1.
Invercargill (New Zealand electorate)
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Invercargill is an electorate of the New Zealand Parliament that has existed since 1866. Since the 2014 election, the representative is Sarah Dowie of the National Party. The electorate covers Invercargill city and the rural area, including Stewart Island / Rakiura. Minor but steady decline in the Southland region has generally resulted in Invercargill expanding northwards. The 2013 redistribution, however, has left Invercargill unchanged, the electorate was established in 1866 when it separated from the Wallace electorate. The first representative was William Wood, who won the 1866 election, Wood retired at the end of the parliamentary term in 1870. William Henderson Calder succeeded Wood in the 1871 election and he resigned in March 1873, the resulting 1873 by-election was won by John Cuthbertson, who served until the end of the parliamentary term in 1875. Cuthbertson was defeated by George Lumsden in the 1875 election, Lumsden resigned in June 1878, which caused the 1878 by-election. Henry Feldwick was the candidate and he commenced his first of three terms for the electorate. At the 1879 election, Feldwick was defeated by James Walker Bain, at the 1881 election, Feldwick was again the successful candidate, only to be defeated again at the 1884 election, on that occasion by Joseph Hatch. At the 1887 election, Feldwick defeated Hatch and commenced his third and final term for the Invercargill electorate, James Whyte Kelly defeated Feldwick in the 1890 election. Kelly became a member of the Liberal Party and served for three terms, but broke away from the Liberal Party and became an Independent Liberal in 1895. For the 1899 election, the Josiah Hanan of the Liberal Party challenged Kelly, Hanan served the electorate until 1925, when he retired. Until 1919, Ward had for many years represented Awarua, Ward, a former leader of the Liberal Party, contested the election under the Liberal label, despite the fact that the remnants of the Liberal Party were now calling themselves by different names. In 1928, Ward helped form the United Party and won the 1928 election and he died on 8 July 1930, which caused the 1930 by-election won by his son Vincent Ward, who retired at the end of the parliamentary term in 1931. Vincent Ward was succeeded by James Hargest in the 1931 election, at the end of the parliamentary term in 1935, Hargest successfully contested the Awarua electorate. The successful candidate in the 1969 general election was John Chewings, at the next election in 1975, Munro was in turn beaten by Nationals Norman Jones. Jones retired at the end of his term in August 1987
Invercargill (New Zealand electorate)
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Invercargill electorate boundaries used since the
2008 election
2.
South Island
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The South Island or Te Waipounamu is the larger of the two major islands of New Zealand, the other being the smaller but more populous North Island. It is bordered to the north by Cook Strait, to the west by the Tasman Sea, the South Island covers 150,437 square kilometres and has a temperate climate. In the early stages of European settlement of the country, the South Island had the majority of the European population, in prose, the two main islands of New Zealand are called the North Island and the South Island, with the definite article. Charcoal drawings can be found on rock shelters in the centre of the South Island. The drawings are estimated to be between 500 and 800 years old, and portray animals, people and fantastic creatures, possibly stylised reptiles, some of the birds pictured are long extinct, including moa and Haasts eagles. They were drawn by early Māori, but by the time Europeans arrived, early inhabitants of the South Island were the Waitaha. They were largely absorbed via marriage and conquest by the Kāti Mamoe in the 16th century, Kāti Mamoe were in turn largely absorbed via marriage and conquest by the Kāi Tahu who migrated south in the 17th century. While today there is no distinct Kāti Mamoe organisation, many Kāi Tahu have Kāti Mamoe links in their whakapapa and, a notable feature of the Moriori culture, an emphasis on pacifism, proved disadvantageous when Māori warriors arrived in the 1830s aboard a chartered European ship. In the early 18th century, Kāi Tahu, a Māori tribe who originated on the east coast of the North Island, There they and Kāti Mamoe fought Ngāi Tara and Rangitāne in the Wairau Valley. Ngāti Māmoe then ceded the east coast regions north of the Clarence River to Kāi Tahu, Kāi Tahu continued to push south, conquering Kaikoura. By the 1730s, Kāi Tahu had settled in Canterbury, including Banks Peninsula, from there they spread further south and into the West Coast. In 1827-1828 Ngāti Toa under the leadership of Te Rauparaha successfully attacked Kāi Tahu at Kaikoura, Ngāti Toa then visited Kaiapoi, ostensibly to trade. When they attacked their hosts, the well-prepared Kāi Tahu killed all the leading Ngāti Toa chiefs except Te Rauparaha, Te Rauparaha returned to his Kapiti Island stronghold. After destroying Te Maiharanuis village they took their captives to Kapiti, John Stewart, though arrested and sent to trial in Sydney as an accomplice to murder, nevertheless escaped conviction. In the summer of 1831–32 Te Rauparaha attacked the Kaiapoi pā, Kaiapoi was engaged in a three-month siege by Te Rauparaha, during which his men successfully sapped the pā. They then attacked Kāi Tahu on Banks Peninsula and took the pā at Onawe, in 1832-33 Kāi Tahu retaliated under the leadership of Tūhawaiki and others, attacking Ngāti Toa at Lake Grassmere. Kāi Tahu prevailed, and killed many Ngāti Toa, although Te Rauparaha again escaped, fighting continued for a year or so, with Kāi Tahu maintaining the upper hand. Ngāti Toa never again made an incursion into Kāi Tahu territory
South Island
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Satellite view of the South Island
South Island
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Charcoal rock drawing at Carters rockpool on the Opihi River
South Island
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First European impression of Māori, at
Murderers' Bay, 1642.
South Island
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Ships in what is likely to be
Akaroa Harbour some time in the early 19th century.
3.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
New Zealand
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The Waitangi sheet from the
Treaty of Waitangi
New Zealand
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Flag
New Zealand
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Painting of
Mount Earnslaw by John Turnbull Thomson, oil on canvas, 1888
New Zealand
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John Key,
Prime Minister of New Zealand since 2008
4.
Islands of New Zealand
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New Zealand consists of a large number of islands, estimated around six hundred. The two main islands, which are larger than the rest and where most of the population lives, are the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui. The latter is referred to as the mainland, especially by its residents. However, in practice, the mainland refers to both North Island and South Island as opposed to the smaller offshore islands. Stewart Island/Rakiura, in the south, is by far the biggest of the smaller islands, the following is a list of some of the islands of New Zealand, The following table lists the largest islands of New Zealand by size. The Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau, and islands of the Ross Dependency are excluded, the countrys largest island within a lake, Pomona Island, has an area of just 2.6 km2. The following table lists the islands of New Zealand by their highest elevation and these islands are all in harbours or the open sea. The countrys tallest island within a lake, Pomona Island, rises to 511 metres height, only the Chatham Islands have a permanent population although others also did in the past. Others host visitors for science, conservation, meteorological observation and tourism
Islands of New Zealand
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New Zealand's
South Island is largely mountainous. Seen here is
Walter Peak.
5.
Regions of New Zealand
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New Zealand is divided into sixteen regions for devolved local government. Eleven are administered by councils, and five are administered by unitary authorities. The Chatham Islands Council is similar to an authority, authorised under its own legislation. The regional councils are listed in Part 1 of Schedule 2 of the Local Government Act 2002, the Act requires regional councils to promote sustainable development – the social, economic, environmental and cultural well-being of their communities. The current regions and most of their councils came into being through a government reform in 1989 that took place under the Local Government Act 1974. In addition they took over roles that had previously been performed by county councils. Auckland Regional Council, formed in 1989, was replaced by Auckland Council, the boundaries of the regions are based largely on drainage basins. This anticipated the responsibilities of the Resource Management Act 1991, most regional boundaries conform with territorial authority boundaries but there are a number of exceptions. An example is Taupo District, split between four regions, although most of its area is in the Waikato region, property rates are used to fund both regional and territorial government activities. There is often a degree of co-operation between regional and territorial councils as they have complementary roles. Regional councils have these specific functions under the Resource Management Act 1991, notes, These regions have unitary authorities. The Gisborne Region is still widely but unofficially known by its name or as East Coast. Some outlying islands are not included within regional boundaries, the Chatham Islands is not in a region, although its council has some of the powers of a regional council under the Resource Management Act. Councils may use a first past the post or single transferable vote system, the chairperson is selected by the elected council members. The Auckland Regional Council was preceded by the Auckland Regional Authority, the Wellington Regional Council was first formed in 1980 from a merger of the Wellington Regional Planning Authority and the Wellington Regional Water Board. In 1978, legislation was passed enabling the formation of regions with united councils, twenty regions were designated, excluding the Auckland and Wellington areas. For most of the country this was the first regional level of government since the abolition of provinces in 1876, councillors were not elected directly – they were appointed from the various territorial local authorities within the region. For example, in a number of cases the united council took responsibility for the allocation of revenue from regional petrol taxes, the united councils were based in the facilities of the largest TLA in the region and largely dependent on the TLAs for resources
Regions of New Zealand
6.
Southland, New Zealand
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Southland is New Zealands southernmost region. It consists mainly of the portion of the South Island. It includes Southland District, Gore District and the city of Invercargill, the region covers over 3.1 million hectares and spans over 3,400 km of coast. Southland was a scene of early extended contact between Europeans and Maori, in this case sealers, whalers and missionaries – Wohlers at Ruapuke, in 1853, Walter Mantell purchased Murihiku from local Maori iwi, claiming the land for European settlement. Over successive decades, present-day Southland and Otago were settled by large numbers of Scottish settlers, immigration to New Zealand had been precipitated by an economic depression in Scotland and a schism between the Church of Scotland and the Free Church of Scotland. In 1852, James Menzies, leader of the Southland separatist movement, under the influence of Menzies, Southland Province seceded from Otago in 1861 following the escalation of political tensions. However, rising debt forced Southland to rejoin Otago in 1870, in the 1880s, the development of an export industry based on butter and cheese encouraged the growth of dairy farming in Southland. Consequently, the colonys first dairy factory was established at Edendale in 1882, much of this export went to the United Kingdom. The regions largest flood on 27 January 1984 led to a state of emergency being declared, evacuation of 4,000 people, Southlands two principal urban settlements are the city of Invercargill and the town of Gore. Southland covers an area of 28,681 square kilometres, in the June 2016 it had a population of 98,000, making it one of New Zealands most sparsely populated areas. The sizable western part Fiordland is almost empty of permanent human inhabitation, Southland is divided into two parliamentary electorates. The large rural electorate of Clutha-Southland, held by Todd Barclay, the seat of Invercargill is held by Sarah Dowie. Both are members of the governing National Party, Regional responsibilities are handled by the Southland Regional Council. Three Territorial Authorities fall entirely within Southland, the Invercargill City Council governs Invercargill itself, together with some adjoining rural areas. Much of the area of Southland, including all of Stewart Island/Rakiura, falls within the Southland District. The Gore District Council administers the town of the same name, in 2001, three authorities created the joint initiative agency Venture Southland which is the agency responsible for the region’s economic and community development initiatives and tourism promotion. The region is home to two parks, Fiordland National Park and Rakiura National Park. The former which covers 7,860 square kilometres, making it New Zealands largest national park, Southland also includes Stewart Island, 85% of which is covered by Rakiura National Park
Southland, New Zealand
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A winter scene in western Southland, at the edge to
Fiordland
Southland, New Zealand
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Southland Region within New Zealand
7.
Territorial authorities of New Zealand
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Territorial authorities are the second tier of local government in New Zealand, below regional councils. There are 67 territorial authorities,12 city councils,53 district councils, Auckland Council, six territorial authorities also perform the functions of a regional council and thus are unitary authorities. A unitary authority may also have local boards, currently only Auckland Council has them, territorial authority districts are not subdivisions of regions, and some of them fall within more than one region. Taupo District has the distinction of straddling the boundaries of four different regions, Regional council areas are based on water catchment areas, whereas territorial authorities are based on community of interest and road access. Some activities are delegated to council-controlled organisations, the boundaries of councils tended to follow the edge of the built-up area, so little distinction was made between the urban area and the local government area. Regional councils were reduced in number from 20 to 13, territorial authorities from 200 to 75, the new district and city councils were generally much larger and most covered substantial areas of both urban and rural land. Many places that once had a city council were now being administered by a district council, as a result, the term city began to take on two meanings. The word city came to be used in a formal sense to describe major urban areas independent of local body boundaries. This informal usage is jealously guarded, gisborne, for example, adamantly described itself as the first city in the world to see the new millennium. Gisborne is administered by a council, but its status as a city is not generally disputed. Under the current law the minimum population for a new city is 50,000, since the 1989 reorganisations, there have been few major reorganisations or status changes in local government. Incomplete list,1991, Invercargill re-proclaimed a city,1992, Nelson-Marlborough Regional Council abolished by a Local Government Amendment Act. Of its territorial authorities, Kaikoura District was transferred to the Canterbury Region,2004, Tauranga became a city again on 1 March. 2006, Banks Peninsula District merged into Christchurch City as a result of 2005 referendum,2010, Auckland Council, a unitary authority, replaced seven local councils and the regional council. Reports on completed reorganisation proposals since 1999 are available on the Local Government Commissions site, the split areas as well as the current North Shore City would form a Waitemata local council. Waitakere local council would consist of the current Waitakere City as well as the Avondale area, tamaki Makaurau would consist of the current Auckland City and Otahuhu Manukau local council would consist of the urban parts of the current Manukau City and of the Papakura District. Hunua local council would consist of the entire Franklin District, much of which is currently in the Waikato Region, along with areas of the current Papakura District. The entire Papakura District would be dissolved between urban and rural councils, the National-led Government responded within about a week
Territorial authorities of New Zealand
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New Zealand
8.
