle against patriarchy is an part of class struggle. In essence, the philosophy sees anarchist struggle as a component of feminist struggle. Susan Brown claims that as anarchism is a philosophy that opposes all relationships of power. Bakunin opposed patriarchy and the way the law subjects to the domination of the man
Socialist feminism
–
Lucía Sánchez Saornil, leader of
Mujeres Libres in 1933
Socialist feminism
–
Socialist feminist Clara Zetkin and
Rosa Luxemburg, 1910
27.
Transfeminism
–
Transfeminism has also been defined more generally as an approach to feminism that is informed by trans politics. In 2006, the first book on transfeminism, Trans/Forming Feminisms, early voices in the movement include Kate Bornstein and Sandy Stone, whose essay The Empire Strikes Back was a direct response to Janice Raymonds transphobic writings. In the 21st century, Krista Scott-Dixon and Julia Serano have published transfeminist works, Transfeminism. org was created in 2000 to promote the Transfeminism Anthology Project by Diana Courvant and Emi Koyama. Koyama and Courvant sought other transfeminists and to increase their exposure, the anthology was intended to introduce the movement to a large audience. At a Yale event and in associated with it, Courvants use of the word and involvement in Transfeminism. org. Courvant credited Koyamas Internet savvy as the reason transfeminism. org, patrick Califia used the word in print in 1997, and this remains the first known use in print outside of a periodical. It is possible or even likely that the term was independently coined repeatedly before the year 2000, the term gained traction only after 1999. Jessica Xavier, an acquaintance of Courvant, may have coined the term when she used it to introduce her articles, Passing As Stigma Management. In the past few decades the idea that all share a common experience has come under scrutiny by women of color, lesbians. Many transgender people are also questioning what gender means, and are challenging gender as a biological fact, transfeminists insist that their unique experiences be recognized as part of the feminist sphere. Transfeminism incorporates all major themes of third wave feminism, including diversity, body image, Transfeminism is not merely about merging trans concerns with feminism. It also includes analysis of second wave feminism from the perspective of the third wave. Like all feminisms, transfeminism critiques mainstream notions of masculinity and argues that women deserve equal rights, lastly, transfeminism shares the unifying principle with other feminisms that gender is a patriarchal social construct used to oppress women. Therefore, by many, the trans in transgender has been used to imply transgressiveness, nicholas Birns indeed categorizes transfeminism as a feminism that defines the term trans- in a maximally heterogeneous way. The road to legitimacy for transfeminism as a concept has been different, marginalized women of trans background and affect have had to prove that their needs are different and that mainstream feminism does not necessarily speak for them. Contrarily, trans women must show their womanhood is equally valid as that of women. Radical feminist Janice Raymonds resistance to considering trans people as women and her career began with The Transsexual Empire and she has often returned to this theme. A core tenet of feminism is that biology does not and must not equal destiny, the idea that women should not be held down by traditional gender roles plays a major role in all feminisms
Transfeminism
–
LGBT history
Transfeminism
–
Transfeminism symbol
28.
Womanism
–
Womanism is a social theory based on the racial and gender-based oppression of black women, and other women of marginalized groups. There are varying interpretations of the term womanist, and efforts to provide a concise, author and poet Alice Walker is credited with coining the term womanist. From the original introduction of womanism as a perspective, the term has evolved to envelop varied. Linda Hogan asserts that the term womanist has come to represent a feminist of color, specifically black women, while feminism can be alienating to minorities, womanism allows black women to affirm and celebrate their color and culture in a way that feminism does not. Williams further asserts that the task of the Womanist theologian is to embody activism by seeking out the voices of the unheard and she identifies the distinct difference between the experiences of the black woman and the white woman that makes it difficult to identify with feminism. This represents an expectation and experience of the woman as one filled with the quest for knowledge, competence, and authority that surpasses the individual. This idea of community rather than individuality is further illustrated by the portrayal of a woman as the embodiment of her environment and it characterizes women as willful and capable thereby contrasting the image of a women as subservient and inferior. In doing so, womanism empowers women, and challenges them to break from the definition of womanhood. Womanism arose during the early mainstream Feminist Movement, which was led by middle-class heterosexual white women advocating for social change in the form of womens suffrage. While the Feminist Movement focused on ending gender-based oppression, it largely ignored race, the height of this academic discourse occurred during the late 1980s when scholars such as Clenora Hudson-Weems, and Chikwenye Okonjo Ogunyemi began to share their findings with the world. During this time, womanism was embraced, debated, and dismissed by academics, the 1990s presented a new kind of challenge with the proliferation of black feminism within womens studies. As a result, womanism fell beneath the radar of the eye, but academic discourse progressed. By the early 2000s, womanism had resurfaced as a social change perspective. This was further cemented by the publication of The Womanist Reader in 2006, author and poet Alice Walker first utilized the term womanist in her work, In Search of our Mothers Gardens, Womanist Prose. She explains that the term womanist is derived from the southern folk expression acting womanish, the womanish girl exhibits willful, courageous, and outrageous behavior that is considered to be beyond the scope of societal norms. She then goes on to say that a womanist is, A woman who loves another woman and she appreciates and prefers womens culture, womens emotional flexibility. Is committed to the survival and wholeness of a people, male and female. Not a separatist, except periodically for health, according to Walker, while feminism is incorporated into womanism, it is also instinctively pro-humankind
Womanism
–
Unification is a key cornerstone of Womanism ideology.
29.
Africana womanism
–
Africana Womanism is a term coined in the late 1980s by Clenora Hudson-Weems intended as an ideology applicable to all women of African descent. It is grounded in African culture and Afrocentrism and focuses on the experiences, struggles, needs and it distinguishes itself from feminism, or Alice Walkers womanism. Africana womanism pays more attention to and gives more focus on the realities, such realities include the diverse struggles and experiences, and needs of Africana women. The Africana Womanism Society lists 18 characteristics of The Africana womanist, including self-naming, self-defining, family-centered, flexible, Clenora Hudson-Weems, Professor of English, University of Missouri, author of Africana Womanism, Reclaiming Ourselves, coined the concept Africana Womanism in the late 1980s. They see feminism as operating exclusively within the white and American and perceive its opposite as being Black. Further many African men and women do not accept the ideology of feminism, according to Hudson-Weems, she states that there is a general consensus in the Africana community that the feminist movement, by and large, is the White womans movement for two reason. Africana men have never had the same institutionalized power to oppress Africana women as White men have had to oppress White women, Africana Womanism contrasts feminist/womanist ideology and many Africana women have come to embrace it. Without question she is the side of the coin, the co-partner in the struggle for her people, one who. Africana Womanist ideology contributes to Afrocentric discourse, dove asserts, A concept that has been shaped by the work of women such as Clenora Hudson-Weems, Ifi Amadiume, Mary E. Modupe Kolawole, and others. African womanism may be viewed as fundamental to the development of Afrocentric theory. There are 18 key components that form Africana Womanism, self-naming and self-definition are the first two couple of characteristics of Africana womanism. The term “nommo” is given to the idea of self-naming, which is important because in order for one to exist it has to be given a correct name. The second groupings of characteristics are family-centeredness, wholeness, authenticity, role flexibility, adaptability, struggling with Black men against oppression, the first five components all emphasis the commitment to family that is of major importance to Black women. There is a high interest in success of the group and collective outcomes that maintains a sense of wholeness. Nikol Alexander-Floyd states that there is this balance of putting the family first, role flexibility and adaptability are also important parts of family-centeredness because of their roots in the history of Black women. In history, Black women have experienced flexible gender roles meaning that Black women not only had experience working outside of home along with men but all within the home. For adaptability, Black women not only adapted to different work environments but also to the lack of luxuries that were experienced by white women and feminists. Sisterhood in Africana womanism has to be genuine and is genuine through the fact that Black women go through the experience of oppression
Africana womanism
–
Proponents
30.
