1.
Inwood, New York
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Inwood is a hamlet and census-designated place in Nassau County, New York, United States. The population was 9,792 at the 2010 census, despite the name, none of the communities are towns. The towns most commonly included as constituents of the Five Towns are all within the Town of Hempstead, Inwood is represented as part of the Towns 3rd District by Councilman Bruce A. Blakeman. Inwood is located at 40°37′09″N 73°44′45″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 2.1 square miles, of which,1.7 square miles of it is land and 0.4 square miles of it is water. Inwood also has a park located on a bay with a launching pad into Motts Basin, the park is called Inwood Park. Inwood was first settled c.1817 and was originally called North West Point, named after its position in relation to the more central part of Far Rockaway. Its original settlers were Jamaica Bay fishermen, generally lawless and troublesome to other Rockaway residents, soon after the American Civil War, the area became known as Westville. The first true road in the area, the Inwood end of Lord Avenue, was built when the village of Lawrence was developed. When the first post office in the village was established on February 25,1889, the name of the village was changed to Inwood, by the time of World War I, a large part of Inwoods population was of Italian and Albanian extraction. Inwood is home to the famous Inwood Country Club which was the site of the 1921 PGA Championship as well as the 1923 U. S. Open, Inwood was the birthplace of Nassau Countys first County Executive, J. Russell Sprague as well as Olympian Ray Barbuti. As of the census of 2000, there were 9,325 people,3,041 households, the population density was 5,488.4 per square mile. There were 3,132 housing units at a density of 1,843. 4/sq mi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 53. 25% White,25. 87% African American,0. 42% Native American,2. 04% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,13. 01% from other races, and 5. 39% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 26. 32% of the population,21. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.06 and the family size was 3.55. In the CDP, the population was out with 27. 8% under the age of 18,8. 7% from 18 to 24,30. 7% from 25 to 44,19. 7% from 45 to 64. The median age was 34 years, for every 100 females there were 88.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.0 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $41,334, and the median income for a family was $48,345
2.
Inwood Hill Park
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Inwood Hill Park is a city-owned and maintained public park in the Inwood neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City, operated by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation. Unlike other Manhattan parks, Inwood Hill Park is largely natural, as the current name suggests, large areas of the park are hills, mostly wooded. Inwood Hill Park has a history that goes back to the Pre-Columbian era. Through the 17th century, Native Americans known as the Lenape inhabited the area, there is evidence of a main encampment along the eastern edge of the park. The Lenape relied on both the Hudson and Harlem Rivers as sources for food, artifacts and the remains of old campfires were found in Inwoods rock shelters, suggesting their use for shelter and temporary living quarters. The tree, the largest tulip on the island, survived for centuries until it was felled by a storm in 1933. Fort Cockhill, one of many built in New York by the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War. A small, five-sided earthen structure equipped with two cannons, it overlooked the mouth of Spuyten Duyvil Creek at its confluence with the Hudson River, at the time, the area was known from Colonial to post-Revolutionary War times as Coxs Hill or Tubby Hook Hill. One such notable who had an estate in Inwood was Isidor Straus, co-owner of the Macys department store. The Lords of the Lord & Taylor department store chain owned two mansions built within the park, both mansions were destroyed by fire in the part of the 19th century. Additionally, an orphanage was located high on a bluff in what is now Inwood Hill Park in the nineteenth century, the site today includes a small paved area and park benches, no trace of the building remains. At least three freshwater springs arise in the park, one of which was used for drinking water by the workers who constructed the Henry Hudson Bridge, the park was officially opened on May 8,1926. Squatters who lived in the estates around the perimeter of the park were removed in the 1930s by Robert Moses. The WPA also paved over some trails and illuminated them with lampposts, arson and dumping have damaged the park and its integrity, as have erosion-control measures which were not well conceived. On September 15,1995, the Inwood Hill Nature Center was dedicated and opened to the public and it is located near the park entrance on 218th Street and Indian Road. The center is located on Manhattans only salt-water marsh, and has designated as an interactive exhibit with ongoing monitoring of the natural area. It is also the point to watch the eagles that have been placed in the park to be freed when they are able to adjust to the environment. The Henry Hudson Parkway and Amtraks Empire Connection run through it, and at its end the Henry Hudson Bridge
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
5.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
6.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
7.
City
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A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
8.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
9.
Boroughs of New York City
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New York City, in the U. S. state of New York, is composed of five county-level administrative entities called boroughs. They are Manhattan, the Bronx, Queens, Brooklyn, each borough is coextensive with a county of New York State. The county governments were dissolved when New York City consolidated in 1898, along all city, town. The term borough was adopted to describe a form of administration for each of the five fundamental constituent parts of the newly consolidated city in 1898. Under the 1898 City Charter adopted by the New York State Legislature, the term is also used by politicians to counter a frequent focus on Manhattan and thereby to place all five boroughs on equal footing. In the same vein, the outer boroughs refers to all of the boroughs excluding Manhattan. All of the boroughs were created in 1898 during consolidation, when the current boundaries were established. Ultimately in 1914, the present-day separate Bronx County became the last county to be created in the State of New York, the borough of Queens consists of what formerly was only the western part of a then-larger Queens County. The borough of Staten Island was officially the borough of Richmond until the name was changed in 1975 to reflect its common appellation, there are hundreds of distinct neighborhoods throughout the five boroughs of New York City, many with a definable history and character to call their own. Manhattan is the geographically smallest and most densely populated borough and is home to Central Park and most of the citys skyscrapers. Manhattans population density of 72,033 people per mile in 2015 makes it the highest of any county in the United States. Manhattan is often described as the financial and cultural center of the world, most of the borough is situated on Manhattan Island, at the mouth of the Hudson River. Manhattan Island is loosely divided into Lower, Midtown, and Uptown regions, Uptown Manhattan is divided by Central Park into the Upper East Side and the Upper West Side, and above the park is Harlem. The borough also includes a neighborhood on the United States mainland. New York Citys remaining four boroughs are collectively referred to as the outer boroughs, Brooklyn, on the western tip of Long Island, is the citys most populous borough. Brooklyn is known for its cultural, social, and ethnic diversity, an independent art scene, distinct neighborhoods, downtown Brooklyn is the only central core neighborhood in the outer boroughs. The borough has a long beachfront shoreline including Coney Island, established in the 1870s as one of the earliest amusement grounds in the country, marine Park and Prospect Park are the two largest parks in Brooklyn. Historically a collection of towns and villages founded by the Dutch
10.
Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city
11.
ZIP Code
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ZIP Codes are a system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service since 1963. The term ZIP, an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, was chosen to suggest that the travels more efficiently, and therefore more quickly. The basic format consists of five numerical digits, an extended ZIP+4 code, introduced in 1983, includes the five digits of the ZIP Code, a hyphen, and four additional digits that determine a more specific location within a given ZIP Code. The term ZIP Code was originally registered as a servicemark by the U. S. Postal Service, USPS style for ZIP is all caps and the c in code is also capitalized, although style sheets for some publications use sentence case or lowercase. The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers, the United States Post Office Department implemented postal zones for numerous large cities in 1943. For example, Mr. John Smith 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue Minneapolis 16, by the early 1960s a more organized system was needed, and on July 1,1963, non-mandatory five-digit ZIP Codes were introduced nationwide. Three months later, on October 1,1963, the U. S, an earlier list in June had proposed capitalized abbreviations ranging from two to five letters. The abbreviations have remained unchanged, with one exception, according to the historian of the U. S. Robert Moon, an employee of the post office, is considered the father of the ZIP Code, he submitted his proposal in 1944 while working as a postal inspector. The post office gives credit to Moon only for the first three digits of the ZIP Code, which describe the sectional center facility or sec center, an SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP Codes, the mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP Code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. Sectional centers do not deliver mail and are not open to the public, Mail picked up at post offices is sent to their own SCF in the afternoon, where the mail is sorted overnight. The United States Post Office used a character, which it called Mr. ZIP. He was often depicted with a such as USE ZIP CODE in the selvage of panes of stamps or on labels contained in, or the covers of. In 1983, the U. S. Postal Service introduced an expanded ZIP Code system that it called ZIP+4, often called plus-four codes, add-on codes, or add ons. But initial attempts to promote use of the new format met with public resistance. For Post Office Boxes, the rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. However, there is no rule, so the ZIP+4 Code must be looked up individually for each box. It is common to use add-on code 9998 for mail addressed to the postmaster,9999 for general delivery, for a unique ZIP Code, the add-on code is typically 0001
12.
Area codes 212, 646, and 332
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Area codes 212,646 and 332 are the area codes for most of the borough of Manhattan in New York City in the North American Numbering Plan. By area, it is one of the smallest plan areas in North America and it is overlaid by area code 917, which covers the entirety of New York City. Area code 212 is one of the original 86 area codes assigned by AT&T in 1947 and it originally served the entire five boroughs of New York City. On September 1,1984, Brooklyn, Queens and Staten Island were split off as a new numbering plan area with area code 718, leaving Manhattan, in 1992, numbering plan area 718 was expanded to include the Bronx, while reducing NPA212 to most of Manhattan. In 1992, the city was overlaid with area code 917. Area code 212 was overlaid with area code 646 in Manhattan on July 1,1999, in November 2015, area code 332 was assigned as an additional overlay area code for Manhattans numbering plan area 212, the fourth serving the area and the seventh serving New York City. It is expected to be installed in 2017, as area codes 212 and 646 are expected to run out of numbers in the quarter of 2017. One Manhattan neighborhood, Marble Hill, is not in the 212/646 area code, Marble Hill, although legally a part of Manhattan to this day, was geographically severed from Manhattan by the construction of the Harlem River Ship Canal in 1895. It was physically connected to the Bronx in 1914 when the segment of the Harlem River was filled in. When the Bronx shifted to 718 in 1992, Marble Hill residents fought to stay in 212, Marble Hills trunk is wired into the Bronx line, and it would have been too expensive for New York Telephone to rewire it. A business with a 212 area code is perceived as having stability and roots in Manhattan. One example is PEnnsylvania 6-5000 ), the number for the Hotel Pennsylvania in Midtown, the hotel claims that it is the oldest continuously used number in New York City. This claim is in dispute, but PEnnsylvania 6-5000 did appear in a 1940 Glenn Miller Orchestra song title, businesses now sell phone numbers with 212 area codes. In August 2010, AT&T reported that there are no new numbers available in the 212 area code, for several years before then, new landlines in Manhattan have been assigned numbers in 917. In addition, the Inwood section in far northern Manhattan is overlaid with area code 347, which also began as a cell phone area code
13.