Mayor of Invercargill
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The Mayor of Invercargill is the head of the municipal government of Invercargill, New Zealand, and presides over the Invercargill City Council. The mayor is elected using a First Past the Post electoral system. The current mayor is Tim Shadbolt, who is also the mayor for Invercargill. There have been 43 mayors so far, Invercargill was first proclaimed a municipality in June 1871. On 26 August of that year, the first mayoral elections were held, unlike other municipalities, the mayor has always been elected at large, rather than the councillors choosing one of their group. Originally, mayoral elections were held on an annual basis, from 1915, mayors were elected for a two-year term, and, as of 1935, the mayoral term was extended to three years. When David Roche resigned the mayoralty in 1887, council appointed Aaron Blacke as mayor until an election could be held. This was not done in accordance with the law. Greater Invercargill was created on 10 January 1910 during Charles Steven Longuets reign, longuet was succeeded by William Ott, who was twice elected unopposed and did not seek re-election in 1912. Invercargill was proclaimed a city on 1 March 1930 during John D. Campbells mayoralty, there has been one woman mayor so far – Eve Poole. She has also been the only Jewish mayor, a library building is named after her. She died in office in 1992, Tim Shadbolt was invited to run in the resulting by-election and claimed a surprising victory. The 2010 election win made Shadbolt the longest serving mayor in New Zealand, the Cyclopedia of New Zealand, Otago & Southland Provincial Districts
Mayor of Invercargill
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Incumbent
Tim Shadbolt since 1998
Mayor of Invercargill
Mayor of Invercargill
Mayor of Invercargill
9.
Tim Shadbolt
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Timothy Richard Tim Shadbolt is a New Zealand politician. He is the Mayor of Invercargill and was previously Mayor of Waitemata City, Shadbolt was born in the Auckland suburb of Remuera in 1947. His father died in a accident in 1952. He was on the council and appointed prefect. He was a member of the Auckland University Students Association executive, after 1970, he founded a commune and concrete cooperative at Huia. He wrote an autobiography, Bullshit & Jellybeans, Shadbolt claims he stood for Mayor of Waitemata City in 1983 because he did not want to see the incumbent Tony Covic re-elected unopposed. He famously celebrated, much to some peoples disgust, by towing his concrete mixer behind the mayoral Daimler in the 1983 Henderson Christmas parade. He won again in 1986 heading a ticket called Tims Team. During his term as mayor he became infamous by twice losing the mayoral chains, in 1993, he ran successfully for the position of Mayor of Invercargill. In 1994, he contested the Selwyn by-election as a candidate for New Zealand First, but was placed fourth, in the 1996 general election he stood unsuccessfully as a candidate for the Aotearoa Legalise Cannabis Party. In 1998 he was re-elected to the mayoralty and has remained the mayor ever since, in 2001 he was re-elected unopposed. He said he hoped that in all buses in Invercargill would be free. In 2004 and 2007, he won his fourth and fifth mayoral terms by huge margins, in 2010, he won his sixth Invercargill mayoral election. Shadbolt received 16,466 votes over mayoral candidates Suzanne Prentice, the 2010 election win made Shadbolt the longest-serving mayor in New Zealand, with this being his 8th mayoral term. On 8 October 2016 he again won re-election as Invercargills mayor and he said this was his toughest campaign yet. “I’ve had two candidates both going flat-out and it was an election, ” he said. “In the past I’ve had either no contenders, but this time I had a television producer, Shadbolt has one son from an early marriage. He met his wife, Miriam Cameron, in 1970
Tim Shadbolt
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Timothy Richard Shadbolt
10.
Urban area
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An urban area is a human settlement with high population density and infrastructure of built environment. Urban areas are created through urbanization and are categorized by urban morphology as cities, in urbanism, the term contrasts to rural areas such as villages and hamlets and in urban sociology or urban anthropology it contrasts with natural environment. The worlds urban population in 1950 of just 746 million has increased to 3.9 billion in the decades since, in 2009, the number of people living in urban areas surpassed the number living in rural areas and since then the world has become more urban than rural. This was the first time that the majority of the population lived in a city. In 2014 there were 7.25 billion people living on the planet, Urban areas are created and further developed by the process of urbanization. Urban areas are measured for various purposes, including analyzing population density, historian John Gurda writes, I have tried to uncover Milwaukees civic bedrock - the shifting foundation on which individuals have built their lives and the community has constructed its identity. There is no doubt that the deepest layer of bedrock is economic. In every age, people have chosen to live in areas not because of their climates or landmarks or cultural attractions. It was economic opportunity that brought people to Milwaukee, and it is economic opportunity that keeps them there, I define cities as concentrations of people animated by concentrations of capital. More simply put, money is the root of all cities, official definitions vary somewhat between nations. The ten largest metropolitan areas account for half of the population, about 3 million people live in Buenos Aires City and the Greater Buenos Aires metropolitan area totals around 13 million, making it one of the largest urban areas in the world. The metropolitan areas of Córdoba, Rosario, Mendoza and Tucumán have around 1.3 million inhabitants each and La Plata, seven other provinces have over one million people each, Mendoza, Tucumán, Entre Ríos, Salta, Chaco, Corrientes and Misiones. According to IBGE urban areas already concentrate 84. 35% of the population, while the Southeast region remains the most populated one, with over 80 million inhabitants. The largest metropolitan areas in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte — all in the Southeastern Region — with 20,12, and 5 million inhabitants respectively. The majority of state capitals are the largest cities in their states, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, there are also non-capital metropolitan areas in the states of São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. According to Statistics Canada, an area in Canada is an area with a population of at least 1,000 people where the density is no fewer than 400 persons per square kilometre. If two or more areas are within 2 km of each other by road, they are merged into a single urban area. Accordingly, the new definition set out three types of population centres, small, medium and large
Urban area
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Greater Tokyo Area, the world's most populous urban area, with about 35 million people.
Urban area
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Buenos Aires Córdoba
Urban area
Urban area
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Rosario Mendoza
11.
Demonym
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A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms, for example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Brit, or a Briton. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, in English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e. g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist, for instance the adjectival form of Spain is Spanish, English widely includes country-level demonyms such as Ethiopian or Guatemalan and more local demonyms such as Seoulite, Wisconsinite, Chicagoan, Michigander, Fluminense, and Paulista. Some places lack a commonly used and accepted demonym and this poses a particular challenge to those toponymists who research demonyms. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis and the English suffix -ic, the word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning populace with the suffix for name. National Geographic attributes the term demonym to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990 and it was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From, a Dictionary of Resident Names attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names Names, A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon, which is apparently where the term first appears. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language, the most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. Cairo → Cairene Cyrenaica → Cyrene Damascus → Damascene Greece → Greek Nazareth → Nazarene Slovenia → Slovene Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. Kingston-upon-Hull → Hullensian Leeds → Leodensian Spain → Spaniard Savoy → Savoyard -ese is usually considered proper only as an adjective, thus, a Chinese person is used rather than a Chinese. Monaco → Monégasque Menton → Mentonasque Basque Country → Basque Often used for French locations, mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of an ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti and these demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed and these will typically be formed using the standard models above
Demonym
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Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary has not adopted the term "demonyn" for these adjectives and nouns
12.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
Daylight saving time
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Ancient
water clock that lets hour lengths vary with season.
Daylight saving time
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G. V. Hudson invented modern DST, proposing it first in 1895.
Daylight saving time
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Retailers generally favor DST.
United Cigar Stores hailed a 1918 DST bill.
Daylight saving time
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William Willett independently proposed DST in 1907 and advocated it tirelessly.
13.
List of regions in New Zealand
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New Zealand is divided into sixteen regions for devolved local government. Eleven are administered by councils, and five are administered by unitary authorities. The Chatham Islands Council is similar to an authority, authorised under its own legislation. The regional councils are listed in Part 1 of Schedule 2 of the Local Government Act 2002, the Act requires regional councils to promote sustainable development – the social, economic, environmental and cultural well-being of their communities. The current regions and most of their councils came into being through a government reform in 1989 that took place under the Local Government Act 1974. In addition they took over roles that had previously been performed by county councils. Auckland Regional Council, formed in 1989, was replaced by Auckland Council, the boundaries of the regions are based largely on drainage basins. This anticipated the responsibilities of the Resource Management Act 1991, most regional boundaries conform with territorial authority boundaries but there are a number of exceptions. An example is Taupo District, split between four regions, although most of its area is in the Waikato region, property rates are used to fund both regional and territorial government activities. There is often a degree of co-operation between regional and territorial councils as they have complementary roles. Regional councils have these specific functions under the Resource Management Act 1991, notes, These regions have unitary authorities. The Gisborne Region is still widely but unofficially known by its name or as East Coast. Some outlying islands are not included within regional boundaries, the Chatham Islands is not in a region, although its council has some of the powers of a regional council under the Resource Management Act. Councils may use a first past the post or single transferable vote system, the chairperson is selected by the elected council members. The Auckland Regional Council was preceded by the Auckland Regional Authority, the Wellington Regional Council was first formed in 1980 from a merger of the Wellington Regional Planning Authority and the Wellington Regional Water Board. In 1978, legislation was passed enabling the formation of regions with united councils, twenty regions were designated, excluding the Auckland and Wellington areas. For most of the country this was the first regional level of government since the abolition of provinces in 1876, councillors were not elected directly – they were appointed from the various territorial local authorities within the region. For example, in a number of cases the united council took responsibility for the allocation of revenue from regional petrol taxes, the united councils were based in the facilities of the largest TLA in the region and largely dependent on the TLAs for resources
List of regions in New Zealand
14.
Southland Plains
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The Southland Plains is a general name given to several areas of low-lying land in the South Island of New Zealand, separated by the rise of the Hokonui Hills in the north. It forms an area of Southland region and encompasses its two principal settlements the city of Invercargill and the town of Gore. The Southland Plains include some of New Zealands most fertile farmland, the Plains extend from the Waiau River in the west to the Mataura River which forms the border with the Otago region to the east. It can be divided into three areas, the Southland plain proper, the Waimea Plains and the lower Waiau plain to the west near the Waiau river. The Southland and Waimea Plains are separated by the uplands of the Hokonui Hills, the Soutland plain lies to the north of the city of Invercargill, and is formed by several large rivers, the Aparima, the Oreti, and the Makarewa. They stretch inland for over 45 kilometres from the coast of the Foveaux Strait, to the northeast of Invercargill, the Waimea Plains of the Mataura River and its tributary the Waimea River stretch inland as far as the town of Gore. At their southern extreme they become the Awarua Plain, an area of marshy land which stretches from near Bluff to the foot of the Catlins in the far east. Between them, the lowlands around the Awarua Plain and Mataura River cover a further 2000 km², to the west lies the lower Waiau plain which is situated around the mouth of the Waiau River. This smaller region is wedged between the Longwood Range to the east and Fiordland to the west
Southland Plains
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Location of the Southland Plains
15.
Oreti River
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The Oreti River is one of the main rivers of Southland, New Zealand, and is 170 kilometres long. The river has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because, for much of its length, en route, it runs through the towns of Lumsden and Winton, before passing through the city of Invercargill, close to the rivers estuary. It shares this estuary with several rivers, most notably the Waihopai River. The Invercargill Rowing Club relocated to the river in 1958
Oreti River
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The Oreti River system
16.
Bluff, New Zealand
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Bluff, previously known as Campbelltown, is a town and seaport in the Southland region, on the southern coast of the South Island of New Zealand. It is the southern-most town in New Zealand and, despite Slope Point, according to the 2006 census, the resident population was 1,850, a decrease of 85 since 2001. The Bluff area was one of the earliest areas of New Zealand where a European presence became established, the first ship known to have entered the harbour was the Perseverance in 1813, in search of flax trading possibilities, with the first European settlers arriving in 1823 or 1824. This is the foundation for the claim that Bluff is the oldest permanent European settlement in the country, however, the missionary settlement at Kerikeri was both earlier and larger. The town was officially called Campbelltown in 1856, became a borough in 1878, Bluff is 30 km by road from Invercargill, and the southern terminus of the Bluff Branch, the continuation from Invercargill of the Main South Line. This was one of New Zealands earliest railways, opening on 5 February 1867, Bluff is at the end of a peninsula that forms the western side of Bluff Harbour and Awarua Bay, with the port located in the relatively narrow entrance channel. It is on State Highway 1, which terminates one kilometre to the south of the town at Stirling Point, at Stirling Point there is a signpost showing the distance and direction to various major cities and locations around the world, including the Equator and the South Pole. Bluff is dominated by Bluff Hill / Motupohue, which provides shelter from the prevailing westerly winds. There is a walk along the shore through native bush up to this point. The town is named for this bluff, which was known to early whalers as Old Mans Bluff or Old Man Bluff, east across the entry channel from Bluff is Tiwai Point, home to New Zealands only aluminium smelter and its wharf. Electricity is supplied by the Manapouri Power Station in Fiordland National Park, South Port is the port operating company of the Port of Bluff, and is owned to 66. 5% by the Southland Regional Council. A small port in comparison with New Zealand giants like Ports of Auckland or Port of Tauranga, it moves around 2.2 million tonnes of each year. It is hoped that the Tiwai Point aluminium smelter and fossil fuel exploration activity in the Great South Basin will help to ensure the relevance of the port. A recent weekly container ship service also lifted the volumes, Bluff Harbour is also the terminus for the twice-daily catamaran ferry to Stewart Island / Rakiura,60 kilometres south across Foveaux Strait. It is the gateway for NZ ships heading down to the Antarctic. The harbour is home to the Foveaux Strait oyster fleet. Bluff oysters are renowned for their succulence and flavour, and are considered a delicacy nationwide, the oyster quota was severely reduced during the 1990s due to the effects of the toxic protozoan parasite Bonamia exitiosa upon the oyster beds. Among the attractions of the town was the Paua House, created by Fred and this was an ordinary bungalow transformed by having the outside walls totally covered in paua shells
Bluff, New Zealand
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Signpost at Stirling Point, Bluff
Bluff, New Zealand
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Awarua Plain (top),
Tiwai Point (centre) and Bluff (lower left) viewed from the
International Space Station in 2008
Bluff, New Zealand
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Flutey paua house at
Canterbury Museum
17.