Goddess movement
–
The Goddess movement includes spiritual beliefs or practices which has emerged predominantly in North America, Western Europe, Australia and New Zealand in the 1970s. The movement grew as a reaction to perceptions of predominant organized religion as male-dominated, and makes use of goddess worship, the Goddess movement is a widespread, noncentralized trend in Neopaganism, and therefore has no centralized tenets of belief. Practices vary widely, from the name and number of goddesses worshipped to the specific rituals, some, such as Dianic Wicca, exclusively worship female deities, while others do not. Belief systems range from monotheistic to polytheistic to pantheistic, encompassing a range of theological variety similar to that in the broader Neopaganism community, common pluralistic belief means that a self-identified Goddess worshiper could theoretically worship any number of different goddesses from cultures all over the world. Capitalization of terms such as Goddess and Goddesses usually vary with author or with the guides of publications or publishers. Within the Goddess community, members consider it proper to capitalize the word Goddess. Goddesses refers to a local or specific deities linked clearly to a culture and often to particular aspects, attributes. One can regard a goddess as an aspect of the Great Goddess as well as a goddess with a particular role within a pantheon. The Hindu goddess, Durga, is a case in point, anthropologists in their studies of goddesses have noted that adherents of goddesses often view their own goddess as a personal guardian or teacher. The Goddess or the Great Goddess is a deity that is regarded as primary. Such a religious system existed historically in many cultures, though not under the same names, if there is a male god, his powers may be seen as deriving from her. When Goddess is spoken of as a guardian, as in my Goddess it means my worldview in Goddess spirituality. Goddess Spirituality is sometimes used as a synonym for Goddess Movement, goddessing may also mean Goddess culture, Goddess way of life, Goddess practice, or my goddessing as in my individual interpretation and experience of Goddess. Priestess refers to women who dedicate themselves to one or more goddesses and it may or may not include leadership of a group, and it may or may not include legal ordination. The analogous term for men is priest, however, not everyone who dedicates themselves to the Goddess or goddesses calls themselves a priestess. It substitutes the Greek feminine prefix thea- for the generic use of the Greek masculine prefix theo-. Frequently used to analysis of Goddess thought and mysticism, it can also be used more liberally to mean any kind of divine, not just deity divine, as in meditation, ethics. However these ideas were ignored in the North America and much of Europe until second-wave feminism
Goddess movement
–
The lunar
Triple Goddess symbol
31.
Dianic Wicca
–
Dianic Wicca, also known as Dianic Witchcraft is a neopagan religion of female-centered goddess worship and religious witchcraft. While some adherents identify as Wiccan, it differs from most traditions of Wicca in that only goddesses are worshiped. While there is more than one tradition that calls itself Dianic and it is notable for its worship of a single Goddess and focus on egalitarian, matriarchal feminism. It is named after the Roman goddess Diana, but Dianics worship goddesses from many cultures, Dianic covens practice magic in the form of mediation and visualization in addition to spell work. They focus especially on healing themselves from the wounds of the patriarchy while affirming their own womanhood, rituals can include reenacting religious and spiritual lore from a feminist standpoint, celebrating the female body, and mourning societys abuses of women. The practice of magic is rooted in the belief that energy or life force can be directed to enact change, however it is important to note that rituals are often improvised to suit individual or group needs and vary from coven to coven. Some Dianic Wiccans eschew manipulative spellwork and hexing because it goes against the Wiccan Rede, however, many other Dianic witches do not consider hexing or binding of those who attack women to be wrong, and actively encourage the binding of rapists. Like other Wiccans, Dianics may form covens, attend festivals, celebrate the eight major Wiccan holidays and they use many of the same altar tools, rituals, and vocabulary as other Wiccans. Dianics may also gather in less formal Circles, the most noticeable difference between the two are that Dianic covens of Budapest lineage are composed entirely of women. When asked why men and gods are excluded from her rituals, Budapest stated, It’s the natural law, as women fare so fares the world, their children, if you lift up the women you have lifted up humanity. Men have to learn to develop their own mysteries, where is the order of Attis. Not only research it, but then popularize it as well as I have done, I think men are lazy in this aspect by not working this up for themselves. It’s their own task, not ours, in fact, some groups develop rituals specifically to confront gendered personal trauma, such as battery, rape, incest, and partner abuse. In one ethnographic study of such a ritual, women shifted their understanding of power from the hands of their abusers to themselves and it was found that this ritual had improved self-perception in participants in the short-term, and that the results could be sustained with ongoing practice. Dianics also pride themselves on the inclusion of lesbian and bisexual members and it is a goal within many covens to explore female sexuality and sensuality outside of male control, and many rituals function to affirm lesbian sexuality. Other LGBT people find Wicca after coming out to maintain their spirituality in a religious practice. However, many covens are trans-exclusionary, citing the close link between ritual and body, and reject those who were not assigned female at birth and it is possible that this varies from coven to coven, as some groups also directly challenge gender identity. Dianic Wicca began on the Winter Solstice of 1971, when Budapest led a ceremony in Hollywood, self-identifying as a hereditary witch, and claiming to have learned folk magic from her mother, Budapest is frequently considered the mother of modern Dianic Wiccan tradition
Dianic Wicca
–
Diana (and her predecessor, the Greek goddess Artemis) as a protector of women and wild nature
Dianic Wicca
–
Symbol of the
Goddess with the
Pentacle.
32.
