1.
Manila Cathedral
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The cathedral serves as the Episcopal See of the Archbishop of Manila. The cathedral was damaged and destroyed several times since the structure was built in 1581 while the eighth. The basilica has merited a papal endorsement from Pope Gregory XIII, on 27 April 1981, Pope John Paul II issued papal bull Quod Ipsum designating the cathedral as a minor basilica by his own Motu Proprio. The cathedral was originally the church of Manila officially established in 1571 by a secular priest, Juan de Vivero, de Vivero later became the vicar-general and the first ecclesiastical judge of the city of Manila. Spanish conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi chose the location of the church, the first parish priest of the church was Juan de Villanueva. When the church was raised to a cathedral in 1579, a new structure made from nipa, wood, and bamboo was constructed in 1581 by Domingo de Salazar, the new structure was consecrated on December 21,1581, formally becoming a cathedral. The structure was destroyed by fire in 1583, which started during the funeral Mass for Governor-General Gonzalo Ronquillo de Peñalosa in San Agustin Church that razed much of the city, the second cathedral, which was made of stone, was built in 1592. It was destroyed by an earthquake in 1600, construction of the third cathedral began in 1614. The new structure, consisting of three naves and seven chapels, was blessed in 1614 and it was toppled by another earthquake which shook Manila in 1645. The fourth cathedral was constructed from 1654 to 1671, in 1750, a media naranja dome was added to the crossing by the Florentine friar Juan de Uguccioni, who also introduced a transept to the structure. It was severely damaged in 1863 by a strong earthquake that also damaged the palace of the Governor General of the Philippines. The seventh cathedral was constructed from 1870 to 1879 and it was solemnly blessed in December 1879. The cross atop the dome is a reference point of astronomical longitudes of the archipelago. In 1880, another earthquake toppled its bell tower, rendering the cathedral towerless until 1958, in 1937, the International Eucharistic Congress was held in the Philippines in which the cathedral played an integral part in promoting eucharistic beliefs. This incarnation of the cathedral was reduced to rubble by Allied bombardment in 1945 during the Battle of Manila, the present cathedral was constructed from 1954 to 1958 under Cardinal Rufino Jiao Santos and under the supervision of the notable Filipino architect Fernando H. Ocampo. Pope Paul VI made a visit and celebrated Mass in the cathedral in 1970. Pope John Paul II issued a papal bull Quod Ipsum on April 27,1981, elevating the shrine to a minor basilica through his own Motu Proprio. In the same bull, He reiterated that the Pope Paul VIs papal decree of June 6,1968 be eternally preserved and enforced to the merits
2.
Baluarte de San Diego
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The Baluarte de San Diego is a bastion in Intramuros, part of the Spanish colonial fortification in the walled city of Manila in the Philippines. The existence of the fort started from Governor General Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas who integrated an older fort with cortina or curtain walls, the bastion is a protruding structure with facing flanks built along the cortina. The purpose of its projection was to ensure a view of the cortina for the artillery - in order for them to prepare against invaders. The bastion has two parts, face and flanks, several developments were added in the course of time such as addition of semi-circular structures at the base called orillons or little ears making the bastion resemble an ace-of-spades shape. Baluarte de San Diego was a bastion built on the southwestern corner of Intramuros. In 1609, a writing from Antonio de Morga states that the structure was only a tower within a larger construction of the Fort Nuestra Señora de Guia. Jesuit priest Antonio Sedeño was the parish priest responsible for the construction of the Fort Nuestra Señora de Guia. Some of the amenities and facilities included within the fort were courtyard, cistern tank, lodging quarters, however, the construction of the fort was always interrupted due to arising circumstances, thus, was not finished. The archaeological excavation of Bastion de San Diego was conducted by Intramuros Administration, dog-leash method was used due to the sandy soil condition of the site. This method involved measuring the location of artifacts and their distances from a control point. The construction of the second and first circular structures is not contemporaneous with the structure, being differentiated from the third circle by its finish. The terra-cotta finish of the masonry of the second and first circles appears to have applied for waterproofing. Brick tiles were introduced in the flooring of the innermost circle so that it may act as filter from underground impurities, no trace was left of the circular wall that had supposedly surrounded the patio of Veras time. The present inner circular structures have floor elevations that fall at 3.65 metres below the present street level, the latter coincides with the flooring of the third outer circle. Bastion de San Diego is composed of three structures, the first, second, and third circle. The first circle has an diameter of 8 metres and a wall thickness of 1.41 metres. It lies 3.65 metres below the present street level of Muralla Street on the southern section and it has a total height of 5.75 metres. Also, its inner and outer sides were plastered in pink terra cotta, the second circle has a diameter of 21 metres with a wall thickness of 0.90 metres
3.
Fort Santiago
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Fort Santiago is a citadel first built by Spanish conquistador, Miguel López de Legazpi for the new established city of Manila in the Philippines. The defense fortress is part of the structures of the city of Manila referred to as Intramuros. The fort is one of the most important historical sites in Manila, several lives were lost in its prisons during the Spanish Colonial Period and World War II. José Rizal, the Philippine national hero, was imprisoned here before his execution in 1896 and it is only a few meters away from the Manila Cathedral and the Palacio del Gobernador. It is located at the mouth of the Pasig River and served as the premier defense fortress of the Spanish Government during their rule of the country and it became a main fort for the spice trade to the Americas and Europe for 333 years. The Manila Galleon trade to Acapulco, Mexico began from the Fuerte de Santiago, the fort has a perimeter of 2,030 feet, and it is of a nearly triangular form. A moat connected with the river separates the fort from the city, the 22-foot high walls, with a thickness of 8 feet are pierced for the necessary communications. The front gateway façade measures 40 feet high being in the south wall, the communication with the river and the sea was by an obscure postern gate - the Postigo de la Nuestra Señora del Soledad. Inside the fort were guard stations, together with the barracks of the troops of the garrison and quarters of the warden, also inside the fort were various storehouses, a chapel, the powder magazine, the sentry towers, the cisterns, etc. The location of Fort Santiago was once the site of a fort, armed with bronze guns, of Rajah Matanda. The fort was destroyed by maestre de campo Martin de Goiti who, upon arriving in 1570 from Cebu, fought several battles with the Muslim natives. The Spaniards started building Fort Santiago after the establishment of the city of Manila under Spanish rule on June 24,1571, the first fort was a structure of palm logs and earth. Most of it was destroyed when the city was invaded by Chinese pirates led by Limahong, Martin de Goiti was killed during the siege. After a fierce conflict, the Spaniards under the leadership of Juan de Salcedo, eventually drove the pirates out to Pangasinan province to the north, and eventually out of the country. The construction of Fort Santiago with hard stone, together with the fortified walls of Intramuros, commenced in 1590. The stones used were volcanic tuff quarried from Guadalupe, the fort as Dasmariñas left it consisted of a castellated structure without towers, trapezoidal in trace, its straight gray front projecting into the river mouth. Arches supported an open gun platform above, named the battery of Santa Barbara and these arches formed casemates which afforded a lower tier of fire through embrasures. Curtain walls of simplest character, without counter forts or interior buttresses, in 1714, the ornate gate of Fort Santiago was erected together with some military barracks
4.
San Agustin Church (Manila)
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San Agustin Church is a Roman Catholic church under the auspices of The Order of St. Augustine, located inside the historic walled city of Intramuros in Manila. It was named a National Historical Landmark by the Philippine government in 1976, the present structure is actually the third Augustinian church erected on the site. The San Agustin Church is located in General Luna St, Manila, the first San Agustin Church was the first religious structure constructed by the Spaniards on the island of Luzon. Made of bamboo and nipa, it was completed in 1571, the Augustinians decided to rebuild the church using stone, and to construct an adjacent monastery. Construction began in 1586, based on a design by Juan Macías, the structure was built using hewn adobe stones quarried from Meycauayan, Binangonan and San Mateo, Rizal. The work proceeded slowly due to the lack of funds and materials, the monastery was operational by 1604, and the church was formally declared complete on 19 January 1607, and named St. Paul of Manila. Macías, who had died before the completion of the church, was acknowledged by the Augustinians as the builder of the edifice. San Agustin Church was looted by the British forces who occupied Manila in 1762 during the Seven Years War, in 1854, the church was renovated under the supervision of architect Luciano Oliver. On 3 June 1863, the strongest earthquake at that time, hit Manila leaving widespread destruction to the city with San Agustin Church, a series of strong earthquakes struck Manila again on 18–20 July 1880. This time, the left a large crack in the east bell tower. The crack was repaired, but the left tower was permanently removed with only the base remaining today. During the Japanese occupation of World War II, San Agustin Church became a concentration camp, the church itself was the sole survivor of the seven churches of Intramuros to survive the leveling by combined American and Filipino ground forces in May 1945. While the church sustained damage to its roof, the adjacent monastery was completely destroyed, in the 1970s it was rebuilt as a museum under the design of architect Angel Nakpil. The church was renovated in 2013, replacing its colorful facade with a mature stone-colored one, the San Agustin Church is patterned after some of the magnificent temples built by the Augustinians in Mexico. The present edifice was built in 1587, and completed, together with the monastery, the atmosphere is medieval since both church and monastery symbolize the majesty and equilibrium of a Spanish golden era. Architecture of the Philippines Spanish Baroque architecture Miguel López de Legazpi Notes Bibliography World Heritage profile
5.
Defensive wall
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A defensive wall is a fortification used to protect a city, town or other settlement from potential aggressors. In ancient to modern times, they were used to enclose settlements, beyond their defensive utility, many walls also had important symbolic functions – representing the status and independence of the communities they embraced. Existing ancient walls are almost always masonry structures, although brick, depending on the topography of the area surrounding the city or the settlement the wall is intended to protect, elements of the terrain may be incorporated in order to make the wall more effective. Walls may only be crossed by entering the city gate and are often supplemented with towers. Simpler defensive walls of earth or stone, thrown up around hillforts, ringworks, early castles, from very early history to modern times, walls have been a near necessity for every city. Uruk in ancient Sumer is one of the worlds oldest known walled cities, before that, the city of Jericho in what is now the West Bank had a wall surrounding it as early as the 8th millennium BC. The Assyrians deployed large labour forces to build new palaces, temples, some settlements in the Indus Valley Civilization were also fortified. By about 3500 B. C. hundreds of small farming villages dotted the Indus floodplain, many of these settlements had fortifications and planned streets. Mundigak in present-day south-east Afghanistan has defensive walls and square bastions of sun dried bricks, babylon was one of the most famous cities of the ancient world, especially as a result of the building program of Nebuchadnezzar, who expanded the walls and built the Ishtar Gate. Exceptions were few — notably, ancient Sparta and ancient Rome did not have walls for a long time, initially, these fortifications were simple constructions of wood and earth, which were later replaced by mixed constructions of stones piled on top of each other without mortar. In Central Europe, the Celts built large fortified settlements which the Romans called oppida, the fortifications were continuously expanded and improved. In ancient Greece, large stone walls had been built in Mycenaean Greece, in classical era Greece, the city of Athens built a long set of parallel stone walls called the Long Walls that reached their guarded seaport at Piraeus. Large tempered earth walls were built in ancient China since the Shang Dynasty, although stone walls were built in China during the Warring States, mass conversion to stone architecture did not begin in earnest until the Tang Dynasty. The large walls of Pingyao serve as one example, likewise, the famous walls of the Forbidden City in Beijing were established in the early 15th century by the Yongle Emperor. The Romans fortified their cities with massive, mortar-bound stone walls, the most famous of these are the largely extant Aurelian Walls of Rome and the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople, together with partial remains elsewhere. These are mostly city gates, like the Porta Nigra in Trier or Newport Arch in Lincoln, apart from these, the early Middle Ages also saw the creation of some towns built around castles. These cities were only protected by simple stone walls and more usually by a combination of both walls and ditches. From the 12th century AD hundreds of settlements of all sizes were founded all across Europe and these cities are easy to recognise due to their regular layout and large market spaces
6.
