1.
Controlled-access highway
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A controlled-access highway is a type of highway which has been designed for high-speed vehicular traffic, with all traffic flow and ingress/egress regulated. Common English terms are freeway, motorway and expressway, other similar terms include Interstate and parkway. Some of which may be limited-access highways, although this term can refer to a class of highway with somewhat less isolation from other traffic. In countries following Vienna convention, the motorway qualification implies they are forbidden for walking or parking, a controlled-access highway provides an unhindered flow of traffic, with no traffic signals, intersections or property access. They are free of any at-grade crossings with roads, railways, or pedestrian paths. Entrances and exits to the highway are provided at interchanges by slip roads, on the controlled-access highway, opposing directions of travel are generally separated by a median strip or central reservation containing a traffic barrier or grass. Elimination of conflicts with other directions of traffic dramatically improves safety and capacity, controlled-access highways evolved during the first half of the 20th century. Italy opened its first autostrada in 1924 connecting Milan to Varese, Germany began to build its first 30-kilometre autobahn controlled-access highway without speed limits in 1932 between Cologne and Bonn. It then rapidly constructed a system of such roads in anticipation of their use in the Second World War. The first North American freeways opened in the New York City area in the 1920s, Britain, heavily influenced by the railways, did not build its first motorway, the Preston By-pass, until 1958. Most technologically advanced nations feature a network of freeways or motorways to provide high-capacity urban travel, or high-speed rural travel. Many have a national-level or even international-level system of route numbering, exit is marked with another symbol. The definitions of motorway from the OECD and PIARC are almost identical, british Standards Motorway, Limited-access dual carriageway road, not crossed on the same level by other traffic lanes, for the exclusive use of certain classes of motor vehicle. ITE Freeway, A divided major roadway with full control of access and this definition applies to toll as well as toll-free roads. Freeway A, This designates roadways with greater complexity and high traffic volumes. Usually this type of freeway will be found in areas in or near the central core. Freeway B, This designates all other divided roadways with full control of access where lighting is needed, principal arterials may cross through urban areas, serving suburban movements. The traffic is characterized by high speeds and full or partial access control, other roads leading to a principal arterial are connected to it through side collector roads
Controlled-access highway
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The interchange between US-131, M-6 and 68th Street in
Wyoming, Michigan, shows many of the features of controlled-access highways—opposing traffic on separate carriageways, no
at-grade intersections and no direct access to properties.
Controlled-access highway
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French A10 near Orléans showing hard shoulder and emergency telephone. The broken demarcation line for the hard shoulder is specific to France, and serves as a safety reference mark for drivers: the advisory distance from the vehicle ahead is two dashes minimum.
Controlled-access highway
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De Lucht Rest Area on the Dutch A2 - A typical rest area with services (fuel, refreshments and toilets). The only access is via the highway that it serves.
Controlled-access highway
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Traffic congestion, such as this on the
Downtown Connector in
Atlanta, is tied to
photochemical smog.
2.
Highway shield
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A highway shield or route marker is a sign denoting the route number of a highway, usually in the form of a symbolic shape with the route number enclosed. As the focus of the sign, the number is usually the signs largest element. Highway shields are used by travellers, commuters, and all levels of government for identifying, navigating, simplified highway shields often appear on maps. There are several uses for the highway shield, Junction signs inform travelers that they are approaching an intersection with a numbered highway. Guide signs inform travelers which way to go at intersections, usually with an arrow pointing the way, reassurance markers are used after major junctions and periodically in between to confirm the route and direction. Australia has maintained distinctly different trends pertaining to Highway shields in the past and will continue in this somewhat, despite the conversion to alpha-numeric routes. Alpha-numeric route numbering has been in use in Tasmania since the 1970s, however, from 1996 states on the mainland began conversion to the alpha-numeric system. The state of Victoria was the first to implement the policy, prior to this conversion and concurrently, Federal Highway, National Highway, State Highway and Tourist Route shields existed. In Victoria Freeway shields were used until the late 1980s, while during the 1990s Queensland, with the opening of the Western Ring Road, that road used a shield quite similar to the U. S. Interstate shield, albeit with Ring Road written instead of Interstate and with 2 peaks, to further complicate matters, with the introduction of the alpha-numeric system, roads that are federally funded have a squared-off bullet encompassing the alpha-numeric designation. Freeways and dual-carriageway roads often use an M prefix, particularly in Victoria, in addition, trapezoidal signs are placed every 5 km on major regional highways and freeways indicating the distance to the post office of the next city or major town on the route. These signs usually only have the first letter of the destination, Federal and state highways shields are standardized in Brazil by the National Transit Department, but implementation is not always consistent nor even existent. In many states, highway names appear on highway location markers, each province dictates the type of shields used as their highway system is a provincial responsibility. Ontario highways shields vary in shape and colour, the general format is a black letter/numbers on white background. Major or 400-series highways use a bullet with a crown on top. These are referred to as Kings Highway markers, but the wording has been removed since the 1990s, secondary and local or county roads use an isosceles trapezoid as markers. Background colour is white, but they can be green. Tertiary road signs are rectangular in shape, text is black or white and will indicate the county name
Highway shield
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The shields for
Interstate highways (left) and
U.S. routes (right) can be seen on this set of
reassurance markers in
Southwest Virginia indicating two sets of
wrong-way concurrencies
3.
Interstate Highway System
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The Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways is a network of controlled-access highways that forms a part of the National Highway System of the United States. The system is named for President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who championed its formation, construction was authorized by the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, and the original portion was completed 35 years later, although some urban routes were cancelled and never built. The network has since been extended and, as of 2013, as of 2013, about one-quarter of all vehicle miles driven in the country use the Interstate system. In 2006, the cost of construction was estimated at about $425 billion, the nations revenue needs associated with World War I prevented any significant implementation of this policy, which expired in 1921. In the plan, Mehren proposed a 50, 000-mile system, the system would include two percent of all roads and would pass through every state at a cost of $25,000 per mile, providing commercial as well as military transport benefits. As the landmark 1916 law expired, new legislation was passed—the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 and this new road construction initiative once again provided for federal matching funds for road construction and improvement, $75 million allocated annually. The Bureau of Public Roads asked the Army to provide a list of roads that it considered necessary for national defense. A boom in construction followed throughout the decade of the 1920s. As automobile traffic increased, planners saw a need for such a national system to supplement the existing, largely non-freeway. By the late 1930s, planning had expanded to a system of new superhighways, in 1938, President Franklin D. Roosevelt gave Thomas MacDonald, chief at the Bureau of Public Roads, a hand-drawn map of the United States marked with eight superhighway corridors for study. He recognized that the system would also provide key ground transport routes for military supplies. The publication in 1955 of the General Location of National System of Interstate Highways, informally known as the Yellow Book, assisting in the planning was Charles Erwin Wilson, who was still head of General Motors when President Eisenhower selected him as Secretary of Defense in January 1953. The Interstate Highway System was authorized on June 29,1956 by the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, popularly known as the National Interstate, three states have claimed the title of first Interstate Highway. Missouri claims that the first three contracts under the new program were signed in Missouri on August 2,1956, the first contract signed was for upgrading a section of US Route 66 to what is now designated Interstate 44. On August 13,1956, Missouri awarded the first contract based on new Interstate Highway funding, kansas claims that it was the first to start paving after the act was signed. Preliminary construction had taken place before the act was signed, the state marked its portion of I-70 as the first project in the United States completed under the provisions of the new Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956. The Pennsylvania Turnpike could also be considered one of the first Interstate Highways, on October 1,1940,162 miles of the highway now designated I‑70 and I‑76 opened between Irwin and Carlisle. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania refers to the turnpike as the Granddaddy of the Pikes, October 12,1979, The final section of the Canada to Mexico freeway Interstate 5 is dedicated near Stockton, California
Interstate Highway System
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A rural stretch of
I-5, with two lanes in each direction separated by a large grassy
median and with cross-traffic limited to overpasses and underpasses
Interstate Highway System
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Interstate Highways in the 48 contiguous states.
Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico also have Interstate Highways. (
See version with numbers.)
Interstate Highway System
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I‑55 under construction in Mississippi, photo from May 1972
Interstate Highway System
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Interstate highway in
New Jersey built to modern standards
4.
List of Interstate Highways
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Primary Interstate Highways of the United States are numbered with one- or two-digit designations. Their associated auxiliary highways have three-digit numbers, routes divisible by 5 are major routes, often running coast-to-coast or border-to-border. Five pairs of numbers are duplicated throughout the system, the highways are separated by large distances which prevent confusion. Below, these are differentiated from each other by West and East, the main list is followed by sections listing the primary Interstate highways in Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. There are 68 primary Interstate Highways listed in the table below, in addition to the 48 contiguous states, Interstate Highways are found in Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto Rico. The Federal Highway Administration funds four routes in Alaska and three routes in Puerto Rico under the program as the rest of the Interstate Highway System. They are fully controlled-access routes built to the standards as the mainland Interstate Highways. Alaskas Interstate Highways are unsigned, although all have state highway numbers that do not match the Interstate Highway numbers. Like Alaska, Puerto Rico signs its Interstate Highways as territorial routes, many of the territorys routes are freeway-standard toll roads. The title of interactive fiction I-0 refers to the fictional Interstate Zero
List of Interstate Highways
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Interstate Highways in the 48 contiguous states
5.
List of auxiliary Interstate Highways
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The auxiliary Interstate Highways are a supplemental subset of the freeways within the Interstate Highway System of the United States. Auxiliary routes are classified as spur routes, bypasses, or beltways. There are some routes which connect to the parent route at one end and these shorter auxiliary routes branch off of main routes and are numbered based on the number of the parent route, such that all I-x95 routes are supplemental routes for I-95. While some exceptions do exist, generally spur routes are numbered with an odd hundreds digit, while bypasses, because longer interstates may have many such supplemental routes, the numbers may repeat in each state along their route, but they will not repeat within a state. The basic tenets of the auxiliary Interstates are divided into three branches, spur, loop, and bypass routes, each one signifies a different characteristic of the auxiliary route. The first digit of the three digits usually determines whether a route is a bypass, spur, or beltway, the last two digits are derived from the main Interstate Highway. For instance, I-515 contains an odd number in the first digit, the last two digits signify the highways origin. In this case, the 15 in I-515 shows that it is a supplement to I-15, numerous exceptions to the standard numbering guidelines exist in many places. This can be for a number of reasons, in some cases, original routes were changed, extended, or abandoned, leaving discrepancies in the system. In other cases, it may not be possible to use the number because there are none available. An Interstate Highway spur routes number usually has an odd number for its first digit and it may represent the first portion of a contemplated extended freeway, one that downgrades to below Interstate standards with plans to upgrade it later on. An example is I-540 in Arkansas and it may connect two unrelated Interstate highways—such as I-390 in New York State and I-355 in Illinois do. Note that states differ on their interpretation of the convention in this case. In the I-390 example above, the route has both ends at Interstates, but not at the same Interstate on both ends, and is assigned an odd first digit. Another example is I-275 in Tennessee, it is a connector between I-40 and I-75 and is assigned an even first digit, examples of Interstate Highway spur routes are listed below. I-110 in California links I-10 with the Port of Los Angeles and this freeway was built before Interstate Highways as the Harbor Freeway. Later, it was adopted into the Interstate Highway System, i-180 in North-Central Pennsylvania connects Williamsport and Lycoming County with I-80 in Milton, which does not actually enter Lycoming County. I-180 also serves as a connection to those traveling to New York and I-86 via U. S. Route 15, i-190 in New York connects the cities of Niagara Falls and Buffalo with I-90
List of auxiliary Interstate Highways
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Interstate Highways in the 48 contiguous states
6.
