1.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
2.
American Kennel Club
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The American Kennel Club is a registry of purebred dog pedigrees in the United States. Unlike most other countries kennels clubs, the AKC is not part of the Fédération Cynologique Internationale, the origins of the AKC lay in the National Greyhound Association, which was the first organization to encourage breeders to produce dogs with a goal in mind. In this case, the goal was not beauty but racing speed, in 1882, the National Coursing League, a British organization, began to require that all racing dogs be registered in their studbooks before they were eligible to race. The National Greyhound Association followed suit soon after, in the early 1800s, the English became concerned with the beauty of dogs rather than their function. This fad spread to North America, and in 1877, the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show began, soon after, the need for a regulating body became obvious. The National American Kennel Club, which had founded in 1876, began to publish. In 1884, a group of 13 breed clubs,10 American clubs and 3 Canadian clubs and these 13 clubs pledged to do everything to advance the study, breeding, exhibiting, running and maintenance of purity of thoroughbred dogs. The AKC differed from The Kennel Club in that individuals could not directly join the Kennel Club, they became members of smaller, individual breed clubs, which were themselves members of the AKC. Soon after the AKC, CKC, and KC produced agreements that made any dog eligible to be registered with the club in its home country, in 1909, the group moved to New York and became incorporated. On July 1,2012, the AKC began to recognize certain titles issued by the North American Flyball Association and these titles are Flyball Champion, Flyball Master, and the ONYX title. The AKC is the largest registry of purebred dogs in the U. S. and is the only not-for profit registry, as well as the most well-known, and the most influential. For a purebred dog to be registered with the AKC, the parents must be registered with the AKC as the same breed. Once a determination of eligibility is met, either by application or registry research. As of November 2016, the AKC recognizes 202 breeds, the AKC divides dog breeds into seven groups, one class, and the Foundation Stock Service, consisting of the following, Sporting Group,30 breeds, developed as bird dogs. Includes Pointers, Retrievers, Setters, and Spaniels, hound Group,29 breeds, developed to hunt using sight or scent. Working Group,30 breeds, developed for a variety of jobs, including guarding property, guarding livestock, terrier Group,30 breeds, developed to hunt vermin and to dig them from their burrows or lairs. Toy Group,21 breeds, developed as companion dogs, herding Group,29 breeds, developed to herd livestock. Non-Sporting Group,20 breeds, assorted breeds who do not fit any of the above groups
3.
Canadian Kennel Club
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The Canadian Kennel Club is the primary registry body for purebred dog pedigrees in Canada. The Canadian Kennel Club is a national, member-based, non-profit organization, founded in 1888, it provides registry services for all the 175 dog breeds which it currently recognizes, and provides governance for all CKC approved shows, trial and events. CKC provides news and information to its membership through its association with Dogs in Canada monthly magazine. Once these criteria are met, the dog is eligible to be registered as purebred by the CKC CKC is not the only Canadian registry of purebred dogs, but it is the one most Canadians are familiar with. CKC members may only breed CKC recognized breeds and are required to sign a pledge not to engage in the buying, selling or breeding of dogs not purebred. As with almost all breed registries, the registration specifies only that the dog is purely of one recognized breed—it does not guarantee that the dog comes from healthy or show-quality bloodlines, neither is it a reflection on the quality of the breeder or how the puppy was raised. Registration basically provides tracking for known canine ancestry as stated by the breeder of each dog registered, purebred pedigrees can often be followed back for as much as a century and for perhaps thirty or more generations of registered ancestry. Registration is necessary for dogs who will participate in purebred conformation shows or who will be used for purebred breeding, breeders that are CKC members are required to register all of their puppies, even if they are not of show quality. List of dog recognized by the Canadian Kennel Club Official website A new direction for kennel club regulations
4.
The Kennel Club
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The Kennel Club is the official kennel club of the United Kingdom. It is the oldest recognised kennel club in the world and its role is to act as governing body for various canine activities including dog shows, dog agility and working trials. It also operates the national register of pedigree dogs in the United Kingdom and its headquarters are located on Clarges Street in Mayfair, London, with business offices in Aylesbury. The Kennel Club registration system divides dogs into seven breed groups, the Kennel Club Groups are, Hound, Working, Terrier, Gundog, Pastoral, Utility and Toy. As of 2011, the Kennel Club recognised 210 breeds of dog and this was increased to 211 breeds with the addition of the Turkish Kangal dog in 2013. The Kennel Club licenses dog shows throughout the UK but the dog show actually run by the KC is the Crufts conformation show. The show has held since 1928 and attracts competitors from all over the world. Crufts is held every March at the NEC, Birmingham, the Kennel Club also holds the dog event Discover Dogs in London every November, featuring the Scruffts dog show for crossbreed and mixed breed dogs. The Kennel club was founded in 1873 after Sewallis E Shirley became frustrated by trying to dog shows without a consistent set of rules to work with. Since the first dog show held in 1859, shows had become popular during the Victorian era. Shirley is listed as an exhibitor of Fox Terriers at the Birmingham Dog Show Society show in 1865, together with a group of other gentlemen he organised the First Grand Exhibition of Sporting and Other Dogs held at Crystal Palace in June 1870. The show was not a success and the gentlemen of the committee had to make up the loss. This seems to have been the trigger for Shirley calling a meeting with others who had deep seated interests in judging and exhibiting pedigree dogs. The Meeting was held at 2 Albert Mansions, Victoria Street, London, all business was conducted from there until a move to Pall Mall in May 1877. It was decided they would be responsible for publishing a Stud Book, the Kennel Club saw particular change under the chairmanship of John MacDougall during the period 1981 to 1996. It was also under his stewardship that the system became computerised. The Kennel Club acquired Crufts dog show after the widow of Charles Cruft was unable to devote the time to running such a large undertaking, no shows were held during the Second World War. The first Crufts show held by the Kennel Club was in 1948 at Olympia, the show was first televised by the BBC in 1950
5.
Sighthound & Pariah Group
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Sighthound & Pariah Group is the name of a breed Group of dogs, used by the United Kennel Club to classify a defined collection of dog breeds. Other kennel clubs place most hounds together in the Hound Group, two different types of dogs are listed in this article. Hounds are hunting dogs that hunt by endurance, following the scent of an animal, or by speed. There are a few breeds of the type, and many breeds of the scent hound type. Pariah dogs refers to a class of specific types of feral dogs and dogs that may be of another subspecies. Any of these animals, if a breed club develops and if the dogs are sufficiently documented according to club rules. Kennel clubs assign breeds of dogs to Groups, which are based on breed types. The Sighthound & Pariah Group is a Group category used by the United Kennel Club, placing together sighthounds and pariah or primitive type dogs, for breeds not yet recognised by one of the major kennel clubs, there are usually numerous competing breed clubs for each individual breed. A breed that is not recognised by a kennel club means that it has not been sufficiently vetted according to that particular kennel clubs rules and it does not mean that the breed is not a breed. Breed Groups Dog type Sighthound Pariah Dog Subspecies of Canis lupus Lure coursing
6.
Dog
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The domestic dog is a member of genus Canis that forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa, with modern wolves not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, the dog was the first domesticated species and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes. Their long association with humans has led dogs to be attuned to human behavior. Dogs vary widely in shape, size and colours, dogs perform many roles for people, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting police and military, companionship and, more recently, aiding handicapped individuals. This influence on society has given them the sobriquet mans best friend. The term domestic dog is used for both domesticated and feral varieties. The English word dog comes from Middle English dogge, from Old English docga, the term may possibly derive from Proto-Germanic *dukkōn, represented in Old English finger-docce. The word also shows the familiar petname diminutive -ga also seen in frogga frog, picga pig, stagga stag, wicga beetle, worm, the term dog may ultimately derive from the earliest layer of Proto-Indo-European vocabulary. In 14th-century England, hound was the word for all domestic canines, and dog referred to a subtype of hound. It is believed this dog type was so common, it became the prototype of the category hound. By the 16th century, dog had become the general word, the word hound is ultimately derived from the Proto-Indo-European word *kwon-, dog. This semantic shift may be compared with in German, where the corresponding words Dogge, a male canine is referred to as a dog, while a female is called a bitch. The father of a litter is called the sire, and the mother is called the dam, the process of birth is whelping, from the Old English word hwelp, the modern English word whelp is an alternate term for puppy. A litter refers to the offspring at one birth which are called puppies or pups from the French poupée, doll. The term dog typically is applied both to the species as a whole, and any male member of the same. An adult female is a bitch, in some countries, especially in North America, dog is used instead due to the vulgar connotation of bitch. An adult male capable of reproduction is a stud, an adult female capable of reproduction is a brood bitch, or brood mother. Immature males or females are pups or puppies, a group of pups from the same gestation period is a litter
7.
Irish language
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Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the end of British rule, the language was spoken by less than 15% of the national population. Since then, Irish speakers have been in the minority, efforts have been made by the state, individuals and organisations to preserve, promote and revive the language, but with mixed results. Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates of native speakers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000 people. In the 2011 Census, these numbers had increased to 94,000 and 1.3 million, there are several thousand Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Irelands population, there has been a significant increase in the number of urban Irish speakers, particularly in Dublin. In Gaeltacht areas, however, there has been a decline of the use of Irish. Údarás na Gaeltachta predicted that, by 2025, Irish will no longer be the language in any of the designated Gaeltacht areas. Survey data suggest that most Irish people think highly of Irish as a marker of identity. It has also argued that newer urban groups of Irish speakers are a disruptive force in this respect. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil the name of the language is Gaeilge, before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge, originally this was the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include Gaoidhealg in Classical Irish and Goídelc in Old Irish, the modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas Goidelic languages, used to refer to the language family including Irish, comes from Old Irish
8.