Philippines
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The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
7.
Metro Manila
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These 5 provinces, plus Metro Manila and Pampanga, sum to 30.7 million residents as of the newly counted census of 2015. The region is the center of culture, economy, education, NCR is one of the 12 defined metropolitan areas in the Philippines according to the National Economic and Development Authority. Designated as a global city, NCR exerts a significant impact on commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education. It is the home to all the consulates and embassies in the Philippines and its economic power makes the region the countrys premier center for finance and commerce. NCR accounts for 37. 2% of the domestic product of the Philippines. The Province of Manila, the progenitor to the present-day Metro Manila, is one of the eight provinces that revolted against the Spanish colonial rule in the Philippines. The province was honored as one of the sun rays in the Flag of the Philippines, a historical province known as Manila encompasses the former pre-Hispanic kingdoms of Tondo and Maynila. It became the capital of the colonial Philippines, with Manila serving as the center of colonial power, in 1898, it included the City of Manila and 23 other municipalities. Mariquina also served as the capital from 1898-1899, just as when the sovereignty of the Philippines was transferred to the United States, the province was dissolved and most of it was incorporated to the newly created province of Rizal in 1901. Since the Spanish colonial period, Manila was considered as one of the global cities. Pasig serves as its provincial capital, in 1939, President Quezon established Quezon City with a goal to replace Manila as the capital city of the country. A masterplan for Quezon City was completed, the establishment of Quezon City meant demise of the grand Burnham Plan of Manila, with funds being diverted for the establishment of the new capital. World War II further resulted in the loss most of the developments in the Burnham Plan, but more importantly, later on, Quezon City eventually declared as the national capital from 1948-1976. The tile was re-designated back to Manila through Presidential Decree No.940 owing to its significance as the seat of government of the Philippines since the Spanish colonial period. During the war, President Manuel L. Jorge Vargas was appointed as its mayor, Mayors in the cities and municipalities included in the City of Greater Manila served as vice mayors in their town. This was in order to ensure Vargas, who was Quezons principal lieutenant for administrative matters, the City of Greater Manila was abolished by the Japanese with the formation of the Philippine Executive Commission to govern the occupied regions of the country. The City of Greater Manila served as a model for the present-day Metro Manila, on November 7,1975, Metro Manila was formally established through Presidential Decree No.824. The Metropolitan Manila Commission was also created to manage the region, on June 2,1978, through Presidential Decree No
8.
Manila
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Manila, officially City of Manila, is the capital of the Philippines. Founded on June 24,1571, by Spanish conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi and it is situated on the eastern shore of Manila Bay and is home to many landmarks, some of which date back to the 16th century. In 2012, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network listed Manila as a global city, the city proper is home to 1,780,148 people in 2015, forming the historic core of Metro Manila, the capital region of the Philippines. The metropolitan area, which includes the much larger Quezon City, Manila is also the most densely populated city proper in the world, with 41,515 people per square kilometer. The term Manila is commonly used to refer to either the whole area or the city proper. Manila is located on the shore of the Manila Bay on one of the finest harbors in the country. The city has six districts for the lower house of the Philippine Congress. Manila was once ruled by the Kingdom of Tondo before it became a province of the Majapahit Empire. During the Bruneian invasion of the Philippines, Sultan Bolkiah of Brunei captured Seludong and renamed it Maynilà, Maynilà became a vassal state of the Sultanate of Brunei, established to overpower Tondo. In 1571, conquistadors arrived from Mexico, across the Pacific Ocean, Spanish missionaries soon Christianized the city, incorporated Tondo and built some of the oldest churches in the country, including San Agustin Church. The conquistadors renamed the area Nuevo Reino de Castilla, Manila became the center of Spanish activity in the Far East and one end of the Manila–Acapulco galleon trade route linking Spanish America with Asia, one of the earliest examples of globalization. Because of its location on Pacific trade routes, Manila received the moniker Pearl of the Orient. Spanish rule of the Philippine archipelago lasted for more than three centuries, until 1898, order was usually quickly restored and the city returned to the business of trade. In the 19th century, Manila was one of the most modern cities in Asia, before the Spanish–American War, it saw the rise of the Philippine Revolution. After the war, the United States took control, switched the official language from Spanish to English, near the end of World War II, during the Battle of Manila, most of the city was flattened by intensive aerial bombardment by the United States Air Force. As a result, relatively little remains of Manilas prewar and colonial architecture, although there are ongoing projects, especially within the old walled city. Maynilà, the Filipino name for the city, originated from the word nilà, referring to a mangrove tree that grew on the delta of the Pasig River. The flowers were made into garlands that, according to folklore, were offered to statues on religious altars or in churches
9.
Legislative districts of Manila
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The Legislative Districts of Manila are the representations of the city of Manila in the various national legislatures of the Philippines. The city is represented in the lower house of the Congress of the Philippines through its first, second, third, fourth, fifth. Manila was originally divided into two districts from 1907 to 1949. Upon the restoration of the Philippine Commonwealth in 1945, Manilas pre-war two-district representation was retained, by virtue of the Revised Charter of the City of Manila, enacted on June 18,1949, the city was divided into four congressional districts. The city elected four representatives from the 2nd Congress up to the 7th Congress, the city was represented in the Interim Batasang Pambansa as part of Region IV from 1978 to 1984, and elected six representatives, at large, to the Regular Batasang Pambansa in 1984. Manila was reapportioned into six districts under the new Constitution which was proclaimed on February 11,1987. It elected members to the restored House of Representatives starting that same year
10.
Philippine Standard Time
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Philippine Standard Time, also known as Philippine Time and informally Juan Time, is the official name for the time in the Philippines. The country only uses one time zone, and for a short period, geographically, the Philippines lies within 116°40′ and 126°34′ east of the Prime Meridian, and is physically located within the UTC+08,00 time zone. Philippine Standard Time is maintained by the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration, the Philippines shares the same time zone with Hong Kong, Macau, Singapore, most parts of China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Brunei, central Indonesia, and Western Australia. Philippine Standard Time was instituted through Batas Pambansa Blg,8, approved on 2 December 1978 and implemented on 1 January 1983. The Philippines is one of the few countries to officially and almost exclusively use the 12-hour clock in non-military situations. From 1521 to 1844, the Philippines had the date as Mexico. Monday,30 December 1844 was immediately followed by Wednesday,1 January 1845 and this meant that International Date Line moved from going west of the Philippines to go on the east side of the country. At the time, local time was used to set clocks, meaning that every place used its own local time based on its longitude. Television and radio stations in the Philippines display the time, in September 2011, the Department of Science and Technology proposed to synchronise time nationwide in an effort to discourage tardiness. On May 15,2013, President Benigno Aquino III signed Republic Act No,10535, better known as the The Philippine Standard Time Act of 2013 as a last step to finally implement the Juan Time. Effective June 1,2013, all government offices and media networks will be required to use Philippine Standard Time as a basis to set their timepieces, in addition, the first week of January will be regularly observed as the National Time Consciousness Week. The IANA time zone database contains one zone for the Philippines in the file zone. tab, hapon starts at 1,00 PM and ends 5,59 PM. Gabí starts at 6,00 PM and ends 12,00 AM which is Hatinggabi, madalíng Araw starts at 12,01 AM and ends 4,59 AM. Except in very formal situations, Filipinos rarely use the numbers in telling time. - Alas otso kwarenta y uno ng gabí or Apatnapút-isá makalipas ng ikawaló ng gabí5,30 A. M, - Alas singko y medya ng umaga or Tatlumpûng minuto makalipas ng ikalimá ng umaga or ikalimá at kalaháti ng umaga 3,00 P. M. - Alas tres ng hapon o Ikatló ng hapon 12,00 P. M, - Alas dose ng tanghalì o Ikalabíndalawá ng tanghalì12,00 A. M. - Alas dose ng hatinggabi o Ikalabíndalawá ng hatinggabí2,00 A. M
11.
Telephone numbers in the Philippines
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Telephone numbers in the Philippines follow an open telephone numbering plan and an open dial plan. Both plans are regulated by the National Telecommunications Commission, an agency under the Department of Information. The Philippines is assigned an international dialling code of 63 by ITU-T, telephone numbers are fixed at seven digits, with area codes fixed at one, two, or three digits. Mobile phone numbers are always 10 digits, when making long-distance calls in the Philippines, the prefix 0 for domestic calls and 00 for international calls are used. Some smaller carriers concentrated within a geographic area may issue four- or five-digit area codes. Occasionally, an area may change area codes. For example, the City of Bacoor in Cavite has been included in the coverage area of area code 2 per the National Telecommunications Commissions Memorandum Order No. 08-09-2011, although almost all fixed-lines in the city use the old 46 area code due to the poor compliance of PLDT. Sometimes area codes are shared by a number of government entities to maximise their use. In extreme cases, area codes are shared across an island like in Leyte and Samar, or even entire regions, in order to identify the calls point of origin, the three-digit telephone exchange prefix is checked. Since the Philippines employs an open plan, telephone numbers dialled within a given area code do not require the area code. When dialling other area codes, the long distance access prefix 0 is added, but when dialling from overseas. However, the code indicates the service provider and not necessarily a geographic region. Unlike fixed-line telephones, the telephone dialling format is always observed when using a mobile phone. Therefore, mobile phone numbers always have the format +63 xxx-xxxx for international callers and 0 xxx-xxxx for domestic callers. Some of the first area codes to be assigned for mobile phones were 912 for Mobiline/Piltel,915 for Islacom,917 for Globe Telecom,918 for Smart Communications, and 973 for Express Telecom. As service began growing rapidly since the 1990s, new codes have been added to meet demand as existing codes have since been exhausted, newer codes often come immediately after the last code exhausted, but this might not be the case if the next code is already in use. 955/956 are the latest codes and are used for Globe & TM, areas codes are grouped by provider with no single contiguous block of codes for a single provider
12.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
13.