Future Interstate Highways
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Future Interstate Highways include various proposals to establish new mainline Interstate Highways in the United States. This does not include the numerous auxiliary Interstate Highways that are in various stages of planning, planned expansion of existing mainline interstates are also not included here. Several Congressional High Priority Corridors have been designated as parts of the Interstate System by the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act. By law, they will become interstates when built to Interstate standards, Interstate 3 is the proposed designation of an Interstate Highway Corridor under development in the southeastern U. S. It is planned to run from Savannah, Georgia, to Knoxville and its number does not follow standard numbering conventions, under established numbering conventions I-3 would normally run west of I-5 along the Pacific Coast. The unnumbered Interstate was established by the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act, the Interstate 3 designation has not been officially accepted by AASHTO or the FHWA, but is being used by the Georgia Department of Transportation and others to identify the highway. The number comes from the 3rd Infantry Division which is based in Georgia, Interstate 7 or Interstate 9 has been proposed by Caltrans for State Route 99 in central California. This also serves as a connector to the northern portion of Highway 99. Interstate 11 is the designated route number for an Interstate connecting Phoenix, Arizona, to Las Vegas or Reno. Their rationale was that the Phoenix and Las Vegas metro areas were two of the largest urban regions in adjacent states not featuring direct Interstate connection, the corridor would be approximately 285 miles in length and would most likely subsume the existing I-515 freeway facility in the Las Vegas area. Plans to connect I-11 to the existing Interstate network in the Phoenix region have yet to be determined, the proposed routing for I-11 is part of the CANAMEX high-priority corridor. The projects contained within this portion of the overall Canamex corridor include the recently completed Hoover Dam Bypass project, at the same time, it extended the southern terminus of the corridor from Phoenix through Tucson to Nogales generally via the I-10 and I-19 corridors. The Regional Transportation Alliance expected this corridor to be called I-46 or another suitable designation. At a meeting in La Grange, North Carolina, on March 17,2016, the rationale for the I-50 numerical selection was cited as a number not in conflict with either an existing Interstate designation or currently applied to a U. S. Highway within North Carolina. This recommendation was forwarded to NCDOT for submission to AASHTO, for the AASHTO Special Committee on U. S. Route Numbering meeting in May 2016, NCDOT proposed I-36 for this route. However, AASHTO instead designated the route Interstate 42, in November 2012, NCDOT requested the addition of the corridor to the Interstate Highway System through administrative options with the Federal Highway Administration as I-44. Congressman G. K. Butterfield introduced legislation in June 2014 to add the corridor to the Interstate Highway System through Congressional authority and this corridor was officially designated as a future Interstate with the passing of the FAST Act. Had the I-44 designation been approved, it would have been discontinuous with the current I-44, however, subsequent review of available and preferred route numbers produced two other candidates, I-56 if an east–west designation was chosen, or I-89 if a north–south designation was chosen
Future Interstate Highways
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Interstate Highways in the 48 contiguous states
7.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Dwight David Ike Eisenhower was an American politician and Army general who served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 until 1961. He was a general in the United States Army during World War II. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43, in 1951, he became the first Supreme Commander of NATO. Eisenhower was of mostly Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry and was raised in a family in Kansas by parents with a strong religious background. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud, after World War II, Eisenhower served as Army Chief of Staff under President Harry S. Truman and then accepted the post of President at Columbia University. Eisenhower entered the 1952 presidential race as a Republican to counter the non-interventionism of Senator Robert A. Taft, campaigning against communism, Korea and he won in a landslide, defeating Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson and temporarily upending the New Deal Coalition. Eisenhower was the first U. S. president to be constitutionally term-limited under the 22nd Amendment, Eisenhowers main goals in office were to keep pressure on the Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits. He ordered coups in Iran and Guatemala, Eisenhower gave major aid to help the French in the First Indochina War, and after the French were defeated he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam. Congress agreed to his request in 1955 for the Formosa Resolution, after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, Eisenhower authorized the establishment of NASA, which led to the space race. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, Eisenhower condemned the Israeli, British and French invasion of Egypt and he also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. Eisenhower sent 15,000 U. S. troops to Lebanon to prevent the government from falling to a Nasser-inspired revolution during the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Near the end of his term, his efforts to set up a meeting with the Soviets collapsed because of the U-2 incident. On the domestic front, he covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege and he otherwise left most political activity to his Vice President, Richard Nixon. Eisenhower was a conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security. Eisenhowers two terms saw considerable economic prosperity except for a decline in 1958. Voted Gallups most admired man twelve times, he achieved widespread popular esteem both in and out of office, since the late 20th century, consensus among Western scholars has consistently held Eisenhower as one of the greatest U. S. Presidents. The Eisenhauer family migrated from Karlsbrunn in the Saarland, to North America, first settling in York, Pennsylvania, in 1741, accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized to Eisenhower. Eisenhowers Pennsylvania Dutch ancestors, who were farmers, included Hans Nikolaus Eisenhauer of Karlsbrunn
Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight D. Eisenhower
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The Eisenhower family home,
Abilene, Kansas.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Eisenhower (2nd from left) and
Omar Bradley (2nd from right) were members of the
1912 West Point football team.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Eisenhower (far right) with three unidentified people in 1919, four years after graduating from West Point.
8.
Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower
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The military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower encompassed over forty years of active service. Entering the United States Military Academy in June 1911, Eisenhower had a spectacular 1912 football touchdown praised by the New York Herald, the week after sharing a tackle of Jim Thorpe, Eisenhowers sports career ended with a severe knee injury. Eisenhower graduated in 1915 ranked 61st in a class of 164, the risk, however, that the football injury would cause the government to later have to give Eisenhower a medical discharge and pension, almost caused the army to not commission him. This was acceptable to Eisenhower, who was curious about gaucho life, the army offered to assign him to the coast artillery, but Eisenhower viewed it as offering a minimum of excitement and preferred to become a civilian. West Points chief medical officer interceded with the War Department and obtained a commission for him, Eisenhower requested duty in the Philippines, but was assigned to the 19th Infantry at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas. Shortly after the entry of the United States into the First World War, Major Eisenhowers unit was honored by the Tank Corps Welfare League at New York Citys Century Theatre on September 15,1918. Eisenhower was promoted to lieutenant colonel in October and was ordered the same month to embark on November 18 with Camp Colt tankers for combat service in France, with the deployment overtaken by the November 11 armistice, Eisenhower instead was transferred to Camp Dix until December 22. He served at Camp Benning from December 24,1918 until March 15,1919 and his interest in tank warfare was strengthened by many conversations with George S. Patton and other senior tank leaders, however their ideas on tank warfare were strongly discouraged by superiors. The peacetime army promoted strictly on seniority, and Eisenhower would serve as a major for 16 years, in 1921 Army Inspector General Eli Helmick found that Eisenhower had improperly received $251 in housing allowance. Eisenhower received a written reprimand that became part of his military record, while working under Conner for three years the general tutored him on military history and theory, and Eisenhower later cited Conners enormous influence on his military thinking. Ranked in the top 10% of active-duty majors, in 1925–26 he attended the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Eisenhower disliked serving with the Buffalo Soldiers regiment, many white officers viewed serving in an all-black unit as punishment for poor performance. Conner helped Eisenhower to be reassigned to the American Battle Monuments Commission, directed by General John J. Pershing. Despite not having participated in the battles within six months he produced A Guide to the American Battle Fields in Europe, an excellent overview of the United States participation in World War I. The research made Eisenhower perhaps the armys best expert on Pershings strategies during the war other than Conner and Pershing himself, Conner again helped him obtain his next assignment, as one of the youngest-ever students at the War College. Pershing wrote a letter praising Eisenhower, and from then on the army saw him as one of its leading officers. Next came another assignment to Pershings commission, this time in Paris and he was assigned to the Army War College, and then served as executive officer to General George V. Moseley, Assistant Secretary of War, from 1929 to 1933. Eisenhower was promoted to the permanent rank of lieutenant colonel in 1936 and he also learned to fly, although he was never rated as a military pilot. He made a flight over the Philippines in 1937
Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1947.
Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Memorial To Eisenhower at
West Point.
Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Eisenhower (seated, middle) with other US Army officers, 1945. From left to right, the front row includes Simpson, Patton, Spaatz, Eisenhower, Bradley, Hodges, and Gerow.
Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Eisenhower speaks with U.S. paratroopers of the
502d Parachute Infantry Regiment,
101st Airborne Division on the evening of June 5, 1944.
9.
Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force
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Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force was the headquarters of the Commander of Allied forces in north west Europe, from late 1943 until the end of World War II. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was in command of SHAEF throughout its existence, the position itself shares a common lineage with Supreme Allied Commander Europe and Atlantic, but they are different titles. Southwick House was used as a headquarters near Portsmouth. Its staff took the plan for Operation Overlord created by Lieutenant General Sir Frederick E. Morgan, COSSAC. Morgan, who had appointed chief of staff to the Supreme Allied Commander in mid-March 1943 began planning for the invasion of Europe before Eisenhowers appointment. And moulded it into the version, which was executed on 6 June 1944. That process was shaped by Eisenhower and the forces commander for the initial part of the invasion. SHAEF remained in the United Kingdom until sufficient forces were ashore to justify its transfer to France, at that point, Montgomery ceased to command all land forces but continued as Commander in Chief of the British 21st Army Group on the eastern wing of the Normandy bridgehead. The American 12th Army Group commanded by Lieutenant General Omar Bradley was created as the wing of the bridgehead. During the invasion of southern France, the 6 AG was under the command of the Allied Forces Headquarters of the Mediterranean Theatre of Operations, by December 1944, SHAEF had established itself in the Trianon Palace Hotel in Versailles, France. In February 1945, it moved to Rheims and on 26 April 1945, SHAEF commanded the largest number of formations ever committed to one operation on the Western Front, with American, French army of liberation, British and Canadian Army forces. Allied strategic bomber forces in the UK also came under its command during Operation Neptune, Bradley Lieutenant General Jacob L. Devers Air Forces Commander, Air Marshal Sir Trafford Leigh-Mallory Naval Forces Commander, Admiral Sir Bertram Ramsay. After the surrender of Germany, SHAEF was dissolved on 14 July 1945 and, with respect to the US forces, was replaced by US Forces, USFET was reorganized as EUCOM on 15 March 1947. Winters, Major Dick, with Cole C, beyond Band of Brothers, The War Memoirs of Major Dick Winters. Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, Washington, D. C.1954
Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force
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SHAEF commanders at a conference in London Left to right: Lieutenant General
Omar N. Bradley, Admiral Sir
Bertram Ramsay, Air Chief Marshal Sir
Arthur Tedder, General
Dwight D. Eisenhower, General Sir
Bernard Montgomery, Air Chief Marshal Sir
Trafford Leigh-Mallory and Lieutenant General
Walter Bedell Smith
Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force
–
SHAEF shoulder sleeve insignia
10.
Normandy landings
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The Normandy landings were the landing operations on Tuesday,6 June 1944 of the Allied invasion of Normandy in Operation Overlord during World War II. The largest seaborne invasion in history, the operation began the liberation of German-occupied northwestern Europe from Nazi control, planning for the operation began in 1943. Adolf Hitler placed German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in command of German forces, the amphibious landings were preceded by extensive aerial and naval bombardment and an airborne assault—the landing of 24,000 American, British, and Canadian airborne troops shortly after midnight. Allied infantry and armoured divisions began landing on the coast of France at 06,30, the target 50-mile stretch of the Normandy coast was divided into five sectors, Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno, and Sword. Strong winds blew the landing craft east of their positions, particularly at Utah. Casualties were heaviest at Omaha, with its high cliffs, at Gold, Juno, and Sword, several fortified towns were cleared in house-to-house fighting, and two major gun emplacements at Gold were disabled, using specialised tanks. The Allies failed to any of their goals on the first day. Carentan, St. Lô, and Bayeux remained in German hands, and Caen, German casualties on D-Day have been estimated at 4,000 to 9,000 men. Allied casualties were at least 10,000, with 4,414 confirmed dead, museums, memorials, and war cemeteries in the area now host many visitors each year. Between 27 May and 4 June 1940, over 338,000 troops of the British Expeditionary Force, after the German Army invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin began pressing his allies for the creation of a second front in western Europe. In late May 1942 the Soviet Union and the United States made a joint announcement that a. full understanding was reached with regard to the urgent tasks of creating a front in Europe in 1942. Instead of a return to France, the Western Allies staged offensives in the Mediterranean Theatre of Operations. By mid-1943 the campaign in North Africa had been won, the Allies then launched the invasion of Sicily in July 1943, and subsequently invaded Italy in September the same year. By then, Soviet forces were on the offensive and had won a victory at the Battle of Stalingrad. The decision to undertake a cross-channel invasion within the year was taken at the Trident Conference in Washington in May 1943. Initial planning was constrained by the number of landing craft, most of which were already committed in the Mediterranean. At the Tehran Conference in November 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill promised Stalin that they would open the second front in May 1944. Four sites were considered for the landings, Brittany, the Cotentin Peninsula, Normandy, as Brittany and Cotentin are peninsulas, it would have been possible for the Germans to cut off the Allied advance at a relatively narrow isthmus, so these sites were rejected
Normandy landings
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Men of the
16th Infantry Regiment,
U.S. 1st Infantry Division wade ashore on
Omaha Beach on the morning of 6 June 1944.
Normandy landings
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Meeting of the
Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), 1 February 1944. Front row: Air Chief Marshal
Arthur Tedder; General
Dwight D. Eisenhower; General
Bernard Montgomery. Back row: Lieutenant General
Omar Bradley; Admiral
Bertram Ramsay; Air Chief Marshal
Trafford Leigh-Mallory; Lieutenant General
Walter Bedell Smith
Normandy landings
–
Shoulder patches were designed for units of the fictitious
First United States Army Group under Patton.
Normandy landings
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Surface weather analysis map showing
weather fronts on 5 June
11.
Operation Overlord
–
The Western Allies of World War II launched the largest amphibious invasion in history when they assaulted Normandy, located on the northern coast of France, on 6 June 1944. The invaders were able to establish a beachhead as part of Operation Overlord after a successful D-Day, Allied land forces came from the United States, Britain, Canada, and Free French forces. The Normandy invasion began with overnight parachute and glider landings, massive air attacks, the invasion began and during the evening the remaining elements of the airborne divisions landed. Land forces used on D-Day sailed from bases along the south coast of England, Allied forces rehearsed their D-Day roles for months before the invasion. On 28 April 1944, in south Devon on the English coast,749 U. S. soldiers and sailors were killed when German torpedo boats surprised one of these landing exercises, Exercise Tiger. In the months leading up to the invasion, the Allied forces conducted an operation, Operation Fortitude, aimed at misleading the Germans with respect to the date. There were several leaks prior to or on D-Day, through the Cicero affair, the Germans obtained documents containing references to Overlord, but these documents lacked all detail. Double Cross agents, such as the Spaniard Juan Pujol, played an important role in convincing the German High Command that Normandy was at best a diversionary attack. After being told, Eisenhower reduced Miller to lieutenant colonel and sent him back to the U. S. where he retired, another such leak was General Charles de Gaulles radio message after D-Day. He, unlike all the leaders, stated that this invasion was the real invasion. This had the potential to ruin the Allied deceptions Fortitude North, in contrast, Gen. Eisenhower referred to the landings as the initial invasion. A full moon occurred on 6 June, Allied Expeditionary Force Supreme Commander Dwight D. Eisenhower had tentatively selected 5 June as the date for the assault. The weather was fine during most of May, but deteriorated in early June, the Allied troop convoys already at sea were forced to take shelter in bays and inlets on the south coast of Britain for the night. It seemed possible that everything would have to be cancelled and the returned to their embarkation camps. The next full moon period would be nearly a month away, at a vital meeting on 5 June, Eisenhowers chief meteorologist forecast a brief improvement for 6 June. Commander of all forces for the invasion General Bernard Montgomery. Commander of the Allied Air Forces Air Chief Marshal Leigh Mallory was doubtful, on the strength of Staggs forecast, Eisenhower ordered the invasion to proceed. As a result, prevailing overcast skies limited Allied air support, some troops stood down and many senior officers were away for the weekend
Operation Overlord
–
Into the Jaws of Death by
Robert F. Sargent. Assault craft land one of the first waves at
Omaha Beach. The
U.S. Coast Guard caption identifies the unit as Company E,
16th Infantry,
1st Infantry Division.
