1.
Republic of Ireland
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Ireland, also known as the Republic of Ireland, is a sovereign state in north-western Europe occupying about five-sixths of the island of Ireland. The capital and largest city is Dublin, which is located on the part of the island. The state shares its land border with Northern Ireland, a part of the United Kingdom. It is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the Celtic Sea to the south, Saint Georges Channel to the south-east, and it is a unitary, parliamentary republic. The head of government is the Taoiseach, who is elected by the Dáil and appointed by the President, the state was created as the Irish Free State in 1922 as a result of the Anglo-Irish Treaty. It was officially declared a republic in 1949, following the Republic of Ireland Act 1948, Ireland became a member of the United Nations in December 1955. It joined the European Economic Community, the predecessor of the European Union, after joining the EEC, Ireland enacted a series of liberal economic policies that resulted in rapid economic growth. The country achieved considerable prosperity between the years of 1995 and 2007, which known as the Celtic Tiger period. This was halted by a financial crisis that began in 2008. However, as the Irish economy was the fastest growing in the EU in 2015, Ireland is again quickly ascending league tables comparing wealth and prosperity internationally. For example, in 2015, Ireland was ranked as the joint sixth most developed country in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index and it also performs well in several national performance metrics, including freedom of the press, economic freedom and civil liberties. Ireland is a member of the European Union and is a member of the Council of Europe. The 1922 state, comprising 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland, was styled, the Constitution of Ireland, adopted in 1937, provides that the name of the State is Éire, or, in the English language, Ireland. Section 2 of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 states, It is hereby declared that the description of the State shall be the Republic of Ireland. The 1948 Act does not name the state as Republic of Ireland, because to have done so would have put it in conflict with the Constitution. The government of the United Kingdom used the name Eire, and, from 1949, Republic of Ireland, for the state, as well as Ireland, Éire or the Republic of Ireland, the state is also referred to as the Republic, Southern Ireland or the South. In an Irish republican context it is referred to as the Free State or the 26 Counties. From the Act of Union on 1 January 1801, until 6 December 1922, during the Great Famine, from 1845 to 1849, the islands population of over 8 million fell by 30%
2.
Northern Ireland
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Northern Ireland is a constituent unit of the United Kingdom in the north-east of Ireland. It is variously described as a country, province, region, or part of the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland shares a border to the south and west with the Republic of Ireland. In 2011, its population was 1,810,863, constituting about 30% of the total population. Northern Ireland was created in 1921, when Ireland was partitioned between Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland by an act of the British parliament, Northern Ireland has historically been the most industrialised region of Ireland. After declining as a result of the political and social turmoil of the Troubles, its economy has grown significantly since the late 1990s. Unemployment in Northern Ireland peaked at 17. 2% in 1986, dropping to 6. 1% for June–August 2014,58. 2% of those unemployed had been unemployed for over a year. Prominent artists and sports persons from Northern Ireland include Van Morrison, Rory McIlroy, Joey Dunlop, Wayne McCullough, some people from Northern Ireland prefer to identify as Irish while others prefer to identify as British. Cultural links between Northern Ireland, the rest of Ireland, and the rest of the UK are complex, in many sports, the island of Ireland fields a single team, a notable exception being association football. Northern Ireland competes separately at the Commonwealth Games, and people from Northern Ireland may compete for either Great Britain or Ireland at the Olympic Games. The region that is now Northern Ireland was the bedrock of the Irish war of resistance against English programmes of colonialism in the late 16th century, the English-controlled Kingdom of Ireland had been declared by the English king Henry VIII in 1542, but Irish resistance made English control fragmentary. Victories by English forces in war and further Protestant victories in the Williamite War in Ireland toward the close of the 17th century solidified Anglican rule in Ireland. In Northern Ireland, the victories of the Siege of Derry and their intention was to materially disadvantage the Catholic community and, to a lesser extent, the Presbyterian community. In the context of open institutional discrimination, the 18th century saw secret, militant societies develop in communities in the region and act on sectarian tensions in violent attacks. Following this, in an attempt to quell sectarianism and force the removal of discriminatory laws, the new state, formed in 1801, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, was governed from a single government and parliament based in London. Between 1717 and 1775 some 250,000 people from Ulster emigrated to the British North American colonies and it is estimated that there are more than 27 million Scotch-Irish Americans now living in the US. By the close of the century, autonomy for Ireland within the United Kingdom, in 1912, after decades of obstruction from the House of Lords, Home Rule became a near-certainty. A clash between the House of Commons and House of Lords over a controversial budget produced the Parliament Act 1911, which enabled the veto of the Lords to be overturned. The House of Lords veto had been the unionists main guarantee that Home Rule would not be enacted, in 1914, they smuggled thousands of rifles and rounds of ammunition from Imperial Germany for use by the Ulster Volunteers, a paramilitary organisation opposed to the implementation of Home Rule
3.
Great Britain
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Great Britain, also known as Britain, is a large island in the north Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of 209,331 km2, Great Britain is the largest European island, in 2011 the island had a population of about 61 million people, making it the worlds third-most populous island after Java in Indonesia and Honshu in Japan. The island of Ireland is situated to the west of it, the island is dominated by a maritime climate with quite narrow temperature differences between seasons. Politically, the island is part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, most of England, Scotland, and Wales are on the island. The term Great Britain often extends to surrounding islands that form part of England, Scotland, and Wales. A single Kingdom of Great Britain resulted from the union of the Kingdom of England, the archipelago has been referred to by a single name for over 2000 years, the term British Isles derives from terms used by classical geographers to describe this island group. By 50 BC Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a name for the British Isles. However, with the Roman conquest of Britain the Latin term Britannia was used for the island of Great Britain, the oldest mention of terms related to Great Britain was by Aristotle, or possibly by Pseudo-Aristotle, in his text On the Universe, Vol. III. To quote his works, There are two large islands in it, called the British Isles, Albion and Ierne. The name Britain descends from the Latin name for Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The French form replaced the Old English Breoton, Breoten, Bryten, Breten, Britannia was used by the Romans from the 1st century BC for the British Isles taken together. It is derived from the writings of the Pytheas around 320 BC. Marcian of Heraclea, in his Periplus maris exteri, described the group as αἱ Πρεττανικαὶ νῆσοι. The peoples of these islands of Prettanike were called the Πρεττανοί, Priteni is the source of the Welsh language term Prydain, Britain, which has the same source as the Goidelic term Cruithne used to refer to the early Brythonic-speaking inhabitants of Ireland. The latter were later called Picts or Caledonians by the Romans, the Greco-Egyptian scientist Ptolemy referred to the larger island as great Britain and to Ireland as little Britain in his work Almagest. The name Albion appears to have out of use sometime after the Roman conquest of Britain. After the Anglo-Saxon period, Britain was used as a term only. It was used again in 1604, when King James VI and I styled himself King of Great Brittaine, France, Great Britain refers geographically to the island of Great Britain, politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination
4.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
5.
Irish language
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Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the end of British rule, the language was spoken by less than 15% of the national population. Since then, Irish speakers have been in the minority, efforts have been made by the state, individuals and organisations to preserve, promote and revive the language, but with mixed results. Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates of native speakers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000 people. In the 2011 Census, these numbers had increased to 94,000 and 1.3 million, there are several thousand Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Irelands population, there has been a significant increase in the number of urban Irish speakers, particularly in Dublin. In Gaeltacht areas, however, there has been a decline of the use of Irish. Údarás na Gaeltachta predicted that, by 2025, Irish will no longer be the language in any of the designated Gaeltacht areas. Survey data suggest that most Irish people think highly of Irish as a marker of identity. It has also argued that newer urban groups of Irish speakers are a disruptive force in this respect. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil the name of the language is Gaeilge, before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge, originally this was the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include Gaoidhealg in Classical Irish and Goídelc in Old Irish, the modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas Goidelic languages, used to refer to the language family including Irish, comes from Old Irish
6.