Fiordland National Park
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Fiordland National Park occupies the southwest corner of the South Island of New Zealand. It is the largest of the 14 national parks in New Zealand, with an area of 12,500 km2, the park is administered by the Department of Conservation. During the cooler past, glaciers carved many deep fiords, the most famous of which is Milford Sound, other notable fiords include Doubtful Sound and Dusky Sound. From one of the peaks within Fiordland National Park, a view of Mount Aspiring/Tititea to the far north can be observed. Fiordlands coast is steep and crenellated, with the running from the valleys of the southern ranges of the Southern Alps, such as the Kepler. At the northern end of the park, several peaks rise to over 2,000 metres, ice has carved islands from the mainland, leaving two large uninhabited offshore islands, Secretary Island and Resolution Island. Several large lakes lie wholly or partly within the boundaries, notably Lake Te Anau, Lake Manapouri, Lake Monowai, Lake Hauroko. The Sutherland Falls, to the southwest of Milford Sound on the Milford Track, are among the worlds highest waterfalls and this supports the lush temperate rain forests of the Fiordland temperate forests ecoregion. The wildlife in this area include dolphins, seals and birds, introduced species include mice, rats, hare and deer. Among the birds are the kakapo, the only flightless parrot in the world, also there is the kiwi, which is native to New Zealand. The park is forested with Nothofagus trees, a large variety of understory shrubs and ferns being present, examples of the forest floor vegetation include crown fern. Road access to Fiordland is restricted to the Milford Road, which runs north from Te Anau, from there it crosses the northwest corner of the park, reaching its terminus at Milford Sound. South of Te Anau a smaller road links to Manapouri, a minor road links Doubtful Sound with the western edge of Lake Manapouri via the Wilmot Pass. Light aircraft and helicopter services link with Milford Sound, which also has a boat marina. Parts of Fiordland National Park are a designated Wilderness Area and aircraft landings are not permitted, the park is a popular destination for alpine climbers and especially for trampers, with the Milford, Kepler, Hollyford and Routeburn Tracks all in or close to the park. Fiordland is a challenging tramping destination, off-track travel often relies on following deer trails. Sandflies, flooding and poor weather are a hazard, other tourists are attracted to areas such as Milford Sound. Red deer were introduced to New Zealand in the 1850s and they subsequently colonised the Fiordland Park area, costs were recouped from the sale of deer hides
Fiordland National Park
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Milford Sound:
Mitre Peak, the mountain on the left, rises 1692 metres above the Sound.
Fiordland National Park
Fiordland National Park
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An entry to Fiordland National Park.
Fiordland National Park
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Eastern Fiordland NZ
18.
Catlins
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The Catlins comprises an area in the southeastern corner of the South Island of New Zealand. The area lies between Balclutha and Invercargill, straddling the boundary between the Otago and Southland regions and it includes the South Islands southernmost point, Slope Point. The coast attracts numerous marine mammals, among them New Zealand fur seals, in general terms the area enjoys a maritime temperate climate. Its exposed location leads to its frequently wild weather and heavy swells, which are an attraction to big-wave surfers. People have lived in the area since around 1350 AD, prior to European settlement, the region was sparsely inhabited by nomadic groups of Māori, most of whom lived close to river mouths. In the early days of European settlement the area was frequented by whalers and sealers, ecotourism has become of growing importance in the Catlins economy, which otherwise relies heavily on dairy farming and fishing. The regions population has fallen to less than half its peak in the early 20th century, some 1,200 people now live in the Catlins, many of them in the settlement of Owaka. This is linked to population centres to the north and southwest via the only major road. Owaka contains the main school, The Catlins Area School. There are three small primary schools throughout the Catlins district. Owaka also has a centre, the nearest hospital being in Balclutha. The Catlins is governed at local level as part of the Clutha, the Catlins area covers some 1,900 km2 and forms a rough triangular shape, extending up to 40 km inland and along a stretch of coast 100 km in extent. The mouths of two rivers, the Clutha River in the northeast and the Mataura River in the west. To the north and northwest, the rough bush-clad hills give way to rolling pastoral countryside drained and softened by the actions of tributaries of two rivers such as the Pomahaka River. The rugged, scenic coastline of the Catlins features sandy beaches, blowholes, a petrified forest at Curio Bay, and the Cathedral Caves, which visitors can reach at low tide. Much of the consists of high cliffs, up to 200 m in height. For this reason, many of the areas rivers cascade over waterfalls as they approach the ocean, the South Islands southernmost point, Slope Point, projects near the southwestern corner of the Catlins. To the west of this lies Waipapa Point, often considered the boundary of the Catlins region, but various people place the western boundary of the Catlins region in different places, and some more stringent definitions exclude even Slope Point
Catlins
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Purakaunui Falls, 17 km (11 mi) southwest of
Owaka
Catlins
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The Catlins
Catlins
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Map of the Catlins
Catlins
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The distant
Tautuku Peninsula hosted an early whaling station.
19.
River Dee, Aberdeenshire
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The River Dee is a river in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. It rises in the Cairngorms and flows through South Aberdeenshire to reach the North Sea at Aberdeen, the general area is called Deeside, or in the region between Braemar and Banchory because Queen Victoria came to love the place and built Balmoral Castle there. The several other rivers of the name in Great Britain have the same origin as has the Dees near neighbour to the north. The River Dee rises at approximately 4,000 feet in elevation on the plateau of Braeriach in the Cairngorm Mountains, the highest source of any major river in the British Isles. Emerging in a number of called the Wells of Dee the young Dee then flows across the plateau to the cliff edge from where the Falls of Dee plunge into An Garbh Choire. At Linn of Dee the river passes east through a 300-metre natural rock gorge, between there and Braemar, Lui Water and Quoich Water join the growing River Dee. The River Clunie enters the Dee at Braemar, through Deeside the river passes Braemar, Balmoral Castle, Ballater, Dinnet, Aboyne and Banchory to reach the sea at Aberdeen. Near Ballater two rivers are tributaries – the River Gairn flowing from the north and the River Muick, flowing out of Loch Muick, the river is in the Cairngorms National Park until it reaches Dinnett. Water of Tanar flows through Glen Tanar before joining at Aboyne, the Falls of Feugh has its confluence with the Dee at Banchory and Coy Burn enters at Milton of Crathes. The tidal limit is just above Bridge of Dee, built about 1720, before reaching the North Sea, the river passes through Aberdeen Harbour, the principal marine centre for the energy industry in Europe, servicing the offshore oil and gas industry. An artificial channel was constructed in 1872 to straighten the rivers flow into the sea, footdee is an old fishing village at the east end of Aberdeen Harbour. Just west of Ballater the A939 Lecht Road leaves the A93 to take a tortuous climb towards the Lecht Ski Centre then on to Tomintoul and eventually Nairn. West and north from Braemar there are no paved roads into the Cairngorms except for a road which reaches Linn of Dee. Until 1966 the Deeside Railway ran from Aberdeen to Ballater and a short section. The Dee is important for conservation and the area has many designated sites. The upper catchment is within the Cairngorms National Nature Reserve and Cairngorms National Park, much of the semi-natural Caledonian pine forest in Scotland is within the Dee catchment. The area contains nationally rare examples of pine woods, birch woods, on the valley floor there are deciduous alder and mixed broadleaved woods, and meadow grasslands. Otter, Water Vole and freshwater mussel are among the species under threat
River Dee, Aberdeenshire
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The River Dee at
Potarch, between Aboyne and Banchory.
River Dee, Aberdeenshire
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Falls of Dee in An Garbh Choire
River Dee, Aberdeenshire
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Linn of Dee above Braemar
River Dee, Aberdeenshire
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The River Clunie near Braemar
20.
River Tay
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The River Tay is the longest river in Scotland and the seventh-longest in the United Kingdom. It is the largest river in the UK by measured discharge and its catchment is approximately 2,000 square miles, the Tweeds is 1,500 square miles and the Speys is 1,097 square miles. In the 19th century the Tay Rail Bridge was built across the firth at Dundee as part of the East Coast Main Line, the bridge, designed by Sir Thomas Bouch, officially opened in May 1878. On 28 December 1879 the bridge collapsed as a train passed over, the entire train fell into the firth, with the loss of 75 passengers and train crew. The event was commemorated in a poem, The Tay Bridge Disaster, written by William McGonagall, the critical response to his article was enhanced as he had previously written two poems celebrating the strength and certain immortality of the Tay Bridge. A. J. Cronins first novel, Hatters Castle, includes a scene involving the Tay Bridge Disaster, the rail bridge was rebuilt, and in the 1960s the Tay Road Bridge was built. During the winters of 2009–10 and 2010–11, the Tay froze over as far as the Tay Road Bridge, and ice floes remained for weeks despite a thaw. Several places along the Tay take their names from it, or are believed to have done so, Broughty - Bruach Tatha, Tayside - A former Scottish Government region The Tay drains much of the lower region of the Highlands. It originates on the slopes of Ben Lui, only around 25 miles from the west coast town of Oban, in Argyll, in 2011, the Tay Western Catchments Partnership determined as its source a small lochan on Allt Coire Laoigh south of the summit. The River Tay emerges from Loch Tay at Kenmore, and flows from there to Perth which, below Perth the river becomes tidal and enters the Firth of Tay. The largest city on the river, Dundee, lies on the bank of the Firth. On reaching the North Sea, the River Tay has flowed 120 miles from west to east across central Scotland, the Tay is unusual amongst Scottish rivers in having several major tributaries, notably the Earn, the Isla, the River Tummel, the Almond and the Lyon. A flow of 2,269 m3/s was recorded on 17 January 1993, when the river rose 6.48 m above its level at Perth. Were it not for the hydro-electric schemes upstream which impounded runoff, the highest flood recorded at Perth occurred in 1814, when the river rose 7 m above its usual level, partly caused by a blockage of ice under Smeatons Bridge. Other severe flood occurred in 1210 and 1648 when bridges over the Tay at Perth were destroyed. Freshwater pearl mussels are one of Scotlands most endangered species and the River Tay hosts two-thirds of the remaining stock. The Tay is internationally renowned for its Atlantic salmon fishing and is one of the best salmon rivers in the United Kingdom, the lowest ten miles of the Tay, including prestigious beats like Taymount or Islamouth, provides most of the cream of the Tay. The largest rod caught salmon in Britain, caught on the Tay by Miss Georgina Ballantine in 1922, weighing 64 pounds, the river system has salmon fisheries on many of its tributaries including the Earn, Isla, Ericht, Tummel, Garry, Dochart, Lyon and Eden
River Tay
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Looking upstream (north) along the Tay from the centre of
Perth
River Tay
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View from
Kinnoull Hill
River Tay
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Catchment of the River Tay within Scotland.
River Tay
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Catchment of the River Tay.
21.
