1.
Lawrenceville (Pittsburgh)
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Lawrenceville is one of the largest neighborhood areas in Pittsburgh in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. It is located northeast of downtown, and like many of the riverfront neighborhoods. Lawrenceville is bordered by the Allegheny River, Polish Hill, Bloomfield, the city considers Lawrenceville three neighborhoods, Upper Lawrenceville, Central Lawrenceville, and Lower Lawrenceville, but these distinctions have little practical effect. Accordingly, Lawrenceville is almost universally treated as being a large neighborhood. Lawrenceville was founded in 1814 by William B, Foster, father of composer Stephen Foster, who was born there in 1826. It is named for Captain James Lawrence, hero of the War of 1812, famous for his dying words, Dont Give Up The Ship. Lawrenceville was selected as home to the Allegheny Arsenal, due to The areas accessibility to river transportation, incorporated as a borough on 18 February 1834, Lawrenceville was annexed to the city of Pittsburgh in 1868. One of the buildings, a log home built in the 1820s. Washingtons Landing is named after an event in 1753 in which George Washington was thrown from his raft while crossing the Allegheny River, however, Washington did not actually land on Washingtons Landing—he landed on McCulloughs Island. Although Washingtons Landing still exists, McCulloughs Island, which sat much closer to the mainland and it is not clear what happened to McCulloughs Island. It is possible that it simply eroded away into nothing, or—considering how narrow the channel was between it and Lawrenceville—it might have incorporated into the mainland. Lawrencevilles primary zip code is 15201, though a small section shares 15224 with Bloomfield and Garfield, the neighborhood is home to landmarks such as Allegheny Cemetery, Arsenal Middle School, Arsenal Park, and Doughboy Square. Lawrenceville maintains much of its aesthetic, with narrow row houses and old warehouses lining streets. The Childrens Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC opened a new facility in Lawrenceville on May 2,2009 and this addition has helped spawn Lawrencevilles transformation, bringing new job and business opportunities to the area. The New York Times has since called the neighborhood a go-to destination, transplanted young hipsters and life-long Lawrenceville residents dwell side by side, as relatively affordable housing has attracted those looking to buy or renovate property. Lawrenceville is currently a premier art, live music, and dining hub of Western Pennsylvania, Butler Street is its main artery, housing a number of restaurants, bars, boutiques, furniture stores, and coffee shops. Some of the most popular dining locales include Industry Public House, Coca Cafe, Piccolo Forno, and the Church Brew Works, in addition to food, drink, and retail, Lawrenceville is also home to Arsenal Lanes, a longstanding bowling alley with a full-stocked bar. In 2014, Row House Cinema opened up on Butler Street, Lawrencevilles nightlife scene has grown tremendously in recent years, as residents of surrounding neighborhoods and suburbs flock to bars and music venues
2.
Pittsburgh
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Pittsburgh is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in the United States, and is the county seat of Allegheny County. The city proper has a population of 304,391. The metropolitan population of 2,353,045 is the largest in both the Ohio Valley and Appalachia, the second-largest in Pennsylvania, and the 26th-largest in the U. S. The city features 30 skyscrapers, two inclines, a fortification and the Point State Park at the confluence of the rivers. Aside from steel, Pittsburgh has led in manufacturing of aluminum, glass, shipbuilding, petroleum, foods, sports, transportation, computing, autos, and electronics. For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind only New York and Chicago in corporate headquarters employment, Americas 1980s deindustrialization laid off area blue-collar workers and thousands of downtown white-collar workers when the longtime Pittsburgh-based world headquarters moved out. The area has served also as the federal agency headquarters for cyber defense, software engineering, robotics, energy research. The area is home to 68 colleges and universities, including research and development leaders Carnegie Mellon University, the region is a hub for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, sustainable energy, and energy extraction. Pittsburgh was named in 1758 by General John Forbes, in honor of British statesman William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. The current pronunciation, which is unusual in English speaking countries, is almost certainly a result of a printing error in some copies of the City Charter of March 18,1816. The error was repeated commonly enough throughout the rest of the 19th century that the pronunciation was lost. After a public campaign the original spelling was restored by the United States Board on Geographic Names in 1911. The area of the Ohio headwaters was long inhabited by the Shawnee, the first known European to enter the region was the French explorer/trader Robert de La Salle from Quebec during his 1669 expedition down the Ohio River. European pioneers, primarily Dutch, followed in the early 18th century, Michael Bezallion was the first to describe the forks of the Ohio in a 1717 manuscript, and later that year European fur traders established area posts and settlements. In 1749, French soldiers from Quebec launched an expedition to the forks to unite Canada with French Louisiana via the rivers, during 1753–54, the British hastily built Fort Prince George before a larger French force drove them off. The French built Fort Duquesne based on LaSalles 1669 claims, the French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years War, began with the future Pittsburgh as its center. British General Edward Braddock was dispatched with Major George Washington as his aide to take Fort Duquesne, the British and colonial force were defeated at Braddocks Field. General John Forbes finally took the forks in 1758, Forbes began construction on Fort Pitt, named after William Pitt the Elder while the settlement was named Pittsborough
3.