Operation Overlord
Operation Overlord
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U.S. soldiers march through Weymouth, Dorset en route to board landing ships for the invasion of France.
Operation Overlord
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D-day assault routes into Normandy.
12.
German Instrument of Surrender
–
The German Instrument of Surrender ended World War II in Europe. An earlier version of the text had been signed in a ceremony in Reims in the hours of 7 May 1945. In the West,8 May is known as Victory in Europe Day, whereas in post-Soviet states the Victory Day is celebrated on 9 May, there were three language versions of the surrender document. The Russian and English versions were the only authoritative ones, by 3 January 1944, the Working Security Committee in the EAC proposed that the capitulation of Germany should be recorded in a single document of unconditional surrender. The committee further suggested that the instrument of surrender be signed by representatives of the German High Command, not everyone agreed with the Working Security Committees predictions regarding the wars ending. Ambassador William Strang, British representative at the EAC, claimed as follows, the surrender terms for Germany were first discussed at the first EAC meeting on 14 January 1944. A definitive text was agreed on 28 July 1944, and was adopted by the three Allied Powers. The agreed text was in three parts, the instrument of surrender itself followed in fourteen articles. Articles 13 and 14 specified the date of surrender and the languages of the definitive texts, while this was unresolved, there were in effect two versions of the EAC text, with and without the dismemberment clause. These guidelines formed the basis for the series of capitulations of German forces to the Western Allies in April. But that did mean that the text as signed at Reims had not been agreed in advance with the Soviet High Command. But with the fall of Berlin two days later, and American and Soviet forces having linked up at Torgau on the Elbe, the area of Germany still under German military control had been split in two. German military commanders in Italy had been conducting secret negotiations for a partial surrender, field Marshal Albert Kesselring, with overall military command for OKW-South, initially denounced the capitulation, but once Hitlers death had been confirmed, acceded to it. On 5 May 1945, all German forces in Bavaria and Southwest Germany signed an act of surrender to the Americans at Haar, outside Munich, in addition, Dönitz hoped to continue to evacuate soldiers and civilians by sea from the Hela peninsula and the surrounding Baltic coastal areas. From 5 May, Army Group Centre was also engaged in the suppression of the Prague uprising. The surrenders in the west had succeeded in ceasing hostilities between the Western allies and German forces on almost all fronts, German forces in the east were ordered instead to fight their way westwards. Dönitzs representative, Admiral Friedeburg, informed him on 6 May that Eisenhower was now insisting on immediate, simultaneous, the signing took place in a red brick schoolhouse, the Collège Moderne et Technique de Reims, that served as the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force. It was to take effect at 23,01 CET on 8 May, the unconditional surrender of the German armed forces was signed by Jodl, on behalf of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht
German Instrument of Surrender
–
The first instrument of surrender signed at Reims on 7 May 1945.
German Instrument of Surrender
–
Marshal Georgy Zhukov reading the German capitulation in Berlin. Seated on his right is
Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder.
German Instrument of Surrender
–
Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm Keitel signing the definitive act of surrender for the German military in Berlin.
13.
Victory in Europe Day
–
It thus marked the end of World War II in Europe. The term VE Day existed as early as September 1944, in anticipation of victory, on 30 April 1945, Adolf Hitler, the Nazi leader, committed suicide during the Battle of Berlin. Germanys surrender, therefore, was authorised by his successor, Reichspräsident Karl Dönitz, the administration headed by Dönitz was known as the Flensburg Government. The act of surrender was signed on 7 May in Reims, France and on 8 May in Berlin. The former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc countries have historically celebrated the end of World War II on 9 May, however, the Baltic countries now commemorate VE day on 8 May. In Ukraine from 2015,8 May was designated as a day of Remembrance and Reconciliation, upon the defeat of Germany, celebrations erupted throughout the world. From Moscow to Los Angeles, people celebrated, in the United Kingdom, more than one million people celebrated in the streets to mark the end of the European part of the war. Princess Elizabeth and her sister Princess Margaret were allowed to wander incognito among the crowds, in the United States, the victory happened on President Harry Trumans 61st birthday. He dedicated the victory to the memory of his predecessor, Franklin D. Roosevelt, flags remained at half-staff for the remainder of the 30-day mourning period. Truman said of dedicating the victory to Roosevelts memory and keeping the flags at half-staff that his wish was that Franklin D. Roosevelt had lived to witness this day. Later that day, Truman said that the victory made it his most enjoyable birthday, massive celebrations also took place in Chicago, Los Angeles, Miami and especially in New Yorks Times Square. As the Soviet representative in Reims had no authority to sign the German instrument of surrender, the surrender ceremony was repeated in Berlin on 8 May, where the instrument of surrender was signed by supreme German military commander Wilhelm Keitel, by Georgy Zhukov and Allied representatives. East Germany as Tag der Befreiung, a holiday from 1950 to 1966. Between 1975 and 1990, as Tag des Sieges, France as Victoire 1945 Slovakia as Deň víťazstva nad fašizmom Czech Republic as Den vítězství or Den osvobození Poland as Narodowy Dzień Zwycięstwa – National Victory Day. Norway as Frigjøringsdagen Ukraine День памяті та примирення Ukraine День перемоги над нацизмом у Другій світовій війні — from 2015
Victory in Europe Day
–
Winston Churchill waves to crowds in
Whitehall,
London on the day he broadcast the news that the war with
Germany was over.
Victory in Europe Day
–
Crowds gathered in celebration at
Piccadilly Circus,
London during VE Day in 1945.
Victory in Europe Day
–
The
instrument of Germany's surrender signed at
Reims,
France on 7 May 1945.
Victory in Europe Day
–
US military policemen read about the German surrender in the newspaper
Stars and Stripes.
14.
Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower
–
The presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower began on January 20,1953 at noon Eastern Standard Time, when he was inaugurated as the 34th President of the United States, and ended on January 20,1961. Eisenhower, a Republican, took office as president following a win over Democrat Adlai Stevenson in the 1952 presidential election. This victory upended the New Deal Coalition that had kept the presidency in the hands of the Democratic Party for 20 years, four years later, in the 1956 presidential election, he defeated Stevenson in a landslide again, winning a second term in office. Eisenhower was the first U. S. president to be limited to two terms in office under the 22nd Amendment. He was succeeded in office by Democrat John F. Kennedy, the nation experienced considerable economic prosperity during the Eisenhower Presidency, except for a sharp recession in 1958–59. It was also, following the conclusion of the Korean War in the summer of 1953, at peace, the Presidents main goals in office were to keep pressure on the Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits. A self-described progressive conservative, he continued New Deal programs and expanded Social Security and he also spurred development of the Interstate Highway System, and after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, authorized the establishment of NASA. Voted Gallups most admired man twelve times, he achieved widespread popular esteem both in and out of office, since the late 20th century, consensus among Western scholars has consistently held Eisenhower as one of the greatest U. S. Presidents. Eisenhower had been a favorite of the New Dealers during the war, especially Franklin D. Roosevelt, rejecting Democratic efforts to nominate him in 1948 and 1952, Eisenhower instead chose to run for the Republican Party nomination in 1952. His goal was to prevent Robert A. Tafts non-interventionism—such as opposition to NATO—from becoming public policy, on domestic issues they were in general agreement, and a compromise was reached after Eisenhower won the nomination that Taft would be dominant in domestic affairs and stay out of foreign affairs. Ike crusaded against Korea—Communism—Corruption, identifying these as failures of the Truman administration and he electrified the country just before the election by promising to personally go to Korea and end that stalemated conflict. Eisenhowers choice for vice-president on his ticket was Richard Nixon and he saw Nixons strong vocal opposition against communism as an asset to his campaign. When Nixons Checkers scandal was revealed to the public, Eisenhower still kept Nixon on the ticket, in the 1952 U. S. presidential election, Eisenhower easily defeated Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson II and became the first career soldier since Ulysses S. Grant to be elected president. Although many presidents have served in the military, Eisenhower was the general to serve as president in the 20th century. The United States presidential election of 1956 was held on November 6,1956, Eisenhower, the popular incumbent, successfully ran for re-election. The election was a re-match of 1952, as his opponent in 1956 was Adlai Stevenson, a former Illinois governor, compared to the 1952 election, Eisenhower gained Kentucky, Louisiana, and West Virginia from Stevenson, while losing Missouri. This was the last presidential election before the admissions of Alaska and Hawaii, Eisenhower created the positions of White House Chief of Staff and National Security Advisor. He expanded the role of the National Security Council and was the first president to conduct televised press conferences, reporters of that time have said that Eisenhower was the first president to employ the non-answer during these events
Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower
–
Dwight David Eisenhower
Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower
–
With
Republic of China President Chiang Kai-shek, Eisenhower waved to
Taiwanese people during his visit to
Taipei,
Taiwan in June 1960.
Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower
–
Eisenhower, First Lady
Soong May-ling, and Chiang in Taiwan in 1960.
Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower
–
Eisenhower in the Oval Office, February 29, 1956.
15.
Draft Eisenhower movement
–
The Draft Eisenhower movement was the first successful political draft of the 20th century to take a private citizen to the Oval Office. It was a widespread American grassroots political movement that eventually persuaded Dwight D. Eisenhower to run for President, the movement culminated in the 1952 presidential election in which Eisenhower won the Republican nomination and defeated Democrat Adlai Stevenson to become the 34th President of the United States. Dwight Eisenhower enrolled at the United States Military Academy, West Point, New York, in June 1911 and he steadily rose through the ranks of the U. S. military from 1915 to 1952. At the end of the War in Europe on May 8,1945, Eisenhower retired from active service on May 31,1952. During this period Eisenhower served as president of Columbia University from 1948 until 1953, the time from 1951 to 1952 has been called the American Winter of Discontent. Americans were frustrated by the stalemated Korean War, with no end in sight. Eisenhower rejected all requests to enter politics and he considered making a statement similar to Shermans, but did not reject running for the presidency as definitively as William T.18. i forbidding partisan political activity by serving officers. Democrats sought a candidate who could help them retain the White House after Truman, hoping that Eisenhower would run on behalf of the Democratic Party, Truman wrote to Eisenhower in December 1951, saying, I wish you would let me know what you intend to do. Eisenhower responded, I do not feel that I have any duty to seek a political nomination, Republican New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey and Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. of Massachusetts meanwhile worked to persuade him to run. Lodge began encouraging Eisenhower to run more than two years before the 1952 Republican National Convention, and Dewey on 15 October 1950 had announced his support for the general, Republican admirers coined the phrase I like Ike in the spring of 1951 as a symbol of their hopes. The I Like Ike slogan was created when Peter G. Thus, Eisenhower had told Kansas newspaper editor Roy A. Roberts in 1947 that he was a good Kansas Republican like yourself. Although Roberts disclosed their conversation in 1951, Americans remained uncertain of Eisenhowers politics, while Taft had voted against NATO, Eisenhower believed that the United States and its allies needed to oppose Communism through NATO and other collective security efforts. He hoped to settle the issue before taking the NATO post in Paris, Eisenhower offered to make a Shermanesque statement rejecting any possibility of running for the presidency if Taft agreed to support collective security with Europe. During 1951 more Republican politicians announced their support for Eisenhower, while Democrats continued to him that he could win the presidency as a Democrat. Taft announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination on 16 October, on 17 November Lodge became the campaign manager for the Draft Eisenhower movement, still without any authorization from its candidate. On January 6,1952, Lodge entered Eisenhowers name into the New Hampshire primary ballot without Eisenhowers permission, soon 24 newspapers including The New York Times endorsed Eisenhower, and Senator Paul Douglas even suggested that both parties nominate Eisenhower with differing vice-presidential running mates. For several weeks Eisenhower was a non-participant, however, and would not speak out on his views or declare himself a candidate. Through January and February Eisenhower wrote to friends and family members saying that he was flattered by the movement, on 8 February the movement demonstrated its size
Draft Eisenhower movement
–
Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1945 military photo
16.