River Forth
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The River Forth,47 km long, is a major river draining the eastern half of the watershed of Scotlands Central Belt. The Forth rises in Loch Ard in the Trossachs, a mountainous area 30 km west of Stirling and it flows roughly eastward, through Aberfoyle, joining with the Duchray Water and Kelty Water, and out over the vast flat expanse of the Carse of Stirling including Flanders Moss. It is then joined by the River Teith and the Allan Water, at Stirling the river widens and becomes tidal, and it is here that the last ford of the river exists. From Stirling, the Forth flows east over the Links of Stirling and past the towns of Cambus, Alloa, Fallin, upon reaching Kincardine the river begins to widen into an estuary, the Firth of Forth. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Stirling harbour was a port, with goods coming into Scotland. Links with the Hansa towns were strong, and Stirling had a close relationship with Veere in the Netherlands. After 1707 much of the trade shifted to the port of Glasgow, during the First and Second World Wars, however, Stirling harbour thrived again as a gateway for supplies of tea to Scotland. Trade slowly returned after the wars but the few agricultural merchants based at Stirling found such shipping uncompetitive due to high shore dues levied by the harbour’s owners, today Stirling harbour is no more. Upstream of Stirling, the river is small and is crossed in numerous places. After its confluence with the Teith and Allan, the river is sufficiently wide that a significant bridge is required. A bridge has existed at Stirling since at least the 13th century, the Alloa Swing Bridge, a railway bridge between Alloa on the north shore and Throsk on the south opened in 1885 and was closed in 1970. The Clackmannanshire Bridge just upstream of the Kincardine Bridge opened on 19 November 2008, much further downstream joining North Queensferry and South Queensferry is the famous Forth Bridge opened in 1890, and the Forth Road Bridge which opened in 1964. In 2011 construction began on the Queensferry Crossing, to the west of the Forth Road Bridge,400 kV Forth Crossing List of rivers of Scotland Rivers and Fisheries Trusts of Scotland Forth, the name of one of the sea areas of the British Shipping Forecast
River Forth
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The River Forth meanders over fertile farmlands near Stirling
River Forth
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The
meandering Forth viewed from the
Wallace Monument. The river flows from right to left, and the former limit of navigation was in the left distance.
22.
River Tyne
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The River Tyne /ˈtaɪn/ is a river in North East England and its length is 73 miles. It is formed by the confluence of two rivers, the North Tyne and the South Tyne and these two rivers converge at Warden Rock near Hexham in Northumberland at a place dubbed The Meeting of the Waters. The North Tyne rises on the Scottish border, north of Kielder Water and it flows through Kielder Forest, and passes through the village of Bellingham before reaching Hexham. The South Tyne rises on Alston Moor, Cumbria and flows through the towns of Haltwhistle and Haydon Bridge, hadrians Wall lies to the north of the Tyne Gap. Coincidentally the source of the South Tyne is very close to the sources of the two great rivers of the industrial north east namely the Tees and the Wear. The South Tyne Valley falls within the North Pennines Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty - the second largest of the 40 AONBs in England, to the east of Gateshead and Newcastle, the Tyne divides Hebburn and Jarrow on the south bank from Walker and Wallsend on the north bank. Jarrow and Wallsend are linked underneath the river by the Tyne Tunnel, finally it flows between South Shields and Tynemouth into the North Sea. The Tyne Rivers Trust measure the whole Tyne catchment as 2,936 square kilometres, the River Tyne is believed to be around 30 million years old. The largest coal staithes were located at Dunston in Gateshead, Hebburn and Tyne Dock, the dramatic wooden staithes at Dunston, built in 1890, have been preserved, although they were partially destroyed by fire in 2006. And to this day in 2016 Tyne Dock, South Shields is still involved with coal, the tidal river is now managed by the Port of Tyne Authority. Nothing definite is known of the origin of the designation Tyne, nor is the known by that name until the Saxon period. There is a theory that Tīn was a word that meant river in the local Celtic language or in a language spoken in England before the Celts came, there is also a river Tyne that rises in Midlothian in Scotland and flows through East Lothian into the North Sea. The River Vedra on the Roman map of Britain may be the Tyne, the late Thomas John Taylor supposed that the main course of the river anciently flowed through what is now Team Valley, its outlet into the tidal river being by a waterfall at Bill Point. His theory is not far from the truth, as there is evidence that prior to the last Ice Age, Ice diverted the course of the Wear to its current location, flowing east the course of the Tyne) and joining the North Sea at Sunderland. Sculpted by David Wynne, the bronze figure incorporates flowing water into its design. The Environment Agency is currently working with architects and cultural consultancy xsite, in collaboration with Commissions North, the Tyne Salmon Trail will serve as a celebration of the river, its heritage and its increasingly diverse ecosystem. FINS, REFLECTION and JOURNEY were the first 3 cubes to be launched in December 2007 from a family of 10, each cube is inspired by the textures, changing colours, movement and journey of the salmon. With each offering a modern day keepsake to take away, in the form of a designed Bluetooth message, for three days, between 18–20 July 2008, a temporary bamboo artwork was installed over the Tyne close to the Gateshead Millennium Bridge
River Tyne
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River Tyne Quayside
River Tyne
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Abandoned drydocks on South Shields river front
River Tyne
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The River Tyne at
Bill Quay
River Tyne
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The Tyne Bridge across the River Tyne between
Newcastle upon Tyne and
Gateshead. Taken from the deck of the Gateshead Millennium Bridge, looking west and upstream.
23.
River Esk, Dumfries and Galloway
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The River Esk, also called the Border Esk, is a river in Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland, that flows into the Solway Firth. It also flows for a way through the English county of Cumbria before entering the Solway. The river rises in the hills to the east of Moffat and it flows south east through Eskdale past Langholm before merging with Liddel Water (which defines the border between Scotland and England. Before passing Longtown the river enters England and merges with the River Lyne and it was formerly one of the boundaries of the Debatable Lands as marked by the Scots Dike. The various tributaries of the Esk are described proceeding downstream and it is followed by the B709 road for much of its course. The headwaters of the Black Esk feed into the Black Esk Reservoir, from the foot of whose dam and it then turns sharply east then southeast passing Castle Oer on its way to meet with the White Esk to form the River Esk. The Meggat Water is a left tributary of the Esk which rises at the southern margin of Craik Forest and flows south. The Ewes Water is a significant left tributary of the Esk which enters the latter at Langholm. The valley of the Ewes Water is followed by the A7 road from Carlisle to Edinburgh, wauchope Water is a right bank tributary of the Esk which joins immediately downstream from the Ewes Water confluence. It arises as the Logan Water and Bigholms Burn meet 3 miles /5 km southwest of Langholm, the Tarras Water is a left bank tributary of the Esk which joins it 2.5 miles /4 km south of Langholm. The Liddel Water is a tributary which enters on the left bank between Canonbie and Longtown. It forms the boundary between Scotland and England for a while as does its tributary, the Kershope Burn, the River Lyne enters on the left bank at Lynefoot just above the normal tidal limit of the estuarial section of the Esk. The River Sark and the Kirtle Water enter the estuary of the Esk to the east and west of Gretna respectively. See main articles on each of these and some of their tributaries, photo of the Esk entering Solway Firth - Getty Images
River Esk, Dumfries and Galloway
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River Esk near
Kagyu Samyé Ling Monastery and Tibetan Centre at
Eskdalemuir
River Esk, Dumfries and Galloway
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River Esk in
Langholm
24.
River Don, Aberdeenshire
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The River Don is a river in north-east Scotland. It rises in the Grampians and flows eastwards, through Aberdeenshire, the Don passes through Alford, Kemnay, Inverurie, Kintore, and Dyce. Its main tributary, the River Ury, joins at Inverurie, several streams, the Dhiver, Feith Bhait, Meoir Veannaich, Cock Burn and the Allt nan Aighean merge to form the embryonic Don. Water from the north of Brown Cow Hill drains into the Don, while water from the west side runs into the River Spey and that from the south side into the Dee. The Don follows a circuitous route eastwards past Corgarff Castle, through Strathdon and the Howe of Alford before entering the North Sea just north of Old Aberdeen. The chief tributaries are Conrie Water, Ernan Water, Water of Carvie, Water of Nochty, Deskry Water, Water of Buchat, Kindy Burn, Bucks Burn, Mossat Burn, Leochel Burn and the River Ury. The river was recorded by the 2nd century AD cosmographer Ptolemy of Alexandria as Δηουανα Devona, meaning goddess, near Kintore, not distant from the Don, is the Deers Den Roman Camp. In 1750 the Dons lower reaches were channelled towards the sea, River levels and flows have been measured along the course of the Don at a number of gauging stations since 1969. The lowest of these is the gauge at Parkhill near Dyce, the station measures 97% of the total 1,312 square kilometres catchment area of the river. These were exceeded in January 2016 during the 2015–16 floods, when levels at Haughton reached 5.6 metres, the resultant flooding forced residents along the river to evacuate their homes, in some cases with the help of local rescue teams. Areas affected included Port Elphinstone, Kintore, and Donside in Aberdeen where a number of care homes were evacuated as a precaution. Strathdon attracts visitors for salmon and trout fishing as well as its castles and scenery
River Don, Aberdeenshire
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River Don and Castle Forbes near
Alford.
25.
Thames
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The River Thames is a river that flows through southern England, most notably through London. At 215 miles, it is the longest river entirely in England and it also flows through Oxford, Reading, Henley-on-Thames and Windsor. The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway, derived from its tidal reach up to Teddington Lock. It rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire, and flows into the North Sea via the Thames Estuary, the Thames drains the whole of Greater London. Its tidal section, reaching up to Teddington Lock, includes most of its London stretch and has a rise, in Scotland, the Tay achieves more than double the average discharge from a drainage basin that is 60% smaller. Along its course are 45 navigation locks with accompanying weirs and its catchment area covers a large part of South Eastern and a small part of Western England and the river is fed by 38 named tributaries. The river contains over 80 islands, in 2010, the Thames won the largest environmental award in the world – the $350,000 International Riverprize. The Thames, from Middle English Temese, is derived from the Brittonic Celtic name for the river, Tamesas, recorded in Latin as Tamesis and yielding modern Welsh Tafwys Thames. It has also suggested that it is not of Celtic origin. A place by the river, rather than the river itself, indirect evidence for the antiquity of the name Thames is provided by a Roman potsherd found at Oxford, bearing the inscription Tamesubugus fecit. It is believed that Tamesubugus name was derived from that of the river, tamese was referred to as a place, not a river in the Ravenna Cosmography. The rivers name has always pronounced with a simple t /t/, the Middle English spelling was typically Temese. A similar spelling from 1210, Tamisiam, is found in the Magna Carta, the Thames through Oxford is sometimes called the Isis. Ordnance Survey maps still label the Thames as River Thames or Isis down to Dorchester, richard Coates suggests that while the river was as a whole called the Thames, part of it, where it was too wide to ford, was called *lowonida. An alternative, and simpler proposal, is that London may also be a Germanic word, for merchant seamen, the Thames has long been just the London River. Londoners often refer to it simply as the river in such as south of the river. Thames Valley Police is a body that takes its name from the river. The marks of human activity, in cases dating back to Pre-Roman Britain, are visible at various points along the river
Thames
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The Thames in London
Thames
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A statue of Old Father Thames by
Raffaelle Monti at
St John's Lock, Lechlade.
Thames
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The marker stone at the official source of the River Thames near
Kemble.
Thames
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The River Thames
Flood Barrier
26.
Mersey
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The River Mersey /ˈmɜːrzi/ is a river in the north west of England. Its name is derived from the Anglo-Saxon language and translates as boundary river, the river may have been the border between the ancient kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria and for centuries it formed part of the boundary between the historic counties of Lancashire and Cheshire. The start of the Mersey is at the confluence of the River Tame and it flows westwards through the suburban areas of south Manchester, then into the Manchester Ship Canal at Irlam, becoming a part of the canal and maintaining the canals water levels. After 4 miles the river exits the canal flowing towards Warrington where the river widens before it then narrows as it passes between the towns of Runcorn and Widnes. From Runcorn the river widens into an estuary, which is 3 miles wide at its widest point near Ellesmere Port. The course of the then heads north as the estuary narrows between Liverpool and Birkenhead on the Wirral Peninsula to the west and empties into Liverpool Bay. In total the river flows 70.33 miles, a railway tunnel between Birkenhead and Liverpool as part of the Mersey Railway opened in 1886. Two road tunnels pass under the estuary from Liverpool, the Queensway Tunnel opened in 1934 connecting the city to Birkenhead, the Silver Jubilee Bridge completed in 1961, crosses between Runcorn and Widnes, adjacent to the Runcorn Railway Bridge which opened in 1868. Water quality in the Mersey was severely affected by industrialisation, and in 1985, in 2009 it was announced that the river is cleaner than at any time since the industrial revolution and is now considered one of the cleanest in the UK. The Mersey Valley Countryside Warden Service manages local nature reserves such as Chorlton Ees, the river gave its name to Merseybeat, developed by bands from Liverpool, notably the Beatles. In 1965 it was the subject of the hit single Ferry Cross the Mersey by Gerry. Its name is derived from the Anglo-Saxon mǣres, of a boundary and ēa, the Mersey was possibly the border river between Mercia and Northumbria. Its Welsh name is Afon Merswy, and it has given the alternative etymology of Celtic môr-afon meaning sea river. The Mersey is formed from three tributaries, the River Etherow, the River Goyt and the River Tame, the modern accepted start of the Mersey is at the confluence of the Tame and Goyt, in central Stockport, Greater Manchester. The 1784 John Stockdale map shows the River Mersey extending to Mottram, in the west of Stockport it flows at the base of a cliff below the road called Brinksway before reaching flat country. The old course of the Mersey has been obliterated by the canal past Hollins Green to Rixton although the old river bed can be seen outside Irlam, the river is tidal from Howley Weir in Warrington, although high spring tides often top the weir. Before construction of the canal, work to improve navigation included Woolston New Cut, bypassing a meander, and Howley Lock for craft to avoid the weir. The island formed between the weir and the lock is known locally as Monkey Island, west of Warrington the river widens, and then narrows as it passes through the Runcorn Gap between the towns of Runcorn and Widnes, in Halton
Mersey
–
The River Mersey at
Liverpool, looking towards the
Royal Liver Building
Mersey
–
The River Mersey empties into the
Manchester Ship Canal at
Irlam
Mersey
–
An aerial image of the estuary in 1962.