1 (New York City Subway service)
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The 1 Broadway–Seventh Avenue Local is a rapid transit service in the A Division of the New York City Subway. Its route emblem, or bullet, is colored tomato red since it uses the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line for its entire route, the 1 operates local at all times between Van Cortlandt Park–242nd Street in Riverdale, Bronx and South Ferry in Lower Manhattan. When the first subway opened between 1904 and 1908, one of the main service patterns was the West Side Branch, trains ran from Lower Manhattan to Van Cortlandt Park via what is now the IRT Lexington Avenue Line, 42nd Street Shuttle, and IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line. There was both local and express service with trains using the express tracks south of 96th Street. Some express trains ran to Atlantic Avenue in Brooklyn via the Joralemon Street Tunnel during rush hours while all other trains turned around at City Hall or the South Ferry outer loop. This shuttle was extended south to South Ferry, with a shuttle on the Brooklyn branch between Chambers Street and Wall Street, on July 1,1918. Finally, the new H system was implemented on August 1,1918, late night service was not operated. All 1 Local trains ran from 137th Street to South Ferry days and evenings, on September 5,1937, the practice of splitting Sunday morning trains at Brooklyn Museum was discontinued, with the alternate trains going to New Lots Avenue or Flatbush Avenue. As of July 1,1938, all evening and Sunday trains were rerouted to New Lots Avenue, by 1945, all 1 Local peak period trains were cut back from Dyckman Street to 137th Street. Beginning on May 10,1946, all 1 Brooklyn trains were made express during late nights running on 12 minute headways, previously all 1 trains ran local from 12,30 to 5, 30am and they alternated between Flatbush and New Lots Avenues. On December 20,1946, all night trains were routed to Flatbush Avenue. On June 12,1949, 137th Street to South Ferry Sunday locals were discontinued, on March 15,1954, weekend 137th Street to South Ferry locals were discontinued, and simultaneously weekend Brooklyn trains were rerouted to Flatbush Avenue. An attempt was made to extend service further north on January 14,1955. This proved unsuccessful, and ended on June 28,1956, meanwhile, in Brooklyn, weekday trains were rerouted to Flatbush Avenue on December 20,1957, and evening 137th Street to South Ferry locals were discontinued on May 23,1958. Under a $100,000,000 rebuilding program, increased and lengthened service was implemented during peak hours on the 1 train, switching north of 96th Street was eliminated. On February 6,1959,1 trains began to run between 242nd Street and South Ferry all times, trains began to be branded as Hi-Speed Locals, being as fast as the old express service was with new R21s and R22s on the line. During rush hour in the direction, alternate trains, those running from 242nd Street. The bypassed stations were served by locals originating from Dyckman Street and this express service was discontinued on May 24,1976, after which all 1 trains began to make all stops
14.
Peter Minuit
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Peter Minuit, Pieter Minuit, Pierre Minuit or Peter Minnewit was a Walloon from Wesel, in present-day North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, then part of the Duchy of Cleves. He was Director of the Dutch colony of New Netherland from 1626 until 1631 and he also founded the Delaware colony in the early 1600s. His father, Johan, died in 1609 and Peter took over management of the household, Peter Minuit had a good reputation in Wesel, attested by the fact that he was several times appointed a guardian. He also assisted the poor during the Spanish occupation of 1614–1619, Peter Minuit married Gertrude Raedts on August 20,1613. From a wealthy family, Gertrude probably helped Peter Minuit in establishing himself as a broker, what products he dealt in is not known. That it involved diamonds is derived from a document, a will, drawn up in 1615. By 1624, the city was in a decline and in 1625 he had left Wesel and like others went to Holland. He returned in the year, and in 1626 was appointed the new director of New Netherland. He sailed to North America and arrived in the colony on May 4,1626, Minuit is credited with purchasing the island of Manhattan from the Native Americans in exchange for traded goods valued at 60 guilders. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. According to researchers at the National Library of the Netherlands, The original inhabitants of the area were unfamiliar with the European notions and definitions of ownership rights, for the Indians, water, air and land could not be traded. Such exchanges would also be difficult in practical terms because many groups migrated between their summer and winter quarters and it can be concluded that both parties probably went home with totally different interpretations of the sales agreement. The calculation of $24 also fails to recognize that the concepts of property trading and ownership held by the 17th-century Dutch, comparisons to modern land dealing distort the reality of what Minuit was trying to do. Both the Dutch and the Indians undoubtedly included intangibles along with any goods in their concept of the total transactional value. For Indians and Minuit alike, both sides felt they were getting far more than a mere 60 guilders, in addition, the value of the sale to Dutch and Indians alike would have included the prospect of future trade. Minuit conducted politics in a measure of democracy in the colony during his time in New Netherland and he was highest judge in the colony but in both civil and criminal affairs he was assisted by a council of five colonists. This advisory body would advise the director, and would jointly with him develop, administer, in addition there was a schout-fiscal, half sheriff, half attorney-general, and all customs officer
15.
New Netherland
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New Netherland was a 17th-century colonial province of the Seven United Netherlands that was located on the East Coast of North America. The colony was conceived as a business venture to exploit the North American fur trade. The settlement of New Sweden encroached on its flank, while its northern border was re-drawn to accommodate an expanding New England. During the 1650s, the colony experienced dramatic growth and became a port for trade in the North Atlantic. The surrender of Fort Amsterdam to England in 1664 was formalized in 1667, in 1673, the Dutch re-took the area but relinquished it under the Second Treaty of Westminster ending the Third Anglo-Dutch War the next year. The inhabitants of New Netherland were Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans, descendants of the original settlers played a prominent role in colonial America. For two centuries, New Netherland Dutch culture characterized the region, during the 17th century, Europe was undergoing expansive social, cultural, and economic growth, known as the Dutch Golden Age in the Netherlands. Nations vied for domination of trade routes around the globe. Simultaneously, philosophical and theological conflicts were manifested in military battles across the continent, the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands had become a home to many intellectuals, international businessmen, and religious refugees. He was turned back by the ice of the Arctic in his second attempt and he ended up exploring the waters off the east coast of North America aboard the vlieboot Halve Maen. His first landfall was at Newfoundland and the second at Cape Cod, Hudson believed that the passage to the Pacific ocean was between the St. Lawrence River and Chesapeake Bay, so he sailed south to the Bay then turned northward, traveling close along the shore. He first discovered Delaware Bay and began to sail upriver looking for the passage and this effort was foiled by sandy shoals, and the Halve Maen continued north. After passing Sandy Hook, Hudson and his crew entered the narrows into the Upper New York Bay, Hudson believed that he had found the continental water route, so he sailed up the major river which later bore his name, the Hudson. He found the water too shallow to proceed several days later, at the site of present-day Troy and his report was first published in 1611 by Emanuel Van Meteren, an Antwerp émigré and the Dutch Consul at London. This stimulated interest in exploiting this new resource, and it was the catalyst for Dutch merchant-traders to fund more expeditions. Flemish Lutheran émigré merchants such as Arnout Vogels sent the first follow-up voyages to exploit this discovery as early as July 1610. In 1611–1612, the Admiralty of Amsterdam sent two expeditions to find a passage to China with the yachts Craen and Vos, captained by Jan Cornelisz Mey and Symon Willemsz Cat. The results of explorations, surveys, and charts made from 1609 through 1614 were consolidated in Block’s map
16.
Lenape
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The Leni Lenape or Lenape, or the Delaware people in older references, are a Native American tribe and, in Canada, a recognized First Nations band government. Subsequently, the Lenape became subjugated and made tributary to first the Susquehannocks, then the Iroquois, iroquoian peoples occasionally fought the Lenape. As the 1700s progressed, many surviving Lenape moved west —into the upper Ohio River basin, during the decades of the 18th century most Lenape were pushed out of their homeland by expanding European colonies, exacerbated by losses from intertribal conflicts. The divisions and troubles of the American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them farther west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. Lenape kinship system has matrilineal clans, that is, children belong to their mothers clan, from which they gain social status, the mothers eldest brother was more significant as a mentor to the male children than was their father, who was generally of another clan. Hereditary leadership passed through the line, and women elders could remove leaders of whom they disapproved. Agricultural land was managed by women and allotted according to the needs of their extended families. Families were matrilocal, newlywed couples would live with the brides family, lenni-Lenape comes from their autonym, Lenni, which may mean genuine, pure, real, original, and Lenape, meaning Indian or man. Alternately, lënu may be translated as man, the tribes other name, Delaware, is not of Native American origin. English colonists named the Delaware River for the first governor of the Province of Virginia, Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, the English then began to call the Lenape the Delaware Indians because of where they lived. Swedes also settled in the area, and early Swedish sources listed the Lenape as the Renappi, traditional Lenape lands, the Lenapehoking, was a large territory that encompassed the Delaware Valley of eastern Pennsylvania. The Swedes and Dutch at New Castle, a Lenâpé-English Dictionary, From An Anonymous In The Archives Of The Moravian Church At Bethlehem. David Zeisbergers History of Northern American Indians, grammar of the Language of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians. The Diary of David Zeisberger, A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, the Diary of David Zeisberger, A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, Volume 2. Zeisberger’s Indian Dictionary, English, German, Iroquois—The Onondaga and Algonquin—The Delaware, “The Delaware that Zeisberger translated was Munsee, and not Unami. Adams, Richard Calmit, The Delaware Indians, a history, Hope Farm Press Bierhorst. The White Deer and Other Stories Told by the Lenape, ISBN 0-688-12900-5 Brown, James W. and Rita T. Kohn, eds
17.
New Amsterdam
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New Amsterdam was a 17th-century Dutch settlement established at the southern tip of Manhattan Island, which served as the seat of the colonial government in New Netherland. The factorij became a settlement outside of Fort Amsterdam, situated on the strategic, fortifiable southern tip of the island of Manhattan, the fort was meant to defend the Dutch West India Companys fur trade operations in the North River. In 1624 it became an extension of the Dutch Republic and was designated as the capital of the province in 1625. New Amsterdam was renamed New York on September 8,1664, in honor of the then Duke of York, Hudson named the river the Mauritius River. He was covertly attempting to find the Northwest Passage for the Dutch East India Company, instead, he brought back news about the possibility of exploitation of beaver by the Dutch who sent commercial, private missions to the area the following years. At the time, beaver pelts were prized in Europe. A by-product of the trade in beaver pelts was castoreum—the secretion of the animals anal glands—which was used for its medicinal properties and for perfumes. The expeditions by Adriaen Block and Hendrick Christiaensen in 1611,1612,1613 and 1614 resulted in the surveying and charting of the region from the 38th parallel to the 45th parallel. On their 1614 map, which gave them a trade monopoly under a patent of the States General. It also showed the first year-round trading presence in New Netherland, Fort Nassau, which would be replaced in 1624 by Fort Orange and he was the first recorded non-Native American inhabitant of what would eventually become New York City. The territory of New Netherland was originally a private, profit-making commercial enterprise focusing on cementing alliances, surveying and exploration of the region was conducted as a prelude to an anticipated official settlement by the Dutch Republic, which occurred in 1624. In 1620 the Pilgrims attempted to sail to the Hudson River from England, however, the Mayflower reached Cape Cod on November 9,1620, after a voyage of 64 days. For a variety of reasons, primarily a shortage of supplies, the Mayflower could not proceed to the Hudson River, here American Indian hunters supplied them with pelts in exchange for European-made trade goods and wampum, which was soon being made by the Dutch on Long Island. In 1621 the Dutch West India Company was founded, between 1621 and 1623, orders were given to the private, commercial traders to vacate the territory, thus opening up the territory to Dutch settlers and company traders. It also allowed the laws and ordinances of the states of Holland to apply, previously, during the private, commercial period, only the law of the ship had applied. A fort and sawmill were erected at Nut Island. The latter was constructed by Franchoys Fezard, and was taken apart for iron in 1648, the threat of attack from other European colonial powers prompted the directors of the Dutch West India Company to formulate a plan to protect the entrance to the Hudson River. By the end of 1625, the site had been staked out directly south of Bowling Green on the site of the present U. S, the Mohawk-Mahican War in the Hudson Valley led the company to relocate even more settlers to the vicinity of the new Fort Amsterdam
18.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
19.