Republican Party presidential primaries, 1952
–
Former U. S. Army General Dwight D. The moderate Eastern Republicans were led by New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey, the moderates were also concerned with ending the GOPs losing streak in presidential elections, they felt that the personally popular Eisenhower had the best chance of beating the Democrats. The conservative Republicans led by Senator Taft were based in the Midwest, Senator Taft had been a candidate for the GOP nomination in 1940 and 1948, but had been defeated both times by moderate Republicans from New York. Taft, who was 62 when the campaign began, freely admitted that 1952 was his last chance to win the nomination, and this led his supporters to work hard for him. Tafts weakness, which he was never able to overcome, was the fear of many party bosses that he was too conservative, notable was the absence of Dewey. He strongly supported Eisenhower and played an important role in persuading him to run, Dewey used his powerful political machine to win Ike the support of delegates in New York and elsewhere. Eisenhower scored a victory in the New Hampshire primary when his supporters wrote his name onto the ballot. Eisenhowers managers, led by Governor Dewey and Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. accused Taft of stealing delegate votes in Southern states such as Texas and Georgia. They claimed that Tafts leaders in these states had illegally refused to give delegate spots to Eisenhower supporters, Lodge and Dewey proposed to evict the pro-Taft delegates in these states and replace them with pro-Eisenhower delegates, they called this proposal Fair Play. In the end Eisenhower took the nomination on the first ballot, to heal the wounds caused by the battle he went to Tafts hotel suite and met with him. The Convention then chose young Senator Richard Nixon of California as Eisenhowers running mate, it was felt that Nixons credentials as a slashing campaigner, the balloting at the Republican Convention went, Freshman California Senator Richard Nixon was nominated for Vice President, also with notable Deweys support. Republican politician thought that his experience, aggressive style and political base on the West would help political newcomer Eisenhower
Republican Party presidential primaries, 1952
–
Nominee
Republican Party presidential primaries, 1952
Republican Party presidential primaries, 1952
Republican Party presidential primaries, 1952
17.
United States presidential election, 1952
–
The United States presidential election of 1952 was that nations 42nd quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 4,1952. Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower was the winner, ending a string of Democratic wins that stretched back to 1932. He carried the Republican Party to narrow control of the House, during this time, Cold War tension between the United States and the Soviet Union was at a high level, as was fear of communism in the US, epitomized by the campaign of McCarthyism. Foreign policy was an issue in the race for the Republican nomination. The nation was polarized over the stalemated Korean War, and the extent of corruption in the government became a major issue as well. The economy was prosperous and economic and social issues played little role in the campaign, incumbent President Harry S. Truman, knocked out of the race by a poor showing in the early primaries, decided to back Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson. Stevenson had gained a reputation in Illinois as a reformer and intellectual, however, President Truman had several meetings with Stevenson about the Presidents desire for Stevenson to become the standard-bearer for the party. Truman became very frustrated with Stevenson and his level of indecision before Stevenson actually committed to running. The Republican Party saw a battle for its nomination contest between Senator Robert A. Taft of Ohio and Eisenhower. The issue was foreign policy, with Eisenhower supporters attacking Taft as too isolationist, Taft saw little role for the United States in the Cold War. Eisenhower, the former NATO commander and war hero, narrowly defeated Taft. Eisenhower then crusaded against the Truman policies he blasted as Korea, Communism, Eisenhower did well in all major demographic and regional groups outside the Deep South. Republican candidates, The fight for the Republican nomination was between General Dwight D. Eisenhower, who became the candidate of the partys eastern establishment. The moderate Eastern Republicans were led by New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey, the moderates were also concerned with ending the Republicans losing streak in presidential elections, they felt that the personally popular Eisenhower had the best chance of beating the Democrats. For this reason, Dewey himself declined the notion of a run for president. The conservative Republicans led by Taft were based in the Midwest, the conservatives wanted to abolish many of the New Deal welfare programs, in foreign policy they were often non-interventionists who believed that America should avoid alliances with foreign powers. Taft had been a candidate for the Republican nomination in 1940 and 1948, Taft, who was 62 when the campaign began, freely admitted that 1952 was his last chance to win the nomination, and this led his supporters to work hard for him. Tafts weakness, which he was never able to overcome, was the fear of many party bosses that he was too conservative, Warren, although highly popular in California, refused to campaign in the presidential primaries and thus limited his chances of winning the nomination. He did retain the support of the California delegation, and his supporters hoped that, in the event of an Eisenhower-Taft deadlock, Warren might emerge as a compromise candidate
United States presidential election, 1952
–
All 531 electoral votes of the
Electoral College 266 electoral votes needed to win
United States presidential election, 1952
United States presidential election, 1952
United States presidential election, 1952
–
Senator Robert A. Taft from
Ohio
18.
First inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower
–
The first inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower as the 34th President of the United States was held on January 20,1953, at the east portico of the United States Capitol in Washington, D. C. The inauguration marked the commencement of the first four-year term of Dwight D. Eisenhower as President, chief Justice Fred M. Vinson administered the presidential oath of office to Eisenhower. The vice presidential oath was administered to Nixon by Senator William Knowland, afterward, he recited his own prayer, rather than kissing the Bible. Arends Representative Joseph W. Martin Representative Sam Rayburn United States presidential election,1952 Presidency of Dwight D
First inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower
–
Washington (1789)
First inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower
–
First Presidential Inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower
19.
Korean War
–
The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
Korean War
–
Clockwise from top: A column of the U.S.
1st Marine Division 's
infantry and
armor moves through Chinese lines during their
breakout from the Chosin Reservoir; UN landing at
Incheon harbor, starting point of the
Battle of Incheon; Korean refugees in front of an American
M26 Pershing tank; U.S. Marines, led by First Lieutenant
Baldomero Lopez, landing at Incheon;
F-86 Sabre fighter aircraft
Korean War
–
Three Koreans shot for pulling up rails as a protest against seizure of land without payment by the Japanese
Korean War
–
Soviet troops in Korea, October 1945
Korean War
–
U.S. troops in Korea, September 1945
20.
Atoms for Peace
–
Atoms for Peace was the title of a speech delivered by U. S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower to the UN General Assembly in New York City on December 8,1953. I feel impelled to speak today in a language that in a sense is new – one which I and that new language is the language of atomic warfare. The United States then launched an Atoms for Peace program that supplied equipment and information to schools, hospitals, the first nuclear reactors in Iran, Israel and Pakistan were built under the program by American Machine and Foundry. The speech was part of a carefully orchestrated media campaign, called Operation Candor, to enlighten the American public on the risks and it was a propaganda component of the Cold War strategy of containment. The speech was a point for international focus on peaceful uses of atomic energy. It presents an ostensible antithesis to brinkmanship, the intrigue that subsequently kept the world at the edge of war. However recent historians have tended to see the speech as a cold war maneuver directed primarily at U. S. allies in Europe. Eisenhower wanted to make sure that the European allies would go along with the shift in NATO strategy from an emphasis on weapons to cheaper nuclear weapons. Western Europeans wanted reassurance that the U. S. did not intend to provoke a war in Europe. Eisenhower later said that he knew the Soviets would reject the proposal he offered in the speech. Eisenhowers invoking of. those same concepts of universal peace. The UN Charter, placed new emphasis upon the USs grave responsibility for its nuclear actions—past, present, in a large way, this address laid down the rules of engagement for the new kind of warfare, the cold war. Two quotations from the follow, It is with the book of history, and not with isolated pages. My country wants to be constructive, not destructive and it wants agreement, not wars, among nations. It wants itself to live in freedom, and in the confidence that the people of other nation enjoy equally the right of choosing their own way of life. Prior to Eisenhower’s Atoms for Peace speech the state of development in the world was under the strictest of secrecies. With atomic development kept so far under wraps there were no safety protocols, the great part about his speech is the motive, how ingenious to take a horrible weapon and repurpose it to make the world a better place. During his time in office the nuclear holdings of the US rose from 1,005 to 20,000 weapons, Atoms for Peace opened up nuclear research to civilians and countries that had not previously possessed nuclear technology
Atoms for Peace
–
The Atoms for Peace program distributed nuclear technology, materials, and know-how to many countries with less advanced research.
21.
New Look (policy)
–
The New Look was the name given to the national security policy of the United States during the administration of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. It reflected Eisenhowers concern for balancing the Cold War military commitments of the United States with the financial resources. The policy emphasized reliance on nuclear weapons to deter potential threats. It was based on an extensive reappraisal of U. S. military requirements that began among Eisenhower and it was formalized in National Security Council document 162/2, which Eisenhower approved on October 30,1953. In this respect, it differed from NSC68, approved by President Harry S. Truman on September 30,1950, trumans advisers believed that Soviet military capabilities would reach a maximum relative to those of the United States and its allies in the mid-1950s. Eisenhower rejected the idea that one period would be any more dangerous than another and he wanted to avoid, in his own words, an unbearable security burden leading to economic disaster. With the costly experience of the Korean War in mind, Eisenhower was fearful that U. S. resources would be drained by Soviet-inspired regional conflicts, land and naval forces were cut. Although strategic air power attained a lower level than the Truman administration had projected, it became the centerpiece of U. S. security thinking, embodied in the doctrine of Massive Retaliation. Now the Department of Defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff can shape our military establishment to fit what is our policy, instead of having to try to be ready to meet the enemys many choices. That permits of a selection of military means instead of a multiplication of means, As a result, it is now possible to get, and share, more basic security at less cost. What Dulles implied was that the United States was prepared to respond to a Soviet-backed conventional threat anywhere with a strike against the Soviet Union itself. Furthermore, it provided the Soviet Union with an incentive to strike first to disarm the United States. The emphasis was primarily on nuclear weapons and the justification was still that of economy. However, the United States cannot afford to preclude itself from using nuclear weapons even in a local situation, will best advance U. S. security interests. According to historian Campbell Craig, NSC5440 was a revision of the earlier BNSP. Herman S. Wolk, The New Look, Air Force Magazine, v.65, samuel P. Huntington, The Common Defense, New York, Columbia University Press,1961, pp. 67–68. Quoted in Bernard Brodie, Strategy in the Missile Age, (Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press,1959, mcGeorge Bundy, a national security adviser to Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson, states that President Eisenhower, although initially put off by the phrase massive retaliatory power, not only approved the Dulles speech, mcGeorge Bundy, Danger and Survival, New York, Random House,1988, p.256
New Look (policy)
–
Secretary of State
John Foster Dulles, right, shown here with President
Eisenhower in 1956, became identified with the doctrine of "massive retaliation."
New Look (policy)
–
President Eisenhower and members of his Cabinet inspect the YB-52 prototype of the
B-52.
New Look (policy)
–
The
B-47 long-range bomber was the mainstay of U.S. deterrence during most of the New Look.
New Look (policy)
–
A
B-52 long-range bomber. The first models were deployed just as the New Look took shape.
22.
Domino theory
–
The domino theory was used by successive United States administrations during the Cold War to justify the need for American intervention around the world. Though he never used the term domino theory, U. S. President Dwight D. You have a row of dominoes set up, you knock over the first one, so you could have a beginning of a disintegration that would have the most profound influences. S. In 1949, a Communist-backed government, led by Mao Zedong, was instated in China, the installation of the new government was established after the Peoples Liberation Army defeated the Nationalist Republican Government of China in the aftermath of the Chinese Civil War. Two Chinas were formed - mainland Communist China and Nationalist China Taiwan, the takeover by Communists of the worlds most populous nation was seen in the West as a great strategic loss, prompting the popular question at the time, Who lost China. The United States subsequently ended diplomatic relations with China in response to the communist takeover in 1949, Korea had also partially fallen under Soviet domination at the end of World War II, split from the south of the 38th parallel where U. S. forces subsequently moved into. In 1950 fighting broke out between Communists and Republicans that soon involved troops from China, and the United States and 15 allied countries. Though the war never officially ended, the fighting ended in 1953 with an armistice that left Korea divided into two nations, North Korea and South Korea, Mao Zedongs decision to take on the U. S. In May 1954, the Viet Minh, a Communist and nationalist army, defeated French troops in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu and this caused the French to fully withdraw from the region then known as French Indochina, a process they had begun earlier. The regions were divided into four independent countries after a deal was brokered at the 1954 Geneva Conference to end the First Indochina War. This would give them a geographical and economic advantage, and it would make Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, Australia. The loss of regions traditionally within the regional trading area of countries like Japan would encourage the front-line countries to compromise politically with communism. The John F. Kennedy administration intervened in Vietnam in the early 1960s to, among other reasons, when Kennedy came to power there was concern that the communist-led Pathet Lao in Laos would provide the Viet Cong with bases, and that eventually they could take over Laos. The primary evidence for the theory is the spread of communist rule in three Southeast Asian countries in 1975, following the communist takeover of Vietnam, South Vietnam, Laos. It can further be argued that before they finished taking Vietnam prior to the 1950s, note the Malayan Emergency, the Hukbalahap Rebellion in the Philippines, and the increasing involvement with Communists by Sukarno of Indonesia from the late 1950s until he was deposed in 1967. All of these were unsuccessful Communist attempts to take over Southeast Asian countries which stalled when communist forces were focused in Vietnam. Meeting with President Ford and Henry Kissinger in 1975 Lee Kuan Yew argued that there is a tendency in the U. S. Congress not to want to export jobs, but we have to have the jobs if we are to stop Communism. We have done that, moving from simple to more complex skilled labor, if we stop this process, it will do more harm that you can ever repair with aid
Domino theory
–
Political cartoon by
Carlos Latuff applying the domino theory to the
Arab Spring.
23.