Irish people
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The Irish people are a nation and ethnic group native to the island of Ireland, who share a common Irish ancestry, identity and culture. Ireland has been inhabited for about 9,000 years according to archaeological studies, for most of Irelands recorded history, the Irish have been primarily a Gaelic people. Today, Ireland is made up of the Republic of Ireland, the people of Northern Ireland hold various national identities, including Irish, Northern Irish, British, or some combination thereof. The Irish have their own customs, language, music, dance, sports, cuisine, although Irish was their main language in the past, today the huge majority of Irish people speak English as their first language. Historically, the Irish nation was made up of kin groups or clans, there have been many notable Irish people throughout history. After Irelands conversion to Christianity, Irish missionaries and scholars exerted great influence on Western Europe, the 6th-century Irish monk and missionary Columbanus is regarded as one of the fathers of Europe, followed by saints Cillian and Fergal. The scientist Robert Boyle is considered the father of chemistry, famous Irish writers include Oscar Wilde, W. B. Yeats, George Bernard Shaw, Bram Stoker and James Joyce, notable Irish explorers include Brendan the Navigator, Robert McClure, Ernest Shackleton and Tom Crean. By some accounts, the first European child born in North America had Irish descent on both sides, many presidents of the United States have had some Irish ancestry. The population of Ireland is about 6.3 million, but it is estimated that 50 to 80 million people around the world have Irish forebears, historically, emigration from Ireland has been the result of conflict, famine and economic issues. People of Irish descent are mainly in English-speaking countries, especially the United Kingdom. There are also significant numbers in Argentina, Mexico and New Zealand, the United States has the most people of Irish descent, while in Australia those of Irish descent are a higher percentage of the population than in any other country. Many Icelanders have Irish and Scottish Gaelic forebears, in its summary of their article Who were the Celts. The National Museum Wales notes It is possible that genetic studies of ancient. However, early studies have, so far, tended to produce implausible conclusions from very small numbers of people and using outdated assumptions about linguistics, nineteenth century anthropology studied the physical characteristics of Irish people in minute detail. During the past 10,000 years of inhabitation, Ireland has witnessed some different peoples arrive on its shores, the ancient peoples of Ireland—such as the creators of the Céide Fields and Newgrange—are almost unknown. Neither their languages nor terms they used to describe themselves have survived, as late as the middle centuries of the 1st millennium the inhabitants of Ireland did not appear to have a collective name for themselves. Ireland itself was known by a number of different names, including Banba, Fódla, Ériu by the islanders, Iouerne and Hiverne to the Greeks, other Latin names for people from Ireland in Classic and Mediaeval sources include Attacotti and Gael
7.
Itinerant groups in Europe
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There are a number of population groups with a traditionally itinerant lifestyle in Europe, also variously known as travellers, or gypsies. The oldest and most widely dispersed of these groups are the Romani people, ultimately of Indian origin, there are various other traditionally itinerant groups in Europe who took up this lifestyle out of necessity at some point during the Early Modern period. As opposed to nomads who travel with and subsist on herds of livestock, by far the best known of these communities are the Romani people. In German-speaking Europe, France and Wallonia, there are the Jenische or Yeniche, an early description of this group was published by Johann Ulrich Schöll in 1793. In Norway there is a group of people who call themselves Reisende. Confusingly, this term is used by the so-called Tater people. Unlike the Tater people, however, the indigenous Norwegian Travellers are non-Roma by culture and origins, in the Highlands of Scotland there resides an ethnic group indigenous Highland Travellers also known as ceardannan, or poetically as the Summer Walkers. The community is referred to in English as tinkers, this term became a pejorative among the settled community in Scotland as Travellers emerged as a more neutral name. The English term Travelling People has been adopted into contemporary Gaelic as luchd siubhail and they are indigenous to Scottish society and are not a branch of the Romani people. Highland Travellers have their own now nearly extinct creole based on Scottish Gaelic called Beurla Reagaird, as an indigenous group Highland Travellers have played an essential role in the preservation of traditional Gaelic culture. Travellers outstanding contribution to Highland life has been as custodians of an ancient and vital Gaelic singing, storytelling and it is estimated that only 2,000 Scottish Highland Travellers continue to lead their traditional lifestyle on the roads. An ethnic nomadic people of Irish origin, who maintain a separate language and they live predominantly in Ireland, the United Kingdom and the United States. Travellers refer to themselves as Minceir or Pavees in their own language or in Irish as an Lucht Siúil, the term Pikey is a pejorative slang term used mainly in the United Kingdom to refer to Irish Travellers. The language of the Irish Travellers, Shelta, is based on an Irish Gaelic lexicon. There are two dialects of this language, Gammon and Cant and it has been dated back to the eighteenth century but may be older. The vast majority of Irish Travellers are Roman Catholics who maintain their traditions, the quinqui or mercheros of Spain are a minority group, formerly nomadic, who share a lot of the way of life of Spanish Roma. Most likely they are a mixture of all of the above, in spite of sharing persecution and mores with the Roma, the quinqui have often set themselves apart from them. Finally, there are the Occupational Travellers - Travelling Showpeople/Show Travellers, Circus and these groups formed around particular crafts and professions that required frequent mobility
8.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
9.
Romani people
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The Romani are widely known among English-speaking people by the exonym Gypsies, which some people consider pejorative due to its connotations of illegality and irregularity. Romani are dispersed, with their populations in Europe – especially Central, Eastern and Southern Europe including Turkey, Spain. Since the 19th century, some Romani have also migrated to the Americas, there are an estimated one million Roma in the United States, and 800,000 in Brazil, most of whose ancestors emigrated in the nineteenth century from eastern Europe. Brazil also includes some Romani descended from people deported by the government of Portugal during the Inquisition in the colonial era, in migrations since the late nineteenth century, Romani have also moved to other countries in South America and to Canada. In February 2016, during the International Roma Conference, the Indian Minister of External Affairs stated that the people of the Roma community were children of India. The conference ended with a recommendation to the Government of India to recognize the Roma community spread across 30 countries as a part of the Indian diaspora, the Romani language is divided into several dialects, which add up to an estimated number of speakers larger than two million. The total number of Romani people is at least twice as large, many Romani are native speakers of the language current in their country of residence, or of mixed languages combining the two, those varieties are sometimes called Para-Romani. French bohème, bohémien, from the Kingdom of Bohemia, whence they came, Rom means man or husband in the Romani, it has the variants dom and lom, related with the Sanskrit words dam-pati, dama, lom, lomaka loman, roman. Another possible origin is from Sanskrit डोम doma, Sanskrit सिनधु is a river or stream of water in general. In particular, it denotes the river Indus and the country around it, in the Romani language, Rom is a masculine noun, meaning man of the Roma ethnic group or man, husband, with the plural Roma. The feminine of Rom in the Romani language is Romni, however, in most cases, in other languages Rom is now used for people of all genders. Romani is the adjective, while Romano is the masculine adjective. Some Romanies use Rom or Roma as a name, while others do not use this term as a self-ascription for the entire ethnic group. Sometimes, rom and romani are spelled with a r, i. e. rrom. In this case rr is used to represent the phoneme /ʀ/, the rr spelling is common in certain institutions, or used in certain countries, e. g. Romania, to distinguish from the endonym/homonym for Romanians. In the English language, Rom is a noun and an adjective, while Romani is also a noun, both Rom and Romani have been in use in English since the 19th century as an alternative for Gypsy. Romani was initially spelled Rommany, then Romany, while today the Romani spelling is the most popular spelling, occasionally, the double r spelling mentioned above is also encountered in English texts. The term Roma is increasingly encountered during recent decades, as a term for the Romani people
10.
Idiom
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An idiom is a phrase or a fixed expression that has a figurative, or sometimes literal, meaning. Categorized as formulaic language, a figurative meaning is different from the literal meaning. There are thousands of idioms, occurring frequently in all languages and it is estimated that there are at least twenty-five thousand idiomatic expressions in the English language. Many idiomatic expressions, in their use, were not figurative but had literal meaning. If the jars were spilled before the counting of votes was complete, anyone would be able to see which jar had more beans, over time, the practice was discontinued and the idiom became figurative. Break a leg, used as a way of wishing good luck in a performance or presentation. By wishing someone bad luck, it is supposed that the opposite will occur, in linguistics, idioms are usually presumed to be figures of speech contradicting the principle of compositionality. That compositionality is the key notion for the analysis of idioms is emphasized in most accounts of idioms and this principle states that the meaning of a whole should be constructed from the meanings of the parts that make up the whole. In other words, one should be in a position to understand the whole if one understands the meanings of each of the parts that make up the whole, the following example is widely employed to illustrate the point, Fred kicked the bucket. Understood compositionally, Fred has literally kicked an actual, physical bucket, the much more likely idiomatic reading, however, is non-compositional, Fred is understood to have died. Arriving at the reading from the literal reading is unlikely for most speakers. What this means is that the reading is, rather. In phraseology, idioms are defined as a sub-type of phraseme, john Saeed defines an idiom as collocated words that became affixed to each other until metamorphosing into a fossilised term. This collocation of words redefines each component word in the word-group, idioms usually do not translate well, in some cases, when an idiom is translated directly word-for-word into another language, either its meaning is changed or it is meaningless. When two or three words are used together in a particular sequence, the words are said to be irreversible binomials. Usage will prevent the words from being displaced or rearranged, for example, a person may be left high and dry but never dry and high. This idiom in turn means that the person is left in their condition rather than being assisted so that their condition improves. Not all Siamese twins are idioms, however, chips and dip is an irreversible binomial, but it refers to literal food items, not idiomatic ones
11.