IND Eighth Avenue Line
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The IND Eighth Avenue Line is a rapid transit line in New York City, United States, and is part of the B Division of the New York City Subway. Opened in 1932, it was the first line of the Independent Subway System, most of the line has four tracks, with one local and one express track in each direction, except for the extreme north and south ends, where only the two express tracks continue. The line is signaled as Line A, with tracks A1, A3, A4, and A2 from west to east, running from approximately 800 at the south end to 1540 at the north end. The line runs from 207th Street in Inwood south to an interlocking south of High Street in Brooklyn Heights, including large sections under St. Nicholas Avenue, Central Park West, and Eighth Avenue. The entire length is underground, though the 207th Street Yard, flying junctions are provided with the IND Concourse Line, IND Sixth Avenue Line, and IND Queens Boulevard Line. Between 59th Street–Columbus Circle and 145th Street, the line can be called the Central Park West Line, the whole line is served at all times by the A train, which runs express except during late nights. The C provides local service south of 168th Street while the A runs express, the following services use part or all of the Eighth Avenue Line. The trunk lines bullets are colored blue, The Eighth Avenue begins as a two-track subway under Broadway at 207th Street in Inwood. A flying junction just to the south brings two tracks from the 207th Street Yard between the tracks, merging after Dyckman Street. The subway leaves Broadway to pass under Fort Tryon Park to the end of Fort Washington Avenue. The small 174th Street Yard lies under Broadway, with two tracks exiting to the south under that roadway, however, when the lower level was added in 1962, it instead carried a roadway. The two main tracks from Fort Washington Avenue enter Broadway near 171st Street, running underneath the tracks in a double-decker tunnel. A few blocks later, the tracks separate to straddle the yard tracks at 168th Street. The local/express split begins here, with the tracks coming from the yard. Contrary to standard practice, the two tracks are in the center and the two express tracks are on the outside. Except during late nights, the service ends at 168th Street, reversing direction on the yard tracks. South of 168th Street, the express tracks lower below the tracks, forming another double-decker tunnel. North of 145th Street, the tracks rise into the center
20.
A (New York City Subway service)
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The A Eighth Avenue Express is a rapid transit service in the B Division of the New York City Subway. Its route emblem, or bullet, is colored vivid blue since it uses the IND Eighth Avenue Line in Manhattan, the A operates between 207th Street in Inwood, Manhattan and Mott Avenue in Far Rockaway, Queens, or Lefferts Boulevard in Richmond Hill, Queens. The A is the Central Park West / Eighth Avenue Express in Manhattan, Fulton Street Express in Brooklyn, the A provides the longest one-seat ride in the system, at 32 miles between Inwood and Far Rockaway and has a weekday ridership of 600,000. Five rush hour trips run to and from Beach 116th Street in Rockaway Park, Queens, at all times, a shuttle train operates between Broad Channel, where it connects with the A, and Rockaway Park. During late nights, the A makes all stops along its route and originates/terminates at Far Rockaway only. The A and AA were the first services on the IND Eighth Avenue Line when it opened on September 10,1932, the Independent Subway System used single letters to refer to express services and double letters for local services. The A ran express between 207th Street and Chambers Street/World Trade Center, and the AA ran local between 168th Street and Chambers St/World Trade Center, known at the time as Hudson Terminal, the AA used a red bullet. During late nights and Sundays, the A did not run, on April 9,1936, the IND Fulton Street Line was opened to Rockaway Avenue. The 1936 completion played a part in the establishment of Bedford-Stuyvesant as Brooklyns central African American community. On December 30,1946 and November 28,1948, the line was extended to Broadway–East New York and Euclid Avenue, respectively. On October 24,1949, express service in Brooklyn to Broadway–East New York began with the A running express during rush hours, on April 29,1956, Grant Avenue was opened, and the line was extended over the BMT Fulton Street Line to Lefferts Boulevard. Weekdays except midnights, alternate trains terminated at Lefferts Boulevard and at Euclid Avenue, during weekends, they terminated at Euclid Avenue with a shuttle to Lefferts Boulevard. Two months later, on June 28,1956, the former Long Island Rail Road Rockaway Line was rebuilt to subway specifications, at this time, rush hour express service on the Fulton Street Line with the E train began. On September 16,1956, the A was extended to the Rockaways replacing the E, at the time, alternate trains continued running to Lefferts Boulevard. On January 27,1957, non-rush hour through service to the Rockaways was discontinued and was replaced by a shuttle running between Euclid Avenue and Wavecrest, non-rush hour A train service is now to Lefferts Boulevard. This may also be the time that the E replaced the A again in the Rockaways, on January 16,1958, a new terminal was created at Far Rockaway–Mott Avenue, and the through connection to the Long Island Rail Roads Far Rockaway station was severed. On September 8,1958, the A train replaced the E train in the Rockaways again, round-robin service from Euclid Avenue to both Rockaway terminals began, non-rush hours, while through A service runs to Lefferts Boulevard. In September 1959, the A begins to run local in Brooklyn at all times, in 1963, the E train was extended to the Rockaways, and the A train ran local to Euclid Avenue or Lefferts Boulevard at all times
21.
Art Deco
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Art Deco, sometimes simply referred to as Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture and design that first appeared in France just before World War I. It took its name, short for Arts Decorators, from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes held in Paris in 1925 and it combined modernist styles with fine craftsmanship and rich materials. During its heyday, Art Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance, Art Deco was a pastiche of many different styles, sometimes contradictory, united by a desire to be modern. It featured rare and expensive materials such as ebony and ivory, the Chrysler Building and other skyscrapers of New York were the most visible monuments of the new style. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, the became more subdued. New materials arrived, including chrome plating, stainless steel and plastic, a more sleek form of the style, called Streamline Moderne, appeared in the 1930s, it featured curving forms and smooth, polished surfaces. Art Deco became one of the first truly international architectural styles, with examples found in European cities, the style came to an end with the beginning of World War II. Deco was replaced as the dominant global style by the functional and unadorned styles of modernism. The term arts décoratifs was first used in France in 1858, in 1868, Le Figaro newspaper used the term art décoratifs with respect to objects for stage scenery created for the Théâtre de lOpéra. In 1875, furniture designers, textile, jewelry and glass designers and it took its present name of ENSAD in 1927. The term Art déco was then used in a 1966 newspaper article by Hillary Gelson in the Times, describing the different styles at the exhibit. Art Deco gained currency as a broadly applied stylistic label in 1968 when historian Bevis Hillier published the first major book on the style. Hillier noted that the term was already being used by art dealers and cites The Times, in 1971, Hillier organized an exhibition at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, which he details in his book about it, The World of Art Deco. The emergence of Art Deco was closely connected with the rise in status of decorative artists, the term arts décoratifs had been invented in 1875, giving the designers of furniture, textiles, and other decoration official status. The Société des artistes décorateurs, or SAD, was founded in 1901, a similar movement developed in Italy. The first international exhibition devoted entirely to the arts, the Esposizione international dArte decorative moderna, was held in Turin in 1902. Several new magazines devoted to decorative arts were founded in Paris, including Arts et décoration, Decorative arts sections were introduced into the annual salons of the Sociéte des artistes français, and later in the Salon dautomne. French nationalism also played a part in the resurgence of decorative arts, in 1911 the SAD proposed the holding of a major new international exposition of decorative arts in 1912
22.
Negro league baseball
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The Negro leagues were United States professional baseball leagues comprising teams predominantly made up of African Americans and, to a lesser extent, Latin Americans. In 1885 the Cuban Giants formed the first black baseball team. The first league, the National Colored Base Ball League, was organized strictly as a minor league, because blacks were not being accepted into the major and minor baseball leagues, they formed their own teams and had made professional teams by the 1880s. The first known game between two black teams was held on November 15,1859, in New York City. The Henson Base Ball Club of Jamaica, Queens, defeated the Unknowns of Weeksville, immediately after the end of the American Civil War in 1865 and during the Reconstruction period that followed, a black baseball scene formed in the East and Mid-Atlantic states. By the end of the 1860s, the black baseball mecca was Philadelphia, two former cricket players, James H. Francis and Francis Wood, formed the Pythian Base Ball Club. They played in Camden, New Jersey, at the landing of the Federal Street Ferry, at the end of the 1867 season the National Association of Baseball Players voted to exclude any club with a black player. In some ways Blackball thrived under segregation, with the few black teams of the day playing not only each other, Black teams earned the bulk of their income playing white independent semipro clubs. Baseball featuring African American players became professionalized by the 1870s, moses Fleetwood Walker and his brother, Welday Wilberforce Walker, were the first two black players in the major leagues. They both played for the 1884 Toledo Blue Stockings in the American Association, then in 1886 second baseman Frank Grant joined the Buffalo Bisons of the International League, the strongest minor league, and hit.340, third highest in the league. C. Merged to form the Cuban Giants, the success of the Cubans led to the creation of the first recognized Negro league in 1887 – the National Colored Base Ball League. Two more joined before the season but never played a game, the league, led by Walter S. Brown of Pittsburgh, applied for and was granted official minor league status and thus protection under the major league-led National Agreement. This move prevented any team in organized baseball from signing any of the NCBBL players, the reserve clause would have tied the players to their clubs from season to season but the NCBBL failed. One month into the season, the Resolutes folded, a week later, only three teams were left. Beginning in 1899 several Cuban baseball teams played in North America, including the All Cubans, the Cuban Stars, the Cuban Stars, some of them included white Cuban players and some were Negro Leagues members. The few players on the minor league teams were constantly dodging verbal and physical abuse from both competitors and fans. Then the Compromise of 1877 removed the remaining obstacles from the Souths enacting the Jim Crow laws, after Anson marched his team onto the field, military style as was his custom, he demanded that the blacks not play. Newark capitulated, and later that day, league owners voted to refuse future contracts to blacks
23.