Mersey
–
The tidal bore, seen from near the
Silver Jubilee Bridge,
Widnes.
27.
River Ness
–
The river is the origin of the name of Inverness which is from the Scottish Gaelic, Inbhir Nis, meaning Mouth of the Ness. Dochgarroch weir at the end of Loch Dochfour delineates the start of the River Ness. At Carnarc Point on the west bank the river discharges into the end of the Beauly Firth. The northern section of the Caledonian Canal passes partly through the River Ness, the river Ness is of glacial origin. Although of short length the River Ness has one of the highest average discharge rates in the UK of 11,000 cu ft/s, River Garry, Inverness-shire River Tarff, Fort Augustus On a hill above the river in Inverness stands Inverness Castle. Next to the castle is the Inverness Museum and Art Gallery, the river is overlooked by the Eden Court Theatre, one of the largest theatres in Scotland. St. Andrews Cathedral also lies on the banks of the River Ness as does Old High St Stephens which stands on a known as St Michaels Mount. Inverness draws many tourists and there are hotels along the river, the 1685 bridge was sketched by J. M. W. The Greig Street Bridge is a suspension bridge built in Inverness in 1881. Upstream of Inverness city centre lie the Ness Islands which are popular for walks and have many fine tree specimens. The river flows through the heart of the City of Inverness, the Ness District Salmon Fishery Board is the statutory body responsible for the protection and enhancement of salmon and sea trout fisheries in the Ness District. The banks of the river are lined with lime trees, near the Ness Islands on the west bank is Bught Park which has facilities for sports and leisure. Further upstream from Bught Park is Whin Park which has a boating pond, in Cavell Gardens near the Infirmary Bridge is Inverness war memorial which commemorates the fallen of the two world wars. The memorial is made of red sandstone and is designed in the form of a Celtic cross, a major flood alleviation scheme is currently under construction in the city centre side of the river. The £8.5 million contract for this phase is being undertaken by Morgan Sindall, the Port of Inverness is situated at the mouth of the River Ness where there is also a recently constructed marina offering mooring for private yachts and other vessels. Columba went out of Brideis house and picked up a pebble from the river. He said that the pebble would be used to heal sick people in Pictland. After he had finished speaking, two came to tell them that Broichan had a seizure and they wanted Columba to help them
River Ness
–
River Ness looking downstream towards the Greig St Bridge
River Ness
–
River Ness and
Eden Court Theatre
River Ness
–
Inverness Castle and River Ness upstream of the Infirmary Bridge
River Ness
–
River Ness looking downstream towards Friars Bridge, Inverness, Scotland
28.
Yarrow Water
–
The Yarrow Water is a river in the Borders in the south east of Scotland. It is a tributary of the Ettrick Water and renowned for its high quality trout, the name Yarrow may derive from the Celtic word garw meaning rough or possibly share a derivation with the English name Jarrow. The valley was the birthplace of Mungo Park and has inspired several well-known songs and its traditions and folk tales were well documented by Walter Scott, who spent part of his childhood nearby, and in adult life returned to live in the vicinity at Abbotsford House, near Melrose. This confluence, which occurs at the edge of the Duke of Buccleuchs Bowhill Estate, is known as the Meetings Pool. The valley is traversed by the A708 that runs from Selkirk to Moffat, the explorer Mungo Park was born at Foulshiels on the left bank of the river in 1771. In May 1804 Walter Scott came upon Park throwing stones into a pool in the river and remarked that This appears. Park replied that this was Not so idle perhaps, as you suppose and this was the way I used to ascertain the depth of a river in Africa. Although he had not yet told anyone, Park was considering his second, at about the same time, James Hogg had come to the attention of Scott whilst the former was working at Blackhouse Farm in the Yarrow valley. The impressive ruins of Newark Castle, held by the Earls of Douglas in the 15th century, the folk song The Dowie Dens o Yarrow refers to an ambush and murder that takes place in the locality. These include a poem by William Hamilton of Bangour called The Braes of Yarrow first published in Edinburgh in 1724, the Sang of the Outlaw Murray is a lay that may have been composed in the reign of James V and which was collected by Walter Scott. He was assured by the late excellent antiquarian Mr. Plummer, sheriff-depute of Selkirkshire. that he remembered the insignia of the unicorns, &c. so often mentioned in the ballad, in existence there. In his 1803 publication Yarrow Unvisited William Wordsworth wrote, Whats Yarrow but a river bare, there are a thousand such elsewhere As worthy of your wonder. The wood of Carterhaugh near the confluence of the Yarrow and Ettrick, is the setting for the ballad Tam Lin and this song, collected in 1729, tells the story of a maiden and her relationship to the faery world. It begins, O I forbid you, maidens a, That wear gowd on your hair, To come or gae by Carterhaugh, theres nane that gaes by Carterhaugh But they leave him a wad, Either their rings, or green mantles, Or else their maidenhead. It is possible that this tale is derived from the 13th century ballad, Thomas the Rhymer, the subject matter of Tam Lin is referred to in various other local traditions. Scott recorded that, The peasants point out upon the plain, when he awakened he was amazed to find himself in the midst of a populous city, to which, as well as to the means of his transportation, he was an utter stranger. His coat was left upon the Peatlaw, and his bonnet, yarrowford List of places in the Scottish Borders List of places in Scotland Coventry, Martin Castles of the Clans. ISBN 978-1-899874-36-1 Hamilton, William The Poems and Songs of William Hamilton of Bangour, percy, Thomas Reliques of Ancient English Poetry, Consisting of Ballads, Songs, and Other Pieces of Our Earlier Poets
Yarrow Water
–
The Yarrow Valley in winter
Yarrow Water
–
Mungo Park
Yarrow Water
–
James Hogg - detail of an oil painting by W. Nicholson
Yarrow Water
–
Carterhaugh with Harehead Hill (centre) and Foulshiels Hill (at left) beyond.
29.
River Spey
–
The River Spey is a river in the northeast of Scotland. It is the ninth longest river in the United Kingdom, as well as the third longest and it is important for salmon fishing and whisky production. The origins of its name are unclear though hawthorn river has been suggested as has a derivation from the pre-Celtic squeas meaning vomit or gush, ptolemy named the river on his map of c.150 as Tuesis. The name Spey first appears in 1451, the Spey is 107 miles long. It rises at over 1,000 feet at Loch Spey in Corrieyairack Forest in the Scottish Highlands,10 miles south of Fort Augustus, the river descends through Newtonmore and Kingussie, crossing Loch Insh before reaching Aviemore, giving its name to Strathspey. From there it flows the remaining 60 miles north-east to the Moray Firth, on some sections of its course, the Spey changes course frequently, either gradually as a result of deposition and erosion from normal flow, or in a matter of hours as a result of spate. The Spey spates quickly due to its wide catchment area as a result of rainfall or snow-melt. After leaving Loch Spey the river gathers numerous burns in the Corrieyarack, Sherramore, the first sizeable tributary is the Markie Burn which drops out of Glen Markie to the north to enter the waters of Spey impounded behind the Spey Dam. A further mile downstream the River Mashie enters from Strath Mashie to the south, the River Truim enters on the right bank a couple of miles above Newtonmore and the Highland Calder enters from Glen Banchor on the left bank at Spey Bridge at Newtonmore. At Kingussie the Spey is joined on its left bank by the River Gynack which runs through the town and 1 1⁄2 miles downstream it is joined by the River Tromie which enters on the right bank. The sizeable River Feshie joins on the bank at Kincraig. Several miles downstream the River Nethy joins from the east near Nethy Bridge, between Grantown-on-Spey and Craigellachie, the Burn of Tulchan and Allt a Gheallaidh join from the west whilst the Speys most important tributary, the River Avon joins from the east. The Allt Arder and Knockando Burn also join from the west near Knockando, the River Fiddich enters from the right at Craigellachie and the Burn of Rothes enters from the left at Rothes. Downstream more burns enter the Spey, the most important of which are the Burn of Mulben, the river traditionally supported many local industries, from the salmon fishing industry to shipbuilding. At one stage, Garmouth functioned as the capital of the UK, with timber from the forests around Aviemore. This type of cast was developed on the Spey, Speyside distilleries produce more whisky than any other region. The Speyside Way, a footpath, follows the river through some of Morays most beautiful scenery. The River Spey is unusual in that its speed increases as it flows closer to the sea, the mean flow is around 16 metres per second making it the fastest flowing river in Scotland, and possibly the UK
River Spey
–
The River Spey at
Aberlour
River Spey
–
Catchment of the River Spey within Scotland.
River Spey
–
Tributaries of the River Spey.
River Spey
–
The River Spey in spate at the Garmouth old rail bridge
30.
Eye Water
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The Eye Water rises on the eastern slopes of Wester Dod at height of 375 metres, it flows SE for 10 km before swinging NE for three km to reach the village of Grantshouse. The Eye Water flows on the outskirts of Grantshouse as it again turns SE. The river keeps to the SW side of the A1 passing through the villages of Reston and Ayton where it flows through a pleasant wooded valley on the Ayton Castle estate. The stretch of the river from Ayton onward previously had some problems as a quantity of sewage effluent from the village of Ayton. However, in 2005 Scottish Water completed work which collected the sewage from the villages, at Ayton the Eye Water swings NNE for the final five km leg to its estuary. It runs under the A1 road in a gorge and then receives its largest tributary on its northern bank. On August 12,1948 the Berwickshire region was hit by a flood when one third of the annual rainfall fell in just six days. The water flowed off the Lammermuir Hills causing the Eye Water and other rivers of the area to overflow, the low lying farm land around Ayton was turned into a large lake with the 18 metres high embankment of the ECML railway acting as a dam. There were fears that the embankment would break and Eyemouth would be inundated, the embankment did hold but Eyemouth still received some damage, with reports saying that gales and the impact of the overflowing Eye Water had the “impact of a hurricane”. The flood caused the closure of the local Eyemouth Railway from 13 August 1948 to 29 June of the next year, between Reston and Granthouse 7 railway bridges were washed away. Those on the ECML were replaced by bridges, allowing goods trains to resume on 25 October and passenger on 1 November 1948. The temporary bridges werent finally replaced until 21 May 1950, List of places in the Scottish Borders List of places in Scotland List of rivers of Scotland
Eye Water
–
The Eye Water at Reston, flowing under the bridge carrying the B6438 road.
Eye Water
–
The Eye Water enters Eyemouth harbour, flowing down the channel on the left.
31.
Ruapuke
–
Ruapuke is a small farming community in the Waikato region on the slopes of Karioi, between Raglan and Kawhia in New Zealand. The photo on the right is of Ruapuke from Houchens Rd, on a fine winters day Ruapuke residents can look over Aotea Harbour to a rugged and uninhabited coastline and, beyond, the snow-capped peak of Mt. Taranaki,150 km away. When the first Europeans arrived the country was covered with patches of light bush, with a big proportion of Karaka, Puriri. The balance was covered with Tauhinu, Teatree, Flax and Fern, the clay portion of the district, was in heavy bush. The archaeological map shows over 40 sites in the area, european settlers arrived from the 1850s. Ruapuke had a school from 1877 till 1954 and it has been replaced by a school bus. It comprises a handful of families, some of whom have lived there for many generations, Ruapuke is 10 km from Te Mata. 8 km of Ruapuke Road has been sealed and some bends removed and it is often used for rally car competitions. Ruapuke is 27 km from Raglan via Whaanga Road and Te Toto Gorge, until the 1990s the beach largely remained unknown, used by local residents and a few surfing and surfcasting fishing enthusiasts. International surfing competitions such as the Billabong Pro and the Rip Curl Pro are now held at Ruapuke beach,1,50,000 map http, //www. topomap. co. nz/NZTopoMap/nz53288/Ruapuke/Waikato Raglan Surf Wildcoast Ruapuke Surf co New Zealand Chinese junk at Ruapuke beach. Rip Curl pro at Ruapuke beach,2006 Billabong Teen pro at Ruapuke beach,2006 Raglan net BBC on Ruapuke surf Raglan Arts
Ruapuke
–
Ruapuke
Ruapuke
–
Ruapuke from Karioi summit.
32.
Walter Mantell
–
Walter Baldock Durrant Mantell was a 19th-century New Zealand scientist, politician, and land purchase commissioner. He was a founder and first secretary of the New Zealand Institute, Mantell was born in Lewes, East Sussex, England, the son of geologists Gideon Mantell and Mary Ann Mantell. He arrived in Wellington on the Oriental in 1840, in 1848, Mantell was appointed to the office of commissioner for extinguishing native titles in the South Island. When in New Zealand, the Maori people called Mantell Matara because they had a difficult time pronouncing his name, when Mantell was in England he had difficulty finding work. He became restless at home as well as a tendency to act as a hypochondriac, Jewsbury encouraged him to write for the Westminster Gazette or to write a novel about New Zealand. Mantell eventually became tired of his friends persistent advice, Jewsbury, however, wanted what was best for Mantell and felt deeply attached to him, she once proposed marriage to Mantell in a letter, but he declined her offer. By 1859 Jewsbury had ceased trying to win his love, shortly thereafter, Mantell returned to New Zealand. Mantell represented the Wallace electorate from 1861 to 1866, when he retired and he was the Minister of Māori Affairs in 1861 and 1864–65, and Postmaster-General briefly in 1862. From 1866 until his death he was on the New Zealand Legislative Council and he died in Wellington on 7 September 1895. Mantell is commemorated in the names of the North Island brown kiwi Apteryx mantelli, walter Mantell on Moa beds,1872
Walter Mantell
–
Mantell in ca 1870
33.