Feminism in India
–
Feminism in India is a set of movements aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights and equal opportunities for Indian women. It is the pursuit of womens rights within the society of India, Indian feminists also have fought against culture-specific issues within Indias patriarchal society, such as inheritance laws and the practice of widow immolation known as Sati. Despite the progress made by Indian feminist movements, women living in modern India still face many issues of discrimination, Indias patriarchal culture has made the process of gaining land-ownership rights and access to education challenging. In the past two decades, there has emerged a trend of sex-selective abortion. To Indian feminists, these are seen as injustices worth struggling against, as in the West, there has been some criticism of feminist movements in India. They have especially been criticised for focusing too much on women already privileged and this has led to the creation of caste-specific feminist organisations and movements. Womens role in Pre-colonial social structures reveals that feminism was theorised differently in India than in the West, in India, womens issues first began to be addressed when the state commissioned a report on the status of women to a group of feminist researchers and activists. The report recognised the fact that in India, women were oppressed under a system of hierarchies and injustices. During this period, Indian feminists were influenced by the Western debates being conducted about violence against women. However, due to the difference in the historical and social culture of India, Womens issues began to gain an international prominence when the decade of 1975–1985 was declared the United Nations Decade for Women. Historical circumstances and values in India have caused feminists to develop a feminism that differs from Western feminism, for example, the idea of women as powerful is accommodated into patriarchal culture through religion, which has retained visibility in all sections of society. This has provided women with traditional cultural spaces, furthermore, in the West the notion of self rests in competitive individualism where people are described as born free yet everywhere in chains. In India the individual is considered to be just one part of the larger social collective. Survival of the individual is dependent upon cooperation, and self-denial for the good is valued. Examples of patriarchal attributes include, dowry, siring sons etc. kinship, caste, community, village, market and the state. It should however be noted that communities in India, such as the Nairs of Kerala, Shettys of Mangalore, certain Maratha clans. In these communities, the head of the family is the oldest woman rather than the oldest man, sikh culture is also regarded as relatively gender-neutral. In India, of communities recognised in the national Constitution as Scheduled Tribes, matriarchal and matrilineal and thus have been known to be more egalitarian
Feminism in India
–
Kamini Roy (poet and suffragette) became the first woman Honors Graduate in India in 1886.
Feminism in India
–
Maharani Jind Kaur, the youngest wife of Maharaja
Ranjit Singh, was renowned for her beauty, energy and strength of purpose. But her fame is derived chiefly from the fear she engendered in the British, who described her as "the
Messalina of the Punjab", a seductress too rebellious to be controlled
Feminism in India
–
Indira Gandhi (née Nehru) was the only child of the India’s first Prime Minister,
Jawaharlal Nehru. She is the first and only woman Prime Minister of India and the second-longest-serving Prime Minister.
Feminism in India
–
A jagran in honour of
Devi, the Hindu goddess.
33.
Islamic feminism
–
A combination of Islam and feminism has been advocated as a feminist discourse and practice articulated within an Islamic paradigm by Margot Badran in 2002. There are substantial differences to be noted between the terms Islamic feminist and Islamist, any of these terms can be used of men or women. Islamic feminism is defined by Islamic scholars as being more radical than secular feminism, during recent times, the concept of Islamic feminism has grown further with Islamic groups looking to garner support from many aspects of society. In addition, educated Muslim women are striving to articulate their role in society, Islamists are advocates of political Islam, the notion that the Quran and hadith mandate a caliphate, i. e. an Islamic government. Some Islamists advocate womens rights in the public sphere but do not challenge gender inequality in the personal, suad al-Fatih al-Badawi, a Sudanese academic and Islamist politician, has argued that feminism is incompatible with taqwa, and thus Islam and feminism are mutually exclusive. During the early days of Islam in the 7th century CE, reforms in womens rights affected marriage, the Oxford Dictionary of Islam states that the general improvement of the status of women in Arab societies included prohibition of female infanticide and recognizing womens full personhood. Under Islamic law, marriage was no longer viewed as a status but rather as a contract, the dowry, previously regarded as a bride-price paid to the father, became a nuptial gift retained by the wife as part of her personal property. Women were given inheritance rights in a society that had previously restricted inheritance to male relatives. William Montgomery Watt states that Muhammad, in the context of his time, can be seen as a figure who testified on behalf of womens rights. Muhammad, however, by instituting rights of property ownership, inheritance, education and divorce, whilst the pre-modern period lacked a formal feminist movement, nevertheless a number of important figures argued for improving womens rights and autonomy. Women played an important role in the foundations of many Islamic educational institutions and this continued through to the Ayyubid dynasty in the 12th and 13th centuries, of 160 mosques and madrasahs established in Damascus, women funded 26 through the Waqf system. Half of all the patrons for these institutions were also women. According to the Sunni scholar Ibn Asakir in the 12th century and he wrote that girls and women could study, earn ijazahs, and qualify as scholars and teachers. This was especially the case for learned and scholarly families, who wanted to ensure the highest possible education for both their sons and daughters, Ibn Asakir had himself studied under 80 different female teachers. Female education in the Islamic world was inspired by Muhammads wives, Khadijah, a businesswoman, and Aisha. Muhammad is said to have praised the women of Medina for their desire for knowledge, How splendid were the women of the ansar. While it was not common for women to enroll as students in classes, they did attend informal lectures and study sessions at mosques, madrasahs. Although there were no restrictions on female education, some men did not approve of this practice
Islamic feminism
–
A symbol for Islamic feminism
34.
Antifeminism
–
Antifeminism is broadly defined as opposition to some or all forms of feminism. This opposition has taken various forms across time and cultures, for example, antifeminists in the late 1800s and early 1900s resisted womens suffrage, while antifeminists in the late 20th century in the United States opposed the Equal Rights Amendment. That social arrangements among men and women favor men, Antifeminist is also used to describe public female figures, some of whom define themselves as feminists, based on their opposition to some or all elements of feminist movements. Daphne Patai and Noreta Koertge argue that the intention of labeling these women antifeminists is to silence them, the meaning of antifeminism has varied across time and cultures, and antifeminism attracts both men and women. Some women, like those in the Womens National Anti-Suffrage League, emma Goldman, for example, was widely considered antifeminist during her fight against suffragism in the US. Decades later, however, she was heralded as a founder of anarcha-feminism, mens studies scholar and feminist Michael Kimmel defines antifeminism as the opposition to womens equality. He says that antifeminists oppose womens entry into the sphere, the re-organization of the private sphere, womens control of their bodies. He argues that antifeminists consider the gender division of labor as natural and inevitable. Some antifeminists view feminism as a denial of innate differences between the genders, and an attempt to people against their biological tendencies. Antifeminists also frequently argue that feminism, despite claiming to espouse equality, for example, the ubiquity of casual sex and the decline of marriage are mentioned as negative consequences of feminism. Some of these traditionalists oppose womens entry into the workforce, political office, antifeminists argue that a change of womens roles is a destructive force that endangers the family, or is contrary to religious morals. The womens movement began in 1848, most famously articulated by Elizabeth Stanton, janet Chafetz identified in a study 32 first-wave antifeminist movements, including those in the 19th century and early 20th century movements. These countermovements were in response to some womens growing demands, which were perceived as threatening to the way of life. Though men were not the only antifeminists, men experienced what some have called a crisis of masculinity in response to gender roles being challenged. Mens responses to increased feminism varied, some men even subscribed to feminist ideology, but others went the other direction and became decidedly antifeminist. Opponents of womens entry into institutions of higher learning argued that education was too great a burden on women. Other antifeminists opposed womens entry into the force, their right to join unions, to sit on juries. The pro-family movement appeared in the late 19th century, by about 1870 and this movement was intended to halt the rising divorce rate and reinforce traditional family values
Antifeminism
–
American antisuffragists in the early 20th century
Antifeminism
–
A protest against an
International Women's Day march in
Warsaw, Poland in 2010
35.