Harlem River
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The Harlem River is an 8-mile tidal strait flowing between the Hudson River and the East River and separating the island of Manhattan from the Bronx on the New York mainland. The northern stretch, also called the Spuyten Duyvil Creek, has significantly altered for navigation purposes. Originally it curved round the north of Marble Hill, but in 1895 the Harlem River Ship Canal was dug between Manhattan and Marble Hill, and in 1914 the original course was filled in. The Harlem River forms a part of the Hudson estuary system, approximately 18,000 years ago the Laurentide ice sheet receded northward across the continent leaving behind a large escarpment creating the modern day Hudson River. The Harlem River is therefore affected by the actions of the ocean, the ebb and flow of the tides causes the Harlem River’s currents to fluctuate dramatically throughout the day. The effects of the tides have influenced the spread of silts, pollutants, Sherman Creek is a small inlet off the Harlem River at 10th Avenue and Dyckman Street in Inwood. Named for a family settled there in 1807, it was once the site of a number of racing shell clubs boathouses along scullers row. The last, belonging to Fordham University, was lost to suspected arson in 1978, as a name for the several blocks around it, Sherman Creek is something of a historical relic, although many regard it as a part of Washington Heights. The Manhattan Institute held a forum, Saving Sherman Creek, in January 2006 at the Harvard Club of New York, the Daily News has written about the project. There has been an initiative among politicians over the last few years to re-zone this area for residential and commercial use, currently, Con Ed and the City of New York own some of the property in this area. The channel was difficult to navigate, resulting in the construction of the Harlem River Ship Canal in 1895 and this turned the watercourse west approximately where 222nd Street would be in the Bronx, which had the effect of isolating Marble Hill. Almost two decades later, the original creekbed was filled in, physically attaching Marble Hill to the Bronx, another channel was dug in 1937 to the west of the 1895 realignment straightening the Spuyten Duyvil towards the Hudson. It pared off a protruding tip of the Bronx, which was absorbed into Manhattans Inwood Hill Park, home today to its Nature Center. It was in this era that the first crossing on the Harlem was built, at the Old Albany Road in 1693, beginning a history of bridge construction. This came to be called King’s Bridge, where a toll was assessed for access to the island, the shallow waters of the creek along this stretch were thus spanned. The issue of navigability became a topic of early in the river’s history. In 1813, the Macomb family built a dam to power a mill, however it created a millpond and impeded the river’s flow and open navigation. While this condition was tolerated for years, a vessel manned by principal landholders and politicians, including Gouverneur and Lewis Morris
24.
Hudson River
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The Hudson River is a 315-mile river that flows from north to south primarily through eastern New York in the United States. The river originates in the Adirondack Mountains of Upstate New York, flows through the Hudson Valley, the river serves as a political boundary between the states of New Jersey and New York, and further north between New York counties. The lower half of the river is a tidal estuary occupying the Hudson Fjord, tidal waters influence the Hudsons flow from as far north as Troy. The river is named after Henry Hudson, an Englishman sailing for the Dutch East India Company, who explored it in 1609, and after whom Canadas Hudson Bay is also named. The Dutch called the river the North River – with the Delaware River called the South River –, during the eighteenth century, the river valley and its inhabitants were the subject and inspiration of Washington Irving, the first internationally acclaimed American author. In the nineteenth century, the area inspired the Hudson River School of landscape painting, the Hudson was also the eastern outlet for the Erie Canal, which, when completed in 1825, became an important transportation artery for the early-19th-century United States. The source of the Hudson River is Lake Tear of the Clouds in the Adirondack Park at an altitude of 4,322 feet, the river is not cartographically called the Hudson River until miles downstream. From that point on, the stream is known as the Hudson River. Popular culture and convention, however, more often cite the photogenic Lake Tear of the Clouds as the source, South of the confluence of Indian Pass Brook and Calamity Brook, the Hudson River flows south into Sanford Lake. South of the outlet of the lake, the Opalescent River flows into the Hudson, the Hudson then flows south, taking in Beaver Brook and the outlet of Lake Harris. After its confluence with the Indian River, the Hudson forms the boundary between Essex and Hamilton counties, in the hamlet of North River, the Hudson flows entirely in Warren County and takes in the Schroon River. Further south, the forms the boundary between Warren and Saratoga Counties. The river then takes in the Sacandaga River from the Great Sacandaga Lake, shortly thereafter, the river leaves the Adirondack Park, flows under Interstate 87, and through Glens Falls, just south of Lake George although receiving no streamflow from the lake. It next goes through Hudson Falls, at this point the river forms the boundary between Washington and Saratoga Counties. At this point the river has an altitude of 200 feet, further south the Hudson takes in water from the Batten Kill River and Fish Creek near Schuylerville. The river then forms the boundary between Saratoga and Rensselaer counties, the river then enters the heart of the Capital District. It takes in water from the Hoosic River, which extends into Massachusetts, shortly thereafter the river has its confluence with the Mohawk River, the largest tributary of the Hudson River, in Waterford. Shortly thereafter, the river reaches the Federal Dam in Troy, at an elevation of 2 feet, the bottom of the dam marks the beginning of the tidal influence in the Hudson as well as the beginning of the lower Hudson River
25.
Fort Tryon Park
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Fort Tryon Park is a public park located in the Hudson Heights and Inwood neighborhoods of the borough of Manhattan in New York City. It extends from Margaret Corbin Circle in the south to Riverside Drive at Dyckman Street in the north, the main entrance to the park is at Margaret Corbin Circle, at the intersection of Fort Washington Avenue and Cabrini Boulevard. The area was known by the name Chquaesgeck by the local Lenape tribe and it was the location where the Battle of Fort Washington was fought in the American Revolutionary War, but it was, and remained, sparsely populated. By the turn of the 20th century, it was the location of large country estates, the park was the creation of philanthropist John D. Rockefeller, Jr. who bought up several of the estates beginning in 1917 in order to create it. The park was completed in 1935, the Cloisters, which was designed by Charles Collens, incorporates several medieval buildings that were purchased in Europe, brought to the United States, and reassembled, often stone by stone. It is home to the Unicorn Tapestries, the park is built on a formation of Manhattan schist and contains interesting examples of igneous intrusions and of glacial striations from the last Ice Age. The lower lying regions to the east and north of the park are built on Inwood marble, the northern boundary of the park is formed by the Dyckman Street Fault. Fort Tryon Park was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 and was designated a New York City Scenic Landmark in 1983, Margaret Corbin became the first woman to fight in the war and was wounded during the battle. Subsequently, the entrance to the park bears her name. The actual site of Fort Washington is less than a mile south at Bennett Park, after the British victory, the outpost was named after Sir William Tryon, the last British Governor of the Province of New York. John D. Rockefeller, Jr. purchased the Billings estate in 1917 – for $35,000 an acre – as well as the contiguous Hays and Shaefer tracts to the north. He hired the Olmsted Brothers firm – and in particular Frederick Law Olmsted, olmsteds design capitalized on the topography to reveal sweeping vistas of the Hudson River and the Palisades. To preserve the views from Fort Tryon Park, Rockefeller purchased land on the side of the Hudson to keep it from being developed. Olmsted Jr. Fort Tryon Park was constructed during the Great Depression, the park was completed in 1935 providing open green space to Upper Manhattan. Besides the gardens and the Cloisters, the park has walking paths and meadows, with views of the Hudson. This was originally a driveway, which continues down to Riverside Drive, the Billings Arcade features a series of 50-foot tall arches constructed of Maine granite. During the years before World War I, the park lent its name to the neighborhood to its south, the area between Broadway and the Hudson River, as far south as West 179th Street, was known as Fort Tryon. By the 1940s the neighborhood was known as Frankfurt-on-the-Hudson, which way, in the 1990s
26.
Dyckman Street
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Dyckman Street is a street in the Inwood neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City. It is commonly considered to be a crosstown street because it runs from the Hudson River to the Harlem River and it is located where West 200th Street would be, the sequence of numbered streets in this neighborhood has a gap between West 193rd Street and West 201st Street. As a rustic 18th century valley road lying between Washington Heights and Inwood Hill, it preceded the comprehensive Manhattan grid plan, which was not applied in this small part of the island. Dyckman Street has for years been one of the major shopping streets in the Inwood section. From its northwesternmost point at the Hudson riverbank, Dyckman Street extends southeast past the Henry Hudson Parkway. From there, it continues southeast until it intersects Broadway, where it turns in a southward direction until it merges with Tenth Avenue to form the northernmost end of the Harlem River Drive. Traffic on Dyckman Street runs in both directions except for a stretch between Broadway and Seaman Avenue, where it runs only northwest. The northwestern portion of Dyckman Street separates Inwood Hill Park from Fort Tryon Park, additionally, the southeastern portion of Dyckman Street borders the northern tip of Highbridge Park. Bike lanes in Dyckman Street connect the Hudson and Harlem River portions of the Manhattan Waterfront Greenway, the Tubby Hook ferry operated from the Hudson River foot of the street to New Jersey at various times from the 18th century until 1942. The Dyckman Street subway station on the IND Eighth Avenue Line is located at the intersection of Dyckman Street, the Dyckman Street subway station on the IRT Broadway – Seventh Avenue Line is located at the intersection of Dyckman Street and Nagle Avenue. Bike lanes on Dyckman Street connect two parts of the Manhattan Waterfront Greenway, the character Pete Campbell on the series Mad Men is a descendant of the Dyckman family, and references to the area of Manhattan his family controlled are made in the shows fourth episode. It is mentioned that the Dyckman family owned a tract of land north of what is now Central Park. The character Charlotte Mayhew is said to have had a Dyckman Street accent in J. D. Salingers Raise High the Roof Beam, in Migoss hit song Versace, Drake rhymes, Word to New York ’cause the Dyckman and Heights girls are callin me Papi
27.
Marble Hill, Manhattan
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Marble Hill is the northernmost neighborhood in the New York City borough of Manhattan. It is the only Manhattan neighborhood on the mainland of North America, Marble Hill was occupied as a Dutch colonial settlement in 1646, and gained its current name in 1891 because of marble deposits underneath the neighborhood. In 1914, the Harlem River was filled in on the side of Marble Hill, connecting it to the North American mainland. Because of this change in geography, Marble Hill is often associated with the Bronx and is part of two of the latters Community Board Districts, Marble Hill has been occupied since the Dutch colonial period. On August 18,1646, Governor Willem Kieft, the Dutch Director of New Netherland, signed a grant to Mattius Jansen van Keulan. This grant had comprised the whole of the present community, the ferry charter was granted in 1667. Many settlers circumvented the toll for the ferry by crossing the creek from northern Marble Hill to modern Kingsbridge, Bronx, in 1669 Verveelen transplanted his ferry to the northern tip of Marble Hill, at todays Broadway and West 231st Street. Two bridges connected Marble Hill with the mainland, the Kings Bridge, originally a merchant in New Amsterdam, Philipse had purchased vast landholdings in what was then Westchester County. Granted the title Lord of Philipse Manor, he established a plantation and his toll bridge provided access and opened his land to settlement. Later, it carried the Boston Post Road, in 1758, the Free Bridge was erected by Jacob Dyckman and Benjamin Palmer. It opened on January 1,1759 and its purpose was to serve the farmers who refused to pay the toll. Stagecoach service was established across the span. The new bridge proceeded to take much of the traffic away from the Kings Bridge, one of the local visiting spots during this period was a tavern operated by the Dyckman family. They had a called the Black Horse Inn, located just south of McGowans Pass in what is now East Drive of Central Park. The Dyckmans sold the Black Horse to finance a new operation on the west side of Broadway and 226th Street that was to be managed by Benjamin Palmer and it was situated to cater to the traffic from both bridges. In 1772 the Dyckmans sold the tavern to Caleb Hyatt and was known by the new name as Hyatt’s Tavern at the Free Bridge. When hostilities broke out at the start of the American Revolution, by November 1776, the fort had been taken over by Hessian forces and renamed Fort Prince Charles in honor of Charles, Duke of Brunswick, brother-in-law to George III. Despite contrary beliefs, the Kings Bridge and the Dyckman Free Bridge served as routes for the retreating American forces after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776
28.