Spanish East Indies
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The Spanish East Indies were the Spanish territories in Asia-Pacific from 1565 until 1899. They comprised the Philippines, the Mariana Islands, the Caroline Islands, Cebu was the first seat of government, later transferred to Manila. From 1565 to 1821 these territories, together with the Spanish West Indies, were administered through the Viceroyalty of New Spain based in Mexico City, the King of Spain traditionally styled himself King of the East and West Indies. After Mexican independence, they were ruled directly from Madrid, administrative affairs of the Spanish East Indies were handled by the Captaincy General of the Philippines and the Real Audiencia of Manila. The few remaining islands were ceded to the United States when the Treaty of Washington was ratified in 1901, Spanish contact began on 6 March 1521, when a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan reached the Mariana Islands. He named Guam and the other islands Islas de los Ladrones because the natives came aboard his galleon, the expedition later continued its journey west and reached the island of Homonhon in the eastern Philippines on 16 March, with only 150 crewmen. There they were able to communicate with the local peoples because the Malayan interpreter, Enrique of Malacca, Miguel López de Legazpi set out from Mexico, and established the first Spanish settlement in the Philippines in 1565, which became the town of San Miguel in present-day Cebu. In 1571, the city of Manila was founded and made seat of the Spanish Captaincy General of the Philippines and these and other Asian territories claimed by the Spanish crown were to be governed from the Viceroyalty of New Spain in Mexico City. The Manila-Acapulco galleons shipped products gathered from both Asia-Pacific and the Americas, such as silk, spices, silver, gold and other Asian-Pacific islander products to Mexico, in 1606, the Spaniards established some form of trade links with the Maluku Islands and remained until 1663. Contacts with Japan were also established and Sebastián Vizcaíno was sent as ambassador in 1611, on the north eastern coastal region of Taiwan, the Spaniards built Fort Santo Domingo near Keelung in 1626 and a mission in Tamsui in 1628, which they occupied until 1642. In 1668, Blessed Diego Luis de San Vitores established the first mission on Guam, in 1762 British troops briefly captured the city of Manila during the Seven Years War. The British promised support for an uprising led by Diego Silang and his wife Gabriela, under the peace settlement Manila was exchanged, along with British-occupied Havana, for Florida and Minorca. It was handed back to Spanish authorities in April 1764, the Seven Years War prompted Charles III to initiate extensive governmental reforms throughout the overseas possessions. An intendencia was established in Manila in 1784 to handle the government finances, in a similar vein, to promote innovation and education among the residents of the islands, Governor-General José Basco y Vargas established the Economic Society of the Friends of the Country. For over 256 years, the Spanish East Indies were governed by a general. All economic matters of the Philippines were managed by the Viceroyalty of New Spain, in 1821 the New Spanish Viceroyalty collapsed following the Mexican War of Independence, which resulted in the First Mexican Empire. In 1574 the Captaincy General of the Philippines was created as a dependency of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, Islas Carolinas Islas Marianas Islas Palau The Spanish used several names that are not currently used. Gran Moluca for the island of Mindanao and Nueva Castilla for Luzon, because Spanish interest in the region was primarily focused on its use as a base for trade with East Asia, direct Spanish control over the area expanded slowly
14.
Spanish Empire
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The Spanish Empire was one of the largest empires in history. The Spanish Empire became the foremost global power of its time and was the first to be called the empire on which the sun never sets, the Spanish Empire originated during the Age of Discovery after the voyages of Christopher Columbus. Following the Spanish–American War of 1898, Spain ceded its last colonies in the Caribbean and its last African colonies were granted independence or abandoned during Decolonisation of Africa finishing in 1976. The unity did not mean uniformity, nevertheless, some historians assert that Portugal was part of the Spanish monarchy at the time, while others draw a clear distinction between the Portuguese and Spanish empires. During the 15th century, Castile and Portugal became territorial and commercial rivals in the western Atlantic. The conquest was completed with the campaigns of the armies of the Crown of Castile between 1478 and 1496, when the islands of Gran Canaria, La Palma, and Tenerife were subjugated. The Portuguese tried in vain to keep secret their discovery of the Gold Coast in the Gulf of Guinea, chronicler Pulgar wrote that the fame of the treasures of Guinea spread around the ports of Andalusia in such way that everybody tried to go there. Worthless trinkets, Moorish textiles, and above all, shells from the Canary and Cape Verde islands were exchanged for gold, slaves, ivory and Guinea pepper. The Crown officially organized this trade with Guinea, every caravel had to get a government license, the treaty delimited the spheres of influence of the two countries, establishing the principle of the Mare clausum. It was confirmed in 1481 by the Pope Sixtus IV, in the papal bull Æterni regis, thus, the limitations imposed by the Alcáçovas treaty were overcome and a new and more balanced worlds division would be reached at Tordesillas between both emerging maritime powers. Seven months before the treaty of Alcaçovas, King John II of Aragon died, Ferdinand and Isabella drove the last Moorish king out of Granada in 1492 after a ten-year war. The Catholic Monarchs then negotiated with Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor attempting to reach Cipangu by sailing west, Castile was already engaged in a race of exploration with Portugal to reach the Far East by sea when Columbus made his bold proposal to Isabella. Columbus discoveries inaugurated the Spanish colonization of the Americas and these actions gave Spain exclusive rights to establish colonies in all of the New World from north to south, as well as the easternmost parts of Asia. The treaty of Tordesillas was confirmed by Pope Julius II in the bull Ea quae pro bono pacis on 24 January 1506, Spains expansion and colonization was driven by economic influences, a yearning to improve national prestige, and a desire to spread Catholicism into the New World. The Catholic Monarchs had developed a strategy of marriages for their children in order to isolate their long-time enemy, the Spanish princes married the heirs of Portugal, England and the House of Habsburg. Following the same strategy, the Catholic Monarchs decided to support the Catalan-Aragonese house of Naples against Charles VIII of France in the Italian Wars beginning in 1494. As King of Aragon, Ferdinand had been involved in the struggle against France and Venice for control of Italy, these conflicts became the center of Ferdinands foreign policy as king. Only a year later, Ferdinand became part of the Holy League against France and this war was less of a success than the war against Venice, and in 1516, France agreed to a truce that left Milan in its control and recognized Spanish control of Upper Navarre
15.
Manila galleon
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The name of the galleon changed to reflect the city that the ship sailed from. The term Manila Galleons is also used to refer to the route between Acapulco and Manila, which lasted from 1565 to 1815. The Manila Galleons were also known in New Spain as La Nao de la China because it carried largely Chinese goods, the Manila Galleon trade route was inaugurated in 1565 after Augustinian friar and navigator Andrés de Urdaneta discovered the tornaviaje or return route from the Philippines to Mexico. The first successful round trips were made by Urdaneta and by Alonso de Arellano that year, the route lasted until 1815 when the Mexican War of Independence ended Spanish control of Mexican ports. The Manila galleons sailed the Pacific for 250 years, bringing to Spain their cargoes of goods, economic benefits. In 1521, a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan sailed west across the Pacific using the trade winds. The expedition discovered the Mariana Islands and the Philippines and claimed them for Spain, although Magellan died there, one of his ships made it back to Spain by continuing westward. In order to settle and trade with these islands from the Americas, the first ship to try this a few years later failed. In 1529, Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón also tried sailing east from the Philippines, in 1543, Bernardo de la Torre also failed. In 1542, however, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo helped pave the way by sailing north from Mexico to explore the Pacific coast, reaching as far north as the Russian River, just north of the 38th parallel. The Manila-Acapulco galleon trade finally began when Spanish navigators Alonso de Arellano, sailing as part of the expedition commanded by Miguel López de Legazpi to conquer the Philippines in 1565, Arellano and Urdaneta were given the task of finding a return route. Most of his crew died on the initial voyage, for which they had not sufficiently provisioned. Arellano, who had taken a more southerly route, had already arrived, the English privateer Francis Drake also reached the California coast, in 1579. After capturing a Spanish ship heading for Manila, Drake turned north and he failed in that regard, but staked an English claim somewhere on the northern California coast. Although the ships log and other records were lost, the location is now called Drakes Bay. The first motivation for land exploration of present-day California was to scout out possible way-stations for the seaworn Manila galleons on the last leg of their journey. Early proposals came to little, but in 1769, the Portola expedition established Alta California ports at San Diego and Monterey, providing safe harbors for returning Manila galleons. In Manila, the safety of ocean crossings was commended to the virgin Nuestra Señora de la Soledad de Porta Vaga in masses held by the Archbishop of Manila
16.
Acapulco
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Acapulco de Juárez, commonly called Acapulco, is a city, municipality and major seaport in the state of Guerrero on the Pacific coast of Mexico,380 kilometres south of Mexico City. Acapulco is located on a deep, semicircular bay and has been a port since the colonial period of Mexicos history. It is a port of call for shipping and cruise lines running between Panama and San Francisco, California, United States, the city of Acapulco is the largest in the state, far larger than the state capital Chilpancingo. Acapulco is also Mexicos largest beach and balneario resort city, the city is best known as one of Mexicos oldest and most well-known beach resorts, which came into prominence in the 1950s as a getaway for Hollywood stars and millionaires. Acapulco is still famous and still attracts tourists, although most are now from Mexico itself. The name Acapulco comes from Nahuatl language Aca-pōl-co, and means where the reeds were destroyed or washed away, the de Juárez was added to the official name in 1885 to honor Benito Juárez, former President of Mexico. The seal for the city shows broken reeds or cane, the island and municipality of Capul, in the Philippines, derives its name from Acapulco, Capul was the western end of the trans-Pacific sailing route from Acapulco to what was then a Spanish colony. At Acapulco Bay itself, there were two Olmec sites, one by Playa Larga and the other on a known as El Guitarrón. Olmec influence caused the small villages here to coalesce into larger entities. Later, Teotihuacan influence made its way here via Cuernavaca and Chilpancingo, then Mayan influence arrived from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and through what is now Oaxaca. This history is known through the archaeological artifacts that have found here, especially at Playa Hornos, Pie de la Cuesta. In the 11th century, new waves of migration of Nahuas and Coixas came through here and these people were the antecedents of the Aztecs. In the later 15th century, after four years of military struggle and it was annexed to a tributary province named Tepecuacuilco. However, this was only transitory, as the Aztecs could only establish a military post at the citys outskirts. The city was on territory under control of the Yopes, who continued defending it, there are two stories about how Acapulco bay was discovered by Europeans. The first states that two years after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, Hernán Cortés sent explorers west to find gold, the explorers had subdued this area after 1523, and Captain Saavedra Cerón was authorized by Cortés to found a settlement here. The other states that the bay was discovered on December 13,1526 by a ship named the El Tepache Santiago captained by Santiago Guevara. The first encomendero was established in 1525 at Cacahuatepec, which is part of the modern Acapulco municipality, in 1531, a number of Spaniards, most notably Juan Rodriguez de Villafuerte, left the Oaxaca coast and founded the village of Villafuerte where the city of Acapulco now stands
17.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
18.