Criticism of marriage
–
Criticisms of marriage are arguments against the practical or moral value of the institution of matrimony or particular forms of matrimony. In 380 BC, Plato criticised marriage in the Republic and he stated that the idea of marriage was a natural enemy of the commonwealth, aiming for its own higher unity. Naomi Gerstel and Natalia Sarkisian wrote that marriage is also found to be often at odds with community, diminishing ties to relatives, neighbors, according to Dan Mollers Bachelors Argument, modern marriage can be compared to the act of forging professional credentials. Over 40 percent of them fail and therefore should be avoided similar to any high-risk venture, commentators have often been critical of individual local practices and traditions, leading to historical changes. The decision not to marry is a consequence of Søren Kierkegaards philosophy. His well-documented relationship with Regine Olsen is a subject of study in existentialism, kierkegaard seems to have loved Regine but was unable to reconcile the prospect of marriage with his vocation as a writer and his passionate and introspective Christianity. A similar argument is found in Franz Kafkas journal entry titled Summary of all the arguments for and against my marriage, what I accomplished was only the result of being alone. As a high-profile couple, Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir always expressed opposition to marriage, brian Sawyer says Marriage, understood existentially, proposes to join two free selves into one heading, thus denying the freedom, the complete foundation, of each self. Presently, the divorce rates are leading to questioning of the purpose of marriage. Some contemporary critics of marriage question why governments continue to support marriage, anthropologist Lionel Tiger wrote, It is astonishing that, under the circumstances, marriage is still legally allowed. If nearly half of anything else ended so disastrously, the government would ban it immediately. Yet the most intimate of disasters. happens over and over again, the argument is that since marriage is not an inclusive institution of society, the members of the boycott refuse to support the institution as it exists. In the West, cohabitation and births outside marriage are becoming more common, in the United States, conservative and religious commentators are highly critical of this trend. They are also critical of present-day marriage law and the ease of divorce. Some critics assert that marriage will remain a symbolic institution signifying the subordination of women to men. Some critics argue that it is impossible to dissociate marriage from its past, clare Chambers argues that, it is impossible to escape the history of the institution. Its status as a tradition ties its current meaning to its past, past abuses of marriage are sometimes depicted in documentaries. Marital rape in Ireland was made illegal in 1990, and divorce was legalized in 1996, the 1993 Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women noted that this violence could be perpetrated by assailants of either gender, family members and even the State itself
Criticism of marriage
–
" Esposas de Matrimonio " ("Wedding Cuffs"), a
wedding ring sculpture expressing the criticism of marriages' effects on individual liberty. Esposas is a Spanish pun, in which the singular form of the word esposa refers to a spouse, and the plural refers to
handcuffs.
Criticism of marriage
–
Sylvia Pankhurst (1882 – 1960), British feminist, refused to marry her son's father, creating public scandal.
Criticism of marriage
–
Anti-dowry poster in
Bangalore, India. See
dowry death
36.
Feminist effects on society
–
From the 1960s on, the womens liberation movement campaigned for womens rights, including the same pay as men, equal rights in law, and the freedom to plan their families. Their efforts were met with mixed results, feminists have worked to protect women and girls from child sexual abuse, challenging the prior belief that girls caused men to have sex with them even when the girls were very young. With encouragement from the UK government, the countries of the EEC soon followed suit with an agreement to ensure that discriminatory laws would be phased out across the European Community. In the U. S. the National Organization for Women was created in 1966 with the purpose of bringing about equality for all women, NOW was one important group that fought for the Equal Rights Amendment. This amendment stated that equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of sex, but there was disagreement on how the proposed amendment would be understood. Supporters believed it would guarantee women equal treatment, but critics feared it might deny women the right be financially supported by their husbands. It died in 1982 because not enough states had ratified it, eRAs have been introduced in subsequent Congresses, but have failed to be passed. Nonetheless, various laws advancing womens rights were promulgated, although many remained to be resolved. In the final three decades of the 20th century, Western women knew a new freedom through birth control, the movement had been started in the 1910s by U. S. pioneering social reformer Margaret Sanger and in the UK and internationally by Marie Stopes. Publication of data and advocacy relevant to rights increased in recent decades, for example, the United Nations Human Development Report 2004 estimated that, when both paid employment and unpaid household tasks are accounted for, on average women work more than men. In rural areas of selected developing countries performed a average of 20 percent more work than men. In the OECD countries surveyed, on average women performed 5 percent more work than men, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women is an international convention adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. Described as a bill of rights for women, it came into force on 3 September 1981. Several countries have ratified the Convention subject to certain declarations, reservations, iran, Sudan, Somalia, Qatar, Nauru, Palau, Tonga, and the United States have not ratified CEDAW. Expecting a U. S. Senate vote, NOW has encouraged President Obama to remove U. S. reservations and objections added in 2002 before the vote, the CEDAW does not protect men from any form of discrimination. Gender-neutral English is a description of language usages which do not recognize gender and are aimed at minimizing assumptions regarding the sex of human referents. Gender-neutral language is described as non-sexist language by advocates and politically correct language by opponents. The increased entry of women into the beginning in the twentieth century has affected gender roles
Feminist effects on society
–
Woman Suffrage Headquarters, Cleveland, 1912
Feminist effects on society
–
"The Woman as Family Doctor," traditional form of
home care
37.
Female education
–
Female education is a catch-all term for a complex set of issues and debates surrounding education for girls and women. It includes areas of gender equality and access to education, while the feminist movement certainly promoted the importance of the issues attached to female education the discussion is wide-ranging and by no means narrowly defined. It may include, for example, AIDS education, universal education, meaning state-provided primary and secondary education independent of gender is not yet a global norm, even if it is assumed in most developed countries. In some Western countries, women have surpassed men at many levels of education, for example, in the United States in 2005/2006, women earned 62% of associate degrees, 58% of bachelors degrees, 60% of masters degrees, and 50% of doctorates. Education for disabled women has also improved, in 2011, Giusi Spagnolo became the first woman with Down Syndrome to graduate college in Europe. Improving girls educational levels has been demonstrated to have clear impacts on the health and economic future of young women, the infant mortality rate of babies whose mothers have received primary education is half that of children whose mothers are illiterate. In the poorest countries of the world, 50% of girls do not attend secondary school, yet, research shows that every extra year of school for girls increases their lifetime income by 15%. Improving female education, and thus the potential of women, improves the standard of living for their own children. Yet, many barriers to education for girls remain, in some African countries, such as Burkina Faso, girls are unlikely to attend school for such basic reasons as a lack of private latrine facilities for girls. Education increases a level of health and health awareness. It can lead to rates of barrier and chemical contraceptive use. It has been shown, in addition, to increase communication with their partners and their employers. Education and Violence Against Women In Pakistan, a relationship was found between the formal level of education a woman attains and the likelihood of violence against that woman. The researcher used snowball convenient sampling, a method where participants are referred. Ethical and privacy issues made this the most convenient method, an informant played a major role in gathering information that was then cross-checked. The sample of victims of violence was made up of married women from ages 18–60 both from rural and urban communities, the study described different forms of physical violence that are already present and provided an idea of what women go through, even across communities. Education in this study was stressed to be the solution and a necessity in eliminating violence, a discussion of political and social barriers is needed. The relationship is a lot more complicated than it seems, women can be illiterate, immigrant Latina Women are a highly affected group by domestic violence
Female education
–
Schoolgirls in
Guinea
Female education
–
Girls' class in Afghanistan, 2002
Female education
–
Portrait emphasizing the female subject's literacy, from
Pompeii, mid-1st century AD
Female education
–
Page from an illuminated manuscript from the late 10th century. The three nuns in front are all holding books, and the middle one appears to be teaching, gesturing to make a point.