The Bronx
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The Bronx is the northernmost of the five boroughs of New York City, within the U. S. state of New York. Since 1914, the Bronx has had the boundaries as Bronx County, a county of New York. The Bronx is divided by the Bronx River into a section in the west, closer to Manhattan. East and west street addresses are divided by Jerome Avenue—the continuation of Manhattans Fifth Avenue, the West Bronx was annexed to New York City in 1874, and the areas east of the Bronx River in 1895. Bronx County was separated from New York County in 1914, about a quarter of the Bronxs area is open space, including Woodlawn Cemetery, Van Cortlandt Park, Pelham Bay Park, the New York Botanical Garden, and the Bronx Zoo in the boroughs north and center. These open spaces are situated primarily on land reserved in the late 19th century as urban development progressed north. The name Bronx originated with Jonas Bronck, who established the first settlement in the area as part of the New Netherland colony in 1639, the native Lenape were displaced after 1643 by settlers. This cultural mix has made the Bronx a wellspring of both Latin music and hip hop. The Bronx, particularly the South Bronx, saw a decline in population, livable housing, and the quality of life in the late 1960s. Since then the communities have shown significant redevelopment starting in the late 1980s before picking up pace from the 1990s until today, the Bronx was called Rananchqua by the native Siwanoy band of Lenape, while other Native Americans knew the Bronx as Keskeskeck. It was divided by the Aquahung River, the origin of Jonas Bronck is contested. Some sources claim he was a Swedish born emigrant from Komstad, Norra Ljunga parish in Småland, Sweden, who arrived in New Netherland during the spring of 1639. Bronck became the first recorded European settler in the now known as the Bronx and built a farm named Emmanus close to what today is the corner of Willis Avenue. He leased land from the Dutch West India Company on the neck of the mainland north of the Dutch settlement in Harlem. He eventually accumulated 500 acres between the Harlem River and the Aquahung, which known as Broncks River or the Bronx. Dutch and English settlers referred to the area as Broncks Land, the American poet William Bronk was a descendant of Pieter Bronck, either Jonas Broncks son or his younger brother. More recent research indicates that Pieter was probably Jonas nephew or cousin, the Bronx is referred to with the definite article as The Bronx, both legally and colloquially. The region was named after the Bronx River and first appeared in the Annexed District of The Bronx created in 1874 out of part of Westchester County
29.
Harlem River Ship Canal
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Spuyten Duyvil Creek /ˈspaɪtən ˈdaɪvəl/ is a short tidal estuary connecting the Hudson River to the Harlem River Ship Canal and then on to the Harlem River in New York City. The confluence of the three water bodies separate the island of Manhattan from the Bronx and the rest of the mainland, once a distinct, turbulent waterway between the Hudson and Harlem rivers, the creek has been subsumed by the modern ship canal. The earliest use of the name Spuyten Duyvil was in 1653 and it may be literally translated as Spouting Devil or Spuitende Duivel in Dutch, a reference to the strong and wild tidal currents found at that location. It may also be translated as Spewing Devil or Spinning Devil, spui is a Dutch word involving outlets for water. Historian Reginald Pelham Bolton, however, argues that the phrase means sprouting meadow, a folk etymology, to spite the Devil or in spite of the devil, was popularized by a story in Washington Irvings A Knickerbockers History of New York published in 1809. The local Lenape Native Americans referred to the creek by several names, the first was Shorakapok or Shorackhappok, translated as “the sitting down place” or “the place between the ridges”. A second term, spelled various ways including Paparinemo or Papiriniman, was shared with an island formed by the junction of the creek. The word has been translated as place where the stream is shut or to parcel out or divide, a third name, Muscoota, was also used. Spuyten Duyvil Creek runs northeast into the Hudson, when the Dutch settlers arrived they found its tidal waters turbulent and difficult to handle. Though its tides raced there was no navigable watercourse joining it with the headwaters of the Harlem River, steep cliffs along the Spuyten Duyvils mouth at the Hudson prevented any bridge there, but upstream it narrowed into a rocky drainage. Prior to the development of the Bronx, the creek was fed by Tibbetts Brook, the brook currently ends above ground within Van Cortlandt Park, emptying into the Harlem River system at the Wards Island Water Pollution Control Plant via underground sewers. During the 17th Century, the mode of transportation across the Harlem River was by ferry from the east end of 125th Street. The ferry was established in 1667 and operated by Johannes Verveelen, many settlers circumvented the toll for the ferry by crossing the creek from northern Marble Hill to modern Kingsbridge, Bronx, a point where it was feasible to wade or swim through the waters. This area was known as the place, and had previously been used by Native Americans. In response, Verveelen had the creek fenced off at the wading place, in 1669 Verveelen transplanted his ferry to the northern tip of Marble Hill, at todays Broadway and West 231st Street. Originally a merchant in New Amsterdam, Philipse had purchased vast landholdings in what was then Westchester County, granted the title Lord of Philipse Manor, he established a plantation and provisioning depot for his shipping business upriver on the Hudson in present-day Sleepy Hollow. His toll bridge provided access and opened his land to settlement, later, it carried the Boston Post Road. In 1758, the Free Bridge was erected by Jacob Dyckman, stagecoach service was later established across the span
30.
Federal Writers' Project
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The Federal Writers Project was a United States federal government project to fund written work and support writers during the Great Depression. It was part of the Works Progress Administration, a New Deal program and it was one of a group of New Deal arts programs known collectively as Federal Project Number One. Funded under the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935, the Federal Writers Project was established July 27,1935, by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. The project operated under journalist and theatrical producer Henry Alsberg, and later John D. Newsome, compiling local histories, oral histories, ethnographies, childrens books, the most well-known of these publications were the 48 state guides to the United States known as the American Guide Series. The format was uniform, comprising essays on the history and culture, descriptions of its major cities, automobile tours were one of the important attractions. The Federal Writers Project was funded and put to work, as a Public Works in and around the west coast, through Washington, Oregon, the Federal Writers Project was charged with employing writers, editors, historians, researchers, art critics, archaeologists, geologists and cartographers. Some 6,600 individuals were employed by the Federal Writers Project, in each state a Writers Project non-relief staff of editors was formed, along with a much larger group of field workers drawn from local unemployment rolls. Many of these had never completed school, but most had formerly held white collar jobs of some sort. Most of the Writers Project employees were young in age. Some Federal Writers Project writers supported the movement and left-wing social and political themes. The rise of fascism and the opposition to Roosevelt administration policies by conservative critics led many WPA artists to voice a political position. Most Writers Project works were apolitical by their nature, but some histories and ethnographies were not, some projects were strongly opposed by some state legislatures, particularly the American Guide Series books, and in a few states Guide printings were kept to a minimal number of copies. Some of the work was an art in the sense that these were not attempts to sugar-coat the lives of the authentic folk in the realm of culture. Roosevelt Presidential Library, Marist College, and IBM, adding, The times had provided a human drama of immense proportions, thus, many fiction writers turned toward documenting the common people, those who suffered most brutally the effects of the Depression. The results were such books as Jack Conroys The Disinherited and John Steinbecks enduring classic The Grapes of Wrath, thousands worked on the project, including several well-known authors. Blakey estimates that at any one time the Indiana office had no fewer than 150 men and women on the payroll, fieldworkers made about $80 a month, working 20 to 30 hours a week. Very few African Americans worked for the projects, with the notable exception of the Illinois Writers Project. Federal sponsorship for the Federal Writers Project came to an end in 1939, a National Endowment for the Humanities-funded documentary about the Federal Writers Project, entitled Soul of a People, Writing Americas Story premiered on the Smithsonian Channel in September 2009
31.
Tuckahoe marble
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Tuckahoe marble is a type of marble named after the village of Tuckahoe, New York or alternatively the neighborhood of Inwood in Manhattan, New York City. It is found in Eastchester and extending southward to parts of the Bronx, such as Kingsbridge, Mott Haven, Melrose and Tremont and it has long been quarried at Tuckahoe as well as at Ossining, Hastings, and Thornwood, hence the alternate name, Westchester marble. It is part of the Inwood Formation, which also intrudes into western Connecticut and it dates from the Late Cambrian to the Early Ordovician ages. Inwood marble is a high quality marble first discovered in 1822 in the town of Tuckahoe in Westchester County, the marble is from the larger Inwood Formation or deposit, which stretches in a northeasterly direction from mid-Manhattan through southern Westchester. The marble is characterized scientifically as a marble and varies in color from a light gray to light green. A distinctive characteristic is the size of the calcite and dolomite particles that primarily compose the stone. Oxidation of these iron-bearing minerals causes certain varieties of the marble to turn orange-brown when the stone is exposed to weather, locally quarried Manhattan schist and sandstone from the lower Hudson Valley were typically used before marble became more popular. By the late 18th century, marble was being produced by a number of quarries in northern Manhattan, the most well-known quarry that supplied stone from the deposit was in the area now known as Tuckahoe. This Tuckahoe marble was nearly white in color and considered by many to be of the highest grade. Many federal buildings destroyed by the British during the War of 1812 were rebuilt with Tuckahoe marble, the commercial marble industry first developed along the Bronx River. In 1818 the Tuckahoe Marble Quarry opened and eventually became a producer of marble for the world. These local marble quarries were the reason that the state government of New York chose Sing Sing as the site of a new prison in 1825. From 1865 to 1871, hundreds of Scottish and Irish laborers blasted huge quantities of marble from the quarry at Hastings-on-Hudson, by the 1880s, Hastings Pavement was producing the paving blocks used extensively in Central Park and Prospect Park in Brooklyn. Between 1895 and 1900, Hastings Pavement produced 10 million such blocks and shipped throughout the U. S. and to cities in Canada, Brazil. White Tuckahoe marble supplied the early United States with a material suitable for the neoclassical architecture popular in Americas early public buildings. Quarrying of Tuckahoe Marble ceased in 1930, Inwood marble was used to construct the burial vaults at the New York Marble Cemetery and the New York City Marble Cemetery, both repositories of influential and prominent early citizens. T. Stewart Company Store, Manhattan Brooklyn Borough Hall Tweed Courthouse, Manhattan Washington Square Arch, Marble House, Newport, Rhode Island Washington Monument, Washington, D. C. List of types of marble Torres, Louis, Tuckahoe Marble, The Rise and Fall of an Industry in Eastchester, New York, 1822-1930, Harrison, N. Y
32.