Romani language
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Romani is any of several languages of the Romani people belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family. According to Ethnologue, seven varieties of Romani are divergent enough to be considered languages of their own, the largest of these are Vlax Romani, Balkan Romani, and Sinte Romani. The differences between various varieties can be as big as, for example, differences between various Slavic languages, speakers of the Romani language usually refer to the language as řomani čhib the Romani language or řomanes in a Rom way. This derives from the Romani word řom, meaning either a member of the group or husband and this is also where the term Roma derives in English, although some Roma groups refer to themselves using other demonyms. The English spelling Rromani language may also be found, reflecting a different transcription of the Romani phoneme ř, before the late nineteenth century, English-language texts usually referred to the language as the Gypsy language. In the USA, gypsy is still the term, as Romani is not in common use there. In the 18th century, it was shown by studies that Romani belongs to the Indo-European language family. Romani is an Indo-Aryan language that is part of the Balkan sprachbund and it is the only New Indo-Aryan spoken exclusively outside of the Indian subcontinent. Romani is sometimes classified in the Central Zone or Northwestern Zone Indo-Aryan languages, Romani shares a number of features with the Central Zone languages. The most significant isoglosses are the shift of Old Indo-Aryan r̥ to u or i, however, unlike other Central Zone languages, Romani preserves many dental clusters. This implies that Romani split from the Central Zone languages before the Middle Indo-Aryan period, however, Romani shows some features of New Indo-Aryan, such as erosion of the original nominal case system towards a nominative/oblique dichotomy, with new grammaticalized case suffixes added on. This means that the Romani exodus from India could not have happened until late in the first millennium CE, many words are similar to the Marwari and Lambadi languages spoken in large parts of India. However, Romani is nearer to the Marwari spoken in Rajasthan, Romani also shows some similarity to the Northwestern Zone languages. In particular, the grammaticalization of enclitic pronouns as person markers on verbs is also found in such as Kashmiri. This evidences a northwest migration during the split from the Central Zone languages consistent with a migration to Europe. Based on these data, Matras views Romani as kind of Indian hybrid, to r and ř, and shift of inflectional -a to -o. After exiting the Indian subcontinent, Romani was heavily affected by contact with European languages, the most significant of these was Medieval Greek, which contributed lexically, phonemically, and grammatically to Early Romani. This includes inflectional affixes for nouns, and verbs that are productive with borrowed vocabulary, the shift to VO word order
12.
Kuno Meyer
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Kuno Meyer was a German scholar, distinguished in the field of Celtic philology and literature. His pro-German stance at the start of World War I in the United States was a source of controversy, born in Hamburg, he studied there at the Gelehrtenschule of the Johanneum. He spent two years in Edinburgh, Scotland, as a teenager learning English, from 1879, he attended the University of Leipzig, where he was taught Celtic scholarship by Ernst Windisch. He received his doctorate for his thesis Eine irische Version der Alexandersage and he then took up the post of lecturer in Teutonic languages at the new University College, Liverpool, the precursor of the University of Liverpool, which was established three years earlier. He continued to publish on Old Irish and more general topics on the Celtic languages, in 1896, he founded and edited jointly with Ludwig Christian Stern, the prestigious Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie. He also cofounded Archiv für celtische Lexicographie in 1898 with Whitley Stokes, in 1903, Meyer founded the School of Irish Learning in Dublin, and the next year created its journal Ériu of which he was the editor. Also in 1904, he became Todd Professor in the Celtic Languages at the Royal Irish Academy. At the outbreak of the First World War, Meyer left Europe for the United States of America, where he lectured at Columbia University, University of Illinois at Urbana and he also resigned as Director of the School of Irish Learning and editor of Ériu. Harvard University also had extended an invitation to Meyer to lecture on campus, Meyer nevertheless accepted candidacy for the post of exchange professor at Harvard, at the recommendation of German professors there. Meyer also declined his candidacy from the professorship in the letter. In a reply, President Abbott Lawrence Lowell said, in explaining Harvards policy and he was injured in a railway collision in 1915 and met 27-year-old Florence Lewis while he was recovering in a California hospital. Florence went to Germany in 1916, Meyer in 1917, in 1919 Florence and her daughter went to Switzerland. Posthumously, in 1920, Meyers name was restored, both by Dublin and Cork, in their Rolls of Honorary Freemen. The restoration happened on 19 April 1920 in Dublin, where Sinn Féin had won control of the City Council three months before, rescinding the decision taken in 1915 by the Irish Parliamentary Party. In 1965, the Gaelic League and the Irish Press petitioned the restoration as they were unaware that it had already occurred. Meyer was regranted the Freedom of the City of Cork, as follows, Re-elected 14th May,1920, hyde credited him with advancing the goals of the Gaelic League when the question arose whether to allow the teaching of the Irish language in the Intermediate Education of Ireland. W. T. Cosgrave, later president of the Irish Free State,1885, The Irish Odyssey 1892, The Vision of MacConglinne, with A. by Osborn Bergin and Carl Marstrander. Bibliography Works by Kuno Meyer at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Kuno Meyer at Internet Archive Bibliography by Štěpán Kosík
13.
John Sampson (linguist)
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John Sampson was an Irish linguist. As a scholar he is best known for The Dialect of the Gypsies of Wales and it was written with the collaboration of Edward Wood, who died in 1902. He was born in Schull, County Cork, Ireland, and had to school at the age of 14 after his father died. Sampson became librarian at University College, Liverpool in 1892, largely self-taught, in 1901 he met the artist Augustus John, and they struck up a long friendship, leading to an emphasis in John’s works on Romany subjects. Sampsons grandson, the writer Anthony Sampson, published a biography of him in 1997 entitled The Scholar Gypsy, Works by John Sampson at Project Gutenberg Works by or about John Sampson at Internet Archive
14.
Great Famine (Ireland)
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The Great Famine or the Great Hunger was a period of mass starvation, disease, and emigration in Ireland between 1845 and 1852. It is sometimes referred to, mostly outside Ireland, as the Irish Potato Famine, during the famine, approximately one million people died and a million more emigrated from Ireland, causing the islands population to fall by between 20% and 25%. The proximate cause of famine was potato blight, which ravaged potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s, the famine was a watershed in the history of Ireland, which was then part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The famine and its effects permanently changed the demographic, political. For both the native Irish and those in the diaspora, the famine entered folk memory. Ireland sent 105 members of parliament to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, between 1832 and 1859, 70% of Irish representatives were landowners or the sons of landowners. The laws had largely been reformed by 1793, and the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 allowed Irish Catholics to again sit in parliament, during the 18th century, the middleman system for managing landed property was introduced. Rent collection was left in the hands of the landlords agents and this assured the landlord of a regular income, and relieved them of direct responsibility, while leaving tenants open to exploitation by the middlemen. Catholics, the bulk of whom lived in conditions of poverty and insecurity despite Catholic emancipation in 1829, made up 80% of the population. At the top of the pyramid was the ascendancy class, the English and Anglo-Irish families who owned most of the land. Some of their estates were vast, for example, the Earl of Lucan owned over 60,000 acres, many of these landlords lived in England and were known as absentee landlords. The rent revenue—collected from impoverished tenants who were paid wages to raise crops. In 1843, the British Government considered that the question in Ireland was the root cause of disaffection in the country. They established a Royal Commission, chaired by the Earl of Devon, Daniel OConnell described this commission as perfectly one-sided, being composed of landlords, with no tenant representation. In February 1845, Devon reported, It would be impossible adequately to describe the privations which they habitually and silently endure, in many districts their only food is the potato, their only beverage water. Their cabins are seldom a protection against the weather, a bed or a blanket is a rare luxury. And nearly in all their pig and a manure heap constitute their only property, the Commission stated that bad relations between landlord and tenant were principally responsible. There was no loyalty, feudal tie, or mitigating tradition of paternalism as existed in England
15.