38.
Femicide
–
Femicide or feminicide is a sex-based hate crime term, broadly defined as the killing of women but definitions vary depending on the cultural context. Feminist author Diana E. H. Russell is one of the pioneers of the term. Other feminists place emphasis on the intention or purpose of the act being directed at females specifically because they are female, often, the necessity of defining the murder of females separately from overall homicide is questioned. Opponents argue that over 80% of all murders are of men, in addition, the study of femicide is a social challenge. An alternative term offered is gendercide which is ambiguous and inclusive. However, some argue that the term gendercide perpetrates the taboo of the subject of the murder of females. Feminists also argue that the motives for femicide are vastly different than those for androcide, instead of centering in street violence, much of femicide is centered within the home. Feminist author Diana Russell narrows the definition of femicide to the killing of females by males because they are female, Russell places emphasis on the idea that males commit femicide with sexist motives. She also chooses to replace the word woman with female to show that femicide can occur to both girls and infants as well, whenever these forms of terrorism result in death, they become femicides. The term femicide was first used in England in 1801 to signify the killing of a woman, in 1848, this term was published in Whartons Law Lexicon. Another term used is feminicide, which is formed from the Latin femina. The current usage emerged with the 1970s feminist movements, which aimed to raise feminine consciousness, American author, Carol Orlock, is widely credited with initiating the usage of the term in this context in her unpublished anthology on femicide. Diana Russell publicised the term at the Crimes Against Women Tribunal in 1976, here is part of what she wrote for the proceedings, We must realize that a lot of homicide is in fact femicide. We must recognize the sexual politics of murder, but since it involves mere females, there was no name for it until Carol Orlock invented the word femicide. Until recently femicide was invisible in much of the scientific literature, according to the Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence. is proposed as an alternative to the gender-neutral term of homicide. Feminists and proponents of the word believe it is prudent to make the distinction between homicide and femicide, the distinction is not meant to denigrate or render invisible the murder of men because they make up 80% of the victims of global murders and are the vast majority of perpetrators. Part of this political oversight is the lack of data on violence against women and this data is related to how thoroughly and properly their murders are investigated, prosecuted and classified. Violence against women constitutes the most common crime in the world with the highest levels of impunity for perpetrators, often it is misreported as general manslaughter or accidental homicide showing a general tolerance for violence against women
Femicide
–
Declaration of the enactment of the law against femicide in
Chile, 2010
Femicide
–
17th Century persecution of the religiously dissident
Waldensians gave Italian men a pretext to commit a very conspicuous act of Femicide - and to British men a pretext to very graphically portray it (illustration from
Samuel Moreland 's "History of the Evangelical Churches of the Valleys of Piemont" published in London in 1658).
Femicide
–
A candle memorial to women killed by femicide (femicidio),
Chile, 2007.
39.
Feminism in culture
–
Feminism has affected culture in many ways, and has famously been theorised in relation to culture by Angela McRobbie, Laura Mulvey and others. This is reflected in a variety of forms, including literature, music, film, Womens writing came to exist as a separate category of scholarly interest relatively recently. Virginia Blain et al. characterize the growth in interest since 1970 in womens writing as powerful, much of this early period of feminist literary scholarship was given over to the rediscovery and reclamation of texts written by women. Studies such as Dale Spenders Mothers of the Novel and Jane Spencers The Rise of the Woman Novelist were ground-breaking in their insistence that women have always been writing, commensurate with this growth in scholarly interest, various presses began the task of reissuing long-out-of-print texts. Virago Press began to publish its large list of nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century novels in 1975, in the 1980s, Pandora Press, responsible for publishing Spenders study, issued a companion line of eighteenth-century novels written by women. In the 1960s, the genre of science fiction combined its sensationalism with political and technological critiques of society to produce feminist science fiction, with the advent of feminism, questioning womens roles became fair game to this subversive, mind expanding genre. Two early texts are Ursula K, le Guins The Left Hand of Darkness and Joanna Russ The Female Man. They serve to highlight the socially constructed nature of gender roles by creating utopias that do away with gender. Both authors were pioneers in feminist criticism of science fiction in the 1960s and 70s, in essays collected in The Language of the Night. Another major work of feminist science fiction has been Kindred by Octavia Butler, the term womens cinema usually refers to the work of women film directors. It can also designate the work of other women behind the camera such as cinematographers and screenwriters, in a film from popular culture although not in womens film, an early reference to the feminist movement is heard from Katharine Hepburn in the 1942 movie Woman of the Year. Womens music is the music by women, for women, the genre emerged as a musical expression of the second-wave feminist movement as well as the labor, civil rights, and peace movements. Riot grrrl is an underground feminist punk movement that started in the 1990s and is associated with third-wave feminism. It was grounded in the DIY philosophy of punk values, riot grrrls took an anti-corporate stance of self-sufficiency and self-reliance. Riot grrrls emphasis on universal female identity and separatism often appears more closely allied with second-wave feminism than with the third wave, riot grrrl bands often address issues such as rape, domestic abuse, sexuality, and female empowerment. Some bands associated with the movement are Bikini Kill, Bratmobile, Excuse 17, Free Kitten, Heavens to Betsy, Huggy Bear, L7, and Team Dresch. In addition to a scene, riot grrrl is also a subculture, zines, the DIY ethic, art, political action. Riot grrrls hold meetings, start chapters, and support and organize women in music, the riot grrrl movement sprang out of Olympia, Washington, and Washington, D. C. in the early 1990s
Feminism in culture
–
Virginia Woolf
Feminism in culture
–
Kathleen Hanna was the lead singer of
Bikini Kill, a
riot grrrl music band formed in 1990.
40.