United States presidential election, 1956
–
The United States presidential election of 1956 was the 43rd quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 6,1956. The popular incumbent President, Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower, successfully ran for re-election, the election was a re-match of 1952, as Eisenhowers opponent in 1956 was Adlai Stevenson, a former Illinois governor, whom Eisenhower had defeated four years earlier. Eisenhower was popular, although his health had become a quiet problem, Stevenson remained popular with a core of liberal Democrats, but held no office and had no real base. As the country enjoyed peace - Eisenhower had ended the Korean War - and economic growth, compared to the 1952 election, Eisenhower gained Kentucky, Louisiana, and West Virginia from Stevenson, while losing Missouri. This was the last presidential election before the admissions of Alaska and Hawaii and this is also the last election in which all the mainland states won by the Democrats were contiguous, except in 1972 and 1984, when they only carried one state. In 1955, Eisenhower had suffered a heart attack. However, he recovered after both incidents, and after being cleared by his doctors, he decided to run for a second term. Given Eisenhowers enormous popularity, he was re-nominated with no opposition at the 1956 Republican National Convention in San Francisco, the only question among Republicans was whether Vice-President Richard Nixon would again be Eisenhowers running mate. However, Harold Stassen was the only Republican to publicly oppose Nixons re-nomination for Vice-President, Nixon had also reshaped the vice-presidency, using it as a platform to campaign for Republican state and local candidates across the country, and these candidates came to his defense. In the spring of 1956, Eisenhower publicly announced that Nixon would again be his running mate, unlike 1952, conservative Republicans did not attempt to shape the platform. At the convention, one voted for a fictitious Joe Smith for Vice-President to prevent a unanimous vote. Kefauver won the New Hampshire primary unopposed, after Kefauver upset Stevenson in the Minnesota primary, Stevenson, realizing that he was in trouble, agreed to debate Kefauver in Florida. Stevenson and Kefauver held the first televised debate on May 21,1956. Stevenson carried Florida by a 52-48% margin, by the time of the California primary in June 1956, Kefauvers campaign had run low on money and could not compete for publicity and advertising with the well-funded Stevenson. Stevenson won the California primary by a 63-37% margin, and Kefauver soon withdrew from the race, averell Harriman, who was backed by former President Harry S. Truman, challenged Stevenson for the nomination. However, Stevensons delegate lead was too large for Harriman to overcome. The roll call, as reported in Richard C, Bain and Judith H. Parris, Convention Decisions and Voting Records, pp. This set off a scramble among several candidates to win the nomination
United States presidential election, 1956
United States presidential election, 1956
United States presidential election, 1956
–
President Dwight D. Eisenhower
United States presidential election, 1956
–
Senator Estes Kefauver from
Tennessee
24.
Sputnik crisis
–
The crisis was a key event in the early Cold War that triggered the creation of NASA and Space Race between the two superpowers. The satellite was launched on October 4,1957 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, the term was coined by then US President Dwight D. Eisenhower. The United States was the dominant world power in the early 1950s, lockheed U-2 spy plane flights over the Soviet Union provided intelligence that the US held the advantage in nuclear capability. The launch and orbit of Sputnik 1 suggested that the USSR had made a leap forward in technology. This spurred the United States to make substantial investments in research and development, education. The Juno I rocket that carried the first US satellite Explorer 1 had been ready to launch in 1956, the Armys PGM-19 Jupiter from which Juno was derived had been mothballed on the orders of defense secretary Charles Erwin Wilson amid interservice rivalry with the US Air Forces PGM-17 Thor. The USSR used ICBM technology to launch Sputnik into space and this essentially gave the Soviets two propaganda victories at once. This proved that the Soviets had rockets capable of sending nuclear weapons from Russia to Western Europe and this was the most immediate threat that the launch of Sputnik 1 posed. The United States, a land with a history of security from European wars. A contributing factor to the Sputnik Crisis was that the Soviets had not released a photograph of the satellite for five days after the launch, until this point, its appearance remained a mystery to Americans. Another factor was Sputniks weight of 184 pounds which dwarfed the United States plans to launch a satellite of 21.5 pounds, the Soviet claim seemed outrageous to many American officials who doubted its accuracy. US rockets at the time produced 150,000 pounds-force of thrust, in fact, the R-7 rocket that launched Sputnik 1 into space produced almost 1,000,000 pounds-force of thrust. All these factors contributed to the American peoples perception that they were greatly behind the Soviets in the development of space technologies, hours after the launch, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Astronomy Department rigged an ad-hoc interferometer to measure signals from the satellite. Gillies and Jim Snyder programmed the ILLIAC I computer to calculate the orbit from this data. The programming and calculation was completed in less than two days, the rapid publication of the ephemeris in the journal Nature within a month of the satellite launch helped to dispel some of the fear created by the Sputnik launch. It also lent credence to the idea that the Sputnik launch was part of an organized effort to dominate space. The same rocket that launched Sputnik could send a nuclear warhead anywhere in the world in a matter of minutes, the Soviets had demonstrated this capability on 21 August with a 6, 000-kilometer test flight of the R-7 booster. The event was announced by TASS five days later and was reported in other media
Sputnik crisis
–
Soviet stamp depicting Sputnik's orbit around Earth
25.
Missile gap
–
Missile Gap is a 2006 English language science fiction novella, originally published in the anthology One Million A. D. by British author Charles Stross. It won the Locus Award for best novella of 2006, the novella was republished in Strosss short-story collection Wireless in 2009. On 2 October 1962, the universe underwent a change – instantly, measurements on Cepheid variable stars indicate that the Alderson disk is located in the Lesser Magellanic Cloud, and that the epoch is roughly 800,000 years later than the calendar date. In the sky, the stars of the Milky Way are reddened and metal-depleted, three theories for the change are suggested within the novella, the atoms making up the surface and people of earth have somehow peeled off the Earth and shipped to a new location. Marvin Minsky suggests that a snapshot of the world was taken, hans Moravec suggests that a snapshot of the world was taken and the snapshot has been used as the basis for a simulated reality. The first hypothesis would indicate that the characters of the book are the humans of the 20th century Earth. The latter two hypotheses would indicate that the characters of the book are duplicates of humans lived and died thousands of years previously. The creatures that moved or copied humanity are unknown, as is the technology they used, because of the projection of a spherical surface onto a flat surface, some changes occur, North America is now much farther from Asia, as there is no polar route. Furthermore, launching a satellite into orbit becomes impossible. The deterrent role is taken over by long-range nuclear-powered cruise missiles, cold war tensions between the two super states provide the in-between plot direction. There are several sub-plots – the exploration of the new world by both superpowers forms much of the major plot, yuri Gagarin captains a huge, nuclear-powered Ekranoplan on behalf of the Soviets, whilst the Americans launch cruise liners filled with colonists for distant islands. On one such island, Madelaine Holbright begins an affair with John Martin, during his travels, Gagarin turns up further examples of Earths far away from the currently inhabited areas, with cities that have clearly been destroyed in nuclear war in the distant past. G. Carl Hays in his review for Booklist called the novel a bizarre, online text from the publishers website
Missile gap
–
Cover of first edition (hardcover)
Missile gap
26.
National Defense Education Act
–
The National Defense Education Act was signed into law on September 2,1958, providing funding to United States education institutions at all levels. It followed a national sense that U. S. scientists were falling behind scientists in the Soviet Union. The act authorized funding for four years, increasing funding per year, for example, in total, over a billion dollars was directed towards improving American science curricula. However, in the aftermath of McCarthyism, a mandate was inserted in the act that all beneficiaries must complete an affidavit disclaiming belief in the overthrow of the U. S. government. This requisite loyalty statement stirred concern and protest from the American Association of University Professors, the NDEA was influenced by the Soviet launch of the satellite Sputnik on October 4,1957. U. S. citizens feared that education in the USSR was superior to that in the United States, the year 1957 also coincided with an acute shortage of mathematicians in the United States. The United States could no rely on European refugees for all of its mathematicians, though they remained an important source. At the time, mathematics was interpreted as pure mathematics rather than applied mathematics, the problem in the 1950s and 1960s was that industry, including defense, was absorbing the mathematicians who should have been at high schools and universities training the next generation. At the university level, even recently, there have been years when it was difficult to hire applied mathematicians. Additionally, more high school graduates were beginning to attend college, in 1940 about one-half million Americans attended college, which was about 15 percent of their age group. By 1960, however, college enrollments had expanded to 3.6 million, by 1970,7.5 million students were attending colleges in the United States, or 40 percent of college-age youths. The act, therefore, was designed to fulfill two purposes, first, it was designed to provide the country with specific defense oriented personnel. This included providing federal help to foreign scholars, area studies centers. Title I of the NDEA serves as an introduction to the content, Title II authorizes the provision of student loans and provides terms by which they may be awarded. Initially, Title II provided scholarships rather than loans, however, some members of Congress expressed worry about the message sent by giving students a “free ride. ”The House version of the bill eliminated scholarship money, while the Senate reduced the amount of scholarship money. By the time the bill was passed into law, student aid was exclusively loan-based, Title III provides additional financial assistance for the purposes of strengthening science, math, and foreign language programs. Latin and Greek programs are not funded under this title, on the grounds that they are not modern foreign languages, Title IV provides funding for graduate fellowships in order to increase the number of graduate-level professionals and university professors. Priority was given to students who stated an interest in becoming a professor, however, certain fields were specifically exempted from these fellowships
National Defense Education Act
–
National Defense Education Act
27.
NASA
–
President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
NASA
–
1963 photo showing Dr. William H. Pickering, (center) JPL Director, President John F. Kennedy, (right). NASA Administrator James Webb in background. They are discussing the
Mariner program, with a model presented.
NASA
–
Seal of NASA
NASA
–
At launch control for the May 28, 1964,
Saturn I SA-6 launch.
Wernher von Braun is at center.
NASA
–
Mercury-Atlas 6 launch on February 20, 1962
28.
DARPA
–
The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is an agency of the U. S. Department of Defense responsible for the development of emerging technologies for use by the military. DARPA was created in February 1958 as the Advanced Research Projects Agency by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and its purpose was to formulate and execute research and development projects to expand the frontiers of technology and science, with the aim to reach beyond immediate military requirements. DARPA was created in response to the Soviet launching of Sputnik 1 in 1957, the name of the organization changed several times from its founding name ARPA, DARPA, ARPA, and DARPA. DARPA is independent from other research and development and reports directly to senior Department of Defense management. DARPA has about 240 employees, of whom 13 are in management, dARPA-funded projects have provided significant technologies that influenced many non-military fields, such as computer networking and graphical user interfaces in information technology. S. The mission statement has evolved over time, today, DARPAs mission is still to prevent technological surprise to the U. S. but also to create technological surprise for U. S. enemies. The creation of the Advanced Research Projects Agency was authorized by President Dwight D.15 and its creation was directly attributed to the launching of Sputnik and to U. S. realization that the Soviet Union had developed the capacity to rapidly exploit military technology. Initial funding of ARPA was $520 million, ARPAs first director, Roy Johnson, left a $160,000 management job at General Electric for an $18,000 job at ARPA. Herbert York from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory was hired as his scientific assistant, Johnson and York were both keen on space projects, but when NASA was established later in 1958 all space projects and most of ARPAs funding were transferred to it. Johnson resigned and ARPA was repurposed to do high-risk, high-gain, far out basic research, ARPAs second director was Brigadier General Austin W. Betts, who resigned in early 1961. He was succeeded by Jack Ruina who served until 1963, Ruina, the first scientist to administer ARPA, managed to raise its budget to $250 million. In pursuit of this mission, DARPA has developed and transferred technology programs encompassing a range of scientific disciplines that address the full spectrum of national security needs. From 1958 to 1965, ARPAs emphasis centered on major issues, including space, ballistic missile defense. During 1960, all of its civilian space programs were transferred to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the military space programs to the individual Services. This allowed ARPA to concentrate its efforts on the Project Defender, Project Vela, and Project AGILE Programs, and to work on computer processing, behavioral sciences. The DEFENDER and AGILE Programs formed the foundation of DARPA sensor, surveillance, and directed energy R&D, particularly in the study of radar, infrared sensing, ARPA at this point played an early role in Transit a predecessor to the Global Positioning System. Fast-forward to 1959 when a joint effort between DARPA and the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory began to fine-tune the early explorers’ discoveries, TRANSIT, sponsored by the Navy and developed under the leadership of Dr. Richard Kirschner at Johns Hopkins, was the first satellite positioning system. The agency was renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency in 1972, and during the early 1970s, it emphasized direct energy programs, information processing, concerning information processing, DARPA made great progress, initially through its support of the development of time-sharing
DARPA
–
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
DARPA
–
DARPA's former headquarters in the
Virginia Square neighborhood of Arlington. This agency recently moved to 675 North Randolph Street, near the Ballston Common Mall.
29.
Little Rock Nine
–
The Little Rock Nine was a group of nine African American students enrolled in Little Rock Central High School in 1957. Their enrollment was followed by the Little Rock Crisis, in which the students were prevented from entering the racially segregated school by Orval Faubus. They then attended after the intervention of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, the U. S. Supreme Court issued its historic Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas,347 U. S.483, on May 17,1954. Tied to the 14th Amendment, the decision declared all laws establishing segregated schools to be unconstitutional, after the decision, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People attempted to register black students in previously all-white schools in cities throughout the South. In Little Rock, the city of Arkansas, the Little Rock School Board agreed to comply with the high courts ruling. Virgil Blossom, the Superintendent of Schools, submitted a plan of gradual integration to the board on May 24,1955. The plan would be implemented during the fall of the 1957 school year, by 1957, the NAACP had registered nine black students to attend the previously all-white Little Rock Central High, selected on the criteria of excellent grades and attendance. Ernest Green was the first African American to graduate from Central High School, one of the plans created during attempts to desegregate the schools of Little Rock was by school superintendent Virgil Blossom. The initial approach proposed substantial integration beginning quickly and extending to all grades within a matter of many years and this original proposal was scrapped and replaced with one that more closely met a set of minimum standards worked out in attorney Richard B. This finalized plan would start in September 1957 and would integrate one high school, the second phase of the plan would take place in 1960 and would open up a few junior high schools to a few black children. The final stage would involve limited desegregation of the grade schools at an unspecified time. This plan was met with varied reactions from the NAACP branch of Little Rock, militant members like the Bateses opposed the plan on the grounds that it was vague, indefinite, slow-moving and indicative of an intent to stall further on public integration. This view was short lived, however, changes were made to the plan, the most detrimental being a new transfer system that would allow students to move out of the attendance zone to which they were assigned. The unaltered Blossom Plan had gerrymandered school districts to guarantee a black majority at Horace Mann High and a white majority at Hall High. This meant that, even though black students lived closer to Central, the altered plan gave white students the choice of not attending Horace Mann, but didnt give black students the option of attending Hall. This new Blossom Plan did not sit well with the NAACP and after failed negotiations with the school board and this lawsuit, along with a number of other factors contributed to the Little Rock School Crisis of 1957. Several segregationist councils threatened to hold protests at Central High and physically block the black students from entering the school, Governor Orval Faubus deployed the Arkansas National Guard to support the segregationists on September 4,1957. The sight of a line of soldiers blocking out the students made national headlines, regarding the accompanying crowd, one of the nine students, Elizabeth Eckford, recalled, They moved closer and closer
Little Rock Nine
–
The "Little Rock Nine" are escorted inside
Little Rock Central High School by troops of the
101st Airborne Division of the
United States Army.