Metamorphic rock
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Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock types, in a process called metamorphism, which means change in form. The original rock is subjected to heat and pressure, causing profound physical and/or chemical change, the protolith may be a sedimentary, an igneous, or even an existing type of metamorphic rock. Metamorphic rocks make up a part of the Earths crust. They are classified by texture and by chemical and mineral assemblage and they may be formed simply by being deep beneath the Earths surface, subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure of the rock layers above it. They can form from tectonic processes such as continental collisions, which cause horizontal pressure and they are also formed when rock is heated up by the intrusion of hot molten rock called magma from the Earths interior. The study of rocks provides information about the temperatures and pressures that occur at great depths within the Earths crust. Some examples of rocks are gneiss, slate, marble, schist. Metamorphic minerals are those that only at the high temperatures and pressures associated with the process of metamorphism. These minerals, known as index minerals, include sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite, andalusite, and some garnet. Other minerals, such as olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, feldspars, and quartz, may be found in metamorphic rocks and these minerals formed during the crystallization of igneous rocks. They are stable at temperatures and pressures and may remain chemically unchanged during the metamorphic process. However, all minerals are only within certain limits. The change in the size of the rock during the process of metamorphism is called recrystallization. Both high temperatures and pressures contribute to recrystallization, high temperatures allow the atoms and ions in solid crystals to migrate, thus reorganizing the crystals, while high pressures cause solution of the crystals within the rock at their point of contact. The layering within metamorphic rocks is called foliation, and it occurs when a rock is being shortened along one axis during recrystallization. This causes the platy or elongated crystals of minerals, such as mica and chlorite and this results in a banded, or foliated rock, with the bands showing the colors of the minerals that formed them. Textures are separated into foliated and non-foliated categories, foliated rock is a product of differential stress that deforms the rock in one plane, sometimes creating a plane of cleavage. For example, slate is a metamorphic rock, originating from shale
33.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
34.
207th Street Yard
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The New York City Transit Authority operates a total of 24 rail yards for the New York City Subway system. There are 10 active A Division yards,11 active B Division yards, of these yards, rolling stock are assigned to seven A Division yards and seven B Division yards. Within the yards are 14 maintenance and cleaning facilities, and two yards perform heavy maintenance and overhaul. The A Divisions yards consist of the 240th Street, 239th Street, Livonia, Jerome, East 180th Street, Pelham and Corona maintenance yards, a total of 2892 cars are assigned to the seven maintenance yards. The 137th Street Yard is a rail yard located just north of 137th Street–City College on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line. The yard has six tracks surrounding the three mainline tracks, three tracks are to the west of the line and three tracks are to the east. The yard is used to store some 1 trains outside of rush hours, each track can hold two full-length trains, so a total of 12 trains can be stored there at any given time. Opened in 1916, it is one of the oldest yards in the system, there is considerable fleet interchange with the R142s at East 180th Street Yard used for the 5. In addition, some R62s for the 3 are stored here, the car wash at 239th Street is used for the 1 occasionally, the 2, the 3 and the 5. A wheel truing machine was installed here to damage to rail cars. Also, during this period, all assigned to the 2 were inspected and maintained at the East 180th Street Yard shared with the 5. It re-opened as an inspection and maintenance facility for the 2 in 1982, the yard consists of a seven-track inspection shop and 38 layup tracks. The layup tracks are arranged on two levels, the other yard in the system to share this trait is the East New York Yard. Access to the 239th Street Yard is located between Wakefield–241st Street and Nereid Avenue on the IRT White Plains Road Line. On February 3,1998, two trains collided at the yard lead after the motorman of one train passed out at the helm. The yard consists of six tracks in the shop and 15 additional layup tracks. The yard is home to the 365 R62As and the 10 R62s assigned to the 1, the shop was built in 1906 to support the original IRT subway. The yard and shops are entirely on an elevated structure, there are 15 layup tracks, and six shop tracks
35.
Bus depots of MTA Regional Bus Operations
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MTA Regional Bus Operations operates local and express buses serving New York City in the United States out of 29 bus depots. These depots are located in all five boroughs of the city,21 of these depots serve MTA New York City Transit s bus operations, while the remaining eight serve the MTA Bus Company. Theses facilities perform regular maintenance, cleaning, and painting of buses, several of these depots were once car barns for streetcars, while others were built much later and have only served buses. Employees of the depots are represented by local divisions of the Transport Workers Union of America, particularly the TWU Local 100, the streetcar lines would be motorized into diesel bus routes or trolleybus routes over the next two decades. On September 24,1948, the BOT took over the East Side Omnibus Corporation and Comprehensive Omnibus Corporation in Manhattan, from 1947 to 1950, the BOT reconstructed numerous depots and trolley barns inherited from the private operators, and erected or purchased new facilities to expand capacity. The Transit Authority inherited at least 12 bus depots from the company, from 2005 to 2006, the remaining private operators were taken over by the MTA Bus Company. The MTA inherited eight facilities at this time, which had been either by the companies or the New York City Department of Transportation. The MTA has two major maintenance facilities that serve the New York City area. The facilities also include several employee workshops for surface transportation training, in addition, Zerega Avenue CMF is responsible for registry of new buses in the fleet. The two facilities were conceived as part of the 1995-1999 and 2000-2004 MTA Capital Programs, the Zerega Avenue facility was opened in 2001, while the Grand Avenue facility was opened in 2007 along with the bus depot. Previously, the repair shops of the East New York Depot served as the systems sole central maintenance shops, as of May 2016. The Zerega Avenue Maintenance and Training Facility is a structure located on the east side of Zerega Avenue between Lafayette and Seward Avenues in the Castle Hill section of the Bronx. The facility sits on the western coast of Westchester Creek, plans for the facility were conceived around 1999, and it was constructed in 2000. The facility received an award from the American Society of Civil Engineers for design-build project of the year in 2002, around 2002, the Zerega shops began overhauling NYCT buses to operate on ultra-low-sulfur diesel. The facility includes paint booths for MTA buses, and was designed to maintain compressed natural gas equipment and it also features numerous classrooms and a driving simulator to train MTA bus operators. Those routes are operated under the MTA Bus Company brand, all Bronx bus depots are represented by TWU Local 100. The Eastchester Depot is located on Tillotson Avenue near Conner Street off of the New England Thruway in the Eastchester neighborhood of the Bronx and it was renamed Eastchester Depot upon takeover on July 1,2005. It previously housed the mass transit operations of NYBS, which only operated express service from the Bronx to Manhattan, the scrapping program began in summer 2008
36.
Tenth Avenue (Manhattan)
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Tenth Avenue, known as Amsterdam Avenue between 59th Street and 193rd Street, is a north-south thoroughfare on the West Side of Manhattan in New York City. It carries uptown traffic as far as West 110th Street – also known as Cathedral Parkway, Tenth Avenue begins a block below Gansevoort Street and Eleventh Avenue in the West Village / Meatpacking District. For the southernmost stretch, Tenth Avenue runs southbound, north of 14th Street, Tenth Avenue runs uptown for 45 blocks as a one-way street until its intersection with West 59th Street, where it becomes Amsterdam Avenue but continues without interruption. Amsterdam Avenue continues as a one-way street northbound until Cathedral Parkway, Tenth Avenue runs through the Chelsea and Hells Kitchen neighborhoods on the west side of the borough, and then as Amsterdam Avenue, through the Upper West Side, Harlem and Washington Heights. Much of these areas were working class or poor for much of the 20th century, the street has long been noted for its commercial traffic, and had grade-level railroad lines through the early 20th century. In the 19th century, when the West Side Line ran along the Avenue, the lines were later elevated above street level. Amsterdam Avenue was intended to recall the Dutch roots of Manhattans earliest colonization in the 17th century. According to Sanna Feirsteins Naming New York, What is now Amsterdam Avenue was laid out in the 1811 Commissioners Plan as 10th Avenue and opened from 59th Street to Fort George Avenue in 1816. The name was changed in 1890 in a bid on the part of Upper West Side landowners to confer a measure of old-world cachet to their real estate investments in an area that had yet to catch on. The new avenue name supported the claim that this section would become the New City. Tenth Avenue and Amsterdam Avenue were converted to carry one-way traffic northbound in two stages, south of its intersection with Broadway the avenue was converted on November 6,1948. The rest to 110th Street was converted on December 6,1951, Amsterdam Avenue continues to carry two-way traffic north of 110th Street. During the real boom of the late 20th century, Amsterdam Avenue from roughly 59th Street to 96th Street became one of the citys most expensive residential districts. The M11 bus runs northbound along the avenue, north of 72nd Street, the M7 bus also runs northbound on the avenue, north of 110th Street, the M11 bus runs in both directions along Amsterdam Avenue. As part of the 7 Subway Extension, the 7 <7> was extended to 34th Street in 2015, an intermediate stop, Tenth Avenue, was originally planned but it was dropped from the official plans in 2008. The 1 train serves two stations along the Inwood portion of Tenth Avenue, 207th Street, and 215th Street, a protected bike lane was installed in 2016 from 72nd Street to 110th Street. The Rodgers & Hart play On Your Toes included the dance number Slaughter on Tenth Avenue, performed by Ray Bolger. It was later performed on stage, film and television and it has been performed by the New York City Ballet, and was featured in the film version of On Your Toes, danced by Eddie Albert and Vera Zorina
37.