Dog breed
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The Fédération Cynologique Internationale recognizes over 400 pure dog breeds. Other uses of the breed when referring to dogs may include pure breeds, cross-breeds, mixed breeds. Mastiff-type dogs were kept for guarding and hunting, and short-legged dogs were also bred, by Roman times, most of the breed-types known today were well-defined and their qualities and functions recorded. Dog breeds proliferated in Europe during the Middle Ages 700 years ago, for early depictions of dogs in art, see early history. Ancient breed of dogs was a term used for a group of dog breeds by the American Kennel Club. These breeds were referred to as ancient breeds, as opposed to modern breeds, in 2004, a study looked at the microsatellites of 414 purebred dogs representing 85 breeds. These 9 breeds had been referred to as ancient breeds, as opposed to the modern breeds, see further, Dog type The spread of modern dog breeds has been difficult to resolve because many are the products of the controlled breeding practices of the Victorian era. In 2010, a study looked at 48,000 Single nucleotide polymorphisms that gave a genome-wide coverage of 912 dogs representing 85 breeds, the study found distinct genetic clusters within modern dogs that largely corresponded to phenotype or function. These included spitz-breeds, toy dogs, spaniels, Mastiff-like breeds, small terriers, retrievers, herding dogs, there were 17 breeds that conflicted with phenotype or function and these were thought to be the result of crossing some of the other phenotypes. Results also indicated that the Basenji had recent admixture with Middle Eastern wolves, the study found that there were three well-supported groups that were highly divergent and distinct from modern domestic dogs. The three groups were an Asian group that showed past admixture with Chinese wolves, a Middle Eastern group, and a northern group. The study referred to these 16 as Basal breeds, as opposed to ancient breeds, as they exhibited genetic divergence, the study found that modern breeds only emerged in the 19th century and that claims of their antiquity are based on little or no historical or empirical evidence. Of the basal breeds, the American Eskimo Dog and Eurasier were the recent product of cross-breeding other basal breeds. Most basal breeds have hybridized with other lineages in the past, if those other lineages were other basal breeds then a basal genetic signature remains. In 2014, a study indicated that some breed-temperaments, such as anxiety or fear, other temperaments may be due to the legacies of ancient ancestry. Groups of owners that have dogs of the breed and have an interest in dog breeding can form national Kennel clubs. Kennel Clubs maintain breed standards, record pedigrees in a breed registry and they often serve as registries, which are lists of adult purebred dogs and lists of litters of puppies born to purebred parents. A dog breed is represented by a sufficient number of individuals to stably transfer its specific characteristics over generations, dogs of same breed have similar characteristics of appearance and behavior, primarily because they come from a select set of ancestors who had the same characteristics
9.
Sighthound
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Sighthounds, also called gazehounds, primarily hunt by sight and speed, rather than by scent and endurance as scent hounds do. These dogs specialize in pursuing prey, keeping it in sight and they must be able to detect motion quickly, so they have keen vision. The typical sighthound type has a light, lean head, which is dolichocephalic in proportion and this shape can create the illusion that their heads are longer than usual. Wolves and other dogs are dolichocephalic or mesaticephalic, but some domesticated dogs have become brachycephalic due to artificial selection by humans over the course of 12,000 years. There is no science-based evidence to confirm the belief that sighthounds have a higher visual acuity than other types of dogs. The earliest description of a sighthound in European recorded history comes from Arrians Cynegeticus, although today most sighthounds are kept primarily as pets, they have been bred for thousands of years to detect movement, chase, capture, and kill prey primarily by speed. Some have mellow personalities, others are watchful or even hostile towards strangers, apart from coursing, open-field coursing, and hunting, various dog sports are practiced with purebred sighthounds, and sometimes with Lurchers and Longdogs. Such sports include racing, lure coursing, and other events and this is partially because most Anglophone kennel clubs, The Kennel Club and American Kennel Club, do not have a Sighthound group per se, where they are included in the larger Hound group. While this debate may simply appear to be a matter of semantics, it is of importance when classifying breeds through a thorough understanding of their true history. The original, authentic and documented use of a breed is paramount in deciding its category as a hound, sighthound, the Basenji is far from alone in this. The Rhodesian Ridgeback, was classified as a gun dog by its founding parent club for several decades. Since that time the Ridgeback has been mired in a perpetual classification conundrum, many hunting dog types capable of hunting by speed and sight are not recognized as sighthounds, either informally or formally by a major kennel club. The Functional Saluki, Lessons from the Coursing Field, Sighthound Review, Charter Issue May–June 1984. Rhodesian Ridgebacks, and the Question of What is a Sighthound, the Complete Book of Coursing, Hounds, Hares & Other Creatures, rev. & expanded 2nd ed. Wheat Ridge, Colo. Hounds, Hares & Other Creatures, The Complete Book of Coursing, london, Popular Dogs Publishing Co. Ltd.1992. London, J. Bohn,1831 Grant-Rennick, Richard, Coursing, The Pursuit of Game with Gazehounds. Saul, Gloucestershire, The Standfast Sporting Library,1977, Sighthounds Their Form, Their Function and Their Future, Ramsbury, The Crowood Press Ltd,2012. The Performance Sighthound Journal, July–September 2007, Hounds and Hunting in Ancient Greece
10.
Wolf hunting with dogs
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Wolf hunting with dogs is a method of wolf hunting which relies on the use of hunting dogs. Accounts as to how wolves react to being attacked by dogs vary, though John James Audubon wrote that young wolves generally show submissive behaviour, while older wolves fight savagely. As wolves are not as fast as smaller canids such as coyotes, they run to a low place and wait for the dogs to come over from the top. In Ireland, Irish wolfhounds were bred as far back as 3 BC, after the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, Oliver Cromwell imposed a ban on the exportation of Irish wolfhounds in order to tackle wolves. According to the Encyclopédie, wolf hunting squads in France typically consisted of 25-30 good sized dogs, usually grey in color with red around the eyes, the main pack would be supplemented with six or eight large sighthounds and a few dogues. Wolf hunting sighthounds were usually separated into three categories, lévriers destric, lévriers compagnons and lévriers de tête and it was preferable to have two teams of each kind, with each team consisting of 2-3 dogs. This was not so serious a problem in winter, when the tracks were easier to detect in the snow, each bloodhound group would be used alternatively throughout the hunt, in order to allow the previous team to recuperate. It was preferable that the area of the hunt contained no stronger smelling animals which could distract the dogs, or that the dogs themselves were entirely specialised in hunting wolves. Once the scent had been found, the hunters would give a further recitation in order to motivate the dogs, quest-ce là mon valet, hau lami après, the scent was usually found at a crossroad, where the wolf would scratch the earth or leave a scent mark. The two teams of lévriers destric would be placed at points on the borders of the forest. The lévriers compagnons would be concealed on either side of the path, while the lévriers de tête, the lévriers de tête would chase the wolf through the path and funnel it toward the other waiting lévrier teams. Once the wolf was apprehended, the dogs would be pulled back, the hunt master would then quickly dispatch the wolf by stabbing it between the shoulder blades with a dagger. Wolves were hunted in both Czarist and Soviet Russia with borzoi by landowners and Cossacks, a beater, holding up to six dogs by leash, would enter a wooded area where wolves would have been previously sighted. Other hunters on horseback would select a place in the open where the wolf or wolves may break, each hunter held one or two borzois, which would be slipped the moment the wolf takes flight. Once the beater sighted a wolf, he would shout Loup, the idea was to trap the wolf between the pursuing dogs and the hunters on horseback outside the wood. The borzois would pursue the wolf along with the horsemen and yapping curs, once the wolf was caught by the borzois, the foremost rider would dismount and quickly dispatch the wolf with a knife. Occasionally, wolves are captured alive in order to better train borzoi pups, the Afghan Royal Family and the Pashtuns tribes would hunt Wolves using the ancient Afghan Hound, also known as Tazi. The Afghan Hound has a thick, long and versatile Coat
11.
Dogs in warfare
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Dogs in warfare have a long history starting in ancient times. From war dogs trained in combat to their use as scouts, sentries and trackers, their uses have been varied, War dogs were used by the Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Sarmatians, Baganda, Alans, Slavs, Britons, and the Romans. The Molossus dog of the Molossia region of Epirus was the strongest known to the Romans, among the Greeks and Romans, dogs served most often as sentries or patrols, though they were sometimes taken into battle. The earliest use of war dogs in a battle recorded in classical sources was by Alyattes of Lydia against the Cimmerians around 600 BC, the Lydian dogs killed some invaders and routed others. During the Late Antiquity, Attila the Hun used molosser dogs in his campaigns, gifts of war dog breeding stock between European royalty were seen as suitable tokens for exchange throughout the Middle Ages. Other civilizations used armored dogs to defend caravans or attack enemies, the Spanish conquistadors used armored dogs that had been trained to kill natives. Later on, Frederick the Great used dogs as messengers during the Seven Years War with Russia, napoleon also used dogs during his campaigns. Dogs were used up until 1770 to guard installations in France. The first official use of dogs for military purposes in the United States was during the Seminole Wars, hounds were used in the American Civil War to protect, send messages, and guard prisoners Dogs were also used as mascots in American World War I propaganda and recruiting posters. Dogs have been used in warfare by many civilizations, as warfare has progressed, their purposes have changed greatly. Mid-7th century BC, In the war waged by the Ephesians against Magnesia on the Maeander, the Magnesian horsemen were each accompanied by a war dog, the dogs were released first and broke the enemy ranks, followed by an assault of spears, then a cavalry charge. An epitaph records the burial of a Magnesian horseman named Hippaemon with his dog Lethargos, his horse,490 BC, At the Battle of Marathon, a dog follows his hoplite master into battle against the Persians and is memorialized in a mural. 480 BC, Xerxes I of Persia is accompanied by vast packs of Indian hounds when he invades Greece and they may have served in the military as well as being used for sport or hunting, but their purpose is unrecorded. 281 BC, Lysimachus is slain during the Battle of Corupedium and his body was discovered preserved on the battlefield and guarded vigilantly by his faithful dog. 120 BC, Bituito, king of the Arvernii, attacked a force of Romans led by the consul Fabius. 1500s, Mastiffs and other breeds were used extensively by Spanish conquistadors against Native Americans. 1914–1918, Dogs were used by forces to deliver vital messages. About a million dogs were killed in action, sergeant Stubby, a Boston Terrier, was the most decorated war dog of World War I and the only dog to be nominated for rank and then promoted to sergeant through combat
12.
Hunting
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Hunting is the practice of killing or trapping animals, or pursuing or tracking them with the intent of doing so. Hunting wildlife or feral animals is most commonly done by humans for food, recreation, to predators that are dangerous to humans or domestic animals. Lawful hunting is distinguished from poaching, which is the killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species. The species that are hunted are referred to as game or prey and are usually mammals, Hunting can also be a means of pest control. However, hunting has also contributed to the endangerment, extirpation and extinction of many animals. The pursuit, capture and release, or capture for food of fish is called fishing, the practice of foraging or gathering materials from plants and mushrooms is also considered separate from hunting. The word hunt serves as both a noun and a verb, the noun has been dated to the early 12th century, act of chasing game, from the verb hunt. The meaning of a body of persons associated for the purpose of hunting with a pack of hounds is first recorded in the 1570s, meaning the act of searching for someone or something is from about 1600. The verb, Old English huntian to chase game, perhaps developed from hunta hunter, is related to hentan to seize, from Proto-Germanic huntojan, the general sense of search diligently is first recorded c. Hunting has a history and may well pre-date the rise of the species Homo sapiens. Evidence from western Kenya suggests that hunting has been occurring for more two million years. Furthermore, evidence exists that hunting may have one of the multiple environmental factors leading to the Holocene extinction of megafauna. North American megafauna extinction was coincidental with the Younger Dryas impact event, however, in other locations such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation. The closest surviving relatives of the species are the two species of Pan, the common chimpanzee and bonobos. Common chimpanzees have a diet that includes troop hunting behaviour based on beta males being led by an alpha male. Bonobos have also observed to occasionally engage in group hunting. With the establishment of language, culture, and religion, hunting became a theme of stories and myths, as well as such as dance. Hunting was a component of hunter-gatherer societies before the domestication of livestock
13.