Little Rock Nine
–
A commemorative silver dollar
Little Rock Nine
–
Memorial at
Arkansas State Capitol
30.
1960 U-2 incident
–
Powers parachuted safely and was captured. The U-2 flew at altitudes that could not be reached by Soviet fighter jets of the era, a facility established in Badaber,10 miles from Peshawar, was a cover for a major communications intercept operation run by the United States National Security Agency. Badaber was an excellent location because of its proximity to Soviet central Asia and this enabled the monitoring of missile test sites, key infrastructure and communications. The U-2 spy-in-the-sky was allowed to use the Pakistan Air Force portion of Peshawar Airport to gain photo intelligence in an era before satellite observation. At a time like the Cold War, any act of aggression could spark open conflict between the two countries, with the United Kingdom still reeling from the aftermath of the Suez Crisis and in no position to snub American requests, the British government was amenable to the proposal. The final two missions before the summit were to be flown by American pilots, the U-2 left Soviet air space and landed at an Iranian airstrip at Zahedan. It was clear that the U. S, Central Intelligence Agency had successfully performed an extraordinary intelligence operation. The next flight of the U-2 spyplane from Peshawar airport was planned for late April, Lockheed U-2C spy plane, Article 358, was ferried from Incirlik Air Base in Turkey to the US base at Peshawar airport by pilot Glen Dunaway. Fuel for the aircraft had been ferried to Peshawar the previous day in a US Air Force C-124 transport, a US Air Force C-130 followed, carrying the ground crew, mission pilot Francis Gary Powers, and the back up pilot, Bob Ericson. On the morning of 29 April, the crew in Badaber was informed that the mission had been delayed one day, as a result, Bob Ericson flew Article 358 back to Incirlik and John Shinn ferried another U-2C, Article 360, from Incirlik to Peshawar. On 30 April, the mission was delayed one day further because of bad weather over the Soviet Union, at the time, the USSR had six ICBM launch pads, two at Baikonur and four at Plesetsk. Mayak, then named Chelyabinsk-65, an important industrial center of plutonium processing, was another of the targets that Powers was to photograph. A close study of Powerss account of the shows that one of the last targets he overflew. Because of the U-2s extreme operating altitude, Soviet attempts to intercept the plane using fighter aircraft failed. The U-2s course was out of range of several of the nearest SAM sites, the U-2 was eventually brought down near Kosulino, Ural Region, by the first of three SA-2 Guideline surface-to-air missiles fired by a battery commanded by Mikhail Voronov. The SA-2 site had previously identified by the CIA, using photos taken during Vice President Richard Nixons visit to Sverdlovsk the previous summer. Powers bailed out but neglected to disconnect his oxygen hose first and struggled with it until it broke, Powers was captured soon after parachuting safely down onto Russian soil. Powers carried with him a silver dollar which contained a lethal, shellfish-derived saxitoxin-tipped needle
1960 U-2 incident
–
A U-2 aircraft similar to the one shot down
1960 U-2 incident
–
U-2 "GRAND SLAM" flight plan on 1 May 1960, from CIA publication 'The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance; The U-2 And Oxcart Programs, 1954-1974', declassified 25 June 2013.
1960 U-2 incident
–
Part of the U-2 wreckage.
1960 U-2 incident
–
U-2 with fictitious NASA markings and serial number at the NASA Flight Research Center,
Edwards Air Force Base, on 6 May 1960 (NASA photo).
31.
General of the Army (United States)
–
General of the Army is a five-star general officer and the second highest possible rank in the United States Army. A General of the Army ranks immediately above a general and is equivalent to a fleet admiral, there is no established equivalent five-star rank in the other federal uniformed services. Often called a general, the rank of General of the Army has historically been reserved for wartime use and is not currently active in the U. S. military. The General of the Army insignia consisted of five 3/8th inch stars in a pentagonal pattern, the insignia is paired with the gold and enameled United States Coat of Arms on service coat shoulder loops. The silver colored five-star metal insignia alone would be worn for use as an insignia of grade. Soft shoulder epaulettes with five 7/16th inch stars in silver thread and gold-threaded United States Coat of Arms on green cloth were worn with shirts and sweaters. A special rank of General of the Armies, which ranks above General of the Army, exists but has been conferred only twice, to John J. Pershing and posthumously to George Washington. On July 25,1866, the U. S. Congress established the rank of General of the Army of the United States for General Ulysses S. Grant. His pay was four hundred dollars per month, and his allowance for fuel and quarters except when his headquarters are in Washington, when appointed General of the Army, Grant wore the rank insignia of four stars and coat buttons arranged in three groups of four. Unlike the World War II rank with a title, the 1866 rank of General of the Army was a four-star rank. This rank held all the authority and power of a 1799 proposal for a rank of General of the Armies even though Grant was never called by this title. In contrast to the modern rank of general, only one officer at a time could hold the 1866–1888 rank of General of the Army. After Grant became the U. S. president, he was succeeded as General of the Army by William T. Sherman, in 1872, Sherman ordered the insignia changed to two stars with the coat of arms of the United States in between. By an Act of June 1,1888, the grade was conferred upon Philip Sheridan, the rank of General of the Army ceased to exist with Sheridans death on August 5,1888. As the logistics and military leadership requirements of World War II escalated after the June 1944 Normandy Landings, the five-star rank and authority of General of the Army and equivalent naval fleet admiral was created by an Act of Congress on a temporary basis when Pub. L. 78–482 was passed on 14 December 1944, as a temporary rank, the temporary rank was then declared permanent 23 March 1946 by Pub. L. 79–333, which also awarded full pay and allowances in the grade to those on the retired list and it was created to give the most senior American commanders parity of rank with their British counterparts holding the ranks of field marshal and admiral of the fleet. This second General of the Army rank is not the same as the post-Civil War era version because of its purpose, the insignia for General of the Army, created in 1944, consists of five stars in a pentagonal pattern, with points touching
General of the Army (United States)
–
Rank flag of a General of the Army
32.
National Highway System (United States)
–
Altogether, it constitutes the largest highway system in the world. Individual states are encouraged to focus federal funds on improving the efficiency, the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 provided that certain key routes such as the Interstate Highway System, be included. The National Highway System Designation Act of 1995 is a United States Act of Congress that was signed into law by President Bill Clinton on November 28,1995, the legislation designated about 160,955 miles of roads, including the Interstate Highway System, as the NHS. Aside from designating the system, the act served several other purposes, the act also created a State Infrastructure Bank pilot program. Ten states were chosen in 1996 for this new method of road financing and these banks would lend money like regular banks, with funding coming from the federal government or the private sector, and they would be repaid through such means as highway tolls or taxes. In 1997,28 more states asked to be part of the program, ohio was the first state to use a state infrastructure bank to start building a road. An advantage to this method was completing projects faster, state laws, all urban areas with a population of over 50,000 and about 90% of Americas population live within 5 miles of the network, which is the longest in the world
National Highway System (United States)
–
System map with Interstate Highways in blue and other components in red
33.
Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956
–
The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, popularly known as the National Interstate and Defense Highways Act, was enacted on June 29,1956, when President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the bill into law. The addition of the defense in the acts title was for two reasons, First, some of the original cost was diverted from defense funds. Secondly, most U. S. Air Force bases have a link to the system. The purpose was to access in order to defend them during an attack. All of these links were in the plans, although some, such as Wright Patterson were not connected up in the 1950s. It was expected that the money would be generated through new taxes on fuel, automobiles, trucks, as a matter of practice, the federal portion of the cost of the Interstate Highway System has been paid for by taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel. The highly publicized 1919 convoy was intended, in part, to dramatize the need for better main highways, the convoy left the Ellipse south of the White House in Washington, D. C. on July 7,1919, and headed for Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. From there, it followed the Lincoln Highway to San Francisco, bridges cracked and were rebuilt, vehicles became stuck in mud and equipment broke, but the convoy was greeted warmly by communities across the country. The convoy reached San Francisco on September 6,1919, the trip had been difficult, tiring and fun, he said. The old convoy had started me thinking about good, two-lane highways and his Grand Plan for highways, announced in 1954, led to the 1956 legislative breakthrough that created the Highway Trust Fund to accelerate construction of the Interstate System. Eisenhower advocated for the highways for the purpose of national defense, in the event of a ground invasion by a foreign power, the U. S. Army would need good highways to be able to transport troops across the country efficiently. Following completion of the highways the cross-country journey that took the two months in 1919 was cut down to five days. Many limited-access toll highways that had built prior to the Interstate Highway Act were incorporated into the Interstate system. The money collected is used for maintenance, turnpike improvement projects. Tolls collected on Interstate Highways remain on I-95, I-94, I-90, I-88, I-87, I-80, I-77, I-76, I-64, I-44, I-294, I-355 and several others
Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956
–
U.S. President
Dwight D. Eisenhower.
Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956
–
Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956
34.
Interstate 5 in California
–
Interstate 5 is a major north–south route of the Interstate Highway System in the U. S. state of California. It begins at the Mexico–United States border at the San Ysidro crossing, goes north across the length of California and crosses into Oregon south of the Medford-Ashland metropolitan area. It is the important and most used of the two major north-south routes on the Pacific Coast, the other being U. S. Route 101. This highway links the major California cities of San Diego, Santa Ana, Los Angeles, Stockton, Sacramento, Interstate 5 has several named portions, the Montgomery Freeway, San Diego Freeway, Santa Ana Freeway, Golden State Freeway, and West Side Freeway. I-5 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System and is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System, however, it is a scenic highway as designated by Caltrans only from State Route 152 to I‑580. Interstate 5 begins at the San Ysidro Port of Entry from Mexico in the San Ysidro neighborhood of San Diego, immediately after the border, I-805 splits off to the northeast and serves as a bypass of I-5 that avoids the downtown San Diego area. I-5 itself continues northwest and intersects with the end of the SR905 freeway. I-5 then continues northward and joins the end of SR75. I-5 then enters Chula Vista, briefly leaving the San Diego city limits and it continues along the east side of San Diego Bay where it intersects with SR54 and enters National City. From there, I-5 veers around the San Diego Naval Base, I-5 subsequently interchanges with four state routes — SR15, SR75 and the Coronado Bay Bridge, the western end of SR94, and the southern end of SR163. In addition to serving downtown San Diego, I-5 also provides access to Balboa Park from the Pershing Drive exit. The portion of I-5 from the border to downtown San Diego is named the Montgomery Freeway in honor of John J. Montgomery, a pioneer aviator who flew a glider from a location near Chula Vista in 1884. I-5 continues northwest from downtown as the San Diego Freeway until it reaches its junction with I-8, then slightly to the north while passing near SeaWorld. Thereafter, I-5 interchanges with the end of SR52 before passing through the UC San Diego campus in University City near La Jolla. At Nobel Drive, the San Diego LDS Temple towers over I-5, shortly afterward, I-5 interchanges with the northern terminus of I-805 before continuing north and interchanging with the western end of SR56. At this interchange, there is a recently completed local bypass that provides the access to Carmel Mountain Road from both directions and provides the only access to SR56 going northbound. North of the San Diego city limits, I-5 enters into the city limits of Solana Beach, in Oceanside, I-5 intersects with the SR78 freeway and the SR76 expressway and continues through Camp Pendleton. It then follows the Pacific Ocean coastline for the next 20 miles, I-5 enters Orange County at the Christianitos Road exit
Interstate 5 in California
–
I-5 looking south toward downtown San Diego in January 2002
Interstate 5 in California
–
Interstate 5
Interstate 5 in California
–
I-5 South in San Diego toward
Mexico, September 2012
Interstate 5 in California
–
I-5 in the
Newhall Pass Interchange, where it intersects with I-210 and SR 14 near Santa Clarita
35.