Pennsylvania
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Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Litre
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The litre or liter is an SI accepted metric system unit of volume equal to 1 cubic decimetre,1,000 cubic centimetres or 1/1,000 cubic metre. A cubic decimetre occupies a volume of 10×10×10 centimetres and is equal to one-thousandth of a cubic metre. The original French metric system used the litre as a base unit. The word litre is derived from an older French unit, the litron, whose name came from Greek — where it was a unit of weight, not volume — via Latin, and which equalled approximately 0.831 litres. The litre was also used in subsequent versions of the metric system and is accepted for use with the SI. The spelling used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures is litre, the less common spelling of liter is more predominantly used in American English. One litre of water has a mass of almost exactly one kilogram. Subsequent redefinitions of the metre and kilogram mean that this relationship is no longer exact, a litre is defined as a special name for a cubic decimetre or 10 centimetres ×10 centimetres ×10 centimetres. Hence 1 L ≡0.001 m3 ≡1000 cm3, from 1901 to 1964, the litre was defined as the volume of one kilogram of pure water at maximum density and standard pressure. The kilogram was in turn specified as the mass of a platinum/iridium cylinder held at Sèvres in France and was intended to be of the mass as the 1 litre of water referred to above. It was subsequently discovered that the cylinder was around 28 parts per million too large and thus, during this time, additionally, the mass-volume relationship of water depends on temperature, pressure, purity and isotopic uniformity. In 1964, the definition relating the litre to mass was abandoned in favour of the current one, although the litre is not an official SI unit, it is accepted by the CGPM for use with the SI. CGPM defines the litre and its acceptable symbols, a litre is equal in volume to the millistere, an obsolete non-SI metric unit customarily used for dry measure. The litre is often used in some calculated measurements, such as density. One litre of water has a mass of almost exactly one kilogram when measured at its maximal density, similarly,1 millilitre of water has a mass of about 1 g,1,000 litres of water has a mass of about 1,000 kg. It is now known that density of water depends on the isotopic ratios of the oxygen and hydrogen atoms in a particular sample. The litre, though not an official SI unit, may be used with SI prefixes, the most commonly used derived unit is the millilitre, defined as one-thousandth of a litre, and also often referred to by the SI derived unit name cubic centimetre. It is a commonly used measure, especially in medicine and cooking, Other units may be found in the table below, where the more often used terms are in bold
6.