Guard dog
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A guard dog or watch dog is a dog used to guard against, and watch for unwanted or unexpected people or animals. The dog is discriminating so that it does not annoy or attack familiar people, both guard dogs and watchdogs bark loudly to alert their owners of an intruders presence and to scare away the intruder. The watch dogs function ends here, a dog is capable of attacking. Livestock guardian dogs are large enough, 100-200 lbs and strong enough to attack. Some smaller breeds are excellent watchdogs but not guard dogs because they bark loudly to alert their masters of intruders but are physically small and not given to assertive behavior. Guardian breeds will bark to alert their master and to warn off an approaching animal, or human threat and they are different from the smaller watchdogs in that they do not continue barking, they take action. The human shepherd would in many cases come to the guard dogs aid with a weapon, if the purpose of the dog is to protect against human intruders after nightfall, a large, dark colored dog in a dark house would give the dog an advantage over the burglar. While the Airedale terrier, historically, was a British police dog, nowadays, breeds include the Doberman, the Rottweiler, many currently prominent guard dogs started as general purpose farm dogs, but gradually developed into guard breeds. The Rhodesian Ridgeback is a defender of the home and can be very hostile to an enemy of its family. Some breeds, such as the American Pit Bull Terrier, were bred for fighting. Many have an amount of molossoid or mastiff DNA. This is confirmed by a DNA study done on over 270 purebred dogs and it suggests that thirteen ancient breeds broke off early on, after which a group of mastiff style dogs were developed. Beverly Pisano, in her book, Irish Wolfhounds, T. F. H publications, writes that the Great Dane, Scottish Deerhound and Borzoi contributed to the resurrected Irish wolfhound. The modern Irish Wolfhound has a peaceful temperament than its ancestor. Some Irish Wolfhounds have the power to excel as a guard, the Belgian shepherd dogs, which look similar to the German shepherd, are gaining in popularity with police departments as an extremely quick and agile police dog. Israeli military malinois are amazing and videos of their performance can be looked up on the internet, the Fila, Dogo and Tosa are banned from the UK and Pitbulls must be microchipped, neutered and muzzled. The Dogo Argentino was custom designed to be a powerful boar and puma hunter, the Fila Brasileiro has a reputation of being a no nonsense guard and suspects almost all non family visitors. The Fila hunts Jaguar and was used in Brazil to run down escaped slaves, the Fila has a reputation for being very intolerant of guests to the home
14.
Wolf hunting
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Wolf hunting is the practice of hunting gray wolves or other species of wolves. Wolves are mainly hunted for sport, for their skins, to protect livestock, Wolves have been actively hunted since 8,000 to 10,000 years ago, when they first began to pose as a threat to livestock vital for the survival of Neolithic human communities. Historically, the hunting of wolves was a capital and manpower intensive operation, requiring miles of netting, specialized net-carts. The hunting of wolves, while originally actively endorsed in many countries, has become a controversial issue in some nations. Opponents see it as cruel, unnecessary and based on misconceptions, while proponents argue that it is vital for the conservation of game herds and as pest control. In AD 46-120, the first wolf bounty was opened when Solon of Athens offered five silver drachmas to any hunter for killing any male wolf. In Ancient Rome, the treatment given to wolves differed from the treatment meted out to large predators. The Romans generally seem to have refrained from intentionally harming wolves, in England of 950, King Athelstan imposed an annual tribute of 300 wolf skins on Welsh king Hywel Dda, an imposition which was maintained until the Norman conquest of England. At the time, several criminals, rather than being put to death, the Norman kings employed servants as wolf hunters and many held lands granted on condition they fulfilled this duty. William the Conqueror granted the lordship of Riddesdale in Northumberland to Robert de Umfraville on condition that he defend that land from enemies and wolves. There were no restrictions or penalties in the hunting of wolves, except in royal game reserves, King John gave a premium of 10 shillings for the capture of two wolves. James I of Scotland passed a law in 1427 requiring three wolf hunts a year between April 25 to August 1, coinciding with the wolfs cubbing season, the wolf became extinct in England during the reign of Henry VII. It is known that wolves survived in Scotland up until the 18th century, mary, Queen of Scots, is known to have hunted wolves in the forest of Atholl in 1563. Stories on the killing of the alleged last wolf of Scotland vary, official records indicate that the last Scottish wolf was killed by Sir Ewan Cameron in 1680. Popular folklore on the other hand tells of how an old man named MacQueen of Pall à Chrocain in the Findhorn Valley of Morayshire killed the last wolf in 1743. Ireland throughout most of the first half of the 17th century had a wolf population of not less than 400. Although the Irish hunted wolves, it is evident from data that they did not see the same need as the English to exterminate the wolves. Although wolves were perceived as threats, they were seen as natural parts of the Irish landscapes
15.
Woodcut
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Woodcut is a relief printing technique in printmaking. An artist carves an image into the surface of a block of wood—typically with gouges—leaving the printing parts level with the surface while removing the non-printing parts. Areas that the artist cuts away carry no ink, while characters or images at surface level carry the ink to produce the print, the block is cut along the wood grain. The surface is covered with ink by rolling over the surface with a roller, leaving ink upon the flat surface. Multiple colors can be printed by keying the paper to a frame around the woodblocks, single-leaf woodcut is a term for a woodcut presented as a single image or print, as opposed to a book illustration. Among these the best known are the 16th century Hieronymus Andreae, Hans Lützelburger and Jost de Negker, all of whom ran workshops, the formschneider in turn handed the block on to specialist printers. There were further specialists who made the blank blocks and this is why woodcuts are sometimes described by museums or books as designed by rather than by an artist, but most authorities do not use this distinction. The division of labour had the advantage that a trained artist could adapt to the medium relatively easily, there were various methods of transferring the artists drawn design onto the block for the cutter to follow. Either the drawing would be made directly onto the block, or a drawing on paper was glued to the block, either way, the artists drawing was destroyed during the cutting process. Other methods were used, including tracing, in both Europe and the Far East in the early 20th century, some artists began to do the whole process themselves. In Japan, this movement was called sōsaku-hanga, as opposed to shin-hanga, in the West, many artists used the easier technique of linocut instead. Compared to intaglio techniques like etching and engraving, only low pressure is required to print, as a relief method, it is only necessary to ink the block and bring it into firm and even contact with the paper or cloth to achieve an acceptable print. In Europe a variety of woods including boxwood and several nut and fruit woods like pear or cherry were commonly used, in Japan, there are three methods of printing to consider, Stamping, Used for many fabrics and most early European woodcuts. Used for European woodcuts and block-books later in the fifteenth century, also used for many Western woodcuts from about 1910 to the present. The block goes face up on a table, with the paper or fabric on top, the back is rubbed with a hard pad, a flat piece of wood, a burnisher, or a leather frotton. A traditional Japanese tool used for this is called a baren, later in Japan, complex wooden mechanisms were used to help hold the woodblock perfectly still and to apply proper pressure in the printing process. This was especially helpful once multiple colors were introduced and had to be applied with precision atop previous ink layers, printing in a press, presses only seem to have been used in Asia in relatively recent times. Printing-presses were used from about 1480 for European prints and block-books, simple weighted presses may have been used in Europe before the print-press, but firm evidence is lacking
16.
Tolistobogii
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Tolistobogii is the name used by the Roman historian, Livy, for one of the three ancient Celtic tribes of Galatia in central Asia Minor, together with the Trocmi and Tectosages. The tribe entered Anatolia in 279 BC as a contingent of Celtic raiders from the Danube region, the Galatians retained their Celtic language through the 4th century AD, when Saint Jerome mentions that the Galatians still spoke a Celtic language in his times. A non-Celtic origin for the root is also possible*tolisto-, the second root, *bogio-, means beat, pound and is a common element in Celtic personal names. The Tolistobogii for the part of their centuries-long stay in Galatia were located in what is now Eskişehir Province just to the west of Ankara. The Tolistobogii first appear as troops in the army of Brennus on its way to plunder Delphi in Greece in 279 BC. In Dardania, it is said, some 20,000 men under Leonorius and Lutarius in these three tribes seceded from Brennus and entered Thrace, where they collected tribute from the region, including Byzantium. Subsequently they crossed the Hellespont to fight as mercenaries for Nicomedes I of Bithynia, the Tolistobogii received Aeolia and Ionia as territory
17.
Celtic settlement of Eastern Europe
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Gallic groups, originating from the various La Tène chiefdoms, began a southeastern movement into the Balkan peninsula from the 4th century BC. Although Celtic settlements were concentrated in the half of the Carpathian Basin, there were notable incursions. From their new bases in northern Illyria and Pannonia, the Gallic invasions climaxed in the early 3rd century BC, a part of the invasion crossed over to Anatolia and eventually settled in the area that came to be named after them, Galatia. From the 4th century BC, Celtic groups pushed into the Carpathian region, the Boii and Volcae were two large Celtic confederacies who generally cooperated in their campaigns. Splinter groups moved south via two routes, one following the Danube river, another eastward from Italy. According to legend,300,000 Celts moved into Italy, by the 3rd century, the native inhabitants of Pannonia were almost completely Celticized. La Tène remains are found widely in Pannonia, but finds westward beyond the Tisza river and these finds are deemed to have been locally produced Norican-Pannonian variation of Celtic culture. Nevertheless, features are encountered that suggest ongoing contacts with distant provinces such as Iberia, thus, it appears that the Celts had created a new homeland for themselves in the southern part of Central Europe, in a region stretching from Poland to the river Danube. The political situation in the northern Balkans was in constant flux with various tribes dominant over their neighbors at any one time, within tribes, military expeditions were conducted by an enterprising and mobile warrior class able from time to time to conquer large areas and to exploit their population. The political situation in the Balkans during the 4th century BC played to the Celts advantage, the Illyrians had been waging war against the Greeks, leaving their western flank weak. While Alexander ruled Greece, the Celts dared not to push south near Greece, therefore, early Celtic expeditions were concentrated against Illyrian tribes. The first Balkan tribe to be defeated by the Celts was the Illyric Autariatae, an account of Celtic tactics is revealed in their attacks on the Ardiaei. In 335 BC, the Celts sent representatives to pay homage to Alexander the Great, some historians suggest that this diplomatic act was actually an evaluation of Macedonian military might. After the death of Alexander the Great, Celtic armies began to bear down on the regions, threatening the Greek kingdom of Macedonia. In 310 BC, the Celtic general Molistomos attacked deep into Illyrian territory, subduing the Dardanians, Paeonians, the new Macedonian king Cassander felt compelled to take his old Illyrian enemies under his protection. In 298 BC, the Celts attempted an attack into Thrace and Macedon. However, another body of Celts led by the general Cambaules marched on Thrace, the Celtic military pressure toward Greece in the southern Balkans reached its turning point in 281 BC. The collapse of Lysimachus successor kingdom in Thrace opened the way for the migration, the cause for this is explained by Pausanias as greed for loot, by Justin as a result of overpopulation, and by Memnon as the result of famine
18.