Free Church of Scotland (1843-1900)
–
The Free Church of Scotland was a Scottish denomination which was formed in 1843 by a large withdrawal from the established Church of Scotland in a schism known as the Disruption of 1843. In 1900 the vast majority of the Free Church of Scotland joined with the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland to form the United Free Church of Scotland. A minority of the Free Church of Scotland remained outside the union of 1900 and it continues to this day, being commonly known as the Wee Free. The Free Church was formed by Evangelicals who broke from the Church of Scotland in 1843 in protest against what they regarded as the encroachment on the spiritual independence of the Church. The Disruption of 1843 was a bitter, nationwide schism which broke the established Church of Scotland in half, the evangelical element had been demanding the purification of the Church, and it attacked the patronage system, which allowed rich landowners to select the local ministers. It became a battle between evangelicals on one side and the Moderates and gentry on the other. This direct blow at the right of private patrons was challenged in the civil courts, in 1843,450 evangelical ministers broke away, and formed the Free Church of Scotland. Led by Dr. Thomas Chalmers, a third of the membership walked out, including all the Gaelic-speakers and the missionaries. The established Church kept all the properties, buildings and endowments, after the passing of the Education Act of 1872, most of these schools were voluntarily transferred to the newly established public school-boards. Chalmers ideas shaped the breakaway group and he stressed a social vision that revived and preserved Scotlands communal traditions at a time of strain on the social fabric of the country. Chalmerss idealised small equalitarian, kirk-based, self-contained communities that recognised the individuality of their members and that vision also affected the mainstream Presbyterian churches, and by the 1870s it had been assimilated by the established Church of Scotland. The first task of the new church was to provide income for her initial 500 ministers, manses and over 700 schools soon followed. This programme was possible by extraordinary financial generosity, which came from the Evangelical awakening. The church created a Sustentation Fund, the brainchild of Thomas Chalmers, to which congregations contributed according to their means and this fund provided a modest income for 583 ministers in 1843/4, and by 1900 was able to provide an income for nearly 1200. This centralising and sharing of resources was previously unknown within the Protestant churches in Scotland, Great importance was attached to maintaining an educated ministry within the Free Church. Because the established Church of Scotland controlled the divinity faculties of the universities, New College was opened in 1850 with five chairs, Christs College and Trinity College followed later. The first generation of teachers were enthusiastic proponents of Westminster Calvinism and this position was soon abandoned, as theologians such as Dr A. B. Bruce, Marcus Dods and George Adam Smith began to teach a more understanding of the faith
Free Church of Scotland (1843-1900)
–
Signing The Deed Of Demission
Free Church of Scotland (1843-1900)
–
A minister of the Free Church preaching the Gospel in the 1840s before its own churches were built.
Free Church of Scotland (1843-1900)
–
Thomas Chalmers
Free Church of Scotland (1843-1900)
–
New College, Edinburgh from Princes Street Gardens
34.
Presbyterianism
–
Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism which traces its origins to the British Isles, particularly Scotland. Presbyterian churches derive their name from the form of church government. Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of the Scriptures, Presbyterian church government was ensured in Scotland by the Acts of Union in 1707 which created the Kingdom of Great Britain. In fact, most Presbyterians found in England can trace a Scottish connection, the Presbyterian denominations in Scotland hold to the theology of John Calvin and his immediate successors, although there are a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism. The roots of Presbyterianism lie in the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, most Reformed churches which trace their history back to Scotland are either presbyterian or congregationalist in government. In the twentieth century, some Presbyterians played an important role in the ecumenical movement, many Presbyterian denominations have found ways of working together with other Reformed denominations and Christians of other traditions, especially in the World Communion of Reformed Churches. Some Presbyterian churches have entered into unions with other churches, such as Congregationalists, Lutherans, Anglicans, Presbyterian history is part of the history of Christianity, but the beginning of Presbyterianism as a distinct movement occurred during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. As the Catholic Church resisted the reformers, several different theological movements splintered from the Church, the Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to England and Scotland. In August 1560 the Parliament of Scotland adopted the Scots Confession as the creed of the Scottish Kingdom, Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by doctrine, institutional organization and worship, often using a Book of Order to regulate common practice and order. The origins of the Presbyterian churches are in Calvinism, many branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups. Presbyterians place great importance upon education and lifelong learning, Presbyterian government is by councils of elders. Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene in the lowest council known as a session or consistory responsible for the discipline, nurture, teaching elders have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments. Pastors are called by individual congregations, a congregation issues a call for the pastors service, but this call must be ratified by the local presbytery. Ruling elders are usually laymen who are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the elders, assuming responsibility for nurture. Often, especially in larger congregations, the elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance and this group may variously be known as a Deacon Board, Board of Deacons Diaconate, or Deacons Court. These are sometimes known as presbyters to the full congregation, above the sessions exist presbyteries, which have area responsibilities. These are composed of teaching elders and ruling elders from each of the constituent congregations, the presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional or national assembly, generally known as the General Assembly, although an intermediate level of a synod sometimes exists. The Church of Scotland abolished the Synod in 1993, Presbyterian governance is practised by Presbyterian denominations and also by many other Reformed churches
Presbyterianism
–
John Knox
Presbyterianism
–
Symbol used by the
Presbyterian Church in Ireland. The
burning bush is a common symbol used by Presbyterian churches.
Presbyterianism
–
The Ordination of Elders in a Scottish Kirk, by
John Henry Lorimer, 1891.
National Gallery of Scotland.
Presbyterianism
–
Presbyterian
catechising, 19th century
35.
Central Otago
–
Central Otago is an informal name for the inland part of the Otago region in the South Island of New Zealand. The area commonly known as Central Otago includes both the Central Otago District and the Queenstown-Lakes District to its west, the motto for the area is A World of Difference. The area is dominated by mountain ranges and the reaches of the Clutha River. The wide flat plateau of the Maniototo which lies between the upper reaches of the Taieri River and the Cluthas northern tributary the Manuherikia is also considered part of Central Otago. Characterised by cold winters and hot, dry summers, the area is lightly populated, although there has recently been considerable development around the tourist towns of Queenstown. First significant European occupation came with the discovery of gold at Gabriels Gully near Lawrence in 1861, which led to the Central Otago goldrush. Other towns and villages include Albert Town, Alexandra, Arrowtown, Bannockburn, Clyde, Cromwell, Hawea, Millers Flat, Naseby, Omakau, Ranfurly, Roxburgh, St. Bathans, and Wedderburn. Since the 19th century, most of the economic activity has centred on sheep, stone fruit. In recent years, deer farms and vineyards have increased the economic diversification. Central Otago is the worlds southernmost commercial wine production region, Central Otago is a land of extremes, it is the coldest, driest part of New Zealand. The seasons are defined, summers are hot and low in humidity, winter mornings are often misty, the days cloudless and windless. Alexandra, for example, has the lowest average rainfall recorded anywhere in New Zealand, is the least windy and has 148 frosts annually. Spring warms the soil and fruit tree blossom dominates the district’s orchard areas, temperatures range from minus 3 to 20 deg C, with 10 frosts a month. Average rainfall is 28mm a month and sunshine 206 hours, in summer, daylight lasts as long as 10pm. Temperatures range from 10 to plus 30 deg C on several days, rainfall averages 38mm a month and sunshine is 227 hours. Autumn is brilliant as the orchards and poplar shelterbelts turn red, yellow. Temperatures range from minus 3 to 24 deg C, rainfall averages 30mm a month with 11 frosts monthly and 150 hours of sunshine. Winter brings a range of minus 6 to 15 deg C
Central Otago
–
T. Gilchrist & Sons - boasts being the oldest existing shop in New Zealand, established 1902, and since 1987 operated by a community trust (but still working as a normal grocery).
36.
Thomas Gore Browne
–
Colonel Sir Thomas Robert Gore Browne KCMG CB was a British colonial administrator, who was Governor of St Helena, Governor of New Zealand, Governor of Tasmania and Governor of Bermuda. In 1824 he purchased an Ensigncy in the 44th Foot, in 1829 he purchased a Captaincy. In 1836, as a Major, he exchanged into the 41st Foot, in 1842 he was promoted Lieutenant-Colonel in the Army, in 1845 he purchased the Lieutenant-Colonelcy of the 41st Foot, and in 1849 he exchanged into the 21st Foot. He was Governor of St Helena from July 1851 to December 1854 and he was promoted Lieutenant-Colonel in the Army in 1854, by which time he was back in his original regiment, the 44th Foot. In 1857, he exchanged from the 14th Foot to the Lieutenant-Colonelcy of the 43rd Foot, in September 1855, he was appointed Governor of New Zealand, replacing temporary Administrator Robert Wynyard. On 5 March 1860, Browne ordered the occupation of the land. The town of Gore, New Zealand was named after him, from 1861 until 1868 he was Governor of Tasmania. He was promoted Colonel in the Army in 1864, from September 1870 to April 1871, he was Administrator of Bermuda. He died in London on 17 April 1887 and he married Harriet, daughter of James Campbell of Craigie, Ayrshire, who survived him. The eldest son, Harold, commanded the first battalion kings royal rifle corps in the Boer war of 1899-1900 and his daughter Ethel married Hugh Locke King, they built the Brooklands motor racing circuit on estate they farmed. His youngest son, Wilfrid was the first Bishop of Kimberley, first Taranaki War New Zealand wars Waitara, New Zealand History of New Plymouth DNZB World statesmen – St. Helena
Thomas Gore Browne
–
Colonel Sir Thomas Robert Gore Browne
KCMG,
CB
37.
Governor-General of New Zealand
–
The Governor-General of New Zealand is the viceregal representative of the monarch of New Zealand, currently Queen Elizabeth II. The office is mandated by letters patent and the officeholder is formally titled the Governor-General, when travelling abroad, the governor-general is seen as the representative of New Zealand, and of the Queen of New Zealand. For this reason, the governor-general is viewed by some as the de facto head of state, under the Niue Constitution Act, the governor-general also represents the monarch in Niue. The governor-general initially represented the British monarch and the government of the United Kingdom, therefore, many officeholders have been British statesmen. In 1972, Sir Denis Blundell became the first New Zealand resident to be appointed to the office, governors-general are not appointed for a specific term, but are generally expected to serve for five years. The current Governor-General is Dame Patsy Reddy, who has served since 28 September 2016, administrative support for the governor-general is provided by the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Appointment to the Office is made by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister of New Zealand, the Prime Ministers advice has sometimes been the result of a decision by Cabinet, although there is no requirement for this. The appointment of Anand Satyanand met with the approval of every leader in the House of Representatives, by convention the Leader of the Opposition is also consulted on the appointment, however this too has not always been the case. This suggestion was in turn criticised by the Government, as Sir Edmund had backed Labour in 1975 as part of the Citizens for Rowling campaign, however, the right granted by the convention was not exercised directly by a New Zealand Prime Minister until 1967. Although non-partisan while in office, there have been a number of appointments of Governors-General to the office that have attracted considerable controversy, despite their political backgrounds, neither of these appointments could be said to have discharged their duties in a partisan way. There has often been speculation that a member of the Royal Family might take up the position, before the Governor-General enters office, his or her commission of appointment is publicly read in the presence of the Chief Justice of New Zealand and the members of the Executive Council. The Governor-General must take the Oath of Allegiance and the oath for the due execution of the office, from time to time, there have been proposals to elect the Governor-General. When first drafted by then Governor George Grey, the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 contained provision for the Governor to be elected by New Zealands Parliament. This provision was removed from the enactment, probably because the Colonial Office wanted to keep a check on New Zealands colonial government. In 1887 Sir George Grey, by then also a former Premier, the Bill was narrowly defeated 46–48, being opposed by the government of Harry Atkinson. In 2006 political commentator Colin James suggested that the Governor-General could be elected by a 60% majority of votes cast in Parliament, James argued that the New Zealand public should be given the ability to choose the Queens representative, and that the current system is undemocratic and not transparent. National MP Nikki Kaye queried whether several one-member parties in parliament could veto the decision, the Republican Movement responded that the method would ensure appointments were made that most MPs and parties found acceptable. The Governor-General holds office at the pleasure of the Queen, under clause II of the Letters Patent
Governor-General of New Zealand
–
Incumbent
Lieutenant General Sir Jerry Mateparae GNZM,
QSO since 31 August 2011
Governor-General of New Zealand
–
Flag of the Governor-General
Governor-General of New Zealand
–
Government House, Wellington, the primary residence of the Governor-General.
Governor-General of New Zealand
–
The official vehicle of Government House in 2010, a
Jaguar XJ8. During official travel it is the only vehicle in the country not required to use standard number plates.