Consolidated Edison
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In 2015, electric revenues accounted for 70. 35% of consolidated sales, gas revenues 13. 61%, steam revenues 5. 01%, and non-utility revenues of 11. 02%. Though the company provides a service to New York residents. In 1823, Con Edison’s earliest corporate predecessor, the New York Gas Light Company, was founded by a consortium of New York City investors, a year later, it was listed on the New York Stock Exchange. In 1884, six gas companies combined into the Consolidated Gas Company, the New York Steam Company began providing service in lower Manhattan in 1882. After the “War of Currents”, there were more than 30 companies generating and distributing electricity in New York City, but by 1920 there were far fewer, and the New York Edison Company was clearly the leader. In 1936, with electric sales far outstripping gas sales, the company incorporated, the years that followed brought further amalgamations as Consolidated Edison acquired or merged with more than a dozen companies between 1936 and 1960. Con Edison today is the result of acquisitions, dissolutions and mergers of more than 170 individual electric, gas, on January 1,1998, following the deregulation of the utility industry in New York state, a holding company, Consolidated Edison, Inc. was formed. It is one of the nation’s largest investor-owned energy companies, with approximately $13 billion in annual revenues, the company provides a wide range of energy-related products and services to its customers through two regulated utility subsidiaries and three competitive energy businesses. Under a number of names, the company has been traded on the NYSE without interruption since 1824—longer than any other NYSE stock. The Con Edison electrical transmission system utilizes voltages of 138 kilovolts,345 kV, Con Edison is also interconnected with Public Service Electric and Gas via the Branchburg-Ramapo 500 kV line. Con Eds distribution voltages are 33 kV,27 kV,13 kV, the 93,000 miles of underground cable in the Con Edison system could wrap around the Earth 3.6 times. Nearly 36,000 miles of electric wires complement the underground system—enough cable to stretch between New York and Los Angeles 13 times. Gas service in Brooklyn, Staten Island and the rest of Queens is provided by National Grid USA, with the exception of the Rockaway peninsula, the average volume of gas that travels through Con Edison’s gas system annually could fill the Empire State Building nearly 6,100 times. Craig S. Ivey, President, Consolidated Edison Company of New York Timothy P. Cawley, President and CEO, Orange and Rockland Utilities, Inc. 1989, A steam pipe explosion in Gramercy Park killed three, injured 24, and required the evacuation of an apartment building due to high levels of asbestos in the air. Workers had failed to drain water from the pipe before turning the steam on, the utility also eventually pleaded guilty to lying about the absence of asbestos contamination, and paid a $2 million fine. 2004, In Manhattan, stray voltage killed a woman walking her dog in the East Village when she stepped on a metal plate. 2006, After the blackout in Queens, the company was criticized by officials for a poor record in the restoration of service to its customers
38.
Public housing
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Public housing may be a form of housing tenure in which the property is owned by a government authority, which may be central or local. Social housing can also be seen as a remedy to housing inequality. Some social housing organizations construct for purchase, particularly in Spain, although the common goal of public housing is to provide affordable housing, the details, terminology, definitions of poverty and other criteria for allocation vary within different contexts. The origins of municipal housing lie in the urban population increase caused by the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century. In the large cities of the period, many commentators, such as Octavia Hill and Charles Booth reported on the squalor, sickness. Henry Mayhew, visiting Bethnal Green, wrote in the The Morning Chronicle, roads were unmade, often mere alleys, houses small and without foundations, subdivided and often around unpaved courts. An almost total lack of drainage and sewerage was made worse by the ponds formed by the excavation of brickearth. Pigs and cows in back yards, noxious trades like boiling tripe, melting tallow, or preparing cats meat, and slaughter houses, dustheaps, and lakes of putrefying night soil added to the filth. Some philanthropists began to provide housing in tenement blocks, and some factory owners built entire villages for their workers, such as Saltaire in 1853 and it was in 1885, after the report from a Royal Commission in England, that the state first took an interest. This led to the Housing of the Working Classes Act of 1885, nearly 6,000 individuals were crammed into the packed streets, where one child in four died before his or her first birthday. Arthur Morrison wrote the influential A Child of the Jago, an account of the life of a child in the slum, construction of the Boundary Estate was begun in 1890 by the Metropolitan Board of Works and completed by the recently formed London County Council in 1900. The success of this project spurred many local councils to embark on similar construction schemes in the early 20th century. The Arts and Crafts movement and Ebenezer Howards Garden city ideas led to the leafy London County Council cottage estates such as firstly Totterdown Fields and later Wormholt and Old Oak. The First World War indirectly provided a new impetus, when the physical health. In 1916, 41% of conscripts were unfit to serve, Public housing projects were tried out in some European countries and the United States in the 1930s, but only became widespread globally after the Second World War. Minha Casa Minha Vida, the Brazilian governments social housing program, was launched in March 2009 with a budget of R$36 billion to one million homes. The second stage of the program, included within the government Growth Acceleration Program was announced in March 2010 and this stage foresees the construction of a further two million homes. Of the total 3 million homes,1, all funds for Minha Casa Minha Vida properties are provided by the Brazilian public bank, Caixa Econômica Federal
39.
The Cloisters
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The Cloisters is a museum in Upper Manhattan, New York City specializing in European medieval architecture, sculpture and decorative arts. Its early collection was built by the American sculptor, art dealer and collector George Grey Barnard, Rockefeller extended the collection and in 1931 purchased the site at Washington Heights and contracted the design for a new building that was to become the Cloisters. The museum today is part of the Metropolitan Museum of Art and its architectural and artistic works are largely from the Romanesque and Gothic periods. Its four cloisters, the Cuxa, Bonnefont, Trie and Saint-Guilhem cloisters, were sourced from French monasteries, between 1934 and 1939 they were excavated and reconstructed in Washington Heights, in a large project overseen by the architect Charles Collens. They are surrounded by a series of chapels and rooms grouped by period and source location. The design, layout and ambiance of the building is intended to evoke in visitors a sense of the Medieval European monastic life through its distinctive architecture, the area around the buildings contains reconstructed early medieval gardens. Barnards collection was purchased along with a pieces from Rockefellers holdings and these became the foundation and core of the Cloisters collection. The Cloisters and the adjacent 4 acres gardens are situated in Fort Tryon Park, construction took place over a five-year period beginning in 1934. He also bought several hundred acres of the New Jersey Palisades and this land is now part of the Palisades Interstate Park. Rockefeller was impacted by the depression of the early 1930s. The Cloisters building was designed by Charles Collens, and incorporated elements from the five cloistered abbeys of Catalan, Occitan, in 1988, the Treasury Gallery within the Cloisters, containing objects used for liturgical celebrations, personal devotions, and secular uses, was renovated. Other galleries were refurbished in 1998 and 1999, the Cloisters is a well-known New York City landmark and has been used as a filming location. In 1948, the filmmaker Maya Deren used its ramparts as a backdrop for her experimental film Meditation on Violence, in the same year, German director William Dieterle used the Cloisters as the location for a convent school in his film Portrait of Jennie. The 1968 film Coogans Bluff used the sites pathways and lanes for a motorcycle chase. The museum contains architecture elements and settings relocated mostly from four French medieval abbeys, between 1934 and 1939 they were transported, reconstructed and integrated with new buildings, in a project overseen by the architect Charles Collens. The exterior building is influenced by and contains elements from the 13th century church at Saint-Geraud at Monsempron, France and it was primarily designed by Collins, who took influence from Bernards original Cloisters Museum. The exterior contains stone from a number of European sources, and was built from 1935, primarily from limestone and it includes four Gothic windows from the refectory at Sens, and nine arcades from a priory at Firiory. The bulbous Fuentidueña Chapel was especially difficult to fit into the area, the Cuxa Cloisters are located on the south side of the building and structurally and thematically are the museums centerpiece
40.
Metropolitan Museum of Art
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The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially the Met, is located in New York City and is the largest art museum in the United States, and is among the most visited art museums in the world. Its permanent collection contains two million works, divided among seventeen curatorial departments. The main building, on the edge of Central Park along Manhattans Museum Mile, is by area one of the worlds largest art galleries. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains a collection of art, architecture. On March 18,2016, the museum opened the Met Breuer museum at Madison Avenue in the Upper East Side, it extends the museums modern, the Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, Indian, and Islamic art. The museum is home to collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, as well as antique weapons. Several notable interiors, ranging from first-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries, the Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870. The founders included businessmen and financiers, as well as leading artists and thinkers of the day and it opened on February 20,1872, and was originally located at 681 Fifth Avenue. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, the museum is also home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, and antique weapons and armor from around the world. A number of interiors, ranging from 1st century Rome through modern American design, are permanently installed in the Mets galleries. In addition to its permanent exhibitions, the Met organizes and hosts traveling shows throughout the year. The director of the museum is Thomas P. Campbell, a long-time curator and it was announced on February 28th,2017 that Campbell will be stepping down as the Mets director and CEO, effective June. On March 1st,2017 the BBC reported that Daniel Weiss shall be the acting CEO until a replacement is found, Beginning in the late 19th century, the Met started to acquire ancient art and artifacts from the Near East. From a few tablets and seals, the Mets collection of Near Eastern art has grown to more than 7,000 pieces. The highlights of the include a set of monumental stone lamassu, or guardian figures. The Mets Department of Arms and Armor is one of the museums most popular collections. Among the collections 14,000 objects are many pieces made for and used by kings and princes, including armor belonging to Henry VIII of England, Henry II of France, Rockefeller donated his more than 3, 000-piece collection to the museum. The Mets Asian department holds a collection of Asian art, of more than 35,000 pieces, the collection dates back almost to the founding of the museum, many of the philanthropists who made the earliest gifts to the museum included Asian art in their collections
41.
Medieval art
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The medieval art of the Western world covers a vast scope of time and place, over 1000 years of art in Europe, and at times the Middle East and North Africa. It includes major art movements and periods, national and regional art, genres, revivals, the crafts. Art historians attempt to classify medieval art into major periods and styles, in addition each region, mostly during the period in the process of becoming nations or cultures, had its own distinct artistic style, such as Anglo-Saxon art or Norse art. Medieval art in Europe grew out of the heritage of the Roman Empire. These sources were mixed with the vigorous barbarian artistic culture of Northern Europe to produce an artistic legacy. Indeed, the history of art can be seen as the history of the interplay between the elements of classical, early Christian and barbarian art. The period ended with the self-perceived Renaissance recovery of the skills and values of art. Since a revival of interest and understanding in the 19th century it has seen as a period of enormous achievement that underlies the development of later Western art. Many regions did not regain their population levels until the 17th century. The population of Europe is estimated to have reached a low point of about 18 million in 650, doubling by 1000, in 1450 it was still only 50 million. To these figures, Northern Europe, especially Britain, contributed a lower proportion than today, and Southern Europe, including France, the increase in prosperity, for those who survived, was much less affected by the Black Death. Until about the 11th century most of Europe was short of labour, with large amounts of unused land. The medieval period saw the falling away of the invasions and incursions from outside the area that characterized the first millennium. The impression may be left by the works that almost all medieval art was religious. Most churches have been rebuilt, often times, but medieval palaces and large houses have been lost at a far greater rate. The situation is similar in most of Europe, though the 14th century Palais des Papes in Avignon survives largely intact. Paper became available in the last centuries of the period, but was extremely expensive by todays standards. Art in the Middle Ages is a subject and art historians traditionally divide it in several large-scale phases, styles or periods
42.