Julius Caesar
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Gaius Julius Caesar, known as Julius Caesar, was a Roman politician, general, and notable author of Latin prose. He played a role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic. In 60 BC, Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey formed an alliance that dominated Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to power as Populares were opposed by the Optimates within the Roman Senate. Caesars victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, extended Romes territory to the English Channel, Caesar became the first Roman general to cross both the Channel and the Rhine, when he built a bridge across the Rhine and crossed the Channel to invade Britain. These achievements granted him unmatched military power and threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, with the Gallic Wars concluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. Caesar refused the order, and instead marked his defiance in 49 BC by crossing the Rubicon with the 13th Legion, leaving his province, Civil war resulted, and Caesars victory in the war put him in an unrivalled position of power and influence. After assuming control of government, Caesar began a programme of social and governmental reforms and he centralised the bureaucracy of the Republic and was eventually proclaimed dictator in perpetuity, giving him additional authority. But the underlying political conflicts had not been resolved, and on the Ides of March 44 BC, a new series of civil wars broke out, and the constitutional government of the Republic was never fully restored. Caesars adopted heir Octavian, later known as Augustus, rose to power after defeating his opponents in the civil war. Octavian set about solidifying his power, and the era of the Roman Empire began, much of Caesars life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns, and from other contemporary sources, mainly the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings of Sallust. The later biographies of Caesar by Suetonius and Plutarch are also major sources, Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history. Caesar was born into a family, the gens Julia. The cognomen Caesar originated, according to Pliny the Elder, with an ancestor who was born by Caesarean section. The Historia Augusta suggests three alternative explanations, that the first Caesar had a head of hair, that he had bright grey eyes. Caesar issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favored this interpretation of his name, despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential, although they had enjoyed some revival of their political fortunes in the early 1st century BC. Caesars father, also called Gaius Julius Caesar, governed the province of Asia and his mother, Aurelia Cotta, came from an influential family. Little is recorded of Caesars childhood, in 85 BC, Caesars father died suddenly, so Caesar was the head of the family at 16
19.
Commentarii de Bello Gallico
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Commentarii de Bello Gallico, also simply Bellum Gallicum, is Julius Caesars firsthand account of the Gallic Wars, written as a third-person narrative. In it Caesar describes the battles and intrigues that took place in the nine years he spent fighting the Germanic peoples and Celtic peoples in Gaul that opposed Roman conquest. The Gaul that Caesar refers to is sometimes all of Gaul except for the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis, encompassing the rest of modern France, Belgium and some of Switzerland. On other occasions, he refers only to that territory inhabited by the Celtic peoples known to the Romans as Gauls, the work has been a mainstay in Latin instruction because of its simple, direct prose. It begins with the quoted phrase Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres. The full work is split into eight sections, Book 1 to Book 8, Book 8 was written by Aulus Hirtius, after Caesars death. The boni intended to prosecute Caesar for abuse of his authority upon his return, such prosecution would not only see Caesar stripped of his wealth and citizenship, but also negate all of the laws he enacted during his term as Consul and his dispositions as pro-consul of Gaul. To defend himself against these threats, Caesar knew he needed the support of the plebeians, particularly the Tribunes of the Plebs, by winning the support of the people, Caesar sought to make himself unassailable from the boni. The work is a paradigm of proper reporting and stylistic clarity and it is often lauded for its polished, clear Latin. It contains many details and employs many stylistic devices to promote Caesars political interests, the books are valuable for the many geographical and historical claims that can be retrieved from the work. Notable chapters describe Gaulish custom, their religion, and a comparison between Gauls and Germanic peoples, since Caesar is one of the characters in the Astérix and Obélix albums, René Goscinny included gags for French schoolchildren who had the Commentarii as a textbook. One example is having Caesar talk about himself in the person as in the book. Some English editions state that Astérixs village of indomitable Gauls is the part of Gaul. In Book 5, Chapter 44 the Commentarii de Bello Gallico notably mentions Lucius Vorenus and Titus Pullo, during World War I the French composer Vincent dIndy wrote his Third Symphony, which bears the title De Bello Gallico. DIndy was adapting Caesars title to the situation of the current struggle in France against the German army, in which he had a son and nephew fighting, and which the music illustrates to some extent. At Gutenberg Project, Caesars Commentaries, English translation by W. A. MACDEVITT, introduction by THOMAS DE QUINCEY De Bello Gallico, Latin text edition. The Gallic Wars By Julius Caesar, translated by W. A. McDevitte and W. S. Bohn, IVLI CAESARIS COMMENTARIORVM DE BELLO, TheLatinLibrary. com,2008. Dickinson College Commentaries Selections in Latin with notes, audio, Commentaries on the Gallic War public domain audiobook at LibriVox Wikisource, Commentaries on the Gallic War translated by W. A. McDevitte and W. S. Bohn, Books 1–8
20.
Quintus Aurelius Symmachus
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Quintus Aurelius Symmachus was a Roman statesman, orator, and man of letters. He held the offices of governor of proconsular Africa in 373, urban prefect of Rome in 384 and 385, two years later he made a famous appeal to Gratians successor, Valentinian II, in a dispatch that was rebutted by Ambrose, the bishop of Milan. Symmachuss career was derailed when he supported the short-lived usurper Magnus Maximus. Much of his writing has survived, nine books of letters, a collection of Relationes or official dispatches, Symmachus was educated in Gaul, apparently at Bordeaux or Toulouse. In early life he devoted to literature. As a representative of the cursus honorum, Symmachus sought to preserve the ancient religion of Rome at a time when the senatorial aristocracy was converting to Christianity. Symmachus was chosen by the Senate on account of his eloquence to lead a delegation of protest, subtly he pleads for tolerance for traditional cult practices and beliefs that Christianity was poised to suppress in the Theodosian edicts of 391. It was natural for Symmachus to sympathise with Magnus Maximus who had defeated Gratian, the date of his death is unknown, but one of his letters was written as late as 402. His leisure hours were devoted exclusively to literary pursuits, as is evident from the allusions in his letters to the studies in which he was engaged. His friendship with Ausonius and other distinguished authors of the era proves that he delighted in associating and corresponding with the learned, of his many writings, the following have survived, Nine or ten books of letters, published by his son. Many of the letters are notes extending to a few lines only, addressed to a circle of relations, friends. They relate for the most part to matters of little importance, a collection of Relationes or official dispatches, which is chiefly composed of the letters written by him when prefect of Rome to the emperors under whom he served. Panegyrics, written in his youth, two on Valentinian I and one on the youthful Gratian, fragments of various orations, discovered by Angelo Mai in palimpsests in the Ambrosian library and the Vatican. According one of his letters, Symmachus also engaged in the preparation of an edition of Livys Ab Urbe Condita. Seven manuscripts of the first decade of Livys extensive work bear subscriptions including Symmachus name along with Tascius Victorianus, Appius Nicomachus Dexter, zetzel has identified some of their effects to this tradition of the transmission of this portion of Livys work. In other letters, Symmachus describes preparations for his shows in the arena and he managed to procure antelopes, gazelles, leopards, lions, bears, bear-cubs, and even some crocodiles. Symmachus also purchased Saxon slaves to fight and die in the games and he was annoyed when twenty-nine of the Saxons strangled each other in their cells on the night before their final scheduled appearance. One quote of Symmachus from The Memorial of Symmachus, Prefect of the City reads, We gaze up at the stars, the sky covers us all
21.
Gaels
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The Gaels are an ethnolinguistic group native to northwestern Europe. They are associated with the Gaelic languages, a branch of the Celtic languages comprising Irish, Manx, historically, the ethnonyms Irish and Scots referred to the Gaels in general, but the scope of those nationalities is today more complex. Gaelic language and culture originated in Ireland, extending to Dál Riata in western Scotland, in antiquity the Gaels traded with the Roman Empire and also raided Roman Britain. In the Middle Ages, Gaelic culture became dominant throughout the rest of Scotland, there was also some Gaelic settlement in Wales and Cornwall. In the Viking Age, small numbers of Vikings raided and settled in Gaelic lands, in the 9th century, Dál Riata and Pictland merged to form the Gaelic Kingdom of Alba. Meanwhile, Gaelic Ireland was made up of several kingdoms, with a High King often claiming lordship over them, in the 12th century, Anglo-Normans conquered parts of Ireland, while parts of Scotland became Anglo-Normanized. However, Gaelic culture remained strong throughout Ireland, the Scottish Highlands, in the early 17th century, the last Gaelic kingdoms in Ireland fell under English control. In the following centuries most Gaels were gradually anglicized and Gaelic language mostly supplanted by English, however, it continues to be the main language in Irelands Gaeltacht and Scotlands Outer Hebrides. The modern descendants of the Gaels have spread throughout Britain, the Americas, Gaelic society traditionally centered around the clan, each with its own territory and chieftain, elected through tanistry. The Gaels were originally pagans who worshipped the Tuatha Dé Danann, venerated the ancestors and their four yearly festivals – Samhain, Imbolc, Beltane and Lughnasa – continued to be celebrated into modern times. The Gaels have an oral tradition, traditionally maintained by shanachies. Inscription in the Gaelic ogham alphabet began in the 1st century and their conversion to Christianity accompanied the introduction of writing, and Irish Gaelic has the oldest vernacular literature in western Europe. Irish mythology and Brehon law were preserved, albeit Christianized, Gaelic monasteries were renowned centres of learning and played a key role in developing Insular art, while Gaelic missionaries and scholars were highly influential in western Europe. In the Middle Ages, most Gaels lived in roundhouses and ringforts, the Gaels had their own style of dress, which became the belted plaid and kilt. They also have music, dance, and sports. Gaelic culture continues to be a component of Irish, Scottish. Throughout the centuries, Gaels and Gaelic-speakers have been known by a number of names, the most consistent of these have been Gael, Irish and Scots. The latter two have developed more ambiguous meanings, due to the modern concept of the nation state
22.