Manila Bay
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Manila Bay is a natural harbour which serves the Port of Manila, in the Philippines. Manila Bay drains approximately 17,000 km2 of watershed area, with an average depth of 17 m, it is estimated to have a total volume of 28.9 billion cubic metres. Entrance to the bay is 19 km wide and expands to a width of 48 km, however, width of the bay varies from 22 km at its mouth and expanding to 60 km at its widest point. The islands of Corregidor and Caballo divides the entrance into two channels, about 2 mi towards the North and 6.5 mi wide on the South side. Mariveles, in the province of Bataan, is an anchorage just inside the northern entrance, on either side of the bay are volcanic peaks topped with tropical foliage,40 km to the north is the Bataan Peninsula and to the south is the province of Cavite. In the south channel is El Fraile Island and outside the entrance, to the immediate north and south are additional harbors, upon which both local and international ports are situated. Large number of ships at the North and South harbors facilitate maritime activities in the bay, being smaller of the two harbors, the North Harbor is used for inter-island shipping while the South Harbor is used for large ocean-going vessels. Manila Bay was connected to Laguna de Bay approximately 3,000 years ago, recurring episodic uplifts along the West Marikina Valley Fault caused the two to break up. Interaction between Manila Bay and Laguna de Bay today occurs only through the Pasig River, the bay was the setting for the Battle of Manila Bay in 1898, in which American troops led by Commodore George Dewey seized the area. This battle showcased the United States naval strength, all major Spanish ships were destroyed and captured. With its proud historic past and abundant marine life, Manila Bay became the portal and Filipino epicenter for government, economy. During the Russo-Japanese War at the close of the Battle of Tsushima in 1905, three surviving Russian protected cruisers managed to make port in then-United States-controlled Manila for repairs. However, because the US was neutral in conflict, the trio of warships. In World War II, Corregidor Island was annexed by 1942 by Japanese forces based in Manila Bay, much earlier, various other battles were fought from this naval base, including the La Naval de Manila in 1646, which finally ended Dutch attempts to seize the Philippines. It also serves a focus for recreation for Metro Manila and is a destination for walks. Much of the land fronting the bay along Metro Manila is reclaimed land now includes important sites such as the Philippine Senate. On 27 September 2011, the sea walls of Manila Bay were destroyed by the surge caused by Typhoon Pedring. Even the United States Embassy, Museo Pambata and Sofitel Philippine Plaza were submerged by the flooding and it was estimated that the damage would cost P30 million to repair
19.
Pasig River
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The Pasig River, is a river in the Philippines that connects Laguna de Bay to Manila Bay. Stretching for 25 kilometres, it bisects the Philippine capital of Manila and its major tributaries are the Marikina River and San Juan River. The total Drainage basin of Pasig River including the Laguna de bay drainage basin covered 4,672 sq. km, the Pasig River is technically a tidal estuary, as the flow direction depends upon the water level difference between Manila Bay and Laguna de Bay. During the dry season, the level in Laguna de Bay is low with the rivers flow direction dependent on the tides. During the wet season, when the level of Laguna de Bay is high. The Pasig River used to be an important transport route and source of water for Spanish Manila, due to negligence and industrial development, the river has become very polluted and is considered dead by ecologists. that introduced the Piso para sa Pasig campaign in the 1990s. The Pasig River winds generally north-westward for some 25 kilometres from the Laguna de Bay, from the lake, the river runs between Taguig and Taytay, Rizal, before entering Pasig. This portion of the Pasig River, to the confluence with the Marikina River tributary, is known as the Napindan River or Napindan Channel. From there, the Pasig forms flows through Pasig until its confluence with the Taguig River, From here, the whole river and most portions of its tributaries lie entirely within Metro Manila, the metropolitan region of the capital. Isla de Convalecencia, the only island dividing the Pasig River, can be found in Manila and it is where the Hospicio de San Jose is located. One major river that drains Laguna de Bay is the Taguig River, Pateros River then enters the confluence where the Napindan Channel and Marikina River meet. The Marikina River is the larger of the two tributaries of the Pasig River, and it flows southward from the mountains of Rizal. The San Juan River drains the plateau on which Quezon City stands, within the city of Manila, various esteros criss-cross through the city and connect with the Tullahan River in the north and the Parañaque River to the west. A total of 19 bridges cross the Pasig, the first bridge from the source at Laguna de Bay is the Napindan Bridge, followed by the Arsenio Jimenez Bridge to its west. Crossing the Napindan Channel in Pasig is the Bambang Bridge, the newest bridge, opened in February 2015, is the Buting-Sumilang Bridge that connects barangays Buting and Sumilang in Pasig. The next bridge downstream is the C-5 Road Bridge connecting the cities of Makati, the Guadalupe Bridge between Makati and Mandaluyong carries Epifanio de los Santos Avenue, the major artery of Metro Manila, as well as the MRT-3 line from Guadalupe Station to Boni Station. The Estrella–Pantaleon and Makati-Mandaluyong Bridges likewise connect the two cities downstream, with the forming the end of Makati Avenue. The Mabini Bridge provides a crossing for Nagtahan Avenue, part of C-2 Road, Ayala Bridge carries Ayala Boulevard, and connects the Isla de Convalecencia to both banks of the Pasig
20.
Citadel
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A citadel is the core fortified area of a town or city. It may be a fortress, castle, or fortified center, the term is a diminutive of city and thus means little city, so called because it is a smaller part of the city of which it is the defensive core. It is positioned to be the last line of defense, should the enemy breach the other components of the fortification system, a citadel is also a term of the third part of a medieval castle, with higher walls than the rest. It was to be the last line of defense before the keep itself, some of the oldest known structures which have served as citadels were built by the Indus Valley Civilization, harappan, where the citadel represented a centralised authority. The main citadel in Indus Valley was almost 12 meters tall, the purpose of these structures, however, remains debated. Though the structures found in the ruins of Mohenjo-daro were walled, rather, they may have been built to divert flood waters. The most well-known is the Acropolis of Athens, but nearly every Greek city-state had one – the Acrocorinth famed as a strong fortress. In a much later period, when Greece was ruled by the Latin Empire, rebels who took power in the city but with the citadel still held by the former rulers could by no means regard their tenure of power as secure. One such incident played an important part in the history of the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid Empire, the Hellenistic garrison of Jerusalem and local supporters of the Seleucids held out for many years in the Acra citadel, making Maccabean rule in the rest of Jerusalem precarious. When finally gaining possession of the place, the Maccabeans pointedly destroyed and razed the Acra, a city where the citadel held out against an invading army was not considered conquered. In the Philippines The Ivatan people of the islands of Batanes often built fortifications to protect themselves during times of war. They built their so-called idjangs on hills and elevated areas. These fortifications were likened to European castles because of their purpose. Usually, the entrance to the castles would be via a rope ladder that would only be lowered for the villagers. In time of war the citadel in many cases afforded retreat to the living in the areas around the town. For example, during the Dutch Wars of 1664-67, King Charles II of England constructed a Royal Citadel at Plymouth, barcelona had a great citadel built in 1714 to intimidate the Catalans against repeating their mid-17th- and early-18th-century rebellions against the Spanish central government. A similar example is the Citadella in Budapest, Hungary, the Citadelle of Québec still survives as the largest citadel still in official military operation in North America. It is home to the Royal 22nd Regiment of Canada, citadels since the mid 20th century, are commonly military command and control centres built to resist attack commonly aerial or nuclear bombardment. The Military citadels under London such as the underground complex beneath the Ministry of Defense called Pindar is one such example
21.
Land reclamation
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Land reclamation, usually known as reclamation, and also known as land fill, is the process of creating new land from ocean, riverbeds, or lake beds. The land reclaimed is known as ground or land fill. In a number of jurisdictions, including parts of the United States. In Alberta, Canada, for example, reclamation is defined by the government as The process of reconverting disturbed land to its former or other productive uses. In Oceania it is referred to as land rehabilitation. Land reclamation can be achieved with a number of different methods, the most simple method involves simply filling the area with large amounts of heavy rock and/or cement, then filling with clay and dirt until the desired height is reached. The process is called infilling and the used to fill the space is generically called infill. Draining of submerged wetlands is often used to land for agricultural use. Deep cement mixing is used typically in situations in which the material displaced by either dredging or draining may be contaminated, the creation of new land was for the need of human activities. Notable examples include, Much of the coastlines of Mumbai, India and it took over 150 years to join the original seven islands of Mumbai. Much of the coastlines of Mainland China, Hong Kong, North Korea and it is estimated that nearly 65% of tidal flats around the Yellow Sea have been reclaimed. Inland lowlands in the Yangtze valley, China, including the areas of important cities like Shanghai, Much of the coastline of Karachi, Pakistan. A part of the Hamad International Airport in Qatar, around 36 square kilometres, the entire island of The Pearl-Qatar situated in West Bay, Qatar. The city-state of Singapore, where land is in supply, is also famous for its efforts on land reclamation. The Palm Islands, The World and hotel Burj al-Arab off Dubai in the United Arab Emirates The Yas Island in Abu Dhabi and it is one of the six divisions of Malé City. The Eko Atlantic in Lagos, Nigeria, mexico City, the chinampas are a famous example. Parts of Panama City urban and street development are based on reclaimed land, aeroparque Jorge Newbery, in Buenos Aires, Argentina One of the earliest large scale projects was the Beemster Polder in the Netherlands, realized in 1612 adding 70 square kilometres of land. In Hong Kong the Praya Reclamation Scheme added 20 to 24 hectares of land in 1890 during the phase of construction
22.