Honor killing
–
The mere perception that a woman has behaved in a way that dishonors her family is sufficient to trigger an attack on her life. Although rarely, men can also be the victims of honor killings by members of the family of a woman with whom they are perceived to have an inappropriate relationship, the loose term honor killing applies to killing of both men and women in cultures that practice it. Some women who bridge social divides, publicly engage other communities, the distinctive nature of honor killings is the collective nature of the crime – many members of an extended family plan the act together, sometimes through a formal family council. Another significant feature is the connection of honor killings to the control of behavior, in particular in regard to sexuality/marriage. Another key aspect is the importance of the reputation of the family in the community, another characteristic of honor killings is that the perpetrators often dont face negative stigma within their communities, because their behavior is seen as justified. The incidence of honor killings is very difficult to determine and estimates vary widely, in most countries data on honor killings is not collected systematically, and many of these killings are reported by the families as suicides or accidents and registered as such. Although honor killings are often associated with the Asian continent, especially the Middle East and South Asia, in 2000, the United Nations estimated that 5,000 women were victims of honor killings each year. According to BBC, Womens advocacy groups, however, suspect that more than 20,000 women are killed each year. Murder is not the form of honor crime, other crimes such as acid attacks, abduction, mutilations, beatings occur. Methods of killing include stoning, stabbing, beating, burning, beheading, hanging, throat slashing, lethal acid attacks, shooting and strangulation. The murders are sometimes performed in public to warn the other individuals within the community of possible consequences of engaging in what is seen as illicit behavior. Often, minor girls and boys are selected by the family to act as the killers, so that the killer may benefit of the most favorable legal outcome. Boys and sometimes women in the family are often asked to control and monitor the behavior of their sisters or other females in the family legal, 2) preventive. First of all, legal measures refer to a modification of the criminal laws to guarantee equal legal protection of females. On top of that, Amnesty insisted the government to assure legal access for the victims of crime in the name of honor, when it comes to preventive measures, Amnesty underlined the critical need to promote public awareness through the means of media, education, and public announcements. Finally, protective measures include ensuring an environment for activists, lawyers. Also, Amnesty argued for the expansion of victim support services such as shelters, kremlin-appointed Chechen President Ramzan Kadyrov said that honor killings were perpetrated on those who deserved to die. He said that those who are killed have loose morals and are shot by relatives in honor killings
Honor killing
–
Map of India showing the States and Union Territories of the country. In 2010, the
Supreme Court of India issued notice in regard to honor killings to the states of
Punjab,
Haryana,
Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan,
Jharkhand,
Himachal Pradesh and
Madhya Pradesh.
41.
Matriarchal religion
–
A matriarchal religion is a religion that focuses on a goddess or goddesses. In the 20th century, a movement to revive these practices resulted in the Goddess movement, bachofen presents a model where matriarchal society and chthonic mystery cults are the second of four stages of the historical development of religion. The first stage he called Hetaerism, characterized as a paleolithic hunter-and-gatherer society practicing a polyamorous, the second stage is the Neolithic, a matriarchal lunar stage of agriculture with an early form of Demeter the dominant deity. This was followed by a Dionysian stage of emerging patriarchy, finally succeeded by the Apollonian stage of patriarchy, in the early 1900s, historian Jane Ellen Harrison put forward the theory that the Olympian pantheon replaced an earlier worship of earth goddesses. She presents matriarchal religions as involving a cult of serpents as a symbol of spiritual wisdom, fertility, life. Additionally, anthropologist Marija Gimbutas introduced the field of feminist archaeology in the 1970s, most modern anthropologists reject the idea of a prehistoric matriarchy, but recognize matrilineal and matrifocal groups throughout human history. Debate continues on whether ancient matriarchal religion historically existed, Goddess movement Erich Neumann Eternal feminine Witch-cult hypothesis Feminist theology Gender and religion Emma Curtis Hopkins
Matriarchal religion
–
The
Minoan "
Snake Goddess " features frequently in literature postulating matriarchal religion
42.
Feminism and media
–
Feminism is defined as “the doctrine advocating social, political, and all other rights of women equal to those of men”. Feminists range across a variety of genders, races, ethnic backgrounds, throughout the years, feminists have used a wide variety of media to spread their messages. This media includes but is not limited to newspaper, literature, radio broadcasts, television, social media, without media to distribute their ideas, feminism movements would not have been possible and could have succumbed to potential setbacks. The history of feminism dates back to the 19th century and continues through present day, feminism can be broken down into three distinct sections, first-wave, second-wave, and third-wave. It should be noted that the terms “suffragette” and “feminist” refer to different movements, suffragists aimed to make it possible for women to vote in elections, but reinforced the notion that women should remain domestic. First-wave feminism refers to the feminist movement of the 19th and early 20th century, at this time, women had little control over their lives. Generally, they were housewives who were uneducated and possessed no property or economic rights, Feminists of the time focused on the legal disabilities of women, especially women’s suffrage. The first wave began at the Seneca Falls Convention of 1848, the Declaration outlined the feminist’s political strategies and philosophies. The first-wave was fueled by The Second Great Awakening, which allowed women to have leadership roles in society. Women were generally excluded from these movements, prompting suffragists to demand women’s suffrage, however, not all suffragists considered themselves feminists, they were eager for the right to vote, but not in favor of gender equality. Suffragists and feminists had their first success when New York passed the Married Women’s Property Act in 1860 and they also had success when Congress ratified the 19th Amendment in 1920, allowing women the right to vote. The feminists’ message during first-wave feminism was primarily spread through newspaper and other printed media such as pamphlets, second-wave feminism began in the 1960s and ran through the 1980s. At this time, women were making social and political gains, the second-wave came alongside the civil rights and anti-war movement of the 1960s, which consistently attempted to give a voice to the minority, a positive for women. However, these also took away from the focus on feminism and gave more attention to Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Vietnam War than women’s rights. ”The major legislative focus of the wave was on the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment. The ERA made it to Congress for ratification, but failed to be ratified, the second-wave is said to have ended in the early 1980s with the discussion of sexuality and pornography, issues that were discussed during the third wave. With more advanced technology in the wave, feminists used newspapers, television, radio. Prior to 1960, both men and women accepted the reality of gender and family roles. But, when the second-wave feminism began, women challenged these roles both at home and at work and it was also during this period that women’s portrayal on television was changing, in part due to the eventual release of “female sexual and political energy, ”
Feminism and media
–
Susan B. Anthony, one of the authors of
The Revolution
43.
Feminist movement
–
The movements priorities vary among nations and communities, and range from opposition to female genital mutilation in one country, to opposition to the glass ceiling in another. Feminism in parts of the world has gone through three waves. First-wave feminism was oriented around the station of middle- or upper-class white women and involved suffrage, second-wave feminism attempted to further combat social and cultural inequalities. Although during the first wave of feminism, the women that rebelled consisted of middle class white women, however the second wave brought in women of color and women form other developing nations that were seeking for solidarity. Third-wave feminism is continuing to address the financial, social and cultural inequalities and includes renewed campaigning for greater influence of women in politics, in reaction to political activism, feminists have also had to maintain focus on womens reproductive rights, such as the right to abortion. Feminism in the United States, Canada and a number of countries in western Europe has been divided into three waves by feminist scholars, first, second and third-wave feminism, recent research suggests there may be a fourth wave characterized, in part, by new media platforms. The women’s movement became popular in May 1968 when women began to read again, more widely. De Beauviors writing explained why it was difficult for talented women to become successful, de Beauvoir also argues that woman lack ambition because of how they are raised. Girls are told to follow the duties of their mothers, whereas boys are told to exceed the accomplishments of their fathers, along with other influences, Simone de Beauvoir’s work helped the feminist movement to erupt, causing the formation of Le Mouvement de Libération des Femmes. This determined group of women wanted to turn ideas into actions. Contributors to The Women’s Liberation Movement include Simone de Beauvoir, Christiane Rochefort, Christine Delphy, through actions the women were able to get few equal rights for example right to education, right to work, and right to vote. One of the most important issues that The Women’s Liberation movement faced was the banning of abortion and contraception, the women saw this banning as a violation of women’s rights and were determined to fight it. Thus, the made a declaration known as Le Manifests de 343 which held signatures from 343 women admitting to having had an illegal abortion. The declaration got published in Le Nouvel Observateur and Le Monde, the group gained support upon the publication. Women received the right to abort with the passing of the Veil Law in 1975. It has also led to employment for women at more equitable wages. In rural areas of selected developing countries performed a average of 20% more work than men, or 120% of mens total work. In the OECD countries surveyed, on average women performed 5% more work than men, however, men did up to 19 minutes more work per day than women in five out of the eighteen OECD countries surveyed, Canada, Denmark, Hungary, Israel, and The Netherlands
Feminist movement
–
The "
We Can Do It! " poster from 1943 was re-appropriated as a symbol of the feminist movement in the 1980s.