Irish Guards
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The Irish Guards recruit in Northern Ireland and the Irish neighbourhoods of major British cities. One way to distinguish between the five regiments of Foot Guards is the spacing of the buttons on their tunics, the Irish Guards have buttons arranged in groups of four as they were the fourth Foot Guards regiment to be founded. They also have a prominent St. Patricks blue plume on the side of their bearskins. The Irish Guards regiment was formed on 1 April 1900 by order of Queen Victoria to commemorate the Irishmen who fought in the Second Boer War for the British Empire. Following the outbreak of the First World War, 1st Battalion, The Irish Guards was deployed to France almost immediately, during the early part of the war, the battalion took part in the Battle of Mons and formed the Allied rearguard during the Great Retreat. The battalion then took part in one of the bloodiest battles of 1914, the First Battle of Ypres, the battle caused major casualties among the old Regular Army. The 1st Battalion was involved in fighting for the duration of First Ypres, at Langemarck, Gheluvelt, the 1st Battalion suffered huge casualties between November 1–8 holding the line against near defeat by German forces, while defending Klein Zillebeke. In May 1915, the 1st Irish Guards took part in the Battle of Festubert, Two further battalions were formed for the regiment in July. In September that year, the battalion, as well as the 2nd Irish Guards, who had reached France in August, took part in the Battle of Loos, both battalions spent the rest of 1915 in the trenches and did not fight in any major engagements. This relative quite period for the regiment was broken on 1 July 1916 when the Battle of the Somme began, the 1st Irish Guards took part in an action at Flers–Courcelette where they suffered severe casualties in the attack in the face of withering fire from the German machine-guns. The battalion also took part in the action at Morval before they were relieved the by the 2nd Irish Guards, in 1917 the Irish Guards took part in the Battle of Pilckem which began on the 31 July during the Third Battle of Ypres. The Irish Guards also took part in the Battle of Cambrai in that year, in 1918 the regiment fought in a number of engagements during the Second Battle of the Somme, including at Arras and Albert. The regiment then went on to part in a number of battles during the British offensives against the Hindenburg Line. On 11 November 1918 the Armistice with Germany was signed, the 1st Battalion, Irish Guards were at Maubeuge when the Armistice was signed. This proposal, however, did not find favour in government or army circles and was dropped, between the wars, the regiment was deployed at various times to Turkey, Gibraltar, Egypt and Palestine. During the Second World War, battalions of the regiment fought in Norway, France, North Africa and Italy and following D-Day in France, Belgium, the regiment first saw combat during the Norwegian Campaign. Following a challenging sea voyage to Norway, the 1st Irish Guards arrived in May 1940, the Irish Guards conducted a fighting withdrawal and served as the Allied rearguard. The battalion were evacuated along with the rest of the force in June
23.
John, King of England
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John, also known as John Lackland, was King of England from 6 April 1199 until his death in 1216. The baronial revolt at the end of Johns reign led to the sealing of Magna Carta, John, the youngest of five sons of King Henry II of England and Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine, was at first not expected to inherit significant lands. Following the failed rebellion of his brothers between 1173 and 1174, however, John became Henrys favourite child. He was appointed the Lord of Ireland in 1177 and given lands in England, Johns elder brothers William, Henry and Geoffrey died young, by the time Richard I became king in 1189, John was a potential heir to the throne. John unsuccessfully attempted a rebellion against Richards royal administrators whilst his brother was participating in the Third Crusade, John spent much of the next decade attempting to regain these lands, raising huge revenues, reforming his armed forces and rebuilding continental alliances. Johns judicial reforms had a impact on the English common law system. An argument with Pope Innocent III led to Johns excommunication in 1209, Johns attempt to defeat Philip in 1214 failed due to the French victory over Johns allies at the battle of Bouvines. When he returned to England, John faced a rebellion by many of his barons, although both John and the barons agreed to the Magna Carta peace treaty in 1215, neither side complied with its conditions. Civil war broke out shortly afterwards, with the barons aided by Louis of France and it soon descended into a stalemate. John was born to Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine on 24 December 1166, Henry had inherited significant territories along the Atlantic seaboard—Anjou, Normandy and England—and expanded his empire by conquering Brittany. The result was the Angevin Empire, named after Henrys paternal title as Count of Anjou and, more specifically, its seat in Angers. The Empire, however, was fragile, although all the lands owed allegiance to Henry. As one moved south through Anjou and Aquitaine, the extent of Henrys power in the provinces diminished considerably, scarcely resembling the concept of an empire at all. Some of the ties between parts of the empire such as Normandy and England were slowly dissolving over time. It was unclear what would happen to the empire on Henrys death, most believed that Henry would divide the empire, giving each son a substantial portion, and hoping that his children would continue to work together as allies after his death. To complicate matters, much of the Angevin empire was held by Henry only as a vassal of the King of France of the line of the House of Capet. Henry had often allied himself with the Holy Roman Emperor against France, shortly after his birth, John was passed from Eleanor into the care of a wet nurse, a traditional practice for medieval noble families. Eleanor then left for Poitiers, the capital of Aquitaine, and sent John and this may have been done with the aim of steering her youngest son, with no obvious inheritance, towards a future ecclesiastical career
24.
Gelert
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Gelert is a legendary dog associated with the village of Beddgelert in Gwynedd, north-west Wales. The story of Gelert is a variation on the well-worn Faithful Hound folk-tale motif and it is classified as Aarne–Thompson type 178A. Here, the dog is alleged to have belonged to Llywelyn the Great, Prince of Gwynedd, in this legend, Llywelyn returns from hunting to find his baby missing, the cradle overturned, and the dog with a blood-smeared mouth. Believing the dog savaged the child, Llywelyn draws his sword, after the dogs dying yelp Llywelyn hears the cries of the baby, unharmed under the cradle, along with a dead wolf which had attacked the child and been killed by Gelert. Llywelyn is then overcome with remorse and he buries the dog with great ceremony, after that day Llywelyn never smiles again. Despite this, and despite the presence of a mound in the village called Gelerts Grave. He notes that to this day the visitor to Snowdon is told the story, and shown the place, called Beth-Gellert. Nevertheless, the story occurs in the lore of nearly every Aryan people. The tale indeed appears in numerous cultures with minor variations, the Alpine ligurian poem R sacrifisi dr can, written in Ligurian, tells of how a shepherd shot his sheepdog after finding it covered in sheep blood, only to later find a dead wolf in the stable. In India, a black snake replaces the wolf and a mongoose replaces the dog, in Egypt, the story goes that a cook nearly killed a Wali for having smashed a pot of herbs, but later discovers that the pot contained a poisonous snake. In Malaysian folklore, a similar story involves a tame bear, as in the story of Gelert, the hunter returns home from an expedition, and finds his daughter gone and the bear covered in blood. In the Disney movie, Lady and the Tramp, the Tramp is carried off to the pound after Aunt Sarah finds him in the room with the cradle overturned. Luckily, Lady manages to show Jim Dear the big, dead rat behind the curtain, happily in this version of the tale, Gelert is saved in time. It is now accepted that the village of Beddgelert took its name from a saint named Kilart or Celert. The grave mound is ascribed to David Prichard, landlord of the Goat Hotel in Beddgelert in the eighteenth century. On the supposed grave of Gelert there are two memorials, one in Welsh and the other in English. The latter reads, GELERTS GRAVE IN THE 13TH CENTURY, LLYWELYN, PRINCE OF NORTH WALES, ONE DAY HE WENT HUNTING WITHOUT GELERT THE FAITHFUL HOUND WHO WAS UNACCOUNTABLY ABSENT. ON LLYWELYNS RETURN, THE TRUANT STAINED AND SMEARED WITH BLOOD, THE PRINCE ALARMED HASTENED TO FIND HIS SON, AND SAW THE INFANTS COT EMPTY, THE BEDCLOTHES AND FLOOR COVERED WITH BLOOD
25.
Llywelyn the Great
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Llywelyn the Great, full name Llywelyn ap Iorwerth, was a Prince of Gwynedd in north Wales and eventually de facto ruler over most of Wales. By a combination of war and diplomacy he dominated Wales for 45 years, during Llywelyns boyhood, Gwynedd was ruled by two of his uncles, who split the kingdom between them, following the death of Llywelyns grandfather, Owain Gwynedd, in 1170. Llywelyn had a claim to be the legitimate ruler and began a campaign to win power at an early age. He was sole ruler of Gwynedd by 1200 and made a treaty with King John of England that year, Llywelyns relations with John remained good for the next ten years. He married Johns natural daughter Joan in 1205, and when John arrested Gwenwynwyn ap Owain of Powys in 1208, in 1210, relations deteriorated, and John invaded Gwynedd in 1211. Llywelyn was forced to seek terms and to give up all lands west of the River Conwy and he allied himself with the barons who forced John to sign Magna Carta in 1215. By 1216, he was the dominant power in Wales, holding a council at Aberdyfi that year to apportion lands to the other princes, following King Johns death, Llywelyn concluded the Treaty of Worcester with his successor, Henry III, in 1218. During the next fifteen years, Llywelyn was frequently involved in fights with Marcher lords and sometimes with the king, but also made alliances with several major powers in the Marches. The Peace of Middle in 1234 marked the end of Llywelyns military career and he maintained his position in Wales until his death in 1240 and was succeeded by his son Dafydd ap Llywelyn. Llywelyn was born about 1173, the son of Iorwerth ap Owain and the grandson of Owain Gwynedd, Llywelyn was a descendant of the senior line of Rhodri Mawr and therefore a member of the princely house of Gwynedd. He was probably born at Dolwyddelan, though not in the present Dolwyddelan castle and he may have been born in the old castle which occupied a rocky knoll on the valley floor. Little is known about his father, Iorwerth Drwyndwn, who died when Llywelyn was an infant, there is no record of Iorwerth having taken part in the power struggle between some of Owain Gwynedds other sons following Owains death, although he was the eldest surviving son. There is a tradition that he was disabled or disfigured in some way that excluded him from power, by 1175, Gwynedd had been divided between two of Llywelyns uncles. Dafydd ab Owain held the area east of the River Conwy, Dafydd and Rhodri were the sons of Owain by his second marriage to Cristin verch Goronwy. This marriage was not considered valid by the church as Cristin was Owains first cousin, giraldus Cambrensis refers to Iorwerth Drwyndwn as the only legitimate son of Owain Gwynedd. Following Iorwerths death, Llywelyn was, at least in the eyes of the church, Llywelyns mother was Marared, occasionally anglicised to Margaret, daughter of Madog ap Maredudd, prince of Powys. There is evidence that, after her first husbands death, Marared married in the summer of 1197, Gwion, therefore, some maintain that Marared never married into the Corbet family of Caus Castle and later, Moreton Corbet Castle. In 1194, with the aid of his cousins Gruffudd ap Cynan and Maredudd ap Cynan, Rhodri died in 1195, and his lands west of the Conwy were taken over by Gruffudd and Maredudd while Llywelyn ruled the territories taken from Dafydd east of the Conwy
26.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
27.