North Augusta, South Carolina
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North Augusta is a city in Aiken and Edgefield counties in the U. S. state of South Carolina, on the north bank of the Savannah River. The population was 21,348 at the 2010 census, the city is included in the Central Savannah River Area and is part of the Augusta, Georgia metropolitan area. North Augusta is located on the Fall Line along the Savannah River, across from Augusta, three earlier towns have stood in the same general area. The English established a trading post known as Savannah Town over 300 years ago and this town was abandoned when Augusta proved to be more prosperous and attractive to traders. Campbelltown was established by John Hammond as a point for tobacco. With the explosion of the economy, this area became an important market for the increasingly valuable produce of planters throughout upper Georgia. In 1821 the town of Hamburg was established by the mechanical genius, in 1833 the South Carolina Rail Road was established, further connecting the cotton collected at Hamburg to the seaport of Charleston. The 1848 construction of the Augusta Canal channeled produce from upriver away from Hamburg, Henry Shultz died in poverty and reportedly is buried upright on the bluff overlooking Hamburg with his back to Augusta. Avoiding the commercial pretensions of its predecessors, North Augusta was founded as a residential, much of its development can be traced back to the establishment of the Hampton Terrace Hotel, built in 1902 by James U. Jackson on a hill overlooking the city of Augusta. At the time, the hotel was one of the largest and most luxurious in the nation, an interurban trolley line was constructed through the town with a terminus at the Hampton Terrace, dubbed the Augusta–Aiken Railway and Electric Corporation and later extended to Aiken. Trolley service ended around the time of the Great Depression, North Augusta was originally selected as the site for Hollywood, and many speculate that it was only because of the hotel burning down that it was moved to California. By the time the hotel burned down on New Years Eve 1916, North Augusta was thriving, North Augusta is home to many historic homes, including Rosemary Hall and Lookaway Hall. On April 21–23,2006, North Augusta celebrated its 100th anniversary, the Georgia Avenue-Butler Avenue Historic District, Charles Hammond House, Lookaway Hall, Britton Mims Place, Rosemary Hall and B. C. Wall House are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, North Augusta is also notable for nearby Murphy Village, a community of about 2,500 Irish Travelers that was featured on a 2012 episode of the TLC show, My Big Fat American Gypsy Wedding. The Riverview Park Activities Center is located in North Augusta along the Savannah River, Riverview Park is the host site for Nikes annual premier summer events, the Nike Peach Jam and the Nike Nationals. The nations top high school basketball prospects and college coaches gather in North Augusta each year for the tournaments, notable athletes that have played in the Peach Jam include Yao Ming, Metta World Peace, Dirth Nowitzki, J. J. Redick, Kevin Durant, Derrick Rose, John Wall, Andrew Wiggins, notable Nike Nationals alumni include Maya Moore, Britney Griner, and others. North Augusta is located in western Aiken County at 33°30′47″N 81°57′46″W, a small part of the city extends north into Edgefield County
16.
Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland
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The Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland is a professional association and educational institution that is responsible for the medical speciality of surgery throughout the island of Ireland. RCSIs main campus is situated on St. Stephens Green in Dublin, since medieval times, the practice of surgery was licensed by the Barber-Surgeons Guild, also known at the time as the Guild of St. Mary Magdalene. The guild chapel was in Christ Church Cathedral, Guild membership at that time was obtained by a 3-year apprenticeship followed by 2 years as a master. In fact the College of Surgeons maintained a mandatory period of apprenticeship to a surgeon until 1828. In 1446, the Barber-Surgeons guild was incorporated by decree of Henry VI. The Dublin Society of Surgeons was founded in 1780 at the Elephant public house on Essex street, trinity did not teach surgery as a subject until 1851, so Ireland was entirely without a school focused on surgery. The awaited charter was granted by King George III on 11 February 1784, the governing body, including the first President Samuel Croker-King and William Dease, first professor of surgery, met in the boardroom of the Rotunda Hospital for the first time on 2 March. Most importantly, admission or employment was not discriminated against on sectarian grounds, two of its chief founders, Sylvester OHalloran and William Dease as well as eleven out of its first 57 presidents were Catholics. The college also recognised the medical qualifications given by the Catholic university from 1856, the first candidate for examination was John Birch, in August 1784. The current location, at the corner of York Street, was acquired in September 1805 and it was previously an abandoned Quaker burial ground. The Duke of Bedford laid the first stone of the new building on St. Patricks Day,1806, a supplemental charter was granted by Queen Victoria in 1844, dividing medical graduates into Licentiates and Fellows. Initially, physicians were trained alongside surgeons, in 1886 these two disciplines were merged, and the medical school began operation. During the 1916 Rising, the college building on St Stephens Green was occupied by Irish Citizen Army forces, led by Commandant Michael Malin. After surrendering, both were tried and sentenced to death, mallin was executed while Markieviczs sentence was commuted due to her gender. Now defunct subjects taught include, Logic, Military Surgery, Botany, the RCSI motto, Consilio Manuque, was adopted from the College de St. Cosme in Paris, which had been afforded the motto by Louis XIV. It was originally Consiloque Manuque, his personal motto, RCSI is the first medical institution of learning to offer a 4-year graduate entry programme for medicine in Ireland. Since the 1980s Beaumont Hospital, Dublin has been the centre for medical training. Other affiliated hospitals include teaching hospitals such as Connolly Hospital, Royal Victoria Eye and Ear Hospital, RCSI values innovation, excellence, independence, academic freedom, diversity, tolerance and community
17.
University of Edinburgh
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The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582, is the sixth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands ancient universities. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city of Edinburgh, the University of Edinburgh was ranked 17th and 21st in the world by the 2014–15 and 2015-16 QS rankings. It is now ranked 19th in the according to 2016-17 QS Rankings. It is ranked 16th in the world in arts and humanities by the 2015–16 Times Higher Education Ranking and it is ranked the 23rd most employable university in the world by the 2015 Global Employability University Ranking. It is ranked as the 6th best university in Europe by the U. S. News Best Global Universities Ranking and it is a member of both the Russell Group, and the League of European Research Universities, a consortium of 21 research universities in Europe. It has the third largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, after the universities of Cambridge and it continues to have links to the British Royal Family, having had the Duke of Edinburgh as its Chancellor from 1953 to 2010 and Princess Anne since 2011. Edinburgh receives approximately 50,000 applications every year, making it the fourth most popular university in the UK by volume of applicants, after St Andrews, it is the most difficult university to gain admission into in Scotland, and 9th overall in the UK. This was a move at the time, as most universities were established through Papal bulls. Established as the Tounis College, it opened its doors to students in October 1583, instruction began under the charge of another St Andrews graduate Robert Rollock. It was the fourth Scottish university in a period when the more populous. It was renamed King Jamess College in 1617, by the 18th century, the university was a leading centre of the Scottish Enlightenment. The universitys first custom-built building was the Old College, now Edinburgh Law School and its first forte in teaching was anatomy and the developing science of surgery, from which it expanded into many other subjects. From the basement of a nearby house ran the anatomy tunnel corridor and it went under what was then North College Street, and under the university buildings until it reached the universitys anatomy lecture theatre, delivering bodies for dissection. It was from this tunnel the body of William Burke was taken after he had been hanged, towards the end of the 19th century, Old College was becoming overcrowded and Robert Rowand Anderson was commissioned to design new Medical School premises in 1875. The medical school was more or less built to his design and was completed by the addition of the McEwan Hall in the 1880s. The building now known as New College was originally built as a Free Church college in the 1840s and has been the home of divinity at the university since the 1920s. The two oldest schools – law and divinity – are both well-esteemed, with law being based in Old College and divinity in New College on the Mound and they are also represented by the Edinburgh University Sports Union which was founded in 1866. The medical school is renowned throughout the world and it was widely considered the best medical school in the English-speaking world throughout the 18th century and first half of the 19th century
18.
Icelanders
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Icelanders are a Germanic ethnic group and nation, native to Iceland. On 17 June 1944, when the Icelandic republic was founded, the language spoken is Icelandic, a North Germanic language, and Lutheranism is the predominant religion. Historical and DNA records indicate that around 60 to 80 percent of the settlers were of Norse origin, Icelanders have had a tumultuous history. Development of the island was due to a lack of interest from the countries controlling it for most of its history, Norway, Denmark–Norway. Through this time, Iceland had relatively little contact with the outside world, the island became independent in union with Denmark in 1918. Since 1944, Iceland has been a republic, and Icelandic society has undergone a modernisation process in the post-independence era. Iceland is a young land mass, having formed an estimated 20 million years ago due to volcanic eruptions on the Mid-Atlantic ridge. The first Viking to sight Iceland was Gardar Svavarsson, who went off due to harsh conditions when sailing from Norway to the Faroe Islands. His reports led to the first efforts to settle the island, flóki Vilgerðarson was the first Norseman to sail to Iceland intentionally. His story is documented in the Landnámabók manuscript, and he is said to have named the island Ísland, the first permanent settler in Iceland is usually considered to have been a Norwegian chieftain named Ingólfur Arnarson. He settled with his family in around 874, at a place he named Bay of Smokes and they traveled 1,000 km in their Viking longships to the island of Iceland. These people were primarily of Norwegian, Irish or Gaelic Scottish origin, about 20-25% of the Icelandic paternal gene pool is of Gaelic origin, with the rest being Nordic. In 930, on the plain near Reykjavík, the chieftains and their families met and established the Alþingi. However, the Alþingi lacked the power to enforce the laws it made, in 1262, struggles between rival chieftains left Iceland so divided that King Haakon IV of Norway was asked to step in as a final arbitrator for all disputes, as part of the Old Covenant. This is known as the Age of the Sturlungs, Iceland was under Norwegian leadership until 1380, when the Royal House of Norway died out. At this point, both Iceland and Norway came under the control of the Danish Crown, with the introduction of absolute monarchy in Denmark, the Icelanders relinquished their autonomy to the crown, including the right to initiate and consent to legislation. In particular, the lack of help in defense led to constant raids by marauding pirates along the Icelandic coasts, unlike Norway, Denmark did not need Icelands fish and homespun wool. This created a deficit in Icelands trade, and no new ships were built as a result
19.