44.
Feminism and the Oedipus complex
–
Feminists have long struggled with Freuds classical model of gender and identity development and reality, which centers around the Oedipus complex. In his late theory on the feminine, Freud recognized the early, feminist psychoanalysts have confronted these ideas and reached different conclusions. Some generally agree with Freuds major outlines, modifying it through observations of the pre-Oedipal phase, others reformulate Freuds theories more completely. Hélène Deutsch was one of Freuds first female pupils and the first analyst who made an integral, chronological study of psychological development. In short, Deutsch claims that women have a sexuality, they are born for reproduction. According to Deutsch, the girl blames her father, not her mother, for the lack of a penis, thus, she stops identifying with her father, because of this relationship with her father, she develops libidinous fantasies of being raped. Thus, the fantasy is universal and non-pathological, a key part of female sexuality. Meanwhile, the girl identifies herself with her mother through the wish for an ‘anal child’, when she recognizes her failure, a decline to the pre-genital stage takes place, a wish for the earlier active clitoris. Masochistic tensions in the girl prevail and she longs to be castrated by her father, the desire for a child also becomes masochistic. Nancy Chodorow noted that Freud believed that males possess physical superiority, the strength and quality of her relationship with her father are completely dependent upon the strength and quality of her relationship with her mother. Thus, a girl represses neither her nor her Oedipal attachment to her mother nor her Oedipal attachment to her father. This means that she grows up with more ongoing preoccupation with internalized object relationships, because a girl does not have to repress her pre-Oedipal and Oedipal attachment to father and mother, she reaches a more relational sensibility than boys. Chodorow illustrated this through studies suggesting that men love romantically, where women love, in Freuds model there is no place for femininity unless it is related to masculinity. Luce Irigaray, a student of Jacques Lacan, disagrees with the thoughts about the importance of the penis and she hypothesizes that the reason the penis is privileged in Freud’s model is that it is visible. This is also the reason that male sexuality is based, in early Lacanianism, on having, in Freud’s paradigm, female desire is the desire for a baby to substitute for penis, thus female pleasure is derived from reproduction. Irigaray disagrees, “How can we accept that the female sexuality is being controlled by the lack and envy of the penis. ”Female sexuality is not solely related to reproduction, but neither is it less valuable in reproduction. Furthermore, she says that Freud is forgetting the mother-daughter relationship, to enter the Oedipus-complex, a girl must hate her mother. Irigaray says this makes it impossible for a girl to give meaning to the relationship with her mother
Feminism and the Oedipus complex
–
Sphinx & Oedipus
45.
Protofeminism
–
Precise usage is disputed, as 18th-century feminism and 19th-century feminism are subsumed under feminism. The utility of the term protofeminist is rejected by modern scholars. Book five of Platos The Republic discusses the role of women, Are dogs divided into hes and shes, or do they both share equally in hunting and in keeping watch and in the other duties of dogs. Or do we entrust to the males the entire and exclusive care of the flocks, while we leave the females at home, the Republic states that women in Platos ideal state should work alongside men, receive equal education, and share equally in all aspects of the state. The sole exception involved women working in capacities which required less physical strength, Women were not accorded with such legal status in other cultures, including the West, until centuries later. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam states that the improvement of the status of Arab women included prohibition of female infanticide. The dowry, previously regarded as a paid to the father. Under Islamic law, marriage was no longer viewed as a status but rather as a contract, Women were given inheritance rights in a patriarchal society that had previously restricted inheritance to male relatives. There have been some who have claimed that is evidence of matrilineality in pre-Islamic Arabia, some have speculated that Mohammeds motivation was to remove matrilineality and install a purely patriarchal system, to which they attribute to being witness today. Shulamith Shahar believed that his wife Khadijah was the last successful businesswoman one could find in Arabia, and there was evidence that Khadijah was the norm, not the exception, before Mohammeds rule over Arabia. After Muhammeds revolution, the Arabian businesswoman disappears and she believes that it is likely that Muhammed specifically targeted the matrilineal system and replaced it with what she believes as the most a strictest patrilineal system ever witnessed. Far from being a proto-feminist, Muhammed would therefore instead be the one who removed rights, as for sexism, the common law long denied married women any property rights or indeed legal personality apart from their husbands. Whilst in the period there was not a formal feminist movement, nevertheless there were a number of important figures who argued for improving womens rights. Women played an important role in the foundations of many Islamic educational institutions and this continued through to the Ayyubid dynasty in the 12th and 13th centuries, when 160 mosques and madrasahs were established in Damascus,26 of which were funded by women through the Waqf system. Half of all the patrons for these institutions were also women. As a result, opportunities for female education arose in the medieval Islamic world, in the 12th century, the Sunni scholar Ibn Asakir wrote that women could study, earn ijazahs, and qualify as scholars and teachers. This was especially the case for learned and scholarly families, who wanted to ensure the highest possible education for both their sons and daughters, Ibn Asakir was in support of female education and had himself studied under eighty different female teachers in his time. Female education in the Islamic world was said to be inspired by Muhammads wives, Khadijah, a businesswoman, and Aisha
Protofeminism
–
Christine de Pizan lecturing to a group of men.
Protofeminism
–
Burning of witches
46.