Edmund Campion
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Saint Edmund Campion, S. J. was an English Roman Catholic Jesuit priest and martyr. While conducting a ministry in officially Anglican England, Campion was arrested by priest hunters. Convicted of high treason, he was hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburn, Campion was beatified by Pope Leo XIII in 1886 and canonised in 1970 by Pope Paul VI as one of the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales. His feast is celebrated on 1 December, born in London on 24 January 1540, Campion was the son of a bookseller in Paternoster Row, near St Pauls Cathedral. He received his education at Christs Hospital school and, at the age of 13, was chosen to make the complimentary speech when Queen Mary visited the city in August 1553. He then attended St Johns College, Oxford, becoming fellow in 1557 and taking the required Oath of Supremacy. He took a degree at Oxford in 1564. Two years later, Campion welcomed Queen Elizabeth to the university and he was selected to lead a public debate in front of the Queen. By the time the Queen had left Oxford, Campion had earned the patronage of the powerful William Cecil and also the Earl of Leicester, when Sir Thomas White, the founder of the college, was buried in 1567, the Latin oration fell to the lot of Campion. Inwardly he took a remorse of conscience and detestation of mind, for some three months he eluded his pursuers, going by the name Mr Patrick and occupying himself by writing A Historie of Ireland. He entered the English College founded by William Allen, the enrollment of the college grew, and a papal subsidy was granted a little time after Campions arrival. Campion found himself reunited with Oxford friends and he was to teach rhetoric while there and finish studying for the degree of Bachelor of Divinity, which was granted him by the University of Douai on 21 January 1573. He received minor orders after this and was ordained sub-deacon, Campion then travelled to Rome on foot, alone and in the guise of a pilgrim, to join the Jesuits. In April 1573, in Rome, he became the first novice accepted into the Society of Jesus by Mercurianus and he was assigned to the Austrian Province as there was not yet an English province of the Jesuits and began his two-year novitiate at Brunn in Moravia. He was ordained deacon and priest by Anthony Brus, O. M. C. R. S, archbishop of Prague and said his first Mass on 8 September 1578. For six years, Campion taught at the Jesuit college in Prague as professor of rhetoric and philosophy. In 1580, the Jesuit mission to England began, the mission was strictly forbidden, according to Campions Brag, to deal in any respects with matters of state or policy of this realm. Robert Persons who, as superior, was intended to counterbalance his own fervour and he had been surprised to learn that he was chosen to take part in the mission, and expressed the fear that he lacked constitutional courage
28.
Wicklow Mountains
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The Wicklow Mountains form the largest continuous upland area in Ireland. They occupy the centre of County Wicklow and stretch outside its borders into Counties Dublin, Wexford. Where the mountains extend into County Dublin, they are known locally as the Dublin Mountains, the highest peak is Lugnaquilla at 925 metres. The mountains are composed of granite surrounded by an envelope of mica-schist. They were pushed up during the Caledonian orogeny at the start of the Devonian period and form part of the Leinster Chain, the mountains owe much of their present topography to the effects of the last ice age, which deepened the valleys and created corrie and ribbon lakes. Copper and lead have been the main metals mined in the mountains, several major river systems have their source in the mountains, such as the Liffey, Dargle, Slaney and Avoca rivers. Powerscourt Waterfall is the tallest in Ireland at 121 metres, a number of these rivers have been harnessed to create reservoirs for drinking water for Dublin and its surroundings. The Wicklow Mountains experience a temperate climate with mild, damp summers and cool. The dominant habitat of the consists of blanket bog, heath. The uplands support a number of species, including merlin. The valleys are a mixture of coniferous and deciduous woodland, the mountains have been inhabited since Neolithic times and a number of typical monuments, in particular a series of passage tombs, survive to the present day. The monastery at Glendalough, founded in the late 6th century by Saint Kevin, was an important centre of the Early Church in Ireland, following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, the Wicklow Mountains became a stronghold and hiding place for Irish clans opposed to English rule. The OByrne and OToole families carried out a campaign of harassment against the settlers for almost five centuries, later the mountains harboured rebels during the 1798 Rising. The Wicklow Mountains continue to be an attraction for tourism. The entire upland area is designated as a Special Area of Conservation, the Wicklow Mountains National Park was established in 1991 to conserve the local biodiversity and landscape. The Wicklow Mountains take their name from County Wicklow which in turn takes its name from Wicklow town, the origin of the name is from the Danish Wykynglo or Wykinlo. The Irish name for Wicklow, Cill Mhantáin, means Church of Mantan, Wicklow was not established as a county until 1606, prior to that it had been part of County Dublin. An early name for the area of the Wicklow Mountains was Cualu
29.
Oliver Cromwell
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Oliver Cromwell was an English military and political leader and later Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Cromwell was born into the gentry, albeit to a family descended from the sister of King Henry VIIIs minister Thomas Cromwell. Little is known of the first 40 years of his life as only four of his letters survive alongside a summary of a speech he delivered in 1628. He became an Independent Puritan after undergoing a conversion in the 1630s. He was a religious man, a self-styled Puritan Moses. He was elected Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in 1628 and for Cambridge in the Short and he entered the English Civil War on the side of the Roundheads or Parliamentarians. Cromwell was one of the signatories of King Charles Is death warrant in 1649 and he was selected to take command of the English campaign in Ireland in 1649–1650. Cromwells forces defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland and occupied the country, during this period, a series of Penal Laws were passed against Roman Catholics, and a substantial amount of their land was confiscated. Cromwell also led a campaign against the Scottish army between 1650 and 1651, as a ruler, he executed an aggressive and effective foreign policy. He died from natural causes in 1658 and was buried in Westminster Abbey, the Royalists returned to power in 1660, and they had his corpse dug up, hung in chains, and beheaded. In a 2002 BBC poll in Britain, Cromwell, sponsored by military historian Richard Holmes was selected as one of the ten greatest Britons of all time. However, his measures against Catholics in Scotland and Ireland have been characterised as genocidal or near-genocidal, Cromwell was born in Huntingdon on 25 April 1599 to Robert Cromwell and Elizabeth Steward. Katherine married Morgan ap William, son of William ap Yevan of Wales, Henry suggested to Sir Richard Williams, who was the first to use a surname in his family, that he use Cromwell, in honour of his uncle Thomas Cromwell. They had ten children, but Oliver, the child, was the only boy to survive infancy. Jasper was the uncle of Henry VII and great uncle of Henry VIII, Cromwells paternal grandfather Sir Henry Williams was one of the two wealthiest landowners in Huntingdonshire. Cromwells father Robert was of modest means but still a part of the gentry class, as a younger son with many siblings, Robert inherited only a house at Huntingdon and a small amount of land. This land would have generated an income of up to £300 a year, near the bottom of the range of gentry incomes, Cromwell himself in 1654 said, I was by birth a gentleman, living neither in considerable height, nor yet in obscurity. He was baptised on 29 April 1599 at St Johns Church and he went on to study at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, then a recently founded college with a strong Puritan ethos
30.
Kilkenny
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Kilkenny is a city in south-east part of Ireland and the county town of County Kilkenny. It is on banks of the River Nore in the province of Leinster. The boroughs population is 8,711, but the majority live outside the borough boundary, Kilkenny is a popular tourist destination. In 2009 the City of Kilkenny celebrated its 400th year since the granting of city status in 1609, though referred to as a city, Kilkenny is the size of a large town relative to Irish urban population centres. Kilkenny is well known for its culture with craft and design workshops, annual events include Kilkenny Arts Festival, the Cat Laughs comedy festival and music at the Rhythm and Roots festival and the Source concert. It is a base for exploring the surrounding towns, villages. Controversy exists at the moment around the Kilkenny Central Access Scheme which is a proposed to be built through the town centre. Kilkenny began with a sixth century ecclesiastical foundation within the kingdom of Ossory. Following Norman invasion of Ireland, Kilkenny Castle and a series of walls were built to protect the burghers of what became a Norman merchant town, William Marshall, Lord of Leinster, gave Kilkenny a charter as a town in 1207. By the late thirteenth century Kilkenny was under Norman-Irish control, the Statutes of Kilkenny passed at Kilkenny in 1367, aimed to curb the decline of the Hiberno-Norman Lordship of Ireland. In 1609 King James I of England granted Kilkenny a Royal Charter giving it the status of a city. Following the Rebellion of 1641, the Irish Catholic Confederation, also known as the Confederation of Kilkenny, was based in Kilkenny, Kilkenny was a famous brewing centre from the late seventeenth century, and houses multiple breweries still. In the late twentieth century Kilkenny is a tourist and creative centre, the Heritage Council offices are at Church Lane. The seat of the Roman Catholic Bishop of Ossory is at St. Marys Cathedral, nearby larger cities include Waterford 45 kilometres south-southeast, Limerick 93 kilometres west and Dublin 101 kilometres northeast. Kilkenny is the version of the Irish Cill Chainnigh, meaning Cell/Church of Cainneach or Canice. This relates to a built in honour of St. Canice on the hill now containing St. Canices Cathedral. This seems to be the first major settlement, the early Christian origin of the round tower suggests an early ecclesiastical foundation at Kilkenny. The Annals of the Four Masters recorded Kilkenny in 1085, prior to this time the early 6th century territory was known as Osraighe, referring to the whole district or the capital
31.