Norwegians
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Norwegians are a Germanic ethnic group native to Norway. They share a culture and speak the Norwegian language. Towards the end of the 3rd millennium BC, Proto-Indo-European speaking Battle-Axe peoples migrated to Norway bringing domesticated horses, agriculture, cattle, during the Viking age, Harald Fairhair unified the Norse petty kingdoms after being victorious at the Battle of Hafrsfjord in the 880s. Two centuries of Viking expansion tapered off following the decline of Norse paganism with the adoption of Christianity in the 11th century, during The Black Death, approximately 60% of the population died and in 1397 Norway entered a union with Denmark. In 1814, following Denmark-Norways defeat in the Napoleonic Wars, Norway entered a union with Sweden, rising nationalism throughout the 19th century led to a 1905 referendum granting Norway independence. Although Norway remained officially neutral in World War I, the country was allied with the Entente powers. In World War II Norway proclaimed its neutrality, but was occupied for five years by Nazi Germany. In 1949, neutrality was abandoned and Norway became a member of NATO, discovery of oil and gas in adjacent waters in the late 1960s boosted Norways economic fortunes but in referenda held in 1972 and 1994, Norway rejected joining the EU. Key domestic issues include integration of a fast growing immigrant population, maintaining the countrys generous social safety net with an aging population, as with many of the people from European countries, Norwegians are spread throughout the world. There are more than 100,000 Norwegian citizens living abroad permanently, mostly in the U. S, Norwegian Vikings travelled north and west and founded vibrant communities in the Faroe Islands, Shetland, Orkney, Iceland, Ireland, Scotland, and northern England. They conducted extensive raids in Ireland and founded the cities of Cork, Dublin, in 947, a new wave of Norwegian Vikings appeared in England when Erik Bloodaxe captured York. Apart from Britain and Ireland, Norwegian Vikings established settlements in largely uninhabited regions, the first known permanent Norwegian settler in Iceland was Ingólfur Arnarson. In the year 874 he settled in Reykjavík, after his expulsion from Iceland Erik the Red discovered Greenland, a name he chose in hope of attracting Icelandic settlers. Viking settlements were established in the fjords of the southern and western coast. Eriks relative Leif Eriksson later discovered North America, during the 17th and 18th centuries, many Norwegians emigrated to the Netherlands, particularly Amsterdam. The Netherlands was the second most popular destination for Norwegian emigrants after Denmark, loosely estimated, some 10% of the population may have emigrated, in a period when the entire Norwegian population consisted of some 800,000 people. The Norwegians left with the Dutch trade ships that when in Norway traded for timber, hides, herring, young women took employment as maids in Amsterdam. Young men took employment as sailors, large parts of the Dutch merchant fleet and navy came to consist of Norwegians and Danes
20.
Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
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Cromwell invaded Ireland with his New Model Army on behalf of Englands Rump Parliament in August 1649. Following the Irish Rebellion of 1641, most of Ireland came under the control of the Irish Catholic Confederation, in early 1649, the Confederates allied with the English Royalists, who had been defeated by the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War. By May 1652, Cromwells Parliamentarian army had defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland, however, guerrilla warfare continued for a further year. Cromwell passed a series of Penal Laws against Roman Catholics and confiscated large amounts of their land, the Parliamentarian reconquest of Ireland was brutal, and Cromwell is still a hated figure in Ireland. The extent to which Cromwell, who was in command for the first year of the campaign, was responsible for the atrocities is debated to this day. Some historians argue that the actions of Cromwell were within the rules of war, or were exaggerated or distorted by later propagandists. The impact of the war on the Irish population was unquestionably severe, the war resulted in famine, which was worsened by an outbreak of bubonic plague. Estimates of the drop in the Irish population resulting from the Parliamentarian campaign range from 15 to 83 percent, the Parliamentarians also transported about 50,000 people as indentured labourers. The English Rump Parliament, victorious in the English Civil War, an alliance was signed in 1649 between the Irish Confederate Catholics, Charles II and the English Royalists. This allowed for Royalist troops to be sent to Ireland and put the Irish Confederate Catholic troops under the command of Royalist officers led by James Butler and their aim was to invade England and restore the monarchy there. This was a threat which the new English Commonwealth could not afford to ignore, even if the Confederates had not allied themselves with the Royalists, it is likely that the English Parliament would have eventually tried to reconquer Ireland. They had sent Parliamentary forces to Ireland throughout the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and they viewed Ireland as part of the territory governed by right by the Kingdom of England and only temporarily out of its control since the Irish Rebellion of 1641. In addition many Parliamentarians wished to punish the Irish for atrocities against English Protestant settlers during the 1641 Uprising, some Irish towns had acted as bases from which privateers had attacked English shipping during the 1640s. Parliament had raised loans of £10 million under the Adventurers Act to subdue Ireland since 1642, to repay these creditors, it would be necessary to conquer Ireland and confiscate such land. Army mutinies at Banbury and Bishopsgate in April and May 1649 were unsettling, Cromwell and many of his army were Puritans who considered all Roman Catholics to be heretics, and so for them the conquest was partly a crusade. The Irish Confederates had been supplied with arms and money by the Papacy and had welcomed the papal legate Pierfrancesco Scarampi and later the Papal Nuncio Giovanni Battista Rinuccini in 1643–49. By the end of the period, known as Confederate Ireland, in 1649 the only remaining Parliamentarian outpost in Ireland was in Dublin, under the command of Colonel Michael Jones. A combined Royalist and Confederate force under the Marquess of Ormonde gathered at Rathmines, south of Dublin, to take the city, Jones, however, launched a surprise attack on the Royalists while they were deploying on 2 August, putting them to flight
21.
Allele
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An allele is the variant form of a given gene. Sometimes, different alleles can result in different observable phenotypic traits, however, most genetic variations result in little or no observable variation. The word allele is a form of allelomorph, which was used in the early days of genetics to describe variant forms of a gene detected as different phenotypes. It derives from the Greek prefix ἀλλήλ, allel, meaning reciprocal or each other, most multicellular organisms have two sets of chromosomes, that is, they are diploid. These chromosomes are referred to as homologous chromosomes, if both alleles at a gene on the homologous chromosomes are the same, they and the organism are homozygous with respect to that gene. If the alleles are different, they and the organism are heterozygous with respect to that gene, where the heterozygote is indistinguishable from one of the homozygotes, the allele involved is said to be dominant to the other, which is said to be recessive to the former. The degree and pattern of dominance varies among loci and this type of interaction was first formally described by Gregor Mendel. However, many traits defy this simple categorization and the phenotypes are modeled by co-dominance, the term wild type allele is sometimes used to describe an allele that is thought to contribute to the typical phenotypic character as seen in wild populations of organisms, such as fruit flies. Such a wild type allele was historically regarded as dominant, common, and normal, in contrast to mutant alleles regarded as recessive, rare, a population or species of organisms typically includes multiple alleles at each locus among various individuals. Allelic variation at a locus is measurable as the number of alleles present, a null allele is a gene variant that lacks the genes normal function because it either is not expressed, or the expressed protein is inactive. For example, at the locus for the ABO blood type carbohydrate antigens in humans. The frequency of alleles in a population can be used to predict the frequencies of the corresponding genotypes. Then, p2 is the fraction of the population homozygous for the first allele, 2pq is the fraction of heterozygotes, and q2 is the fraction homozygous for the alternative allele. If the first allele is dominant to the then the fraction of the population that will show the dominant phenotype is p2 + 2pq. With three alleles, p + q + r =1 and p 2 + q 2 + r 2 +2 p q +2 p r +2 q r =1. In the case of multiple alleles at a locus, the number of possible genotypes with a number of alleles is given by the expression. A number of disorders are caused when an individual inherits two recessive alleles for a single-gene trait. Recessive genetic disorders include albinism, cystic fibrosis, galactosemia, phenylketonuria, other disorders are also due to recessive alleles, but because the gene locus is located on the X chromosome, so that males have only one copy, they are more frequent in males than in females
22.