Central reservation
–
The median strip or central reservation is the reserved area that separates opposing lanes of traffic on divided roadways, such as divided highways, dual carriageways, freeways, and motorways. The term also applies to divided roadways other than highways, such as major streets in urban or suburban areas. There is no international English standard for the term, median, median strip, and median divider island are common in North American and Antipodean English. Variants in North American English include regional terms such as neutral ground in New Orleans usage, among other coinages, central nature strip occurs in Australian English. Additionally, different terminology is used to traffic lanes in a multi-lane roadway. North American usage calls the lanes located closest to the roadway centerline the inner lanes, thus, it is less confusing to call these central lanes the passing, fast, or overtaking lanes in international contexts, instead of using the ambiguous inner/outer distinction. Regional differences between right-hand traffic and left-hand traffic can cause further confusion, some medians function secondarily as green areas and green belts to beautify roadways. Where space is at a premium, dense hedges of shrubs filter the headlights of oncoming traffic, in contrast to the median of a major road, those in urban areas often take the form of central traffic islands that rise above the roadway. These are frequently found on urban arterial roads, in their simplest form, these are just raised concrete curbs, but can also be landscaped with grass or trees or decorated with bricks or stones. In some areas, such as California, highway medians are sometimes no more than a section of the paved roadway. The medians of United States Interstate Highways break only for emergency service lanes, on British motorways, the median is never broken, but there are no such restrictions on other dual carriageways. The median strip in the United Kingdom and other densely populated European countries is no wider than a single lane of traffic. In some cases, however, it is extended, for instance, if the road is running through hilly terrain, the carriageways may have to be built on different levels of the slope. An example of this is on the M5 motorway as it climbs up the side of the Gordano Valley south of Bristol. The other major exception is the A38 Aston Expressway, which is a carriageway of seven lanes. All existing motorways will introduce concrete barriers as part of ongoing upgrades and through replacement as and this change of policy applies only to barriers in the median of high speed roads and not to verge side barriers. Other routes will continue to use steel barriers, in urban areas, concrete barriers and guard rails are used. In Dedham, Massachusetts, the Norfolk County Correctional Center is located entirely within a median of Massachusetts Route 128
Central reservation
–
A grass median strip on a highway in Pennsylvania, United States
Central reservation
–
A California arterial road median with decorative
cobblestones inset
Central reservation
–
The wide median strip in Main St,
Bairnsdale, Victoria, Australia has been made into a garden feature of the town.
Central reservation
–
A raised concrete median can be seen dividing
US Route 52 in
Rochester, Minnesota
36.
Cadillac Square
–
Campus Martius Park is a re-established park in Downtown Detroit, Michigan. After the fire of 1805, Campus Martius was the point of Judge Augustus Woodwards plans to rebuild the city. The park is located at the intersection of Woodward Avenue and Michigan Avenue, the original park covered several acres and was a major gathering area for citizens. The park was lost in the 1900s as the downtown was reconfigured to accommodate increased vehicular traffic. Hart Plaza, along the riverfront, was designed to replace Campus Martius as a point of importance, but as Hart Plaza is a primarily hard-surfaced area, many residents came to lament the lack of true park space in the citys downtown area. This led to calls to rebuild Campus Martius, the site of the Civil War-era Michigan Soldiers and Sailors Monument, the park is also where the point of origin of Detroits coordinate system is located. Seven miles north of this point is Seven Mile Road, eight miles north is Eight Mile Road, the point of origin is marked by a medallion embedded in the stone walkway. It is situated in the point of the diamond surrounding the Woodward Fountain. The new Campus Martius Park was dedicated November 19,2004, at 1.2 acres, the park is smaller than its predecessor, as a full restoration of the original would have required the demolition of several buildings. However, the city increased the amount of space in the area by constructing the new Cadillac Square Park. The parks skating rink is designed to resemble the Rockefeller Center rink in New York City but is larger in size, since its opening the rink has been operated by Magic Ice USA, Inc. Thousands come to hear Christmas music and countdown to the lighting of the citys official Christmas tree, Cadillac Square Park is another re-established park in the area. It lies immediately to the east of Campus Martius Park, until 2001, the area where the park is located was occupied by a bus transfer station constructed in the 1960s. From 1841 until 1891, Cadillac Square was the site of the Detroit Farmers Market, the new park is site of the relocated Bagley Memorial Fountain which previously occupied a spot on Campus Martius. In January 2008, the city of Detroit announced plans for a new Cadillac Centre, the French sport of pétanque is played at Cadillac Square each workday from noon to 1 p. m. The similar Italian sport of bocce is also played there, Cadillac Center Detroit People Mover station Detroit International Riverfront Grand Circus Park Historic District Hill, Eric J. and John Gallagher. AIA Detroit, The American Institute of Architects Guide to Detroit Architecture, Detroit and Rome, building on the past. Regents of the University of Michigan, official Campus Martius Park website Detroit News, Campus Martius Park history Video review of the park with on-site footage MAPDETROIT. COM
Cadillac Square
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Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument in Campus Martius
Cadillac Square
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Bagley Memorial Fountain on Cadillac Square facing Campus Martius
Cadillac Square
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Campus Martius in 1907
Cadillac Square
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Campus Martius in 1914
37.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
World War I
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Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
World War I
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
World War I
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This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
World War I
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
38.
Federal Highway Administration
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The Federal Highway Administration is a division of the United States Department of Transportation that specializes in highway transportation. The agencys major activities are grouped into two programs, the Federal-aid Highway Program and the Federal Lands Highway Program and its role had previously been performed by the Office of Road Inquiry, Office of Public Roads and the Bureau of Public Roads. The organization has several organizations and a complicated history. The Office of Road Inquiry was founded in 1893, in 1905 that organizations name was changed to the Office of Public Roads which became a division of the United States Department of Agriculture. The name was changed again to the Bureau of Public Roads in 1915 and it was then shifted to the Federal Works Agency which was abolished in 1949 when its name reverted to Bureau of Public Roads under the Department of Commerce. With the coming of the bicycle in the 1890s, interest grew regarding the improvement of streets, the traditional method of putting the burden on maintaining roads on local landowners was increasingly inadequate. New York State took the lead in 1898, and by 1916 the old system had been discarded everywhere area, demands grew for local and state government to take charge. With the coming of the automobile after 1910, urgent efforts were made to upgrade, the American Association for Highway Improvement was organized in 1910. Funding came from automobile registration, and taxes on motor fuels, in 1916, federal-aid was first made available to improve post-roads, and promote general commerce. Congress appropriated $75 million over a period, with the Secretary of Agriculture in charge through the Bureau of Public Roads. There were 2.4 million miles of rural dirt rural roads in 1914,100,000 miles had been improved with grading and gravel, the rapidly increasing speed of automobiles, and especially trucks, made maintenance and repair high-priority item. Concrete was first used in 1893, and expanded until it became the dominant surfacing material in the 1930s, from 1917 through 1941,261,000 miles of highways were built with federal aid, and cost $5.31 billion. Federal funds totaled $3.17 billion, and state-local funds were $2.14 billion, the FHWA was created on October 15,1966. In 1967 the functions of the Bureau of Public Roads were transferred to the new organization and it was one of three original bureaus along with the Bureau of Motor Carrier Safety and the National Highway Safety Bureau. The FHWA’s role in the Federal-aid Highway Program is to oversee federal funds used for constructing and maintaining the National Highway System and this funding mostly comes from the federal gasoline tax and mostly goes to state departments of transportation. FHWA oversees projects using these funds to ensure that requirements for project eligibility. The FHWA also publishes the “Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices”, the MUTCD specifies such things as the size, color and height of traffic signs, traffic signals and road surface markings. The Federal Highway Administration is overseen by an Administrator appointed by the President of the United States by, the Administrator works under the direction of the Secretary of Transportation and Deputy Secretary of Transportation
Federal Highway Administration
–
Federal Highway Administration
39.
United States Army
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The United States Army is the largest branch of the United States Armed Forces and performs land-based military operations. After the Revolutionary War, the Congress of the Confederation created the United States Army on 3 June 1784, the United States Army considers itself descended from the Continental Army, and dates its institutional inception from the origin of that armed force in 1775. As a uniformed service, the Army is part of the Department of the Army. As a branch of the forces, the mission of the U. S. The branch participates in conflicts worldwide and is the major ground-based offensive and defensive force of the United States, the United States Army serves as the land-based branch of the U. S. Section 3062 of Title 10, U. S, the army was initially led by men who had served in the British Army or colonial militias and who brought much of British military heritage with them. As the Revolutionary War progressed, French aid, resources, a number of European soldiers came on their own to help, such as Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, who taught Prussian Army tactics and organizational skills. The army fought numerous pitched battles and in the South in 1780–81 sometimes used the Fabian strategy and hit-and-run tactics, hitting where the British were weakest, to wear down their forces. Washington led victories against the British at Trenton and Princeton, but lost a series of battles in the New York and New Jersey campaign in 1776, with a decisive victory at Yorktown, and the help of the French, the Continental Army prevailed against the British. After the war, though, the Continental Army was quickly given land certificates, State militias became the new nations sole ground army, with the exception of a regiment to guard the Western Frontier and one battery of artillery guarding West Points arsenal. However, because of continuing conflict with Native Americans, it was realized that it was necessary to field a trained standing army. The War of 1812, the second and last war between the United States and Great Britain, had mixed results. After taking control of Lake Erie in 1813, the U. S. Army seized parts of western Upper Canada, burned York and defeated Tecumseh, which caused his Western Confederacy to collapse. Following U. S. victories in the Canadian province of Upper Canada, British troops, were able to capture and burn Washington, which was defended by militia, in 1814. Two weeks after a treaty was signed, Andrew Jackson defeated the British in the Battle of New Orleans and Siege of Fort St. Philip, U. S. troops and sailors captured HMS Cyane, Levant, and Penguin in the final engagements of the war. Per the treaty, both sides, the United States and Great Britain, returned to the status quo. Both navies kept the warships they had seized during the conflict, the armys major campaign against the Indians was fought in Florida against Seminoles. It took long wars to defeat the Seminoles and move them to Oklahoma
United States Army
–
Storming of Redoubt #10 in the
Siege of Yorktown during the
American Revolutionary War prompted the British government to begin negotiations, resulting in the
Treaty of Paris and British recognition of the United States of America.
United States Army
–
Emblem of the United States Department of the Army
United States Army
–
General
Andrew Jackson stands on the parapet of his makeshift defenses as his troops repulse attacking
Highlanders during the
defense of New Orleans, the final major battle of the War of 1812
United States Army
–
The
Battle of Gettysburg, the turning point of the American Civil War
40.
John J. Pershing
–
American forces first saw serious battle at Cantigny, Chateau-Thierry, Belleau Wood, and Soissons. To speed up the arrival of the doughboys, they embarked for France leaving the heavy equipment behind, the Allied Hundred Days Offensive, which the Argonne fighting was part of, contributed to Germany calling for an armistice. Pershing was of the opinion that the war should continue and that all of Germany should be occupied in an effort to permanently destroy German militarism. Allowed to select his own insignia, Pershing chose to use four stars to distinguish himself from those officers who held the rank of General. Some of his tactics have been criticized both by commanders at the time and by modern historians. His reliance on costly frontal assaults, long after other Allied armies had abandoned such tactics, has blamed for causing unnecessarily high American casualties. Pershing was born on a farm near Laclede, Missouri, to businessman John Fletcher Pershing, Pershings mother was of English descent. He also had five siblings, brothers James F. and Ward, when the Civil War began, his father supported the Union and was a sutler for the 18th Missouri Volunteer Infantry. Pershing attended a school in Laclede that was reserved for students who were also the children of prominent citizens. Completing high school in 1878, he became a teacher of local African American children, in 1880, Pershing entered the North Missouri Normal School in Kirksville, Missouri. Two years later, he applied to the United States Military Academy, Pershing later admitted that serving in the military was secondary to attending West Point, and he had applied because the education offered was better than that obtainable in rural Missouri. Pershing was sworn in as a West Point cadet in the fall of 1882 and he was selected early for leadership and became successively First Corporal, First Sergeant, First Lieutenant, and First Captain, the highest possible cadet rank. Pershing also commanded, ex officio, the West Point Honor Guard that escorted the funeral procession of President Ulysses S. Grant. Pershing graduated from West Point in the summer of 1886 and was commended by the Superintendent of West Point, General Wesley Merritt, for leadership skills. Pershing briefly considered petitioning the Army to let him study law and he applied for a furlough from West Point, but soon withdrew the request in favor of active Army duty. He was commissioned a Second Lieutenant in the United States Army in 1886, at age 26, graduating 30th in a class of 77. Pershing reported for duty on September 30,1886, and was assigned to Troop L of the 6th U. S. Cavalry stationed at Fort Bayard. While serving in the 6th Cavalry, Pershing participated in several Indian campaigns and was cited for bravery for actions against the Apache, during his time at Fort Stanton, Pershing and close friends Lt. Julius Penn and Lt. Richard B
John J. Pershing
–
John J. Pershing
John J. Pershing
–
Pershing as a cadet in 1886
John J. Pershing
–
Captain John J. Pershing, c.1902
John J. Pershing
–
Pershing with his wife Helen and three of their children
41.
American Expeditionary Force
–
The American Expeditionary Forces was the expeditionary force of the United States Army during World War I. It was established on July 5,1917, in France under the command of Gen. John J. Pershing, during the United States campaigns in World War I it fought, alongside French and British troops, against the German Empire. Some of the troops fought alongside Italian forces in that same year and it helped the French Army on the Western Front during the Aisne Offensive in June 1918, and fought its major actions in the Saint-Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne Offensives in late 1918. Pershing insisted that American soldiers be well-trained before going to Europe, as a result, few troops arrived before 1918. This attitude was not always received by the Allied leaders who distrusted the potential of an army lacking experience in large-scale warfare. In addition the British tried to bargain their spare shipping to make the US put its soldiers into British ranks. The French harbors of Bordeaux, La Pallice, Saint Nazaire and Brest became the points into the French railway system which brought the US forces. American engineers in France built 82 new ship berths, nearly 1,000 miles of additional tracks and 100,000 miles of telephone. The first American troops, who were often called Doughboys, landed in Europe in June 1917, a formation of regular soldiers and the first division to arrive in France, entered the trenches near Nancy. The AEF used French and British equipment, particularly appreciated were the French canon de 75 modèle 1897, the canon de 155 C modèle 1917 Schneider and the canon de 155mm GPF. American aviation units received the SPAD XIII and Nieuport 28 fighters, Pershing established facilities in France to train new arrivals with their new weapons. A fifth division, the 41st Division, had converted into a depot division near Tours. After the first offensive action and American-led AEF victory on 28 May 1918 at the Battle of Cantigny, the rest followed at an accelerating pace during the spring and summer of 1918. The training took a minimum of six due to the inexperience of the servicemen. The first offensive action by AEF units serving under command was 1,000 men. This battle took place under the command of the Australian Corps commander. The Allied force in this battle combined artillery, armor, infantry, and air support, U. S. Army and Marine Corps troops played a key role in helping stop the German thrust towards Paris, during the Second Battle of the Marne in June 1918. The first major and distinctly American offensive was the reduction of the Saint Mihiel salient in September 1918, during the Battle of Saint-Mihiel, beginning September 12,1918, Pershing commanded the U. S
American Expeditionary Force
–
Officers of the American Expeditionary Forces and the Baker mission.