Mount Leinster
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Mount Leinster is a 796-metre-high mountain in the Republic of Ireland. It straddles the border between Counties Carlow and Wexford, in the province of Leinster and it is the fifth-highest mountain in Leinster after Lugnaquilla 925m, Mullaghcleevaun 849m, Tonelagee 817m, and Cloghernagh 800m, and the highest of the Blackstairs Mountains. A 2RN transmission site tops the peak with a mast height of 122 m, the transmission site is a popular location for hang gliding and RC Glider enthusiasts to launch from. In 2003, a glider pilot died from injuries sustained in the crash landing of his flight launched from the mountain. There is a memorial at the peak of the mountain, the mountain is most often climbed from the Nine Stones, a landmark point at the foot of Mount Leinster, about 8 miles east of Borris. From Borris there is a road to a car park on the mountain. From there the steep 2RN access road leads to the summit and this road is closed to normal traffic and 2RN have now fenced off the transmitter mast from public access to prevent vandalism. The Nine Stones and the car park lie on the saddle between Mount Leinster and the nearby Slievebawn, there are in fact ten stones. They are arranged in a line and the largest is about 50 cm high, the origin of the stones is uncertain. Mount Leinster has been used in stages of the Tour of Ireland and it may be climbed from the Borris side in County Carlow or the Bunclody side in County Wexford. Ascending from Borris the climb is 11 km long and has a gradient of 6. 9%. The last two kilometres are very tough reaching a gradient of almost 16%, although the climb from Bunclody is slightly longer at 13 km its average gradient is 5. 9%. The last kilometre of this climb is difficult with a gradient of 16. 3%, the mountain is also used by The ML Syndicate who use the area for trail riding and MTB sporting events. The Mount Leinster transmitter is owned and operated by 2RN and at 796m ASL it is the highest transmission site in Ireland and it was one of the original five main Telefís Éireann television transmitters when it opened on low power in December 1962. It became fully operational on 12 June 1963 with a 625-line service on VHF Band III Channel F, the new RTÉ Radio FM service was added in 1966, and RTÉs second television channel RTÉ2 was carried on VHF when it started in 1978. UHF television transmissions from Mount Leinster began in 1996 with the introduction of Teilifís na Gaeilge, the original 1962 mast was replaced in 2010 with a taller one of 122m in preparation for digital television transmissions. In common with all the other 2RN sites, analogue television transmissions from Mount Leinster ceased on 24 October 2012, today the site provides the Irish digital television service Saorview, and eight FM radio stations to a large area of South East Ireland. List of mountains in Ireland Aircraft, - Rheims/Cessna F182 Registration, - G-BKGY Pilot-In-Command, the aircraft departed Birmingham at 0745 hrs GMT
32.
Borzoi
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The Borzoi, also called the Russian wolfhound, is a breed of domestic dog. Descended from dogs brought to Russia from central Asian countries, it is similar in shape to a greyhound, the system by which Russians over the ages named their sighthounds was a series of descriptive terms, not actual names. Borzói is the singular form of an archaic Russian adjective that means fast. Borzáya sobáka is the term used by Russians, though sobáka is usually dropped. The name Psovaya derived from the word Psovina, which means wavy, silky coat, in Russia today the breed we know as the borzoi is officially known as Russkaya Psovaya Borzaya. Other Russian sighthound breeds are Stepnaya Borzaya, called Stepnoi, and Krimskaya Borzaya, the most commonly used plural form is the regular formation borzois, which is the only plural cited in most dictionaries. However, the Borzoi Club of America and the Borzoi Club UK both prefer borzoi as the form for both singular and plural forms, Borzois are large Russian sighthounds that resemble some central Asian breeds such as the Afghan hound, Saluki, and the Kyrgyz Taigan. Borzois can generally be described as long-haired greyhounds, Borzois come in virtually any colour. The borzoi coat is silky and flat, often wavy or slightly curly, the long top-coat is quite flat, with varying degrees of waviness or curling. The soft undercoat thickens during winter or in climates, but is shed in hot weather to prevent overheating. In its texture and distribution over the body, the coat is unique. There should be a frill on its neck, as well as feathering on its hindquarters, Borzoi males frequently weigh more than 100 pounds. Males stand at least 30 inches at the shoulder, while the height of females is around 26 inches, despite their size, the overall impression is of streamlining and grace, with a curvy shapeliness and compact strength. The borzoi is a quiet, but athletic and independent dog, most borzois are almost silent, barking only very rarely. They do not have strong territorial drives and cannot be relied on to raise the alarm upon sighting a human intruder, the borzoi is extremely smart and requires patient, experienced handling. They are gentle and highly sensitive dogs with a respect for humans. Borzois do not generally display dominance or aggression towards people, typically however, they are rather reserved with strangers but affectionate with people they know well. Their sensitivity to invasion of their personal space can make them nervous around children unless they are brought up with them, despite their size, borzois adapt very well to suburban life, provided they have a spacious yard and regular opportunities for free exercise
33.
Great Dane
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The Great Dane is a large German breed of domestic dog known for its giant size. The German name of the breed is Deutsche Dogge, or German Mastiff, the French name is Dogue Allemand. The Great Dane is one of the tallest dog breeds, the record holder for tallest dog was a Great Dane called Zeus, that measured 111.8 cm from paw to shoulder. Scooby-Doo is a fictional dog of this breed. Large boarhounds resembling the Great Dane appear in ancient Greece, in frescoes from Tiryns dating back to the 14th–13th centuries BC and these large boarhounds continue to appear throughout ancient Greece in subsequent centuries up to the Hellenistic era. The Molossian hound, Suliot dog, and specific imports from Greece were used in the 18th century to increase the stature of the boarhounds in Austria and Germany and the wolfhounds in Ireland. Bigger dogs are depicted on numerous runestones in Scandinavia, on coinage in Denmark from the fifth century AD, the University of Copenhagen Zoological Museum holds at least seven skeletons of very large hunting dogs, dating from the fifth century BC to 1000 AD. They were dog hybrids in different sizes and phenotypes with no formal breed and these dogs were called Englische Docke or Englische Tocke – later written and spelled, Dogge – or Englischer Hund in Germany. The name simply meant English dog, after time, the English word dog came to be the term for a molossoid dog in Germany and in France. Since the beginning of the 17th century, these dogs were bred in the courts of German nobility, the dogs were used for hunting bear, boar, and deer at princely courts, with the favorites staying at night in the bedchambers of their lords. These Kammerhunde were outfitted with gilded collars, and helped protect the sleeping princes from assassins. While hunting boar or bears, the Englische Dogge was a dog used after the other hunting dogs to seize the bear or boar. When the hunting customs changed, particularly because of the use of firearms, the Englische Dogge became rare, and was kept only as a dog of hobby or luxury. In the 19th century, the dog was known as a German boarhound in English-speaking countries, the Great Dane is a large German domestic dog known for its giant size. As described by the American Kennel Club, The Great Dane combines, in its appearance, dignity, strength, and elegance with great size. It is one of the giant working breeds, but is unique in that its general conformation must be so well balanced that it never appears clumsy, the Great Dane is a short-haired breed with a strong, galloping figure. In the ratio between length and height, the Great Dane should be square, the male dog should not be less than 30 in at the shoulders, a female 28 in. Danes under minimum height are disqualified, from year to year, the tallest living dog is typically a Great Dane
34.
Scottish Deerhound
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The Scottish Deerhound, or simply the Deerhound, is a large breed of hound, once bred to hunt the Red Deer by coursing. The Scottish Deerhounds antecedents existed back to a time before recorded history and they would have been kept by the Scots and Picts, and used to help in providing part of their diet, mainly hoofed game. Archaeological evidence likely supports this in the form of Roman pottery from around 1st Century AD found in Argyll which depicts the deerhunt using large rough hounds. Other similar evidence can be found on standing stones from around the 7th century AD reflecting a hunt using hounds, in outward appearance, the Scottish Deerhound is similar to the Greyhound, but larger and more heavily boned. However, Deerhounds have a number of characteristics that set them apart, while not as fast as a Greyhound on a smooth, firm surface, once the going gets rough or heavy they can outrun a Greyhound. The environment in which worked, the cool, often wet. The Deerhound is closely related to the Irish Wolfhound and was the main contributor to the recovery of that breed when it was re-created at the end of the 19th century. The Deerhound was bred to hunt red deer by “coursing”, with modern rifles and smaller deer-forests, slower tracking dogs were preferred to fast and far-running Deerhounds. With the eventual demise of the systems in Scotland, these hunting dogs became sporting animals for landowners and the nobility. As fast and silent hunters they made quick work of any game the size of a hare or larger and were regarded by nobility. The new fashion was for stalking and shooting, which required only a dog to follow the wounded animal. Although a few estates still employed Deerhounds for their original work, in Australia, deerhounds have been used to hunt the kangaroo and wild boar. In addition, according to Teddy Roosevelt in Hunting the Grisley and Other Sketches, the Scottish Deerhound resembles a rough-coated Greyhound. It is however, larger in size and bone, height of males from 30 to 32 inches or more, weight 85 to 110 pounds, height of females from 28 inches upwards, weight from 75 to 95 pounds. It is one of the tallest sighthounds, with a harsh 3-4 inch long coat and mane, somewhat softer beard and moustache and it has small, dark rose ears which are soft and folded back against the head unless held semi-erect in excitement. The harsh, wiry coat in dogs is only seen in self-coloured various shades of gray. Historically, Deerhounds also could be seen with true brindle, yellow, 19th century Scottish paintings tend to indicate these colours were associated with a wire haired coat, but, with show breeders preferring a longer coat, these genes now appear to be lost. A white chest and toes are allowed, and a white tip to the tail
35.
English Mastiff
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The English Mastiff is a breed of extremely large dog perhaps descended from the ancient Alaunt and Pugnaces Britanniae, with a significant input from the Alpine Mastiff in the 19th century. Distinguishable by enormous size, massive head, and a range of colours, but always displaying a black mask. The lineage of modern dogs can be traced back to the early 19th century, following a period of sharp decline, the Mastiff has increased its worldwide popularity. Throughout its history, the Mastiff has contributed to the development of a number of dog breeds, some known as Mastiff-type dogs, or, confusingly. With a massive body, broad skull and head of generally square appearance and it is on average slightly heavier than the Saint Bernard, although there is a considerable mass overlap between these two breeds. Though the Irish Wolfhound and Great Dane can be more than six inches taller, the body is large with great depth and breadth, especially between the forelegs, causing these to be set wide apart. The length of the body taken from the point of the shoulder to the point of the buttock is greater than the height at the withers. The AKC standard height for this breed is 30 inches at the shoulder for males and 27.5 inches at the shoulder for females, a typical male can weigh 150–250 pounds, a typical female can weigh 120–200 pounds, with very large individuals reaching 130 kg or more. The former standard specified the coat should be short and close-lying, long haired Mastiffs, called Fluffies, are occasionally seen, due to a recessive gene, but this trait is not accepted by any kennel club. The colour is apricot-fawn, silver-fawn, fawn, or dark fawn-brindle, always with black on the muzzle, ears, and nose and around the eyes. The colours of the Mastiff coat are differently described by various kennel clubs, a black mask should occur in all cases. The fawn is generally a light shade, but may range up to a golden yellow. The apricot may be a reddish hue up to a deep. The brindle markings should ideally be heavy, even and clear stripes, other non-standard colours include black, blue brindle, and chocolate mask. Some Mastiffs have a heavy shading caused by dark hairs throughout the coat or primarily on the back and this is not generally considered a fault. Brindle is dominant over solid colour, apricot is dominant over fawn, though that dominance may be incomplete. Most of the faults are recessive, though black is so rare in the Mastiff that it cannot be certain if it is recessive. The genetic basis for the variability of coat in dogs has been much studied, on the basis of what is known, the gene possibilities allowed by the Mastiff standard are AyBDEmhmS
36.