38.
Inver
–
Inver is a village in County Donegal, Ireland. It lies on the N56 National secondary road midway between Killybegs to the west and Donegal Town to the east and it is also a civil parish in the historic barony of Banagh. Inver is sometimes known as the jewel of the northwest. Inver was an important whaling post in Ireland, There was a large whaling station and fleet in the Port of Inver which lies 2 km from Inver Village. Thomas Nesbitt was the head of this investment and he also increased productivity by inventing the harpoon gun. The ruins of the old whaling station still remain in the port but has eroded and deteriorated to rubble, Inver has an excellent football pitch which hosts Eany Celtic in the Donegal League. There are two churches located in Inver, the Catholic church which stands on a hill in a place named Ardaghey and it also hosts a Church of Ireland church which is located beside the river in an area known as Cranny. The two churches stand over-looking each other, two stores have existed for years of which one is known as Cassidys store that was and still is run by the Cassidy family of Inver. Spar was opened in the 80s and rivalry has followed between the two stores ever since, spar is no longer open, closing in 2014 in part due to increased competition with shops such as Aldi and Lidl in Donegal town. Cassidys shop also functions as the local post office, Inver Grove Heights, Minnesota may be named after Inver. Inver railway station opened on 18 August 1893 and finally closed on 1 January 1960, the civil parish contains the villages of Inver, Frosses and Mountcharles. The civil parish contains the townlands, List of towns
Inver
–
Inver and Inver Beach
39.
Scottish Gaelic
–
Scottish Gaelic or Scots Gaelic, sometimes also referred to as Gaelic, is a Celtic language native to Scotland. A member of the Goidelic branch of the Celtic languages, Scottish Gaelic, like Modern Irish and Manx, developed out of Middle Irish. The 2011 census of Scotland showed that a total of 57,375 people in Scotland could speak Gaelic at that time, the census results indicate a decline of 1,275 Gaelic speakers from 2001. A total of 87,056 people in 2011 reported having some facility with Gaelic compared to 93,282 people in 2001, only about half of speakers were fully literate in the language. Nevertheless, revival efforts exist and the number of speakers of the language under age 20 has increased, Scottish Gaelic is neither an official language of the European Union nor the United Kingdom. Outside Scotland, a group of dialects collectively known as Canadian Gaelic are spoken in parts of Atlantic Canada, mainly Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. In the 2011 census, there were 7,195 total speakers of Gaelic languages in Canada, with 1,365 in Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island where the responses mainly refer to Scottish Gaelic. About 2,320 Canadians in 2011 also claimed Gaelic languages as their mother tongue, with over 300 in Nova Scotia, aside from Scottish Gaelic, the language may also be referred to simply as Gaelic. In Scotland, the word Gaelic in reference to Scottish Gaelic specifically is pronounced, outside Ireland and Great Britain, Gaelic may refer to the Irish language. Scottish Gaelic should not be confused with Scots, the Middle English-derived language varieties which had come to be spoken in most of the Lowlands of Scotland by the modern era. Prior to the 15th century, these dialects were known as Inglis by its own speakers, from the late 15th century, however, it became increasingly common for such speakers to refer to Scottish Gaelic as Erse and the Lowland vernacular as Scottis. Today, Scottish Gaelic is recognised as a language from Irish. Gaelic in Scotland was mostly confined to Dál Riata until the 8th century, when it began expanding into Pictish areas north of the Firth of Forth, by 900, Pictish appears to have become extinct, completely replaced by Gaelic. An exception might be made for the Northern Isles, however, however, though the Pictish language did not disappear suddenly, a process of Gaelicisation was clearly underway during the reigns of Caustantín and his successors. By a certain point, probably during the 11th century, all the inhabitants of Alba had become fully Gaelicised Scots, by the 10th century, Gaelic had become the dominant language throughout northern and western Scotland, the Gaelo-Pictic Kingdom of Alba. Its spread to southern Scotland, was even and totalizing. Place name analysis suggests dense usage of Gaelic in Galloway and adjoining areas to the north and west as well as in West Lothian, less dense usage is suggested for north Ayrshire, Renfrewshire, the Clyde Valley and eastern Dumfriesshire. In south-eastern Scotland, there is no evidence that Gaelic was ever widely spoken, the area shifted from Cumbric to Old English during its long incorporation into the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria
Scottish Gaelic
–
1891 distribution of
English and Gaelic in Scotland
Scottish Gaelic
–
Anne Lorne Gillies speaking publicly in the Scottish Gaelic language.
Scottish Gaelic
–
Coronation of
King Alexander III on
Moot Hill,
Scone on 13 July 1249. He is being greeted by the ollamh rìgh, the royal poet, who is addressing him with the proclamation "Benach De Re Albanne" (= Beannachd Dè Rìgh Alban, "God's Blessing on the King of Scotland"); the poet goes on to recite Alexander's genealogy.
Scottish Gaelic
–
Public signage in Gaelic is becoming increasingly common throughout the Scottish Highlands. This sign is located in the bilingual port community of
Mallaig.
40.
William Cargill
–
William Walter Cargill was the founder of the Otago settlement in New Zealand, after serving as an officer in the British Army. He was a Member of Parliament and Otagos first Superintendent, Cargill was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1784. His parents were James Cargill and Marrion Jamieson and his father died of alcoholism when he was 15. He joined the British Army in 1802 and served with distinction in India, Spain, in 1813, he married Mary Ann Yates, they had seventeen children. Of these, two of his five sons became notable in public life, John, who followed in his fathers footsteps and became a politician, and Edward, family circumstances forced him to sell his commission in 1820, though he was later referred to as Captain Cargill. After leaving the army, he became a merchant in Scotland. On 24 November 1847, Cargill sailed for New Zealand on the ship John Wickliffe, arriving at what is now Port Chalmers, the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 granted the settler population self-government, and in 1853 Cargill was elected Superintendent of the Otago Province. Cargill also served as a member of parliament for Dunedin Country and he was elected unopposed on 11 December 1855. He served the multi-member electorate alongside his son John and he rarely spoke in the house and found travel to parliament in Auckland difficult. Aged 75, he announced his resignation from office in October 1859. He was described as a unabashed provincialist and he died of a stroke on 6 August 1860, at his home Hillside in Dunedin, and is buried in Dunedin Southern Cemetery with his wife and three children. Numerous names have connections with Cargill, the city of Invercargill is named for him, as is Mount Cargill, which towers above northern Dunedin. Cargills Corner is a road intersection in South Dunedin, and one of the roads which crosses at it is Hillside Road. A Tasmanian sandstone monument to Cargill was built in Dunedin in 1864, Cargills Castle, a ruined stately home above St Clair is not named for William Cargill, but for his son Edward. William Cargill Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand
William Cargill
–
William Cargill
William Cargill
–
Cargill's Monument on
Princes Street in Dunedin
41.
Otago Province
–
The Otago Province was a province of New Zealand until the abolition of provincial government in 1876. The capital of the province was Dunedin, Southland Province split from Otago in 1861, but became part of the province again in 1870. Otago Province was one of the six original provinces established in New Zealand in 1853 and it covered the lower third of the South Island. The inland area of the Waitaki catchment was unexplored in 1853, the boundary was delineated in 1861 as following the Ohau River to Lake Ohau and from there a straight line to Mount Aspiring and Awarua Bay. Southland Province split from Otago in 1861, but became part of the again in 1870. All the New Zealand provinces were abolished at the end of 1876, New Zealand law provides an anniversary day for each province. When the Southland province amalgamated with Otago in 1870, the acquired the former provinces railways - which were built to the standard gauge of 1,435 mm
Otago Province
–
Map showing the boundaries of the Otago Province
42.
John Turnbull Thomson
–
John Turnbull Thomson was a British civil engineer and artist who played an instrumental role in the development of the early infrastructure of nineteenth-century Singapore and New Zealand. Thomson was born at Glororum, Northumberland, England, the child of Alexander Thomson and his wife, Janet. After his father was killed in a accident in 1830. Thomson arrived in the Malay Straits in 1838 and was employed by the East India Survey, in 1841 he was appointed Government Surveyor at Singapore and in 1844 became Superintendent of Roads and Public Works. He was responsible for the design and construction of a number of engineering works including bridges, roads. His outstanding achievement was the erection of the Horsburgh Lighthouse on Pedra Branca, in 1853 his health failed and he returned to England where he studied modern engineering techniques, and travelled widely through Britain and the Continent inspecting engineering works. Early in 1856 he emigrated to New Zealand, where he worked as Chief Surveyor of the Otago Province until 1873, from 1876 until 1879 he was Surveyor-General of New Zealand. He was also the surveyor of the city of Invercargill. From 1856 until 1858 Thomson surveyed and explored large sections of the interior of the South Island and it has long been suggested that Thomson originally intended to give traditional Maori names to many places, but these names were refused. In response, Thomson gave prosaic Northumbrian names to many places, Thomson was a founder of the Otago and Southland Institutes of New Zealand, to which he contributed numerous papers on scientific subjects including ethnological studies. Through his knowledge of Hindustani and Malay, he interested in comparative linguistics. He was also an amateur painter of landscapes, working mostly in oils. His paintings have artistic merit but from a topographical viewpoint are of some interest today. Thomson married Jane Williamson of Dunedin in 1876 and he died at his home in Invercargill on 16 October 1884. By marriage he was related to the Hall-Jones family, whose number included William Hall-Jones, Thomson was responsible for the planning of the city of Invercargill in Southland, New Zealand and his mausoleum is in the St. Johns Cemetery in Waikiwi, Invercargill. His descendants have written books which contain authoritative information on his life in New Zealand. Thomsons great-grandson, John Hall-Jones, was a historian specializing in the history of southern New Zealand and he made an elaborate survey of the Straits of Singapore, in conjunction with Captain Congalton who was largely responsible for clearing pirates from Malayan waters. He carried out repairs and lowering of the Coleman Bridge, several extant places, roads and buildings in Singapore are named after J. T. Thomson. n
John Turnbull Thomson
–
Thomson memorial in Ranfurly, New Zealand
John Turnbull Thomson
–
Thomson Road, Singapore
43.
Dairy farming
–
Dairy farming is a class of agriculture for long-term production of milk, which is processed for eventual sale of a dairy product. Although any mammal can produce milk, commercial farms are typically one-species enterprises. In developed countries, dairy farms typically consist of high producing dairy cows, other species used in commercial dairy farming include goats, sheep, and camels. In Italy, donkey dairies are growing in popularity to produce an alternative source for human infants. Dairy farming has been part of agriculture for thousands of years, historically it has been one part of small, diverse farms. In the last century or so larger farms doing only dairy production have emerged, in the 1800s von Thünen argued that there was about a 100 mile radius surrounding a city where such fresh milk supply was economically viable. Centralized dairy farming as we understand it primarily developed around villages and cities, near the town, farmers could make some extra money on the side by having additional animals and selling the milk in town. The dairy farmers would fill barrels with milk in the morning and bring it to market on a wagon, until the late 19th century, the milking of the cow was done by hand. For most herds, milking took place twice a day. Feeding could occur simultaneously with milking in the barn, although most dairy cattle were pastured during the day between milkings, such examples of this method of dairy farming are difficult to locate, but some are preserved as a historic site for a glimpse into the days gone by. One such instance that is open for this is at Point Reyes National Seashore, dairy farming has been part of agriculture for thousands of years. Historically it has one part of small, diverse farms. In the last century or so larger farms doing only dairy production have emerged, the first milking machines were an extension of the traditional milking pail. The early milker device fit on top of a milk pail. Following each cow being milked, the bucket would be dumped into a holding tank and these were introduced in the early 20th century. This developed into the Surge hanging milker, prior to milking a cow, a large wide leather strap called a surcingle was put around the cow, across the cows lower back. The milker device and collection tank hung underneath the cow from the strap and this innovation allowed the cow to move around naturally during the milking process rather than having to stand perfectly still over a bucket on the floor. The next innovation in automatic milking was the milk pipeline, introduced in the late 20th century and this uses a permanent milk-return pipe and a second vacuum pipe that encircles the barn or milking parlor above the rows of cows, with quick-seal entry ports above each cow
Dairy farming
–
A rotary milking parlor at a modern dairy facility, located in Germany
Dairy farming
–
A dairy farm on the banks of the
Columbia River in
Clark County, Washington (May 1973).
Dairy farming
–
Woman hand milking a cow.
Dairy farming
–
Demonstration of a new Soviet milker device.
East Germany, 1952
44.