Founder effect
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In population genetics, the founder effect is the loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population. It was first fully outlined by Ernst Mayr in 1942, using existing work by those such as Sewall Wright. As a result of the loss of genetic variation, the new population may be distinctively different, in extreme cases, the founder effect is thought to lead to the speciation and subsequent evolution of new species. In the figure shown, the population has nearly equal numbers of blue. The three smaller founder populations show that one or the color may predominate, due to random sampling of the original population. A population bottleneck may also cause an effect, though it is not strictly a new population. The founder effect occurs when a group of migrants that is not genetically representative of the population from which they came establish in a new area. In addition to effects, the new population is often a very small population, so shows increased sensitivity to genetic drift, an increase in inbreeding. This can be observed in the gene pools of Icelanders, Parsis, Ashkenazi Jews, Faroe Islanders, Easter Islanders. Another example is the remarkably high deaf population of Marthas Vineyard, in genetics, a founder mutation is a mutation that appears in the DNA of one or more individuals which are founders of a distinct population. Founder mutations initiate with changes that occur in the DNA and can be passed down to other generations, the mutation may occur in any organism that becomes a founder of the line of descendants containing that mutation, which could be a virus, a goat, or a human. Founder mutations originate in long stretches of DNA on a chromosome, indeed. As the generations progress, the proportion of the haplotype that is common to all carriers of the mutation is shortened and this shortening allows scientists to roughly estimate the age of the mutation. The founder effect is a case of genetic drift, occurring when a small group in a population splinters off from the original population. This consequence of inbreeding makes the colony more vulnerable to extinction, when a newly formed colony is small, its founders can strongly affect the populations genetic makeup far into the future. Alleles which were present but relatively rare in the population can move to one of two extremes. The new colony can experience an increase in the frequency of alleles, as well, and as a result. The variation in frequency between the original population and colony may also trigger the two groups to diverge significantly over the course of many generations
23.
Carny
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The term showie is used synonymously in Australia. Carny is thought to have become popularized around 1931 in North America, the word carnival, originally meaning a time of merrymaking before Lent, came into use circa 1549. The carny vocabulary is traditionally part of carnival cant, a secret language and it is an ever-changing form of communication, in large part designed to be impossible to understand by an outsider. As words are assimilated into the culture at large, they lose their function and are replaced by more obscure or insular terms, most carnies no longer use cant, but some owners/operators and old-timers still use some of the classic terms. In addition to carny jargon, some workers used a special infix to render regular language unintelligible to outsiders. This style eventually migrated into wrestling, hip hop, and other parts of modern culture, the British form of fairground cant is called Parlyaree. Film Carnies is a 2007 movie directed by Brian Corder and starring Chris Staviski, Doug Jones, Reggie Bannister, in the 1988 movie Two Moon Junction, Richard Tyson plays a carny who falls in love with a rich, southern socialite. Carny is a 1980 movie directed by Robert Kaylor and starring Gary Busey, Jodie Foster, Robbie Robertson and it has become a cult favorite. In the 1997 movie Austin Powers, Austin claims he only fears two things, nuclear war and carnies. In the 2013 movie Were the Millers, Emma Roberts character Casey meets a carny named Scotty P, played by Mark L. Young, however he doesnt know the meaning of the word and when asked if he is a carny he responds I drive a motorcycle. Television In the The Simpsons episode Bart Carny, Bart Simpson, after failing to bribe Police Chief Chief Wiggum, the ring toss game that they are fraudulently running is shut down. Throughout the episode carny jargon is used, one of the carnies is voiced by Jim Varney. The fourth season of Heroes features several characters live and work in a traveling carnival. The HBO series Carnivàle centered around a carnival in the American Southwest during the 1930s. Patrick Jane, the character of the CBS crime drama The Mentalist, was raised as a carny. In The Fairly OddParents episode The Grass is Greener, Timmy Turner feels unwanted at home, where he is met by several carnies and quickly outperforms them. Singer-songwriter Formica Iglesia, on vocals, fronts the band, the Carny is a song from Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds on the album Your Funeral. The Joni Mitchell song That Song About The Midway depicted the singer falling in love with a carny, carney is a 1972 album by Leon Russell
24.
Social integration
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Social integration is a dynamic and structured process in which all members participate in dialogue to achieve and maintain peaceful social relations. Social integration does not mean forced assimilation, in many instances education is used as a mechanism for social promotion. Neither education nor work can be ensured without a form of law, mass media content also performs a social integration function in mass societies. The term social integration first came into use in the work of French sociologist Émile Durkheim and he wanted to understand why rates of suicide were higher in some social classes than others. Durkheim believed that society exerted a force on individuals. He concluded that a peoples beliefs, values, and norms make up a collective consciousness, a way of understanding each other. A2012 research review found that students were less socially integrated than middle-class students at university. Recent research also shows that immigrants should be independent and proactive in order to better social integration in their host countries. The United Nations has a Social Integration Branch, which is a part of the Division for Social Policy and it also issues a quarterly publication named Bulletin on Social Integration Policies. The UN Alliance of Civilizations initiative works on Migration and Integration as a key for intercultural understanding, an Online Community on Migration and Integration shows Good Practices from around the world. Acculturation Cultural assimilation Cultural diversity Jim Crow Laws Social exclusion Suffrage TPI-theory Menace in Europe, Why the Continents Crisis Is Americas, Too, a book by Claire Berlinski
25.
Multiculturalism
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This can happen when a jurisdiction is created or expanded by amalgamating areas with two or more different cultures or through immigration from different jurisdictions around the world. Multiculturalism has been described as a bowl and cultural mosaic. Two different and seemingly inconsistent strategies have developed through different government policies and strategies, the first focuses on interaction and communication between different cultures, this approach is also often known as interculturalism. The second centers on diversity and cultural uniqueness which can result in intercultural competition over jobs among other things. Cultural isolation can protect the uniqueness of the culture of a nation or area. A common aspect of many policies following the approach is that they avoid presenting any specific ethnic, religious. Multiculturalism centers on the thought in political philosophy about the way to respond to cultural and it is closely associated with identity politics, the politics of difference, and the politics of recognition. It is also a matter of economic interests and political power, Multiculturalism can refer to a demographic fact, a particular set of philosophical ideas, or a specific orientation by government or institutions toward a diverse population. Most of the debate over multiculturalism centers around whether or not public multiculturalism is the way to deal with diversity. The term multiculturalism is most often used in reference to Western nation-states, the Canadian government has often been described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration. The Canadian Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism is often referred to as the origins of political awareness of multiculturalism. In the Western English-speaking countries, multiculturalism as an national policy started in Canada in 1971. It was quickly adopted as policy by most member-states of the European Union. Recently, right-of-center governments in several European states—notably the Netherlands and Denmark— have reversed the national policy, a similar reversal is the subject of debate in the United Kingdom, among others, due to evidence of incipient segregation and anxieties over home-grown terrorism. Many nation-states in Africa, Asia, and the Americas are culturally diverse, in some, communalism is a major political issue. The Australian government retains multiculturalism in policy, and as an aspect of Australia today. The White Australia Policy was quietly dismantled after World War II by various changes to immigration policy, the election of John Howards Liberal-National Coalition government in 1996 was a major watershed for Australian multiculturalism. Howard had long been a critic of multiculturalism, releasing his One Australia policy in the late 1980s, the first edition was published in 1999
26.