Kerry Blue Terrier
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The Kerry Blue Terrier is a breed of dog. Today the Kerry has spread around the world as a companion, puppies are born black, the blue appears gradually as the puppy grows older, usually up to 2 years of age. The male Kerry Blue is usually 45–50 cm tall at the withers and weighs 13. 6–18 kg, while the female is usually 43–48 cm, the coat is the key feature of the Kerry. It is soft and wavy with no undercoat, the texture feels like a combination of fine human hair and wool. It does not shed but continues to grow throughout the year and this means the Kerry Blue requires very regular grooming and clipping an average of every 6 weeks. Kerry Blue Terriers are strong-headed and highly spirited and they have always been loyal and affectionate towards their owners and very gentle towards children but were often considered downright mean toward other animals, including other dogs. If they are socialised with other dogs this is no longer the case, in the early days of competitive dog showing, the Irish Kennel Club required Kerries had to pass a gameness test, known as Teastas Mor certification, before they were deemed worthy of being judged. These tests included catching rabbits and bringing a badger to bay in its set and they are fast, strong, and intelligent, and they do well in obedience, dog agility, sheep herding, and tracking. They have been used as dogs in Ireland. Modern breeders have attempted to retain high spirits whilst breeding out aggression, as a long-legged breed, the activity level of the Kerry Blue Terrier ranges from moderate to high. They require an active, skilled owner who can provide them with early socialisation, the Kerry is said to have an amazing sense of humour or even a touch of the blarney. Ideally, owners should have a sense of themselves to fully appreciate a Kerry — to be owned by a Kerry is a famous quote in Kerry circles. Kerries are fairly healthy, but there are genetic disorders that are prevalent in the breed. They are prone to eye problems such as Keratoconjunctivitis sicca, cataracts and they sometimes get cysts or tumorous growths in their skin, but these are rarely malignant. Hip dysplasia, hypothyroidism, cryptorchidism have also been reported occasionally, progressive neuronal abiotrophy is also seen but rare in the population. This condition is referred to as Cerebellar cortical abiotrophy or Cerebellar Abiotrophy. Another skin-related health issue is spiculosis though this has been bred out by some breeders. This is a disorder that produces abnormally thick hairs that are also called thorns
37.
Michael Collins (Irish leader)
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Michael Collins was a soldier and politician who was a leading figure in the struggle for Irish independence in the early 20th century. Subsequently, he was both Chairman of the Provisional Government and Commander-in-chief of the National Army, Collins was shot and killed in an ambush in August 1922 during the Irish Civil War. Born in Woodfield, Sams Cross, near Clonakilty, County Cork, Collins was the third son, most biographies give his date of birth as 16 October 1890, but his tombstone cites 12 October 1890. Referred to in a British secret service report as brainy, the Collins family were part of an ancient clan and they had republican connections that can be traced back to the 1798 rebellion. Collins father, Michael John, was a farmer by profession, a mathematician in his spare time, he had been a member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood movement. The elder Collins was 60 years old when he married Mary Anne OBrien, then 23 and they brought up eight children on a 90-acre farm called Woodfield, which the Collins had held as tenants for several generations. On his death bed, his father predicted that his daughter Helena would become a nun and she later did, known as Sister Mary Celestine, based in Whitby. He then turned to the family and told them to care of Michael. Hell do great work for Ireland, Michael was six years old when his father died. Collins was a bright and precocious child with a fiery temper and he named a local blacksmith, James Santry, and his headmaster at Lisavaird National School, Denis Lyons, as the first nationalists to personally inspire his pride of Irishness. Lyons was a member of the IRB, while Santrys family had participated in, and forged arms for, there are a number of anecdotal explanations for the origin of his nickname, The Big Fellow. The most authoritative comes from his family, stating that he was called this as a child and it had been a term of endearment for their youngest brother, who was always keen to take on tasks beyond his years. It was certainly established by his teens, long before he emerged as a political or military leader. At the age of thirteen he boarded at Clonakilty National School, during the week he stayed with his sister Margaret Collins-ODriscoll and her husband Patrick ODriscoll, while at weekends he returned to the family farm. Patrick ODriscoll founded the newspaper The West Cork People and Collins helped out with general reporting jobs, in 1910 he became a messenger at a London firm of stockbrokers, Horne and Company. While living in London he studied law at Kings College London and he joined the London GAA and, through this, the IRB. Sam Maguire, a republican from Dunmanway, County Cork, introduced the 19-year-old Collins to the IRB, an organiser of considerable intelligence, Collins had become highly respected in the IRB. This led to his appointment as financial advisor to Count Plunkett, father of one of the Easter Risings organisers, Collins took part in preparing arms and drilling troops for the insurrection
38.
Rugby football
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Rugby is a type of football developed at Rugby School in Rugby, Warwickshire, one of many versions of football played at English public schools in the 19th century. The two main types of rugby are rugby league and rugby union, although rugby league initially used rugby union rules, they are now wholly separate sports. Following the 1895 split in rugby football, the two rugby league and rugby union differed in administration only. Soon the rules of rugby league were modified, resulting in two different forms of rugby. After 100 years, in 1995 rugby union joined rugby league, the Greeks and Romans are known to have played many ball games, some of which involved the use of the feet. These games appear to have resembled rugby football, the Roman politician Cicero describes the case of a man who was killed whilst having a shave when a ball was kicked into a barbers shop. Roman ball games already knew the air-filled ball, the follis, episkyros is recognised as an early form of football by FIFA. In 1871, English clubs met to form the Rugby Football Union, in 1892, after charges of professionalism were made against some clubs for paying players for missing work, the Northern Rugby Football Union, usually called the Northern Union, was formed. The existing rugby union authorities responded by issuing sanctions against the clubs, players, after the schism, the separate clubs were named rugby league and rugby union. Rugby union is both a professional and amateur game, and is dominated by the first tier unions, Argentina, Australia, England, France, Ireland, Italy, New Zealand, Scotland, South Africa and Wales. Rugby Union is administered by World Rugby, whose headquarters are located in Dublin and it is the national sport in New Zealand, Wales, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga and Madagascar, and is the most popular form of rugby globally. The Olympic Games have admitted the seven-a-side version of the game, known as Rugby sevens, there was a possibility sevens would be a demonstration sport at the 2012 London Olympics but many sports including sevens were dropped. In Canada and the United States, rugby union evolved into gridiron football, during the late 1800s, the two forms of the game were very similar, but numerous rule changes have differentiated the gridiron-based game from its rugby counterpart. Rugby league is also both a professional and amateur game, administered on a level by the Rugby League International Federation. International Rugby League is dominated by Australia, England and New Zealand, in Papua New Guinea it is the national sport. Other nations from the South Pacific and Europe also play in the Pacific Cup, distinctive features common to both rugby codes include the oval ball and throwing the ball forward is not allowed, so that players can gain ground only by running with the ball or by kicking it. As the sport of rugby league moved further away from its counterpart, rule changes were implemented with the aim of making a faster-paced. League players may not contest possession after making a tackle, play is continued with a play-the-ball, in league, if the team in possession fails to score before a set of six tackles, it surrenders possession
39.
Ireland national rugby league team
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The Ireland national rugby league team, known as the Wolfhounds, represents the whole island of Ireland in rugby league football. The team is organised by Rugby League Ireland, the representative team is dominated by players from the European Super League and sometimes includes players from the Australasian National Rugby League. Ireland is also represented by an Ireland A side, which is made up of players from the domestic Irish competition and they have also competed in the Rugby League European Nations Cup and Victory Cup. Ireland A compete in the St Patricks Day Challenge in the USA, Irish players have in the past been selected to play for the Great Britain side, one recent example being Cork-born Brian Carney. However, since the Great Britain team was split into individual nations in 2007, in 1995 the British RFL established Irelands first development officer and later that year Ireland played against the United States in Washington on St Patricks Day with Ireland winning 24-22. Wigan Warriors player Joe Lydon came on as a substitute despite him being there as manager, huddersfield Giants coach Terry Flanagan and former Great Britain international Niel Wood were the joint coaches. In August 1996 Ireland beat Scotland at the RDS Arena in Dublin as a curtain raiser to the charity match between Leeds Rhinos and Wigan Warriors. Former Great Britain player Des Foy played for Ireland, following their appearance at the 1995 Emerging Nations Tournament they were invited to the Super League World Nines in Fiji where they finished 8th. Prior to the tournament Ireland played a game of rugby against Australia in Fijis National Stadium on 20 February going down 12-20. Ireland were included in the tournament held in England and were placed in Group 2 alongside Moldova, Ireland beat Moldova 48-24 before beating Morocco 42-6 to progress to the final. Gigg Lane in Bury was the venue for the final against Cook Islands, the Irish team improved its standards but this development gave less opportunity for Irish-based players to get a chance to play. However, Irish-based players were included in the Irish squad for the tournaments in 1998 against France and Scotland and 1999 against Scotland. Their success was enough to earn a place in the 2000 World Cup, finishing top of their group, the Irish eventually lost 26–16 to England in the quarter-finals, but the performance set the scene for future developments in Ireland. Ireland were drawn against Lebanon and Russia in Europes 2008 Rugby League World Cup Qualifying Pool Two, Ireland topped the group with a 16–16 draw with Lebanon at Dewsbury on 2 November 2007. The draw meant Ireland qualified for the 2008 World Cup on points difference from Lebanon as both nations gained the number of group points. At the 2008 World Cup in Australia, Ireland were in Group C along with Tonga and they lost to Tonga on 27 October in Parramatta, Sydney, but were victorious against Samoa, again in Parramatta, on 5 November and topped the group on points difference. As the group winners, they played Fiji, winners of Group B, Fiji won 30–14 and so Ireland were eliminated. For the 2013 World Cup being staged in England, Wales, France, Ireland have been drawn in group A alongside Australia, England and 2008 World Cup rivals Fiji
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