Pale lager
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Pale lager is a very pale-to-golden-coloured lager beer with a well attenuated body and a varying degree of noble hop bitterness. This approach was picked up by brewers, most notably Josef Groll of Bavaria who produced Pilsner Urquell in the city of Pilsen in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The resulting Pilsner beers – pale-coloured, lean and stable beers – were very successful, Bavarian brewers in the sixteenth century were required by law to brew beer only during the cooler months of the year. In order to have beer available during the hot months, beers would be stored in caves and stone cellars. In the period 1820–1830, a brewer named Gabriel Sedlmayr II the Younger, whose family was running the Spaten Brewery in Bavaria, when he returned, he used what he had learned to get a more stable and consistent lager beer. The new recipe of the lager beer spread quickly over Europe. Pale lagers tend to be dry, lean, clean-tasting and crisp, flavours may be subtle, with no traditional beer ingredient dominating the others. Hop character ranges from negligible to a dry bitterness from noble hops, the main ingredients are water, Pilsner malt and noble hops, though some brewers use adjuncts such as rice or corn to lighten the body of the beer. There tends to be no butterscotch flavour from diacetyl, due to the slow, cold fermentation process. In 1842 Josef Groll of Pilsen, a city in western Bohemia in what is now the Czech Republic, used some of these methods to produce Pilsner Urquell and this beer proved so successful that other breweries followed the trend, using the name Pilsner. With the success of Pilsens golden beer, the town of Dortmund in Germany started brewing pale lager in 1873, as Dortmund was a major brewing centre, and the town breweries grouped together to export the beer beyond the town, the brand name Dortmunder Export became known. Today, breweries in Denmark, the Netherlands, and North America brew pale lagers labelled as Dortmunder Export, the earliest known brewing of pale lager in America was in the Old City section of Philadelphia by John Wagner in 1840 using yeast from his native Bavaria. Modern American lagers are usually made by large breweries such as Anheuser-Busch, lightness of body is a cardinal virtue, both by design and since it allows the use of a high percentage of rice or corn. Though all lagers are well attenuated, a fully fermented pale lager in Germany goes by the name Diät-Pils or Diätbier. Because the available sugars are fully fermented, dry beers often have an alcohol content. The first dry beer, Gablingers Diet Beer, was released in 1967, Owades developed an enzyme that could further break down starches, so that the finished product contained fewer residual carbohydrates and was lower in food energy. Since the 2012 revisions to the Diätverordnung, it is no longer permitted to label beer as Diät in Germany, but it may be advertised as suitable for diabetics. Prior to this change, a Diätbier could contain no more than 7.5 g of unfermented carbohydrates per liter, and this was followed by other dry beer brands such as Bud Dry, though the marketing concept was not considered a success
7.
Low-alcohol beer
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Low-alcohol beer is beer with low alcohol content or no alcohol, which aims to reproduce the taste of beer without the inebriating effects of standard alcoholic brews. Most low-alcohol beers are lagers, but there are some low-alcohol ales, in the United States, beverages containing less than 0. 5% alcohol by volume were legally called non-alcoholic, according to the now-defunct Volstead Act. Because of its low alcohol content, non-alcoholic beer may be legally sold to minors in many American states. In Australia, the light beer refers to any beer with less than 3% alcohol. Spain is the consumer and producer of low-alcohol beer in the European Union. More recently, the movements and the need to avoid alcohol while driving, operating machinery etc led to the development of non-intoxicating beers. In the United States, non-alcoholic brews were promoted during Prohibition, in 1917, President Wilson proposed limiting the alcohol content of malt beverages to 2. 75% to try to appease avid prohibitionists. In 1919, Congress approved the Volstead Act, which limited the content of all beverages to 0. 5%. These very low alcohol beverages became known as tonics, and many breweries began brewing them in order to stay in business during Prohibition, since removing the alcohol from the beer requires just one simple extra step, many breweries saw it as an easy change. In 1933, when Prohibition was repealed, breweries easily removed this extra step, by the 1980s and 1990s, growing concerns about alcoholism led to the growing popularity of light beers, with Anheuser-Buschs Bud Light eventually becoming the most popular beverage in the U. S. A. In the 2010s, breweries have focused on marketing low-alcohol beers to counter the popularity of homebrew, declining consumption has also led to the introduction of mass-market non-alcoholic beverages, dubbed as near beer. At the start of the 21st century, alcohol-free beer has seen a rise in popularity in the Middle East, one reason for this is that Islamic scholars issued fatwas which permitted the consumption of beer as long as large quantities could be consumed without getting drunk. Positive features of non-alcoholic brews include the ability to drive after consuming several drinks, the reduction in alcohol-related illness, some common complaints about non-alcoholic brews include a loss of flavor, addition of one step in the brewing process, sugary taste, and a shorter shelf life. Some state governments, e. g. Pennsylvania, prohibit the sale of non-alcoholic brews to persons under the age of 21, Light beer is beer with reduced alcohol content and/or calories compared to regular beer. The spelling lite beer is commonly used. Light beers may be chosen by drinkers who wish to manage their consumption or their calorie intake. In Australia, regular beers have approximately 5% ABV, reduced-alcohol beers have 2. 2%–3. 2%, in Canada, a reduced-alcohol beer contains 2. 6%–4. 0% ABV, and an “extra-light” beer contains less than 2. 5%. In the United States, most reduced-alcohol beers, including Bud Light, Coors Light, and Miller Lite, have 4. 2% ABV, which is 16% less than beer with 5% ABV
8.