Continental Europe
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Continental Europe, also referred to as mainland Europe, or, by Europeans, simply the Continent, is the continuous continent of Europe, excluding surrounding islands. This historical core of Carolingian Europe was consciously invoked in the 1950s as the historical basis for the prospective European integration. In both Great Britain and Ireland, the Continent is widely and generally used to refer to the mainland of Europe, an apocryphal British newspaper headline supposedly once read, Fog in Channel, Continent Cut Off. It has also claimed that this was a regular weather forecast in Britain in the 1930s. In addition, the word Europe itself is regularly used to mean Europe excluding the islands of Great Britain, Iceland. The term mainland Europe is also sometimes used, derivatively, the adjective continental refers to the social practices or fashion of continental Europe. Examples include breakfast, topless sunbathing and, historically, long-range driving often known as Grand Touring. Differences include electrical plugs, time zones for the most part, the use of traffic, and for the United Kingdom, currency. Britain is physically connected to continental Europe through the undersea Channel Tunnel and this route is popular with refugees and migrants seeking to enter the UK. Especially in Germanic studies, continental refers to the European continent excluding the Scandinavian peninsula, Britain, Ireland, and Iceland. The reason for this is that although the Scandinavian peninsula is attached to continental Europe, kontinenten is a vernacular Swedish expression that refers to the area excluding Sweden, Norway, and Finland but including Denmark and the rest of continental Europe. In Norway, similarly, one speaks about Kontinentet as an entity, usually referring to Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, the Benelux countries. Today, the Scandinavian peninsula is accessible by train and road with several bridge/tunnel structures connecting the Danish peninsula of Jutland to Scania in Sweden. The Continent may sometimes refer to the part of Italy, the continental part of Spain, the continental part of France. The term is used from the perspective of the residents of each country to describe the continental portion of their country or the continent as a whole. Continental philosophy Geopolitical divisions of Europe Geographical midpoint of Europe Mainland Western Europe Hajnal line
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England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
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Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
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Egyptians
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The Black Egyptian hypothesis is the hypothesis that Ancient Egypt was a predominately Black civilization, as the term is currently understood in modern American ethic perception. Mainstream scholars recognize that many indigenous Egyptians, including several Pharaohs, were of ancestry that, in the modern era, the Black Egyptian hypothesis goes a lot further, claiming that Egypt, from north to south, was a black civilization. At the UNESCO Symposium on the Peopling of Ancient Egypt and the Deciphering of the Meroitic script in Cairo in 1974, some modern scholars such as W. E. B. Du Bois, Chancellor Williams, Cheikh Anta Diop, John G. Jackson, Ivan van Sertima, Martin Bernal, the frequently criticized Journal of African Civilizations has continually advocated that Egypt should be viewed as a Black civilization. Diop and others believed the views were fueled by scientific racism. Diop used an approach to counteract prevailing views on the Ancient Egyptians origins. Since the second half of the 20th century, most scholars have held that modern notions of race to ancient Egypt is anachronistic. The focus of some experts who study population biology has been to consider whether or not the Ancient Egyptians were primarily biologically North African rather than to which race they belonged, in 1975, the mummy of Ramesses II was taken to France for preservation. The mummy was also tested by Professor Pierre-Fernand Ceccaldi, the chief forensic scientist at the Criminal Identification Laboratory of Paris. Professor Ceccaldi determined that, Hair, astonishingly preserved, showed some complementary data - especially about pigmentation, the description given here refers to a fair-skinned person with wavy ginger hair. Keita wrote that There is no reason to believe that the primary ancestors of the Egyptian population emerged and evolved outside of northeast Africa. Stuart Tyson Smith writes in the 2001 Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt that Any characterization of race of the ancient Egyptians depends on modern cultural definitions, not on scientific study. Thus, by modern American standards it is reasonable to characterize the Egyptians as black, several Ancient Greek historians noted that Egyptians had complexions that were melanchroes. There is considerable controversy over the translation of melanchroes, most scholars translate it as black. Alan B Lloyd wrote that there is no justification for relating this description to negroes. Melanchroes could denote any colour from bronzed to black and negroes are not the physical type to show curly hair. These characteristics would certainly be found in many Egs, ancient and modern, some of the most often quoted historians are Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, and Herodotus. Herodotus states in a few passages that the Egyptians were black/dark, lucian observes an Egyptian boy and notices that he is not merely black, but has thick lips
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Tuam
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Tuam, Irish, Tuaim is a town in Ireland and the second largest settlement in County Galway. It is situated west of the midlands of Ireland, approximately 35 km north of Galway city, human existence in the area dates to the Bronze Age while the historic period dates from the 6th century. The town became increasingly important in the 11th and 12th centuries in political, the market based layout of the town and square indicates the importance of commerce. The record of settlement in Tuam dates back to the Bronze Age when an area adjacent to Shop Street was used as a burial ground. The name Tuam is a cognate with the Latin term tumulus, the towns ancient name was Tuaim Dá Ghualann, i. e. the burial mound of two shoulders. The name probably refers to the ground on either side of the River Nanny. In 1875, a Bronze Age burial urn was discovered in the area by workmen, an early glass photograph still exists. The history of Tuam as a settlement dates from the sixth century. Legend states that a monk called Iarlaithe mac Loga who was a member of a community at Cloonfush some 6 km west of Tuam. Iarlaithes life became uncertain as he wished to travel, eventually, Iarlaithes abbot, Benignus of Armagh told him to Go, and where ever your chariot wheel breaks, there shall be the site of your new monastery and the place of your resurrection. Iarlaithes wheel broke at Tuam and he established a monastery there, as was typical with early settlements in Ireland, religious sites became established first and towns grew around them. Likewise, Tuam grew up around the monastery and has kept the broken chariot wheel as its heraldic symbol, in 1049, when Aedh OConnor defeated Amalgaid ua Flaithbertaigh, King of Iar Connacht, the OConnor kings became kings of Connacht. OConnor then built a castle at Tuam and made it his principal stronghold and this event was directly responsible for the subsequent rise in the importance of the town. Its position dominated the Iar Connacht heartland of Maigh Seóla, in the twelfth century, the town became the centre of Provincial power during the fifty-year reign of Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair. He also brought Tuam its most prominent status as seat of the High King of Ireland which he achieved by force of arms during his long career. At the Synod of Kells in 1152, the centre of government also became the centre, as Tuam was erected into an Archbishopric. Tairrdelbach was succeeded by his son Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, the last native High King of Ireland, in 1164, Ruaidrí had a wonderful castle erected, with a large courtyard defended by lofty and massive walls and a deep moat into which the adjacent river was diverted through. This was the first Irish built stone castle, a small part of the castle still stands
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Diaspora
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A diaspora is a scattered population whose origin lies within a smaller geographic locale. Diaspora can also refer to the movement of the population from its original homeland, some diaspora communities maintain strong political ties with their homeland. Other qualities that may be typical of many diasporas are thoughts of return, relationships with communities in the diaspora. The term is derived from the Greek verb διασπείρω, I scatter, I spread about, an example of a diaspora from classical antiquity is the century-long exile of the Messenians under Spartan rule and the Ageanites as described by Thucydides in his history of the Peloponnesian wars. It subsequently came to be used to refer to the movements of the dispersed ethnic population of Israel. The wider application of diaspora evolved from the Assyrian two-way mass deportation policy of conquered populations to deny future territorial claims on their part, an academic field, diaspora studies, has become established relating to this sense of the word. Some writers have noted that diaspora may result in a loss of nostalgia for a home as people re-root in a series of meaningful displacements. In this sense, individuals may have multiple homes throughout their diaspora, diasporic cultural development often assumes a different course from that of the population in the original place of settlement. Over time, remotely separated communities tend to vary in culture, traditions, language, the last vestiges of cultural affiliation in a diaspora is often found in community resistance to language change and in maintenance of traditional religious practice. In an article published in 1991, William Safran set out six rules to distinguish diasporas from migrant communities, while Safrans definitions were influenced by the idea of the Jewish diaspora, he recognised the expanding use of the term. Rogers Brubaker also notes that use of the diaspora has been widening. Brubaker has used the WorldCat database to show that 17 out of the 18 books on diaspora published between 1900 and 1910 were on the Jewish diaspora. The majority of works in the 1960s were also about the Jewish diaspora, the paradigmatic case was, of course, the Jewish diaspora, some dictionary definitions of diaspora, until recently, did not simply illustrate but defined the word with reference to that case. Brubaker argues that the expansion of the use of the phrase extended it to other, similar cases, such as the Armenian. Brubaker notes that, Albanians, Basques, Hindu Indians, Irish, Japanese, Kashmiri, Koreans, Kurds, Palestinians, furthermore, labour migrants who maintain emotional and social ties with a homeland have also been described as diasporas. In further cases of the use of the term, the reference to the conceptual homeland – to the classical diasporas – has become more attenuated still, to the point of being lost altogether. Brubaker notes that, as of 2005, there were also academic books or articles on the Dixie, white, liberal, gay, queer, professional communities of individuals no longer in their homeland can also be considered diaspora. For example, science diasporas are communities of scientists who conduct their research away from their homeland, one of the largest diaspora of modern times is the African Diaspora, which dates back several centuries