American Expeditionary Force
–
Column of American troops passing Buckingham Palace, London, 1917.
American Expeditionary Force
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Allies gain overwhelming superiority in front-line rifle strength as American soldiers arrive in the summer
American Expeditionary Force
–
Americans in the Champagne-Marne offensive, 1918.
42.
Parkways in New York State
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A handful of other roads in the Hudson Valley and on Long Island are also known as parkways but are not part of the state system. The state parkway system introduced the concept of limited-access roads and these highways were not divided and allowed no driveway cuts, but did have intersections for some of the streets they crossed. The individual parkways vary widely in composition, some, such as the Sprain Brook Parkway, are functionally equivalent to a freeway, others, like Seven Lakes Drive, are a two-lane undivided surface road. The majority of parkways are located in downstate New York, where the parkway system originated in the early 20th century. The states parkway system originally began as a series of then-high-speed four-lane roads that were created to provide a way into, out of. The first section of this opened in 1908. Most of the roads have been replaced and redesigned to address higher speed requirements. In later sections north of New York City, the roadways were typically divided by a landscaped median and provided service areas along the way that offered fuel. Most are now maintained, if not owned, by NYSDOT outside New York City, today, the state parkways are for the most part equivalent to expressways and freeways built in other parts of the country, except for a few oddities. Second, because designers focused more on making routes scenic rather than efficient, the parkways are meandering, often built to follow a river, and so contain many turns. Finally, because most use low, decorative stone-arch overpasses that would trap trucks, commercial vehicles, trucks, some regions of New York have parkways that are not owned or maintained by a state agency
Parkways in New York State
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Sign informing truckers it is illegal to use a parkway in New York City.
43.
United States Numbered Highways
–
The United States Numbered Highway System is an integrated network of roads and highways numbered within a nationwide grid in the contiguous United States. The route numbers and locations are coordinated by the American Association of State Highway, the only federal involvement in AASHTO is a nonvoting seat for the United States Department of Transportation. Generally, north-to-south highways are odd-numbered, with lowest numbers in the east, the area of the thirteen states of the United States. Similarly, east-to-west highways are typically even-numbered, with the lowest numbers in the north, where roads were first improved most intensively, major north–south routes have numbers ending in 1 while major east–west routes have numbers ending in 0. Three-digit numbered highways are spur routes of parent highways but are not necessarily connected to their parents, some divided routes exist to provide two alignments for one route, even though many splits have been eliminated. Special routes, usually posted with a banner, can provide various routes, such as an alternate, bypass or business route, Routes were designated, auto trails designated by auto trail associations were the main means of marking roads through the United States. In 1925, the Joint Board on Interstate Highways, recommended by the American Association of State Highway Officials, after several meetings, a final report was approved by the U. S. Department of Agriculture in November 1925. They received complaints from across the country about the assignment of routes, so the Board made several modifications, as a result of compromises made to get the U. S. Highway System approved, many routes were divided, with alignments to serve different towns. In subsequent years, AASHTO called for such splits in U. S, expansion of the system continued until 1956, when the Interstate Highway System was formed. After construction was completed, many U. S, Routes were replaced by Interstate Highways for through traffic. Highways still form many important regional connections, and new routes are still being added, Routes do not have a minimum design standard, unlike the later Interstate Highways, and are not usually built to freeway standards. Many are designated using the streets of the cities and towns through which they run. New additions to the system, however, must substantially meet the current AASHTO design standards, as of 1989, the United States Numbered Highways system has a total length of 157,724 miles. Except for toll bridges and tunnels, very few U. S. AASHTO policy says that a road may only be included as a special route. U. S. Route 3 meets this obligation, in New Hampshire, but US Routes in the system do use parts of four toll roads, US51 uses part of the Jane Addams Memorial Tollway in Illinois, the old road is Illinois Route 251. US278 uses the tolled Cross Island Parkway in South Carolina, US412 uses the Cimarron Turnpike in Oklahoma, the old road is US64. US412 also uses the Cherokee Turnpike in Oklahoma, the old road is Alternate US412, Routes follow a simple grid in the contiguous United States, in which odd-numbered routes run generally north to south and even-numbered routes run generally east to west
United States Numbered Highways
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The "final" U.S. Highway plan as approved November 11, 1926
United States Numbered Highways
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Map of the present U.S. Highway network
United States Numbered Highways
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This sign, photographed in 1941 on US 99 between
Seattle, Washington, and
Portland, Oregon, illustrates one rationale for a federal highway system: national defense.
44.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
–
Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Roosevelt in 1933
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Roosevelt in 1884, 2 years old.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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The birthplace of FDR at Springwood.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Roosevelt sailing with half-niece Helen and father James, 1899.
45.
Thomas Harris MacDonald
–
Thomas Harris Chief MacDonald was an American civil engineer and politician with tremendous influence in building the countrys interstate highway system. He served as chief of the Iowa State Highway Commission, chief of the Bureau of Public Roads from 1919 to 1939 and he directed national road policy for 34 years, serving under seven different US Presidents. During his time, he supervised the creation of 3.5 million miles of highways, later, he personally directed the creation of the Alaskan Highway, and helped the countries of Central America in building the Inter-American Highway. Was a force as powerful as his counterpart at the FBI, J. Edgar Hoover, goddard, yet was virtually unknown to most Americans. Born a Scotsman in a Leadville, Colorado log-cabin to John MacDonald and Sarah Elizabeth Harris, his family returned to Poweshiek County, Iowa when he was young. His father was a partner in T. Harris & Company, a grain and lumber dealer founded by his maternal grandfather, lumber traveled in wooden wagons which were unusable in the spring and fall mud. Most people of the era saw railroads as the solution, and he received his bachelors degree in civil engineering in 1904. In 1907, he married Elizabeth Dunham of Ames, Iowa, after graduating from college, he was named Assistant in Charge of Good Roads Investigation for the Iowa State Highway Commission. He then became chief engineer and then Iowa highway commissioner, overseeing a budget of just $5,000 a year. He was soon named President of the American Association of State Highway Officials and he demanded a salary increase from $4,500 to $6,000 and remained an AASHO board member. He also insisted on adoption of the most liberal policy possible under the laws, in order to get actual construction work under way as early. MacDonalds power was such that when visiting towns he was given the finest hotel accommodations, free food and drink, in 1920, an impostor took advantage of this to swindle the citizens of Blackwell, Oklahoma by taking advantage of their hospitality and passing bad checks. MacDonald was cool with a severe stare, when you were in Mr. MacDonalds presence you were quiet. You spoke only if he asked you to, reports one subordinate, to characterize what I would call royalty. And he was fanatical about his cause, next to the education of the child, he wrote, road building was the greatest public responsibility. MacDonalds collected addresses fill fifteen volumes and many of them argue, despite mounting evidence, that roads would never take away from railroads. Such politically convenient claims, often at odds with the facts, the HEB wrote materials for schools, held nationwide contests, published booklets, and had a speakers bureau. He worked closely with the industries that would benefit from roads to extend his Federal budget and he persuaded Congress to grant him the authority to sign contracts with the states
Thomas Harris MacDonald
–
Thomas Harris MacDonald
46.
Lincoln Highway
–
The Lincoln Highway was one of the earliest transcontinental highways for automobiles across the United States of America. Conceived in 1912 by Indiana entrepreneur Carl G, in 1915, the Colorado Loop was removed, and in 1928, a realignment relocated the Lincoln Highway through the northern tip of West Virginia. Thus, there are a total of 14 states,128 counties, the first officially recorded length of the entire Lincoln Highway in 1913 was 3,389 miles. Over the years, the road was improved and numerous realignments were made, counting the original route and all of the subsequent realignments, there have been a grand total of 5,872 miles. The Lincoln Highway was gradually replaced with numbered designations after the establishment of the U. S, today, Interstate 80 serves as the primary highway from the New York City area to San Francisco. Google Maps prominently labels the 1928–30 route, holland Tunnel from New York City westward under the Hudson River to Jersey City, New Jersey. U. S. Route 1/9 Truck from Jersey City westward to Newark, New Jersey Route 27 from Newark southwestward to Princeton, New Jersey. U. S. Route 206 from Princeton southwestward to Trenton, U. S. Route 1 from Trenton southwestward to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. U. S. Route 30 from Philadelphia westward across Pennsylvania, the tip of West Virginia. Illinois Route 31 from Aurora northwestward to Geneva, Illinois, Illinois Route 38 from Geneva westward to Dixon, Illinois. Illinois Route 2 from Dixon westward to Sterling, Illinois, U. S. Route 30 from Sterling westward across western Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska and Wyoming, to Granger, Wyoming. Interstate 80 from Granger westward across western Wyoming and Utah, to West Wendover, U. S. Route 93 Alternate and U. S. Route 93 from West Wendover southward to Ely, Nevada. U. S. Route 50 from Ely westward across Nevada, to 9 miles west of Fallon, Sierra Nevada Southern Route, U. S. Route 50 westward around Lake Tahoe and over Echo Summit and the Sierra Nevada to Sacramento. Old U. S. Route 40 from Sacramento southwestward across Californias Central Valley to the University Avenue exit in Berkeley, University Avenue from Interstate 80 westward to the Berkeley Pier. From the Hyde Street Pier in San Francisco, take, Hyde Street southward 2 blocks to North Point Street, North Point Street westward 3 blocks to Van Ness Avenue. Van Ness Avenue southward 16 blocks to California Street, California Street westward 54 blocks to 32nd Avenue. The Western Terminus Marker and Interpretive Plaque are located to the left of the Palace, the Lincoln Highway was Americas first national memorial to President Abraham Lincoln, predating the 1922 dedication of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D. C. by nine years. As the first automobile road across America, the Lincoln Highway brought great prosperity to the hundreds of cities, towns, the Lincoln Highway became affectionately known as The Main Street Across America
Lincoln Highway
–
Lincoln Highway
Lincoln Highway
Lincoln Highway
–
Lincoln Theater in Cheyenne, Wyoming
Lincoln Highway
–
Sign marking the Eastern Terminus of the Lincoln Highway at the intersection of
42nd Street and
Broadway in
Times Square,
New York.
47.
Reichsautobahn
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The Reichsautobahn system was the beginning of the German autobahns under the Third Reich. There had been plans for controlled-access highways in Germany under the Weimar Republic. After previously opposing plans for a network, the Nazis embraced them after coming to power. They were termed Adolf Hitlers roads and presented as a contribution to the reduction of unemployment. Hitler performed the first ceremonial shoveling of dirt on September 23,1933, at Frankfurt, the first finished stretch, between Frankfurt and Darmstadt, opened on May 19,1935, and the first 1,000 km were completed on September 23,1936. When work ceased in 1941 because of World War II,3,819.7 km had been completed, two controlled-access highways had been built prior to the Nazi era. The 10 km long Avus was built in Berlin starting in 1913, the corporation to build it was organized in 1909, and construction continued during World War I using prisoners of war, but it was not completed and officially opened until 1921. The Opladen bypass between Cologne and Düsseldorf was also built in 1931–33, adenauer also began construction of a ring road encircling Cologne, which was more in accord with demand at the time. According to a 1936–37 traffic survey, the highest road traffic was still around the major cities, in 1930 the Ministry of Transportation became involved in trying to establish guidelines for the building of a highway network. Most notably, HAFRABA, was founded in 1926 at the instigation of Willy Hof, who had been inspired by the Italian highways, detailed engineering specifications were prepared, bound in 70 volumes, and this planning would form the basis of the Reichsautobahn network. However, HAFRABA was never able to surmount the problems of building a highway through many different jurisdictions. Even the association of German car manufacturers did not support highway projects, after the Nazis came to power at the end of January 1933, their position changed rapidly. Todt was named Generalinspektor für das deutsche Straßenwesen on June 30, HAFRABA and other organizations were folded into the planning arm, known as GEZUVOR. The Chairman of the Board of HAFRABA, Dr. Ludwig Landmann, the Mayor of Frankfurt, was Jewish, the autobahn was presented to the German public as Hitlers idea, he was represented as having sketched out the future network of highways while in Landsberg Prison in 1924. They were to be the Führers roads, a myth promoted by Todt himself and they are to be reckoned as simply and solely the Führers roads. On August 5,1933, a play by Peter Hagen and Hans Jürgen Nierenz. There after further speeches, Hitler was to work on the autobahn system with the first ceremonial shoveling of dirt to form the base of an embankment. However, as Todt described the scene in an album published in 1935
Reichsautobahn
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Berlin - Munich Reichsautobahn, today's
A9, southeast of
Dessau, photographed in 1939. The oaks were intentionally retained in the median.
Reichsautobahn
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Hitler shoveling dirt at the ceremonial inauguration of Reichsautobahn construction; behind him on the right
Fritz Todt, on the left two workers helping him
Reichsautobahn
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Reichsautobahn work site near Berlin, April 1936
Reichsautobahn
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A workers' barrack
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Main Interstate Highways