Feminist theory
–
Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, fictional, or philosophical discourse. It aims to understand the nature of gender inequality, Feminist theory focuses on analyzing gender inequality. Themes explored in feminism include discrimination, objectification, oppression, patriarchy, stereotyping, art history and contemporary art, the Changing Woman is a Navajo Myth that gave credit to a woman who, in the end, populated the world. In 1851, Sojourner Truth addressed women’s rights issues through her publication, Sojourner Truth addressed the issue of women having limited rights due to mens flawed perception of women. Truth argued that if a woman of color can perform tasks that were limited to men, then any woman of any color could perform those same tasks. After her arrest for illegally voting, Susan B, anthony gave a speech within court in which she addressed the issues of language within the constitution documented in her publication, Speech after Arrest for Illegal voting in 1872. Anthony questioned the authoritative principles of the constitution and its male gendered language and she raised the question of why women are accountable to be punished under law but they cannot use the law for their own protection. She also critiqued the constitution for its male gendered language and questioned why women should have to abide by laws that do not specify women, nancy Cott makes a distinction between modern feminism and its antecedents, particularly the struggle for suffrage. In the United States she places the point in the decades before. New issues dealt more with womans condition as a construct, gender identity. Politically this represented a shift from an ideological alignment comfortable with the right, some feminist scholarship shifted away from the need to establish the origins of family, and towards analyzing the process of patriarchy. In the immediate period, Simone de Beauvoir stood in opposition to an image of the woman in the home. De Beauvoir provided an existentialist dimension to feminism with the publication of Le Deuxième Sexe in 1949, as the title implies, the starting point is the implicit inferiority of women, and the first question de Beauvoir asks is what is a woman. Woman she realizes is always perceived of as the other, she is defined and differentiated with reference to man, in this book and her essay, Woman, Myth & Reality, de Beauvoir anticipates Betty Friedan in seeking to demythologise the male concept of woman. A myth invented by men to women to their oppressed state. For women it is not a question of asserting themselves as women, therefore, woman must regain subject, to escape her defined role as other, as a Cartesian point of departure. In her examination of myth, she appears as one who does not accept any special privileges for women, ironically, feminist philosophers have had to extract de Beauvoir herself from out of the shadow of Jean-Paul Sartre to fully appreciate her. While more philosopher and novelist than activist, she did one of the Mouvement de Libération des Femmes manifestos
Feminist theory
–
Girl with doll
Feminist theory
–
LGBT history
47.
Violence against women
–
Violence against women, also known as gender-based violence, is, collectively, violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against women. Sometimes considered a crime, this type of violence targets a specific group with the victims gender as a primary motive. This type of violence is gender-based, meaning that the acts of violence are committed against women expressly because they are women. At least one out of three women around the world has been beaten, coerced into sex, or otherwise abused in her lifetime with the abuser usually someone known to her. Violence against women can fit into broad categories. These include violence carried out by individuals as well as states, many forms of VAW, such as trafficking in women and forced prostitution are often perpetrated by organized criminal networks. The World Health Organization, in its research on VAW, has analyzed and categorized the different forms of VAW occurring through all stages of life from birth to old age. Other definitions of VAW are provided by the 1994 Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, Violence perpetrated or condoned by the state or its officials, d. These definitions of VAW as being gender-based are seen by some to be unsatisfactory and these definitions are conceptualized in an understanding of society as patriarchal, signifying unequal relations between men and women. Opponents of such definitions argue that the definitions disregard violence against men, Other critics argue that employing the term gender in this particular way may introduce notions of inferiority and subordination for femininity and superiority for masculinity. The history of violence against women remains vague in scientific literature and this is in part because many kinds of violence against women are under-reported, often due to societal norms, taboos, stigma, and the sensitive nature of the subject. It is widely recognized that even today, a lack of reliable, although the history of violence against women is difficult to track, it is clear that much of the violence was accepted, condoned and even legally sanctioned. This rule for punishment of wives prevailed in England and America until the late 19th century, the history of violence against women is closely related to the historical view of women as property and a gender role of subservience. Explanations of patriarchy and a world system or status quo in which gender inequalities exist and are perpetuated are cited to explain the scope. According to the UN, there is no region of the world, no country, several forms of violence are more prevalent in certain parts of the world, often in developing countries. For example, dowry violence and bride burning is associated with India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, acid throwing is also associated with these countries, as well as in Southeast Asia, including Cambodia. Honor killing is associated with the Middle East and South Asia, Female genital mutilation is found mostly in Africa, and to a lesser extent in the Middle East and some other parts of Asia. Marriage by abduction is found in Ethiopia, Central Asia and the Caucasus, Abuse related to payment of bride price is linked to parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania
Violence against women
–
Burning witches, with others held in Stocks
Violence against women
–
An illustration from
JJ Grandville 's Cent Proverbes (1845) captioned "Qui aime bien châtie bien" (Who loves well, punishes well). A man beating a woman is shown in the back.
Violence against women
–
Sati (a Hindu practice whereby a
widow immolates herself on the funeral pyre of her husband) ceremony.
Violence against women
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X-ray of
bound feet, China
48.
War on Women
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While used in other contexts, and prior to 2010, it became a common expression in American political discourse after the 2010 congressional elections. The term is used to describe opposition to the contraceptive mandate in Obamacare and policies to defund womens health organizations that perform abortions. The concept again gained attention in the 2016 U. S. presidential election, the phrase and the concept have been criticized by Republicans and some pro-life Democrats. In August 2012, Todd Akins controversial comments regarding pregnancy and rape sparked renewed media focus on the concept, Feminist Susan Faludis 1991 book Backlash, The Undeclared War Against American Women, argued that throughout the 1980s the media created a backlash against the feminist advances of the 1970s. George W. Bushs administration met with resistance from feminists and womens rights throughout his Presidency. In 2004 The Feminist Press published Laura Flanders collection of essays The W Effect, in the 2010 midterm elections, the Republican Party won the majority in the House of Representatives. On January 4,2011, the day after Congress convened, in February 2011, an AlterNet article by Sarah Seltzer and Lauren Kelley entitled 9 New laws in the GOPs War on Women began to document state-level legislation restricting abortion access and rights. Florida Representative and Chair of the Democratic National Committee Debbie Wasserman Schultz began using the term War on Women in March 2011. The War on Women expression was used often when describing the rise in the passage of provisions related to womens health. Legislation has focused on mandatory ultrasounds, narrowing the time when abortions may be performed, Democratic strategist Zerlina Maxwell wrote an editorial for U. S. Many states have adopted model legislation written by Americans United for Life, in June 2011, Charmaine Yoest and Denise M. In 2011 and 2012, War on Women was used to describe the legislation passed by many states requiring that women seeking abortions first undergo government-mandated ultrasounds. Some states require that women view the image of the fetus, critics have questioned the value of having a medically unnecessary procedure, and characterized it as similar to some states legal definition of rape. Writer Megan Carpentier underwent the procedure and indicated that although it was not comparable to being raped, and something that no government should force its citizens to undergo to make a political point. Virginia State legislators passed a bill in 2012 requiring women to have an ultrasound before having an abortion. The legislation, signed by Governor Bob McDonnell, would require that the provider of a make an copy of the fetal image. Pennsylvania Governor Tom Corbett drew criticism when he said of his states new mandatory transvaginal ultrasound law that You cant make anybody watch, because you just have to close your eyes. As long as its on the exterior and not the interior, in June 2013, Representative Trent Franks of Arizona, passed a national bill in the House Judiciary Committee that would ban abortions after the 20th week of pregnancy
War on Women
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Ultrasound of fetus at 14 weeks (profile)
War on Women
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Zerlina Maxwell, in an editorial for
U.S. News & World Report, cited these figures from the Guttmacher Institute as evidence of a "war on American women". The findings, according to the Guttmacher Institute, show that state restrictions on abortion greatly increased in 2011.
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