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London boroughs
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London boroughs are 32 of the 33 local authority districts of the Greater London administrative area and are each governed by a London borough council. The London boroughs were all created at the time as Greater London on 1 April 1965 by the London Government Act 1963 and are a type of local government district. Twelve were designated as Inner London boroughs and twenty as Outer London boroughs, London boroughs have populations of around 150,000 to 300,000. Inner London boroughs tend to be smaller, in population and area, and more densely populated than Outer London boroughs. The London boroughs were created by combining groups of local government units. A review undertaken between 1987 and 1992 led to a number of small alterations in borough boundaries. London borough councils provide the majority of government services, in contrast to the strategic Greater London Authority. The councils were first elected in 1964 and acted as shadow authorities until 1 April 1965, each borough is divided into electoral wards, subject to periodic review, for the purpose of electing councillors. Council elections take place four years, with the most recent elections in 2014. The political make-up of London borough councils is dominated by the Conservative, Labour, twenty-eight councils follow the leader and cabinet model of executive governance, with directly elected mayors in Hackney, Lewisham, Newham, and Tower Hamlets. The City of London is instead governed by the City of London Corporation, from the mid-1930s, the Greater London area comprised four types of local government authorities. There were county boroughs, municipal boroughs, urban districts and metropolitan boroughs, the large county boroughs provided all local government services and held the powers usually invested in county councils. The municipal borough and urban district authorities had fewer powers, reform of London local government sought to regularise this arrangement. The Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London was established in 1957 and it proposed 52 Greater London Boroughs with a population range of 100,000 to 250,000. This was made up of a mixture of existing units. In December 1961 the government proposed that there would be 34 boroughs rather than 52, the proposed number was further reduced to 32 in 1962. On 1 April 1965, the 32 London boroughs and Greater London were created by the London Government Act 1963,12 boroughs in the former County of London area were designated Inner London boroughs and the 20 others were designated Outer London boroughs. The City of London continued to be administered by the City of London Corporation, elections were held on 7 May 1964, with the new councils acting as shadow authorities before coming into their powers the following year
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London Borough of Harrow
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The London Borough of Harrow /ˈhæroʊ/ is a London borough of north-west London, England. It borders Hertfordshire to the north and other London boroughs, Hillingdon to the west, Ealing to the south, Brent to the south-east, the local authority is Harrow London Borough Council. The local authority was Harrow Urban District Council, the urban district gained the status of municipal borough on 4 May 1954 and the urban district council became Harrow Borough Council. The 50th anniversary of the incorporation as a borough was celebrated in April 2004, in 1965 the municipal borough was abolished and its former area was transferred to Greater London from Middlesex under the London Government Act 1963 to form the London Borough of Harrow. It is uniquely the only London borough to replicate exactly the unchanged boundaries of a former district. This was probably because its population was large enough, according to the 1961 census it had a population of 209080, making it the largest local government district in Middlesex. Some may consider it affluent in comparison to similar areas of London. Crime figures are low, the borough had 2,618 notifiable offences in April 2009, Harrow Council is focusing regeneration efforts on areas such as Wealdstone and South Harrow and many new key service workers-type flats are springing up. In the north part of the borough, there is a strip of highly affluent housing in the areas of Northwood, Pinner. Harrow is considered a borough of contrasts, with levels of affluence in such areas as Harrow-on-the-Hill, Pinner. Save the Children reported in 2011 that over 7,000 children are living in poverty in the Borough, location Its site on and near the greenbelt and ease of access to central London makes Harrow a good place to live not only for families but affluent singles as well. Ethnicity Harrow is a borough, having 63. 8% of its population from the BME communities. The borough can also claim to have the largest concentration of Sri Lankan Tamils in the UK, census data shows that the majority of Sri Lankan Tamils live in the areas of North Harrow, South Harrow and Rayners Lane. Indians are mostly in the eastern Kenton and Queensbury areas, according to the 2011 census 25. 3% of Harrows population identified themselves as Hindu - the highest in the UK. A large number of Jewish people live in Stanmore and Hatch End, the Stanmore and Canons Park Synagogue boasts the largest membership of any single synagogue in the whole of Europe. The first and only contemporary artist-led gallery in Harrow was set up in 2010 by the Usurp Art Collective, the space is called the Usurp Art Gallery & Studios and is based in West Harrow, a bohemian part of Harrow. Usurp Art provides professional support to artists and runs the only public artists studios in the borough and it is a flagship project for Arts Council England. Major employers include Kodak, the Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital and Ladbrokes, five of the 30 cricket clubs which play in the Middlesex County Cricket League are based in the London Borough of Harrow, Harrow, Harrow St Marys, Harrow Town, Kenton and Stanmore
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London Borough of Brent
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The London Borough of Brent is a London borough in north west London, and forms part of Outer London. The major areas are Kilburn, Wembley and Harlesden, most of the eastern border is formed by the Roman road Watling Street, which is now the modern A5. Brent has a mixture of residential, industrial and commercial land, Brent is home to Wembley Stadium, one of the countrys biggest landmarks, as well as Wembley Arena. The local authority is Brent London Borough Council, the borough has seen illegal dumping on the borough’s streets between 2013/14 and 2014/15 surge by 84 per cent, the most recorded by a local authority in England. Brent has the highest proportion of housing benefit claims by private tenants in the country as a percentage of all according to the Financial Times. Brent was formed in 1965 from the area of the former Municipal Borough of Wembley and its name derives from the River Brent which runs through the borough. Brent is divided into 21 Electoral Wards, some wards share a name with the traditional areas above, others include Barnhill, Dudden Hill, Fryent, Mapesbury and Welsh Harp. The Brent borough includes three parliamentary constituencies, Brent North, Brent Central, and Hampstead and Kilburn, which part of the London Borough of Camden. Before the 2010 United Kingdom general election it was divided into three constituencies contained wholly within the borough - Brent South, Brent East and Brent North, Brent London Borough Council is elected every four years, with currently 63 councillors being elected at each election. Labour regained control in 2010 and increased their majority at the 2014 election, as of the 2014 election the council is composed of the following councillors, - The leader of the Council is Labour Councillor Muhammed Butt. In 1801, the parishes that form the modern borough had a total population of 2,022. This rose slowly throughout the 19th century, as the district built up. When the railways arrived the rate of growth increased. The population peaked in the 1960s, when began to relocate from London. Brent is among the most diverse localities in the country, with large Asian and Indian, Black African, Black Caribbean, Irish, and Eastern European minority communities. In the 2001 Census, the borough had a population of 263,464 – of whom 127,806 were male, and 135,658 female. Of those stating a choice,47. 71% described themselves as Christian,17. 71% as Hindu,12. 26% as Muslim and 10% as having no religion. Of the population,39. 96% were in employment and 7. 86% in part-time employment – compared to a London average of 42. 64% and 8. 62%
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Home counties
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The home counties are the counties of England that surround London. The counties generally included in the list are Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, Essex, Hertfordshire, Kent, Surrey, the origin of the term home counties is unknown and no exact definition exists, making their composition a matter of constant debate. The earliest use of the term cited in the Oxford English Dictionary is from 1695, the term is sometimes understood to mean those counties which, on their borders closest to London, have been partly subsumed into London. Indeed, the county of Middlesex has been almost wholly within London since 1965 as have parts of Hertfordshire and Surrey. The third edition of the Oxford English Dictionary defines the term as the English counties surrounding London and they comprise chiefly Essex, Kent, Surrey, and Hertfordshire. Parts of all of historic counties are, since 1965, officially within London. An additional theory is that the derived from the Home Circuit of the courts of Assize which contained Hertfordshire, Essex, Kent, Sussex. The Home counties were described by one 1987 reference book as being inhabited on the whole by nice, comfortable, in fiction, Margo and Jerry Leadbetter of the television sitcom The Good Life, set in Surbiton, represent a typical home counties suburban couple. The home counties as a whole are more prosperous than other parts of the United Kingdom. The towns of Amersham, Gerrards Cross and Beaconsfield, all in Buckinghamshire, were ranked as the top three most expensive in the country in one 2008 survey of average house prices. The area is so large, however, that it includes a number of areas of deprivation such as Margate, Hastings. Multiple definitions of the term have been used in legislation and by official bodies, in the twentieth century, for instance, as follows,1908, The Home Counties Division of the Territorial Force comprised units recruiting in Middlesex, Kent, Surrey and Sussex. 1920, The London and Home Counties Electricity District consisted of the counties of London and Middlesex,1924, The London and Home Counties Traffic Advisory Committee, covering the London Traffic Area, London, Middlesex, and parts of Buckinghamshire, Essex, Hertfordshire, Kent and Surrey. 1926, The Home Counties Licensing Act regulated activities in all parts of Buckinghamshire, Essex, Hertfordshire, Kent,1938, Green Belt Act limited development in parts of Middlesex, Kent, Buckinghamshire, Surrey, Essex, Berkshire and Hertfordshire. 1948, The Home Counties Brigade was formed to administer the regiments of the City and County of London, Kent, Middlesex, Surrey. London commuter belt Metro-land The Association of British Counties
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Ireland
United States