Battle of Manila (1945)
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The one-month battle, which culminated in the massacre of over 100,000 civilians and complete devastation of the city, was the scene of the worst urban fighting in the Pacific theater. Along with the loss of lives, the battle also destroyed architectural and cultural heritage dating back since the citys foundation. The battle ended the almost three years of Japanese military occupation in the Philippines, the citys capture was marked as General Douglas MacArthurs key to victory in the campaign of reconquest. On 9 January 1945, the Sixth U. S. Army under Lt. Gen. Walter Krueger waded ashore on Lingayen Gulf, MacArthur ordered Krueger to advance rapidly to Manila. The 37th Infantry Division, under the command of Major Gen. Robert S. Beightler, headed south. After landing at San Fabian on 27 Jan. the 1st Cavalry Division, free the internees at Santo Tomas. Take Malacanang Palace and the Legislative Building, meanwhile, the 11th A/B Divisions 511th Regimental Combat Team of Col. Orin D. Hard Rock Haugen parachuted onto Tagaytay Ridge on 4 February, Yamashita had withdrawn his main forces to Baguio City, where he planned to hold back the Filipino and U. S. forces in northern Luzon, poised for the invasion of Japan. In 1941, General Douglas MacArthur had declared Manila an open city before its capture, however, Rear Admiral Iwabuchi Sanji, commander of the 31st Naval Special Base Force, was committed to following the naval program, rather than the army program of abandoning the city. Prior to being promoted to Admiral, Sanji had commanded the battleship Kirishima in 1942 when she was sunk by a US Navy task force off Guadalcanal, Iwabuchi had 12,500 men under his command, designated the Manila Naval defence Force. Iwabuchi was joined by 4500 army personnel under the command of Col. Katsuzo Noguchi and they built defensive positions in the city, including Intramuros, cut down the palm trees on Dewey Blvd. to form a runway, and set up barricades across major streets. Iwabuchi formed the Northern Force under Noguchi, and the Southern Force under Capt. Takusue Furuse. Before the battle began, he issued an address to his men went, We are very glad. Now, with what remains, we will daringly engage the enemy. We are determined to fight to the last man, on 3 February, elements of the U. S. A squadron of Brig. Gen. William C, since 4 January 1942, a total of thirty-seven months, the university’s main building had been used to hold civilians. Out of 4,255 prisoners,466 died in captivity, colayco died seven days later in Legarda Elementary School, which became a field hospital. At 9 PM, five tanks of the 44th Tank Battalion, headed by Battlin Basic, the Japanese, commanded by Lt. Col. Toshio Hayashi, gathered the remaining internees together in the Education Building as hostages, and exchanged pot shots with the Americans and Filipinos
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Imperial Japanese Army
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The Imperial Japanese Army or IJA, literally Army of the Greater Japanese Empire, was the official ground-based armed force of the Empire of Japan, from 1871 to 1945. Later an Inspectorate General of Military Aviation became the agency with oversight of the army. During the Meiji Restoration, the forces loyal to Emperor Meiji were samurai drawn primarily from the loyalist daimyōs of Satsuma. This central army, the Imperial Japanese Army, became even more essential after the abolition of the han system in 1871. One of the differences between the samurai and the peasant class was the right to bear arms, this ancient privilege was suddenly extended to every male in the nation. In 1878, the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office, based on the German General Staff, was established directly under the Emperor and was given broad powers for military planning and strategy. The Japanese invasion of Taiwan under Qing rule in 1874 was an expedition by Japanese military forces in response to the Mudan Incident of December 1871. The Paiwan people, who are indigenous peoples of Taiwan, murdered 54 crewmembers of a merchant vessel from the Ryukyu Kingdom on the southwestern tip of Taiwan. 12 men were rescued by the local Chinese-speaking community and were transferred to Miyako-jima in the Ryukyu Islands and it marked the first overseas deployment of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy. Not surprisingly, the new led to a series of riots from disgruntled samurai. One of the riots, led by Saigō Takamori, was the Satsuma Rebellion. Thenceforth, the military existed in an intimate and privileged relationship with the imperial institution, top-ranking military leaders were given direct access to the Emperor and the authority to transmit his pronouncements directly to the troops. The sympathetic relationship between conscripts and officers, particularly junior officers who were mostly from the peasantry, tended to draw the military closer to the people. In time, most people came to look more for guidance in matters more to military than to political leaders. By the 1890s, the Imperial Japanese Army had grown to become the most modern army in Asia, well-trained, well-equipped, however, it was basically an infantry force deficient in cavalry and artillery when compared with its European contemporaries. The Sino-Japanese War would come to symbolize the weakness of the military of the Qing dynasty and this was the result by Japans 120, 000-strong western-style conscript army of two armies and five divisions, which was well-equipped and well-trained when compared with their Qing counterparts. The Treaty of Shimonoseki made the Qing defeat official, with a shift in regional dominance in Asia from China to Japan. In 1899–1900, Boxer attacks against foreigners in China intensified eventually resulting in the siege of the legations in Beijing
24.
Baroque Churches of the Philippines
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The Baroque Churches of the Philippines are a collection of four Spanish-era baroque churches in the Philippines, which were included in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1993. The churches are considered as national cultural treasures of the country. The Philippines, following its ratification of the convention on September 19,1985, the Philippines had its first sites included in 1993, and since 1999, has six sites on the list spanning nine locations. Of those six sites, three are cultural and three natural, in 2015, the 28 sites in the Tentative List were revised. Currently, the Tentative List for possible nomination in the future contains nineteen submissions, a site within the district of Intramuros was assigned to the Augustinian Order, the first to evangelize in the Philippines. In 1587 the impermanent earliest building in wood and palm fronds was replaced by a church and monastery in stone. It was the structure in Intramuros to survive the Liberation of Manila in 1945. Miag-ao became an independent parish in 1731, when a simple church, however, destruction of the town by Muslim pirates in 1741 and 1754 led to the town being rebuilt in a more secure location. The new church, constructed in 1787-97, was built as a fortress and it was, however, damaged severely by fire during the revolution against Spain in 1898 and in the Second World War. Two bell towers were added in 1854, but the northern one cracked in the 1880 earthquake and had to be demolished, in the interior of the church the wall paintings date from the 19th century, but they overlie the original tempera murals. As a result, the church was endowed, with a fine retablo, pulpit, lectern. Of special interest is the series of crypto-collateral chapels lining both sides of the nave, the walls separating them act as buttresses. The stone barrel vault, dome, and arched vestibule are all unique in the Philippines, a monastery complex was formerly linked to the church by a series of cloisters, arcades, courtyards and gardens, but all except one building were destroyed in 1945. The Santa Maria Church is located in the municipality of Santa Maria, also unusual are the sitting of the convento parallel to the facade of the church and that of the separate bell tower at the midpoint of the nave wall. This was dictated by the hill on which it is located, the brick church follows the standard Philippine layout, with a monumental facade masking a straight roof-line covering a long rectangular building. It is alleged to be built on a raft as a precaution against earthquake damage. The walls are devoid of ornament but have delicately carved side entrances and strong buttresses The Paoay Church, also known as the Church of San Agustín, is located in Paoay and it is the most outstanding example in the Philippines of an Earthquake Baroque style architecture. Fourteen buttresses are ranged along the lines of a giant volute supporting a smaller one, a pair of buttresses at the midpoint of each nave wall have stairways for access to the roof
25.
History of Manila
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Manilas hisory begins around 65,000 BC the time the Callao Man first settled in the Philippines, predating the arrival of the Negritos and the Malayo-Polynesians. By the thirteenth century, the city consisted of a settlement and trading quarter near the mouth of the Pasig River. However, the city known by the name given to it by its Tagalog inhabitants, Maynil, based on the nilad plant. Manila became the seat of the government of Spain when it gained sovereignty over the Philippine Islands in 1565. The seat of the Spanish government was situated within the walls of Old Manila. The walls were constructed to keep out invading Chinese pirates and protect the city from native uprisings, several communities eventually grew outside the walls of Manila. The city became the center of trade between Manila and Acapulco, which lasted for three centuries and brought the goods from the Americas to South East Asia and vice versa, there were a number of raids and invasion attempts made upon Manila during the Spanish period. In 1898, Spain ceded control of the Philippines after over three hundred year of rule to the United States after the Treaty of Paris, which ended the Spanish–American War. During the American Period, some semblance of city planning using the architectural designs, during World War II, much of the city was destroyed, but the city was rebuilt in after the war. It was the second most destroyed city in the world after Warsaw, the Metropolitan Manila region was enacted as an independent entity in 1975. The city became known by the name given by its Tagalog inhabitants, as Maynila, the name is based on the nila, a flowering mangrove plant that grew on the marshy shores of the bay, used to produce soap for regional trade. It is either from the phrase may nila, [ for there is nila, nila itself is probably from Sanskrit nila meaning indigo tree. The idea that the plant name is actually nilad is baseless and it was also known as Gintu or Suvarnadvipa by its neighbors. The said kingdom flourished during the half of the Ming Dynasty as a result of trade relations with China. Ancient Tondo has always been the capital of the empire. Its rulers were equivalents to kings and not mere chieftains, and they were addressed as panginuan or panginoon, well into the 13th century, the city consisted of a fortified settlement and trading quarter at the bay of the Pasig River, on top of previous older towns. During this time, the lord-minister Jayadewa presented a document of debt forgiveness to Lady Angkatan and her brother Bukah and this is described in the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, the Philippines oldest recorded document. This inscription shows the link between the ancient Philippines and the Medang Kingdom of Java
26.
Tagalog people
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The Tagalog people is a major ethnolingustic group in the Philippines. They have a developed society due to the cultural heartland, Manila. The commonly accepted origin for the endonym Tagalog is the term tagá-ilog, an alternative theory states that the name is derived from tagá-alog, which means people from the ford. In 1821, American diplomat Edmund Roberts called the Tagalog Tagalor in his memoirs about his trips to the Philippines. The earliest written record of the Tagalog is a 9th-century document known as the Laguna Copperplate Inscription which is about a remission of debt on behalf of the ruler of Tondo. Inscribed on it is year 822 of the Saka Era, the month of Waisaka, and the day of the waning moon. Some contend it is between Old Tagalog and Old Javanese, the document states that it releases its bearers, the children of Namwaran, from a debt in gold amounting to 1 kati and 8 suwarnas. Pires exploration led him to discover that in their own country, the Luções had foodstuffs, wax, honey, inferior grade gold, had no king, and were governed instead by a group of elders. Contact with the rest of Southeast Asia led to the creation Baybayin later used in the book Doctrina Cristiana which is written by the 16th century Spanish colonizers, on May 19,1571, Miguel López de Legazpi gave the title city to the colony of Manila. The title was certified on June 19,1572, under Spain, Manila became the colonial entrepot in the Far East. The Philippines was a Spanish colony administered under the Viceroyalty of New Spain, the first substantial dictionary of Tagalog language was written by the Czech Jesuit missionary Pablo Clain in the beginning of the 18th century. The indigenous poet Francisco Baltazar is regarded as the foremost Tagalog writer, the ship set sail from Macau and landed in Morro Bay in what is now the California coast on October 17 of 1587, as part of the Galleon Trade between the Spanish East Indies and New Spain. More Filipino sailors arrived along the California coast when both places were part of the Spanish Empire, by 1763, Manila men or Tagalas had established a settlement called St. Malo on the outskirts of New Orleans, Louisiana. The Tagalog played a role during the 1896 Philippine Revolution. The Katipunan once intended to name the Philippines as Katagalugan or the Tagalog Republic, Miguel de Unamuno described revolutionary leader José Rizal as the Tagalog Hamlet and said of him “a soul that dreads the revolution although deep down desires it. He pivots between fear and hope, between faith and despair. ”In 1902, Macario Sakay formed his own Republika ng Katagalugan in the mountains of Morong, Tagalog was declared the official language by the first constitution in the Philippines, the Constitution of Biak-na-Bato in 1897. In 1939, President Quezon renamed the proposed Tagalog-based national language as wikang pambansâ, in 1959, the language was further renamed as Pilipino. The 1987 constitution designated Filipino as the national language mandating that as it evolves, it shall be developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine
27.