Prohibition
–
The earliest records of prohibition of alcohol date to the Xia Dynasty in China. Yu the Great, the first ruler of the Xia Dynasty and it was legalized again after his death, during the reign of his son Qi. Another record was in the Code of Hammurabi specifically banning the selling of beer for money, in the early twentieth century, much of the impetus for the prohibition movement in the Nordic countries and North America came from moralistic convictions of pietistic Protestants. Rum-running became widespread and organized crime control of the distribution of alcohol. Distilleries and breweries in Canada, Mexico and the Caribbean flourished as their products were consumed by visiting Americans or illegally exported to the United States. Chicago became notorious as a haven for prohibition dodgers during the known as the Roaring Twenties. Prohibition generally came to an end in the late 1920s or early 1930s in most of North America and Europe, in some countries where the dominant religion forbids the use of alcohol, the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages is prohibited or restricted today. For example, in Saudi Arabia and Libya alcohol is banned, Sale of alcohol is banned in Afghanistan. In Bangladesh, alcohol is prohibited due to its proscription in the Islamic faith. However, the purchase and consumption is allowed in the country, the Garo tribe consume a type of rice beer, and Christians in this country drink and purchase wine for their holy communion. In Brunei, alcohol consumption and sale is banned in public, in India alcohol is a state subject and individual states can legislate prohibition, but currently most states do not have prohibition. Prohibition is in force in the states of Gujarat, Bihar and Nagaland, parts of Manipur, the state of Kerala has placed some limitations on sale of alcohol. All other States and union territories of India permit the sale of alcohol, election days and certain national holidays such as Gandhi Jayanti are meant to be dry days when liquor sale is not permitted. The state of Andhra Pradesh had imposed Prohibition under the Chief Ministership of N. T. Rama Rao, Prohibition was also observed from 1996 to 1998 in Haryana. Some Indian states observe dry days on major religious festivals/occasions depending on the popularity of the festival in that region, since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, the sale and consumption of alcohol is banned in Iran. Alcohol is banned for people who use small shops and convenience stores, the consumption, importation and brewing of, and trafficking in liquor is strictly against the law. Alcohol is banned for Muslims in Malaysia due to its Islamic faith, the Maldives ban the import of alcohol, x-raying all baggage on arrival. Alcoholic beverages are available only to tourists on resort islands
Prohibition
–
A police raid confiscating illegal alcohol, in
Elk Lake, Canada, in 1925.
Prohibition
–
The Drunkard's Progress: A lithograph by
Nathaniel Currier supporting the temperance movement, January 1846.
Prohibition
–
This 1902 illustration from the Hawaiian Gazette shows the
Anti-Saloon League and the
Women's Christian Temperance Union 's campaign against beer brewers. The
"water cure" was a torture which was in the news because of its use in the Philippines.
Prohibition
–
Prescription form for medicinal liquor
45.
Second World War
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
Second World War
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
Second World War
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
Second World War
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
Second World War
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
46.
Carlisle, Cumbria
–
Carlisle is a city and the county town of Cumbria. Historically in Cumberland, it is also the centre of the City of Carlisle district in North West England. Carlisle is located at the confluence of the rivers Eden, Caldew and it is the largest settlement in the county of Cumbria, and serves as the administrative centre for both Carlisle City Council and Cumbria County Council. At the time of the 2001 census, the population of Carlisle was 71,773, ten years later, at the 2011 census, the citys population had risen to 75,306, with 107,524 in the wider city. The early history of Carlisle is marked by its status as a Roman settlement, the castle now houses the Duke of Lancasters Regiment and the Border Regiment Museum. In the early 12th century, Henry I allowed the foundation of a priory in Carlisle, the town gained the status of a city when its diocese was formed in 1133, and the priory became Carlisle Cathedral. The introduction of textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution began a process of transformation in Carlisle. This, combined with its position, allowed for the development of Carlisle as an important railway town. Nicknamed the Great Border City, Carlisle today is the cultural, commercial and industrial centre for north Cumbria. It is home to the campuses of the University of Cumbria. The former County Borough of Carlisle had held city status until the Local Government Act 1972 was enacted in 1974, what is known of the ancient history of Carlisle is derived mainly from archaeological evidence and the works of the Roman historian Tacitus. The earliest recorded inhabitants were the Carvetii tribe of Britons who made up the population of ancient Cumbria. According to Boethius and John of Fordun, Carlisle existed before the arrival of the Romans in Britain and was one of the strongest British towns at the time, in the time of the emperor Nero, it was said to have burned down. The Roman settlement was named Luguvalium, based on a name that has been reconstructed as Brittonic *Luguwaljon, of Luguwalos. This walled civitas, possibly the one in northwest Britain. In the year 79, the two Roman generals Cn, petillius Cerealis advanced through Solway as they continued their campaign further north. As a result, it is likely that control was achieved at Carlisle over anti-imperial groups. This is possibly indicated from the reconstruction of the fort at Carlisle in 83 using oak timbers from further afield, at this time the Roman fort was garrisoned by a 500-strong cavalry regiment, the Ala Gallorum Sebosiana
Carlisle, Cumbria
–
Aerial view of Carlisle City Centre
Carlisle, Cumbria
–
General
Gnaeus Julius Agricola advances through Carlisle in AD 79.
Carlisle, Cumbria
–
Carlisle Castle was built in the reign of
William the Second.
Carlisle, Cumbria
–
Historic view of Carlisle
47.
Auckland
–
Auckland is a city in the North Island of New Zealand. It is the most populous area in the country. Auckland has a population of 1,495,000, which constitutes 32 percent of New Zealands population, a diverse and multicultural city, Auckland is home to the largest Polynesian population in the world. It has also been called Ākarana, the Māori pronunciation of Auckland, the Auckland urban area ranges to Waiwera in the north, Kumeu in the northwest, and Runciman in the south. It is not contiguous, the section from Waiwera to Whangaparāoa Peninsula is separate from its nearest neighbouring suburb of Long Bay, the surrounding hills are covered in rainforest and the landscape is dotted with dozens of dormant volcanic cones. The central part of the area occupies a narrow isthmus between the Manukau Harbour on the Tasman Sea and the Waitemata Harbour on the Pacific Ocean. It is one of the few cities in the world to have harbours on two major bodies of water. The isthmus on which Auckland resides was first settled around 1350 and was valued for its rich, Māori population in the area is estimated to have peaked at 20,000 before the arrival of Europeans. After a British colony was established in 1840, the new Governor of New Zealand, William Hobson and he named the area Auckland for George Eden, Earl of Auckland, British First Lord of the Admiralty. It was replaced as the capital in 1865, but immigration to the new city stayed strong, today, Aucklands Central Business District is the major financial centre of New Zealand. Auckland is classified as a Beta World City because of its importance in finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, education and tourism. Aucklands landmarks such as the Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki, the Harbour Bridge, the Sky Tower, the isthmus was settled by Māori around 1350, and was valued for its rich and fertile land. Many pā were created, mainly on the volcanic peaks, Māori population in the area is estimated to have been about 20,000 people before the arrival of Europeans. As a result, the region had relatively low numbers of Māori when European settlement of New Zealand began, there is, however, nothing to suggest that this was the result of a deliberate European policy. Auckland was officially declared New Zealands capital in 1841 and the transfer of the administration from Russell in the Bay of Islands was completed in 1842. However, even in 1840 Port Nicholson was seen as a choice for an administrative capital because of its proximity to the South Island. After losing its status as capital, Auckland remained the city of the Auckland Province until the provincial system was abolished in 1876. Each of the four settlements had about 800 settlers, the men being fully armed in case of emergency but spent nearly all their time breaking in the land and establishing roads
Auckland
–
Auckland Tāmaki Makaurau (
Māori)
Auckland
–
Lower Queen Street in 1919
Auckland
–
The urbanised extent of Auckland (red), as of 2009
Auckland
–
Rangitoto Island (in the background) from
Achilles Point
48.
Vietnam War
–
It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
Vietnam War
–
Clockwise, from top left: U.S. combat operations in
Ia Drang, ARVN Rangers defending
Saigon during the 1968
Tet Offensive, two
Douglas A-4C Skyhawks en route for airstrikes against North Vietnam after the
Gulf of Tonkin incident, ARVN recapture
Quảng Trị during the 1972
Easter Offensive, civilians fleeing the
1972 Battle of Quảng Trị, burial of 300 victims of the 1968
Huế Massacre.
Vietnam War
–
A Japanese naval officer surrenders his sword to a British Lieutenant in Saigon on 13 September 1945.
Vietnam War
–
The
Geneva Conference, 1954
Vietnam War
–
U.S. President
Dwight D. Eisenhower and Secretary of State
John Foster Dulles greet President
Ngô Đình Diệm of
South Vietnam in Washington, 8 May 1957.
49.
Southern Institute of Technology
–
Southern Institute of Technology is one of New Zealand’s largest institutes of technology, with over 12,000 students in 2011. Established in 1971, SIT has since become famous for its Zero Fees Scheme, the scheme, which is open to New Zealand citizens and permanent residents, sees students save thousands of dollars on the cost of their tertiary education. The Institute is also renowned for the quality of its facilities, SIT’s three main campuses are located in Invercargill with other campuses located in Queenstown, Gore, Christchurch and Auckland. Students can study from anywhere in New Zealand and the world via SIT’s distance education faculty, SIT offers over 200 programmes in a wide range of academic, technical and professional subjects at postgraduate, graduate, bachelor, diploma and certificate levels. SIT is a member of the International Association of Universities, SIT has several campuses around Invercargill as well as campuses in Gore, Queenstown, Christchurch and Auckland. SIT has three campuses in Invercargill, SIT’s main campus is situated either side of Tay Street. SIT Downtown is situated in the center of Invercargill’s business district and is home to SIT’s new media, SIT Sound in the Invercargill Radio Network Building is host to SITs audio production programmes. Its location encourages the development of links with the region’s radio, SIT has undertaken a major campus redevelopment plan over the past fifteen years. In 2012, SIT completed a $5.5 million redevelopment of the trades,2012 also saw the redevelopment of the School of Nursing, which included the addition of a new multimillion-dollar Nursing Simulation Center and the refurbishment of related facilities. The Gore campus has facilities and provides a base for the Institute to deliver education and training to the catchment areas of Eastern Southland, Northern Southland. The Queenstown campus operates from a new facility in the Remarkables Park retail, the campus has responded to local needs offering business, administration, computing, hospitality, tourism, sports, beauty therapy and hairdressing programmes. SIT’s Christchurch campus is based in Hornby, the campus offers specialised training in a number of areas including carpentry, electrical, refrigeration and air conditioning, roofing, automotive, sports, and mental health support. SIT is famed for its Zero Fees Scheme where New Zealand citizens and permanent residents are required to pay material costs. The scheme has been credited with revitalising Invercargill after it attracted thousands of students south, the Zero Fees Scheme has also been extended to international students, in the form of Zero Fees English and Foundation Scholarships. The Zero Fees Scheme delivers significant savings for students who study at SIT compared with other tertiary institutions, since students need only pay for their material costs, many students graduate debt free. Students can save between NZ$7,000 to $14,000 on the cost of their bachelors degrees, the scheme was initiated in an attempt to jumpstart Invercargill’s economy. In the late 1990s, Invercargill was suffering from job losses, closing businesses, in an attempt to reverse this situation, and attract more young people to the city, the Zero Fees Scheme was implemented. The scheme saw community funders contribute $7.2 million over three years to effectively pay students’ tuition fees, all students had to pay was their material costs – for things like uniforms or textbooks
Southern Institute of Technology
–
Southern Institute of Technology
Southern Institute of Technology
–
SIT, taken from Tay St
Southern Institute of Technology
–
SIT main walkway
Southern Institute of Technology
–
Grounds at SIT Main Campus (Tayi St, Invercargill)
50.
International Space Station
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The International Space Station is a space station, or a habitable artificial satellite, in low Earth orbit. Its first component launched into orbit in 1998, and the ISS is now the largest man-made body in space, the ISS consists of pressurised modules, external trusses, solar arrays, and other components. ISS components have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, the ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and other fields. The station is suited for the testing of systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon. The ISS maintains an orbit with an altitude of between 330 and 435 km by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the Zvezda module or visiting spacecraft and it completes 15.54 orbits per day. The ISS is the space station to be inhabited by crews, following the Soviet and later Russian Salyut, Almaz. The station has continuously occupied for 16 years and 156 days since the arrival of Expedition 1 on 2 November 2000. This is the longest continuous presence in low Earth orbit. It has been visited by astronauts, cosmonauts and space tourists from 17 different nations, Soyuz has very limited downmass capability. The ISS programme is a joint project among five participating space agencies, NASA, Roscosmos, JAXA, ESA, the ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The station is divided two sections, the Russian Orbital Segment and the United States Orbital Segment, which is shared by many nations. As of January 2014, the American portion of ISS is being funded until 2024, Roscosmos has endorsed the continued operation of ISS through 2024 but has proposed using elements of the Russian Orbital Segment to construct a new Russian space station called OPSEK. On 28 March 2015, Russian sources announced that Roscosmos and NASA had agreed to collaborate on the development of a replacement for the current ISS. NASA later issued a statement expressing thanks for Russias interest in future co-operation in space exploration. According to the original Memorandum of Understanding between NASA and Rosaviakosmos, the International Space Station was intended to be a laboratory, observatory and factory in low Earth orbit. It was also planned to provide transportation, maintenance, and act as a base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars. In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given roles of serving commercial, diplomatic. The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research, the ISS simplifies individual experiments by eliminating the need for separate rocket launches and research staff
International Space Station
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International Space Station
International Space Station
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Sunrise at Zvezda
International Space Station
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Fisheye view of several labs
International Space Station
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CubeSats are deployed by the
NanoRacks CubeSat Deployer attached to the end of the Japanese robotic arm
New Zealand
Invercargill