Spuyten Duyvil Creek
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Spuyten Duyvil Creek /ˈspaɪtən ˈdaɪvəl/ is a short tidal estuary connecting the Hudson River to the Harlem River Ship Canal and then on to the Harlem River in New York City. The confluence of the three water bodies separate the island of Manhattan from the Bronx and the rest of the mainland, once a distinct, turbulent waterway between the Hudson and Harlem rivers, the creek has been subsumed by the modern ship canal. The earliest use of the name Spuyten Duyvil was in 1653 and it may be literally translated as Spouting Devil or Spuitende Duivel in Dutch, a reference to the strong and wild tidal currents found at that location. It may also be translated as Spewing Devil or Spinning Devil, spui is a Dutch word involving outlets for water. Historian Reginald Pelham Bolton, however, argues that the phrase means sprouting meadow, a folk etymology, to spite the Devil or in spite of the devil, was popularized by a story in Washington Irvings A Knickerbockers History of New York published in 1809. The local Lenape Native Americans referred to the creek by several names, the first was Shorakapok or Shorackhappok, translated as “the sitting down place” or “the place between the ridges”. A second term, spelled various ways including Paparinemo or Papiriniman, was shared with an island formed by the junction of the creek. The word has been translated as place where the stream is shut or to parcel out or divide, a third name, Muscoota, was also used. Spuyten Duyvil Creek runs northeast into the Hudson, when the Dutch settlers arrived they found its tidal waters turbulent and difficult to handle. Though its tides raced there was no navigable watercourse joining it with the headwaters of the Harlem River, steep cliffs along the Spuyten Duyvils mouth at the Hudson prevented any bridge there, but upstream it narrowed into a rocky drainage. Prior to the development of the Bronx, the creek was fed by Tibbetts Brook, the brook currently ends above ground within Van Cortlandt Park, emptying into the Harlem River system at the Wards Island Water Pollution Control Plant via underground sewers. During the 17th Century, the mode of transportation across the Harlem River was by ferry from the east end of 125th Street. The ferry was established in 1667 and operated by Johannes Verveelen, many settlers circumvented the toll for the ferry by crossing the creek from northern Marble Hill to modern Kingsbridge, Bronx, a point where it was feasible to wade or swim through the waters. This area was known as the place, and had previously been used by Native Americans. In response, Verveelen had the creek fenced off at the wading place, in 1669 Verveelen transplanted his ferry to the northern tip of Marble Hill, at todays Broadway and West 231st Street. Originally a merchant in New Amsterdam, Philipse had purchased vast landholdings in what was then Westchester County, granted the title Lord of Philipse Manor, he established a plantation and provisioning depot for his shipping business upriver on the Hudson in present-day Sleepy Hollow. His toll bridge provided access and opened his land to settlement, later, it carried the Boston Post Road. In 1758, the Free Bridge was erected by Jacob Dyckman, stagecoach service was later established across the span
43.
Henry Hudson Bridge
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The Henry Hudson Bridge is a steel arch toll bridge in New York City across the Spuyten Duyvil Creek. It connects Spuyten Duyvil in the Bronx with Inwood in Manhattan to the south, on the Manhattan side, the parkway goes into Inwood Hill Park. Commercial vehicles are not permitted on this bridge, since commercial vehicles are not accepted on the parkway in general, the bridge was designed by David B. Steinman, drawing upon his 1911 Ph. D. thesis in engineering at Columbia University. Named to commemorate the voyage of Henry Hudson on the Half Moon, the bridge has two roadway levels carrying an aggregate of seven traffic lanes and a pedestrian walkway and spans Spuyten Duyvil Creek just east of where the tidal strait meets the Hudson River. The bridge is part of the Henry Hudson Parkway designated as New York State Route 9A, to its west, at five feet above water level, is the Spuyten Duyvil Bridge, which is used by Amtrak trains heading to Albany, New York and other points north. The Spuyten Duyvil Metro-North station is located under the Henry Hudson Bridge on the Bronx side, starting on March 19,2017, drivers are required to pay $6.00 per car or $3.50 per motorcycle for tolls by mail. E‑ZPass users with transponders issued by the New York E‑ZPass pay $2.64 per car or $1.80 per motorcycle, all other E-ZPass users with transponders issued outside of the NY Customer Service Center will be required to pay the same price as toll by mail. Meanwhile, Robert Moses preferred the route along the Hudson River because he was able to receive the land to build the Henry Hudson Parkway at no cost, the construction of the bridge helped open the Riverdale neighborhood to development. The original single-deck structure was built for the Henry Hudson Parkway Authority by the American Bridge Company at a cost of $4,949,000, the upper level of the bridge was designed to be added at a later date and opened to traffic on May 7,1938. The second deck was added an additional cost of approximately $2,000,000, the bridge is owned by the City of New York and operated by the MTA Bridges and Tunnels, an affiliate agency of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority. In January 2010, the MTA announced that it planned to implement a program on the Henry Hudson Bridge to phase out toll booths. In January 20,2011, this pilot project got underway. Drivers without E-ZPass are sent a bill in the mail, the new tolling system was implemented on November 10,2012. New York Times, For Crossing Built Long Ago, No End to the Repairs December 12,2011 Media related to Henry Hudson Bridge at Wikimedia Commons NYC Roads entry Henry Hudson Bridge at Structurae
44.
Seaman-Drake Arch
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The arch, which was built from Inwood marble quarried nearby, is 35 feet tall,20 feet deep, and 40 feet wide, and was once the gateway to the estate. The south side of the structure is used for storage by the repair shop it is behind. The Seaman family, led by Captain John Seaman, emigrated from the United Kingdom, the family eventually acquired 12,000 acres there. In 1851 John Ferris Seaman and his brother Valentine – the sons of Dr, the site was about a half-mile north of the Dyckman homestead, and the property ran down to Spuyten Duyvil Creek. At the top of the hill, the Seamans built a mansion around 1855, apparently intending it as a country home. The mansion originally featured a tower, but this was later converted into a square one. The arch was built from the marble as the house. It originally had iron gates, the pivots for which are still extant. The arch has two niches intended for statues, which are now empty, the mansion house, sometimes referred to as the Seaman Castle, – and the estate as Seamans Folly – was principally occupied by John Ferris Seaman, a merchant, who married Ann Drake. Ferris died in 1872 and Ann in 1878, leaving no children, Ann Drake Seaman willed the estate – my marble house, grounds and outbuildings. Furniture and plate – to her nephew, Lawrence Drake,145 relatives contested the will, by 1895, the house had become the headquarters of the Suburban Riding and Driving Club, of which Lawrence Drake was a member. The estate originally had a marble stable, but additional stables. The club spent more than $10,000 in the conversion from residence to clubhouse, in 1905, the house was sold to Thomas Dwyer, who lived in the mansion and used the quarters in the arch for his business, which he christened the Marble Arch Company. Dwyer was a contractor, and is known for having built the Soldiers and Sailors Monument, Dwyer sold the Seaman-Drake estate in 1938 for the development of a five-building apartment complex. The 400-unit Park Terrace Gardens on Park Terrace East and West between West 215th and 217th Streets stands on the plot where the mansion was once located. The arch was not part of the sale, and by time, in fact as early as 1912. Since the 1960s, the arch has been part of an auto-body shop, a fire in 1970 seriously damaged the structure of the arch, and left it roofless and open to the elements, one can see into the arch from higher buildings on either side. Inside, the walls, which are covered with vines of ivy, block out most of the ambient city noise
45.
Cut (earthmoving)
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In civil engineering, a cut or cutting is where soil or rock material from a hill or mountain is cut out to make way for a canal, road or railway line. In cut and fill construction it keeps the route straight and/or flat, contrary to the general meaning of cutting, a cutting in construction is mechanically excavated or blasted out with explosives. Some cuts are make on one side of a slope, others directly through the middle or top of a hill, generally, a cut is open at the top. A cut is the opposite of an embankment, cuts are typically used to reduce the length and the grade of a route. Cuts can be created by multiple passes of a shovel, grader, scraper or excavator, or by blasting, one unusual means of creating a cut is to remove the roof of a tunnel through daylighting. Material removed from cuts is ideally balanced by material needed for fills along the same route, the word is also used in the same sense in mining, as in an open cut mine. The term cutting appears in the 19th century literature to designate rock cuts developed to moderate grades of railway lines, railway Ages Comprehensive Railroad Dictionary defines a cut as a passage cut for the roadway through an obstacle of rock or dirt. There are at least two types of cut, sidehill cut and through cut, the former permits passage of a transportation route alongside of or around a hill, where the slope is transverse to the roadway. A sidehill cut can be formed by means of sidecasting, i. e. cutting on the high side balanced by moving the material to build up the low side to achieve a flat surface for the route. In contrast, through cuts, where the adjacent grade is higher on both sides of the route, require removal of material from the area since it cannot be dumped alongside the route. S. Route 23 in Kentucky Cut-and-cover Embankment Trench Dashrath Manjhi Flying arch, use of a dummy arch bridge to stabilise cutting walls against landslip
46.
Bronx
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The Bronx is the northernmost of the five boroughs of New York City, within the U. S. state of New York. Since 1914, the Bronx has had the boundaries as Bronx County, a county of New York. The Bronx is divided by the Bronx River into a section in the west, closer to Manhattan. East and west street addresses are divided by Jerome Avenue—the continuation of Manhattans Fifth Avenue, the West Bronx was annexed to New York City in 1874, and the areas east of the Bronx River in 1895. Bronx County was separated from New York County in 1914, about a quarter of the Bronxs area is open space, including Woodlawn Cemetery, Van Cortlandt Park, Pelham Bay Park, the New York Botanical Garden, and the Bronx Zoo in the boroughs north and center. These open spaces are situated primarily on land reserved in the late 19th century as urban development progressed north. The name Bronx originated with Jonas Bronck, who established the first settlement in the area as part of the New Netherland colony in 1639, the native Lenape were displaced after 1643 by settlers. This cultural mix has made the Bronx a wellspring of both Latin music and hip hop. The Bronx, particularly the South Bronx, saw a decline in population, livable housing, and the quality of life in the late 1960s. Since then the communities have shown significant redevelopment starting in the late 1980s before picking up pace from the 1990s until today, the Bronx was called Rananchqua by the native Siwanoy band of Lenape, while other Native Americans knew the Bronx as Keskeskeck. It was divided by the Aquahung River, the origin of Jonas Bronck is contested. Some sources claim he was a Swedish born emigrant from Komstad, Norra Ljunga parish in Småland, Sweden, who arrived in New Netherland during the spring of 1639. Bronck became the first recorded European settler in the now known as the Bronx and built a farm named Emmanus close to what today is the corner of Willis Avenue. He leased land from the Dutch West India Company on the neck of the mainland north of the Dutch settlement in Harlem. He eventually accumulated 500 acres between the Harlem River and the Aquahung, which known as Broncks River or the Bronx. Dutch and English settlers referred to the area as Broncks Land, the American poet William Bronk was a descendant of Pieter Bronck, either Jonas Broncks son or his younger brother. More recent research indicates that Pieter was probably Jonas nephew or cousin, the Bronx is referred to with the definite article as The Bronx, both legally and colloquially. The region was named after the Bronx River and first appeared in the Annexed District of The Bronx created in 1874 out of part of Westchester County
United States
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