Kapampangan people
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The Kapampangan people, also known as Pampangueños or Pampangos, are the seventh largest ethnolinguistic group in the Philippines, numbering about 2.89 million. They live mainly in the provinces of Pampanga, Bataan and Tarlac, as well as Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, as a result, Kapampangans now populate a region that extends beyond the political boundaries of the small province of Pampanga. In Bataan, Kapampangans populate the municipalities of Dinalupihan and Hermosa, Kapampangans can be found scattered all across the southern barrios of Cabiao in the province of Nueva Ecija and in the western section of the province of Bulacan. Kapampangan enclaves still exist in Tondo and other parts of the National Capital Region, Kapampangans have also migrated to Mindoro, Palawan and Mindanao and have formed strong Kapampangan organizations called aguman in Davao City and General Santos City. Agumans based in the United States and Canada are active in the revival of the Kapampangan language, california-based organizations promoted Kapampangan language and culture and raised funds for charitable and cultural projects in California and in Pampanga. The oldest artifact found in the Province of Pampanga is a 5000-year-old stone adze found in Candaba. It is said to be a used in building boats. Earthenware and tradeware dating back to 1500 BC have also found in Candaba. Farming and fishing were the industries of the Kapampangan people. Kapampangans have played a dynamic yet conflicting role in Philippine history and it was the Kapampangans of Macabebe who were the first to defend the Luzon Empire from Spanish domination in 1571. Yet it was the Kapampangans that the Spaniards relied on to defend their new colony from the Dutch and it was at this time that one Castillan plus three Kapampangans were considered as four Castillans as long they gallantly served in the colonial armed forces. Such behaviour earned them the stereotype of being quislings in exchange for personal wealth, in 1896, Kapampangans were one of the principal ethnic groups to push and fuel the Philippine revolution against Spain. Yet it was also the Kapampangans of Macabebe that fiercely defended the last Spanish garrison against the revolutionaries. With the outbreak of World War II, Japanese planes invaded the province of Pampanga and attacked the United States Air Base at Clark Field in Angeles. Later Japanese soldiers entered the province of Pampanga on 1942 and the Japanese Occupation formally began, many Kapampangans joined a group of stronghold soldiers that survived the invasion and officially trained under the 31st Infantry Division, Philippine Commonwealth Army. USAFFE was stationed in Pampanga on July 26,1941 before the Japanese Occupation to June 30,1946, after the Battle of Bataan in 1942, some Kapampangan soldiers of the USAFFE 31st Infantry Division fought four years of battles against Japanese troops. Many Kapampangans joined the resistance fighters of the Hukbalahap Communist resistance. Many Kapampangan festivals display an indigenous flavor unique only to the Kapampangan people and they start the battle in Ugtung-aldo or afternoon and they end it in Sisilim or sunset with the tune of what Macabebeanons and Masantuleñios called BATTALA Masantol, Macabebe and Lubao
28.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
29.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
30.
Borneo
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Borneo is the third-largest island in the world and the largest island in Asia. At the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, in relation to major Indonesian islands, it is located north of Java, west of Sulawesi, the island is politically divided among three countries, Malaysia and Brunei in the north, and Indonesia to the south. Approximately 73% of the island is Indonesian territory, in the north, the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak make up about 26% of the island. Additionally, the Malaysian federal territory of Labuan is situated on an island just off the coast of Borneo. The sovereign state of Brunei, located on the north coast, antipodal to an area of Amazon rainforest, Borneo is itself home to one of the oldest rainforests in the world, and to Bornean orangutans. The island is known by names, internationally it is known as Borneo, after Brunei. The name Brunei possibly was derived from the Sanskrit word váruṇa, meaning either ocean or the mythological Varuna. Indonesian natives called it Kalimantan, which was derived from the Sanskrit word Kalamanthana, prior to that the island was also known by other names. In 977 Chinese records began to use the term Po-ni to refer to Borneo or Brunei, in 1225 it was also mentioned by the Chinese official Chau Ju-Kua. The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Majapahit court poet Mpu Prapanca in 1365, mentioned the island as Nusa Tanjungnagara, to the west of Borneo are the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. To the south and east are islands of Indonesia, Java and Sulawesi, to the northeast are the Philippine Islands. With an area of 743,330 square kilometres, it is the third-largest island in the world and its highest point is Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia, with an elevation of 4,095 m. The largest river system is the Kapuas in West Kalimantan, with a length of 1,143 km, other major rivers include the Mahakam in East Kalimantan, the Barito in South Kalimantan, and Rajang in Sarawak. Clearwater Cave, for example, has one of the worlds longest underground rivers, deer Cave is home to over three million bats, with guano accumulated to over 100 metres deep. The South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand now submerge the former low-lying areas of the peninsula, the Borneo rainforest is 140 million years old, making it one of the oldest rainforests in the world. There are about 15,000 species of flowering plants with 3,000 species of trees,221 species of mammals and 420 species of resident birds in Borneo. There are about 440 freshwater fish species in Borneo and it is the centre of the evolution and distribution of many endemic species of plants and animals. The Borneo rainforest is one of the few remaining habitats for the endangered Bornean orangutan
31.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
32.
Luzon
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Luzon (/luːˈzɒn/, Tagalog pronunciation, is the largest and most populous island in the Philippines. It is ranked 15th largest in the world, with a population of 52.99 million as of 2015, it is the fourth most populous island in the world, containing about 53% of the countrys total population. Luzon may also refer to one of the three island groups in the country. The name Luzon is thought to derive from the Tagalog word lusong, from just before the first millennium, the Tagalog and Kapampangan peoples of south and central Luzon had established several Indianized kingdoms, notably among them those of Tundok and Namayan. The Laguna Copperplate Inscription, the first Philippine document written in 900AD, names places in and these kingdoms were based on leases between village rulers and landlords or Rajahs, to whom tributes and taxes were levied. These kingdoms were coastal thalassocracies based on trade with neighboring Asian political entities at that time, some parts of Luzon were Islamized when the Sultanate of Brunei expanded its realms from Borneo to the Philippines and set up the Kingdom of Maynila as its puppet-state. In addition, other kingdoms like the Wangdom of Pangasinan had become tributary states to China and were largely Sinified kingdoms, certain kilns were renowned over others and prices depended on the reputation of the kiln. Of this flourishing trade, the Burnay jars of Ilocos are the large clay jar manufactured in Luzon today with origins from this time. The Yongle Emperor instituted a Chinese Governor on Luzon during Zheng Hes voyages, China also had vassals among the leaders in the archipelago. China attained ascendancy in trade with the area in Yongles reign, in the 1500s, people from Luzon were called Lucoes and were actively employed in trading, seafaring and military campaigns across Southeast Asia. The Portuguese were the first European explorers who recorded it in their charts as Luçonia or Luçon, edmund Roberts, who visited Luzon in the early 19th century, wrote that Luzon was discovered in 1521. Many people from Luzon had active-employment in Portuguese Malacca and his father and wife carried on his maritime trading business after his death. Another important Malacca trader was Curia de Raja who also hailed from Luzon, the surname of de Raja or diraja could indicate that Regimo and Curia, and their families, were of noble or royal descent as the term is an abbreviation of Sanskrit adiraja. Pinto noted that there were a number of Lucoes in the Islamic fleets that went to battle with the Portuguese in the Philippines during the 16th century, the Sultan of Aceh gave one of them the task of holding Aru in 1540. Pinto also says one was named leader of the Malays remaining in the Moluccas Islands after the Portuguese conquest in 1511, pigafetta notes that one of them was in command of the Brunei fleet in 1521. However, the Luções did not only fight on the side of the Muslims, pinto says they were also apparently among the natives of the Philippines who fought the Muslims in 1538. On Mainland Southeast Asia, Lusung/Lucoes warriors aided the Burmese king in his invasion of Siam in 1547 AD, at the same time, Lusung warriors fought alongside the Siamese king and faced the same elephant army of the Burmese king in the defence of the Siamese capital at Ayuthaya. Scholars have thus suggested that they could be valued by all sides
33.
Majapahit
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The Majapahit Empire was a vast thalassocracy based on the island of Java from 1293 to around 1500. Majapahit reached its peak of glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk and his achievement is also credited to his prime minister, Gajah Mada. Its influence extended beyond the territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies. The name Majapahit derives from local Javanese, meaning bitter maja, german orientalist Berthold Laufer suggested that maja came from the Javanese name of Aegle marmelos, an Indonesian tree. The name originally referred to the area in and around Trowulan, the cradle of Majapahit and it was said that the workers clearing the Tarik timberland encountered some bael trees and consumed its bitter-tasting fruit that subsequently become the villages name. In ancient Java it is common to refer the kingdom with its capitals name, Majapahit is also known by other names, Wilwatikta, although sometimes the natives refer to their kingdom as Bhumi Jawa or Mandala Jawa instead. Little physical evidence of Majapahit remains, and some details of the history are rather abstract, nevertheless, local Javanese people did not forget Majapahit completely, as Mojopait is mentioned vaguely in Babad Tanah Jawi, a Javanese chronicle composed in the 18th century. Majapahit did produce physical evidence, the ruins dating from the Majapahit period are clustered in the Trowulan area. The Trowulan archaeological site was discovered in the 19th century by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles and he reported the existence of ruins of temples. Scattered about the country for miles, and referred to Trowulan as this pride of Java. By the early 20th century, Dutch colonial historians began to study old Javanese and Balinese literature to explore the past of their colony, two primary sources were available to them, the Pararaton manuscript was written in the Kawi language c. 1600, and Nagarakretagama was composed in Old Javanese in 1365, Pararaton focuses on Ken Arok, the founder of Singhasari, but includes a number of shorter narrative fragments about the formation of Majapahit. The Nagarakretagama is an old Javanese epic poem written during the Majapahit golden age under the reign of Hayam Wuruk, the Dutch acquired the manuscript in 1894 during their military expedition against the Cakranegara royal house of Lombok. There are also inscriptions in Old Javanese and Chinese. The Javanese sources incorporate some poetic mythological elements, and scholars such as C. C, berg, an Indonesia-born Dutch naturalist, have considered the entire historical record to be not a record of the past, but a supernatural means by which the future can be determined. Most scholars do not accept this view, as the record corresponds with Chinese materials that could not have had similar intention. The list of rulers and details of the structure show no sign of being invented. The Chinese historical sources on Majapahit, mainly owed to Zheng Hes account — a Ming Dynasty admiral reports during his visit to Majapahit, Zheng Hes translator Ma Huan wrote a detailed description of Majapahit and where the king of Java lived
34.
Nagarakretagama
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The Nagarakretagama or Nagarakrtagama, also known as Desawarnana, is an Old Javanese eulogy to Hayam Wuruk, a Javanese king of the Majapahit Empire. It was written on lontar as a kakawin by Mpu Prapanca in 1365, the Nagarakretagama contains detailed descriptions of the Majapahit Empire during its greatest extent. The poem affirms the importance of Hindu–Buddhism in the Majapahit empire by describing temples and palaces, in 1894, the Dutch East Indies launched a military expedition against the Cakranegara royal house of Lombok. That year, the Dutch took the manuscript as part of the valuable Lombok treasure, the first western scholar to study the manuscript was J. L. A. Brandes, a Dutch philologist. He accompanied the KNIL expedition to Lombok in 1894, and is credited with saving the valuable collection of the Lombok royal library from being burnt in the chaos of the battle. A generation of Dutch scholars participated in translating the poem, much of its historical value was due to its having been the product of priestly activities directed at enhancing the magical powers of the ruler at the time. The manuscript is written on lontar leaves and it was held in the library of Leiden University in the Netherlands, with inventory code number L Or 5.023. After its translation in the early 20th century, the Nagarakretagama became an inspiration and foundation of the Indonesian independence movement, in 1973 during the state visit of Queen Juliana to Indonesia, she returned the manuscript to Indonesia. Today it is held by the National Library of Indonesia, with inventory code number NB9, in May 2008 UNESCO recognised the significance of the Nagarakretagama by naming it The Memory of the World - Regional Register for Asia/Pacific, and finally registered it in 2013. Historians have examined the poem for what it reveals of political history, in the canto 13 to 14, the poet Prapanca named several states within todays Indonesian borders. This suggested that those areas were within Majapahit spheres of influence, Prapanca said the states were subsumed by Majapahit or were vassal states. In Canto 13, several lands on Sumatra are mentioned, and some possibly correspond to areas, Jambi, Palembang, Teba. Also mentioned are Kandis, Kahwas, Minangkabau, Siak, Rokan, Kampar and Pane, Kampe, Haru, tamiyang, negara Perlak and Padang Lawas, are noted in the west, together with Samudra and Lamuri, Batan, Lampung, and Barus. Also listed are the states of Tanjungnegara, Kapuas Katingan, Sampit, Kota Lingga, Kota Waringin, Sambas, and Lawas. In Canto 14 more lands are noted, Kadandangan, Landa, Samadang, Tirem, Sedu, Barune, Kalka, Saludung, Solot, Pasir, Barito, Sawaku, Tabalung, in Hujung Medini, Pahang is mentioned first. Next Langkasuka, Saimwang, Kelantan and Trengganu, Johor, Paka, Muar, Dungun, Tumasik, Kelang and Kedah, Jerai, Kanjapiniran, also in Canto 14 are territories east of Java, Badahulu and Lo Gajah. Gurun and Sukun, Taliwang, Sapi and Dompo, Sang Hyang Api, together with prosperous Sasak are already ruled. Also mentioned are Makassar, Buton, Banggai, Kunir, Galiao with Selayar, Sumba, Solot, also Wanda, Ambon or Maluku islands, Kai-islands, Wanin, Seran, Timor and other islands
35.
Maharaja
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Mahārāja is a Sanskrit title for a great ruler, great king or high king. It has also been the title of emperors, including Maharaja Ranjit Singh, founder of the Sikh empire, the female equivalent, Maharani, denotes either the wife of a Maharaja, and also in states where that was customary, a woman ruling in her own right. The widow of a Maharaja is known as a Rajmata queen mother, Maharaj Kumar generally denotes a son of a Maharaja, but more specific titulatures are often used at each court, including Yuvaraj for the heir. The form Maharaj indicates a separation of noble and religious offices, the word Maharaja originates in Sanskrit and is a compound karmadhāraya term from mahānt- great and rājan ruler, king). It has the Latin cognates magnum great and rex king, the Sanskrit title Maharaja was originally used only for rulers who ruled a considerably large region with minor tributary rulers under them. Since mediaeval times, the title was used even by monarchs of smaller states claiming to be the descendants of ancient Maharajas, the word Maharaja may be understood simply to mean ruler or king, in spite of its literal translation as great king. The word, however, can also mean emperor in contemporary Indian usage, two Rajas who became Maharajas in the twentieth century were the Maharaja of Cochin and the legendary Maharaja Jagatjit Singh of Kapurthala. Variations of this include the following, each combining Maha- great with an alternative form of Raja king, so all meaning Great King, Maharana, Maharawal, Maharawat, Maharao. Maharajah has taken on new spellings due to change and migration. It has even been shortened to Mahraj and Maraj but the most common is Maharajah, despite its literal meaning, unlike many other titles meaning Great King, neither Maharaja nor Rajadhiraja, nor even its equivalent amongst. Maharaja, Maharajadhiraja, never reached the standing required for imperial rank, dharma-maharaja was the devout title of the rulers of the Ganga dynasty. In the Mughal Empire it was common to award to various princes a series of lofty titles as a matter of protocolary rank. The british would, as partamaount power, do the same, Maharajadhiraja, Great Prince over Princes, a title of honour, one degree higher than Sawai Maharaja Bahadur. Sawai Maharaja Bahadur, a title of honour, one higher than Sawai Maharaja. Sawai Maharaja, a title of one degree higher than Maharaja Bahadur. Maharaja Bahadur, a title of honour, one higher than Maharaja. Maharaja itself could also be grahted as a personal, non-hereditary style, like Raja and various other titles, Maharaja was repeatedly awarded to notables without a princely state, such as zamindars. g. The Diwan Maharaja Sir Kishen Pershad, held such a Maharaja-title, Maharaj Kumar means son of a Maharaja or Heir-Apparent, the female equivalent is Maharaj Kumari, daughter of a Maharaja
36.
Hayam Wuruk
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Hayam Wuruk, also called Rajasanagara, Pa-ta-na-pa-na-wu, or Bhatara Prabhu, was a Javanese King from the Rajasa Dynasty and the fourth monarch of the Majapahit Empire. Together with his prime minister Gajah Mada, he reigned the empire at the time of its greatest power and he was preceded by Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi and succeeded by his son-in-law Wikramawardhana. Most of the accounts of his life were taken from Nagarakretagama, according to Nagarakretagama canto 1 stanza 4 and 5, Hayam Wuruk was born in 1256 Saka or correspond to 1334 CE, the same year that Mount Kelud erupted. Prapanca argued that this was the sign that Batara Gurunata has manifest Himself on earth. Also in the same, Gajah Mada declared his oath Sumpah Palapa, Hayam Wuruks name can be translated as scholar rooster. He was the son of Tribhuwana Tunggadewi and Sri Kertawardhana or Cakradhara and his mother was the daughter of Raden Wijaya founder of Majapahit, meanwhile his father was the son of Bhre Tumapel lesser king of Singhasari. He was known as an accomplished dancer in the court. Some accounts tell of Hayam Wuruks performances in a traditional ceremonial Javanese mask dance and his mother, Queen Tribhuwana, educated and groomed him to become the next monarch of Majapahit. In 1350 Gayatri Rajapatni died in her retirement at a Buddhist monastery and she was the consort of Raden Wijaya, the first king of Majapahit, and also the grandmother of Hayam Wuruk. Queen Tribhuwana had to abdicate because she ruled Majapahit under Rajapatnis auspices, Hayam Wuruk inherited the throne in 1350 at the age of 16 when the patih Gajah Mada was at the height of his career. Under his rule, Majapahit extended its power throughout the Indonesian archipelago, according to Pararaton and Kidung Sunda, in 1357 King Hayam Wuruk was expected to marry Dyah Pitaloka Citraresmi, the princess of the Sunda Kingdom. The reason for this engagement was probably political, to foster the alliance between the Majapahit and the Sundanese Kingdoms. However, in the Bubat incident, the Sunda royal family, the planned royal wedding ended in disaster with the death of the princess and the whole Sunda royal party. The court officials blamed Gajah Mada because it was his intention to demand submission from Sunda Kingdom that ended in bloodshed, several years later Hayam Wuruk married his half-sister, Paduka Sori, daughter of Dyah Wiyat. Hayam Wuruk and Paduka Sori have 1 father, different mothers, in 1365, Mpu Prapanca wrote the kakawin Nagarakretagama, the old Javanese eulogy for King Hayam Wuruk. The manuscript described Hayam Wuruks royal excursion around the Majapahit realm to visit villages, holy shrines, vassal kingdoms and he sent embassies to China from 1370 to 1381. Hayam Wuruk had a daughter, Crown Princess Kusumawardhani, with Queen Sori, Kusumawardhani married a relative, Prince Wikramawardhana. However, from a concubine, Hayam Wuruk had a son
37.
Bolkiah
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Sultan Bolkiah was the fifth Sultan of Brunei. He ascended the throne of Brunei upon the abdication of his father, Sultan Sulaiman and his reign marked the Golden Age of Brunei and saw the Sultanate become the superpower of the Malay archipelago. Bolkiah frequently travelled abroad to new ideas for the development of the country. This increased Bruneis wealth as well as extending Islamic teachings in the region, resulting in the influence, bolkiahs rule reached essentially all of coastal Borneo, as far south as Banjarmasin, and as far north as the island of Luzon, including Seludong in the Philippines. Bolkiah was married to Laila Mecanai the daughter of Sulu Sultan Amir Ul-Ombra, after his death, sultan Bolkiah was succeeded by his son, Abdul Kahar. He was buried in Kota Batu with his wife, Princess Leila Mechanai, the earliest historical record of the Sultans of Brunei is not clearly known due to the poor early documentation of Bruneis history. Many elder members of the House of Bolkiah claim that their ancestors were the BaHassan and BaAlawi Saadah from Tarim, in addition there has been an effort to Islamise the history, with the official history not matching up with verifiable foreign sources. The Batu Tarsilah, the record of the kings of Brunei, was not started until 1807 CE. Therefore, much of the intepretation on history relied on earlier Chinese sources and it seems that the early Sultanate of Brunei was dependent on Chinese support, and perhaps early Sultans were of Chinese origin. Furthermore the earliest Sultans may have been practising the Hindu or Buddhist religions, with early names indicating this origin
38.
Brunei
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Brunei, officially the Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace, is a sovereign state located on the north coast of the island of Borneo in Southeast Asia. Apart from its coastline with the South China Sea, the country is surrounded by the state of Sarawak. It is separated into two parts by the Sarawak district of Limbang, Brunei is the only sovereign state completely on the island of Borneo, the remainder of the islands territory is divided between the nations of Malaysia and Indonesia. Bruneis population was 408,786 in July 2012, the maritime state was visited by Spains Magellan Expedition in 1521 and fought against Spain in the 1578 Castille War. During the 19th century, the Bruneian Empire began to decline, the Sultanate ceded Sarawak to James Brooke and installed him as the White Rajah, and it ceded Sabah to the British North Borneo Chartered Company. In 1888, Brunei became a British protectorate and was assigned a British resident as colonial manager in 1906, after the Japanese occupation during World War II, in 1959 a new constitution was written. In 1962, an armed rebellion against the monarchy was ended with the help of the British. Brunei gained its independence from the United Kingdom on 1 January 1984, Economic growth during the 1990s and 2000s, with the GDP increasing 56% from 1999 to 2008, transformed Brunei into an industrialised country. It has developed wealth from petroleum and natural gas fields. Brunei has the second-highest Human Development Index among the Southeast Asian nations, after Singapore, according to the International Monetary Fund, Brunei is ranked fifth in the world by gross domestic product per capita at purchasing power parity. The IMF estimated in 2011 that Brunei was one of two countries with a debt at 0% of the national GDP. Forbes also ranks Brunei as the fifth-richest nation out of 182, based on its petroleum, according to legend, Brunei was founded by Awang Alak Betatar, later to be Sultan Muhammad Shah. He moved from Garang, a place in the Temburong District to the Brunei River estuary, according to legend, upon landing he exclaimed, Baru nah, from which the name Brunei was derived. He was the first Muslim ruler of Brunei, before the rise of the Bruneian Empire under the Muslim Bolkiah Dynasty, Brunei is believed to have been under Buddhist rulers. It was renamed Barunai in the 14th century, possibly influenced by the Sanskrit word varuṇ, the word Borneo is of the same origin. In the countrys name, Negara Brunei Darussalam, darussalam means abode of peace. The people are pagans and are men of goodwill and their colour is whiter than that of the other sort. in this island justice is well administered. One of the earliest Chinese records is the 977 AD letter to Chinese emperor from the ruler of Po-ni, which some scholars believe to refer to Borneo
39.
Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
40.
Rajahnate of Maynila
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It is one of the settlements mentioned by the Philippines earliest historical record, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription. Thus, it became a force in trade throughout Southeast Asia. Tondos regional prominence further culminated during the period of its associated trade, and by around 1500, the kingdom reached its peak as a thalassocratic force in the northern part of the archipelago. Following contact with the Spanish Empire beginning in 1570 and the defeat of local rulers in the Manila Bay area in 1571, Tondo was ruled from Manila. The kingdoms absorption into the Spanish Empire effectively ended its status as an independent kingdom, numerous theories on the origin of the name Tondo have been put forward. Filipino National Artist Nick Joaquin suggested that it might be a reference to high ground, french linguist Jean-Paul Potet, however, has suggested that the River Mangrove, Aegiceras corniculatum, which at the time was called tundok, is the most likely origin of the name. The bay area in which Tondo can be found was named Lusong or Lusung and this name was eventually used as the modern name of the entire island of Luzon. Rajah Alon, King of Tondo and son of Lakan Timamanukum, expanded the Kingdom of Tondo by conquering neighboring territories such as Kapampangan chiefdoms, Kumintang and he was succeeded by his grandson Rajah Gambang. The Tondo Dynasty lasted until the end of the 15th century, the first reference to Tondo occurs in the Philippines oldest historical record — the Laguna Copperplate Inscription. This legal document was written in Kawi, and dates back to Saka 822, the article mentioned that other places in the Philippines and their Rulers, Pailah, Puliran Kasumuran, Binwangan. While the document does not describe the relationship of the King of Tundun with these other rulers. The next historical reference to Ancient Tondo can be found in the Ming Shilu Annals and her rulers, based in their capital, Tondo were acknowledged not as mere chieftains, but as kings. This reference places Tondo into the context of Chinese trade with the aboriginals of the Philippine archipelago. But the earliest archeological evidence of trade between the Philippine aborigines and China takes the form of pottery and porcelain pieces dated to the Tang and Song Dynasties and it is believed that the people of Tondo kingdom were related to Malay of Malay peninsula and Sumatra. They belonged to the nobility class similar to the Timawa of the Visayan people. In modern Filipino, however, the term itself has come to mean royal nobility. The different type of culture prevalent in Luzon gave a stable and more complex social structure to the pre-colonial Tagalog barangays of Manila, Pampanga. The more complex structure of the Tagalogs was less stable during the arrival of the Spaniards because it was still in a process of differentiating
41.
Rajah Sulayman
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He also inherited rule of nearby Tondo and Namayan, becoming the first sovereign to hold all three realms in personal union. He was the kingdoms penultimate indigenous ruler, as the state, was absorbed into the Spanish Empire beginning in the late 16th century. His eldest son, Banao Dula, was crowned Lakan when Sulayman I was too sick to function as monarch, Sulayman I is the grandson of Abdul Bolkiah of the Sultanate of Brunei and the son of Sulayman Bolkiah. Sulayman l did not use the surname Bolkiah but instead used the title of Rajah Soliman Dula l. Spanish documents note that Sulaymans subjects called him Raja Mura or Raja Muda, the Spanish glossed this name as Young Raja, a reference to the fact that he was Raja Matandas nephew and heir apparent. The Spaniards also called him Raja Solimano el Mow, Rajah Sulayman was there when the invasion of Legazpi occurred. It is believed that Islam would have disseminated all over the Philippines, the Spanish conquest was fought against by Rajah Lakandula, Rajah Matanda, and their nephew Rajah Sulayman. Bruneis Sultan had familial ties with the Borneo originated royals who ruled Manila, Manila was converted by Muslims from Borneo. This signal the start of the age old sovereign based confict in the Archipelago, the royals and nobility of Brunei converted the royals of Manila to Islam and established familiar relations by matrimony which is why Rajah Sulayman was a known Muslim when the Spanish arrived. Julkipli M. Wadi wrote Rajah Sulayman, Spain and the transformation of the Islamic Manila, miguel López de Legazpi, Juan de Salcedo, and Martín de Goiti led the invasion by the Spanish against Rajah Lakandula, Rajah Matanda and Maynilas final Muslim ruler, Rjaha Sulayman III. Jose N. Svilla composed a Tagalog language Rajah Suulayman bio, a monument dedicated to Rajah Sulayman was erected by the inhabitants in memory of his resistance and martyrdom against the Spanish. Tondo ruled by Lakandula and Manila ruled by Sulayman were both Muslim since Luzon, Visayas, Mindanao and Sulu all experienced Islamic proselytization, Muslims were already all over the islands of the Philippines during the entry of the Spanish. This area was a pre-colonial Indianized kingdom of Sri Vijaya and at their arrival has already shifted to Majapahit Empire, Goiti anchored at Cavite and established his authority by sending a message of friendship to the states surrounding the Pasig River. Sulayman, who had given authority over these settlements by the ageing Rajah Matanda, was willing to accept the friendship from the Spaniards. However, he refused to cede his sovereignty, and had no choice, as a result, Goíti and his army invaded the kingdoms in June 1570, sacked and burned the great city before returning to Panay. When López de Legazpi died in 1572, his successor, Governor-General Guido de Lavezaris and he sequestered the properties of both kings and tolerated Spanish atrocities. In response, Sulayman and Lakan Dula led a revolt in the villages of Navotas in 1574 and this is often referred to as the Manila Revolt of 1574 but is sometimes referred to as the Sulayman Revolt and the Lakan Dula Revolt. Since it involved naval forces, the Sulayman Revolt is also known as the First Battle of Manila Bay, friar Geronimo Marín and Juan de Salcedo were tasked with pursuing conciliatory talks with the kingdoms
42.
Santo Domingo Church
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The Santo Domingo Church, also known as National Shrine of Our Lady of the Holy Rosary of La Naval de Manila, is the largest church in Metro Manila and one of the biggest churches in Asia. The first Catholic missionaries to arrive in Manila were Spanish Agustinians who came in 1571 with Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, the Francsicans came a few years later, in 1578. It was in 1587 that the first Dominicans arrived in Manila from Cádiz and they were welcomed by Domingo Salazar, Bishop of Manila. The order temporarily stayed at the Franciscan convent in Manila while some of them were sent to Pangasinan and Bataan to start their missionary work, Salazar sponsored 3,000 pesos for the construction of the church and 300 pesos for the purchase of land. A small church was erected on August 6,1587, made from light materials, in January 1,1588, the chapel was inaugurated and it enshrined the Miraculous image of Our Lady of the Rosary from Mexico. In 1589, the church was destroyed by an earthquake. Because the roof had collapsed, the Dominican friars decided to build a church made from stronger materials. Through the direction of Father Alonzo Jiménez, the church was made from stone. Contributions were given by Captain Castillo, María Pérez, and Captain Domingo Mendiola, the church was inaugurated on April 9,1592. A fire of April 30,1603, which destroyed a third of a city, almost immediately built a third church was built, bigger and more costly. It contained a stone vault as precaution against fire and earthquake, though made of stone, it was destroyed by another earthquake on November 30,1645. A fourth church of stone and hardwood was built, there were wooden arches and three naves inside the church. This time, wooden posts supported the roof and divided the church into a nave with side aisles. The artistic interior designs were executed under the direction of Father Francisco Gainza, the church took two years to build. The structural soundness of the church made it last for 250 years, initiated by Father Castro, A new façade flanked by two towers and patterned after London’s St. Paul’s Cathedral designed by Christopher Wren, was built for the church. The façade lasted almost a year, the church was inaugurated on June 15,1862 with great festival. On June 3,1863, the Philippines experienced one of the strongest earthquakes in its history, the church was ruined by an earthquake of the same intensity as that which hit Manila in 1645. A few months after the 1863 earthquake, Félix Roxas presented a plan for the reconstruction, partly following the plan of the previous church
43.
Colegio de Santa Rosa
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Colegio de Santa Rosa was established for the education of indias, or native Filipinas during the late 18th century in Intramuros, Manila in the Philippines. It is known for several names including Colegio de Madre Paula, in 1739, a residential structure was demolished to pave way for the construction of Colegio de Santa Rosa. Plaza de Santo Tomas served as the plaza between the Colegio de Santa Rosa and the former site of the University of Santo Tomas. The long, narrow plaza was dedicated to Thomas Aquinas, the statue of Fray Miguel de Benavides along with wrought iron fence attached in the 19th century and royal palms was also located at the middle of the plaza. Paula de Santissima Trinidad, or Paula Tejedor del Atas was born in Apluxacalba, Tarragona, Catalan and she went to Lerida, Spain to work as a criada, or maid in order to immerse herself as a social worker. From Tarragona to Manresa, she arrived in Manila on July 15,1750 with the purpose of establishing a school for indias and she pleaded donations to wealthy Spaniards such as Don Pedro González Quijano and Don Francisco Javier Salgado in order to sustain her advocacy in establishing the school. Two houses, along Calle Solana, in front of the portería of the convent of Santo Domingo and another one facing the chapel of the University of Santo Tomas, were given as donations, respectively. In August 1750, along with the school, the beaterio was built and was placed under the protection of Santa Rosa de Lima. In September 22,1774, the school and beaterio were placed under royal patronage - through the Real Cedula of 1774 by the Spanish Monarch Order, however, the institution must accept girls of other races in return. In June 16,1782, she died and was buried at chapel of the Virgin in Santo Domingo, two earthquakes in 1863 and 1880 paved way for the construction of a new, bigger structure in place of the ruins. However, the building was destroyed by the bombing of Manila in 1941 forcing the sisters to transfer the school to Santa Mesa. In 1948, the returned to Intramuros with new administrators. In 1964, they shared the sentiment that inspired Madre Paula when she founded the school in Intramuros, thus. Under the leadership of Rev. Fr. Moises Lopez, OAR, Rosa acquired the lot offered by the Makati Development Corporation. Government permit was secured to open Colegio de Sta, Rosa in Makati, as a branch. Augustinian Recollect sisters were the present administrators since 1981 until present, although the post-war school buildings followed the modern style, recently, the buildings have undergone a facelift and the facade of Colegio de Sta. Rosa in Intramuros has been recreated in concrete rather than its original wood construction, the marker of Colegio de Sta. Rosa was installed in August 25,1979 at Intramuros, Manila, Colegio de Santa Rosa - Makati
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