Dunkel
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Dunkel, or Dunkles, is a word used for several types of dark German lager. Dunkel is the German word meaning dark, and dunkel beers typically range in colour from amber to dark reddish brown and they are characterized by their smooth malty flavour. In Bavaria, Dunkel, along with helles, is a traditional style brewed in Munich, with alcohol concentrations of 4. 5% to 6% by volume, dunkels are weaker than Doppelbocks, another traditional dark Bavarian beer. Dunkels are produced using Munich malts which give the Dunkel its colour, other malts or flavours may also be added. Many dunkels have a distinctive malty flavour that comes from a special brewing technique called decoction mashing, most commonly, dunkel beers are dark lagers, but the term is also used to refer to dark wheat beers such as Franziskaner Hefe-Weisse Dunkel. Dunkel weizen is another term used to refer to dark wheat beers, which are fruity and sweet with more dark, roasted malts than their lighter counterpart, the hefeweizen. Dunkels were the style of the Bavarian villages and countryside. As such, it is the first fully codified and regulated beer and its ABV is rarely higher than 5. 5%, and it has low bitterness, a distinctive dark color, and a malty flavor. Dunkel is brewed using lager yeasts, lighter-coloured lagers were not common until the later part of the 19th century when technological advances made them easier to produce. Dunkel is also widespread in parts of Franconia, for example the Franconian Switzerland, the region has a lot of microbreweries, of which many still produce Dunkel. One Example is Weissenohe Abbey Brewery. J, cala, which can be found in the book Four Different Faces. Munich Dunkel – by K. Florian Klemp – All About Beer Magazine
9.
Lager
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Lager is a type of beer that is conditioned at low temperatures, normally at the brewery. It may be pale, golden, amber, or dark, although one of the most defining features of lager is its maturation in cold storage, it is also distinguished by the use of a specific yeast. On the other hand, German Altbier and Kölsch, brewed with a top-fermenting yeast at a warm temperature, until the 19th century, the German word Lagerbier referred to all types of bottom-fermented, cool-conditioned beer, in normal strengths. In Germany today however, the term is reserved for the prevalent lager beer styles of southern Germany, Helles. Pilsner, a heavily hopped pale lager, is most often known as Pilsner, Pilsener. Other lagers are Bock, Märzen, and Schwarzbier, in the United Kingdom, the term lager commonly refers specifically to pale lagers, many of which are derived from the Pilsner style. Worldwide, pale lager is the most widely consumed and commercially available style of beer and it is often known primarily by its brand name, and labeled simply as beer. Well-known brands include Miller, Stella Artois, Becks, Brahma, Budweiser, Corona, Snow, Tsingtao, Kirin Company, Heineken, Carling, Fosters, and Carlsberg. In 2011, a team of researchers claimed to have discovered that Saccharomyces eubayanus is responsible for creating the hybrid yeast used to make lager. To further protect the cellars from the heat, they would plant chestnut trees. The practice of serving beer at these sites evolved into the beer garden. The first large-scale refrigerated lagering tanks were developed for Gabriel Sedelmayrs Spaten Brewery in Munich by Carl von Linde in 1870, Lager beer uses a process of cool fermentation, followed by maturation in cold storage. The German word Lager means storeroom or warehouse, the yeast generally used with lager brewing is Saccharomyces pastorianus. It is a relative of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast used for warm fermented ales. While prohibited by the German Reinheitsgebot tradition, lagers in some countries often feature large proportions of adjuncts, adjuncts entered United States brewing as a means of thinning out the body of U. S. beers, balancing the large quantities of protein introduced by six-row barley. Adjuncts are often used now in beermaking to introduce a large quantity of sugar, there are however cases in which adjunct usage actually increases the cost of manufacture. The examples of lager beers produced worldwide vary greatly in flavour, colour, composition, pale lager Helles Pilsner — Pilsner Urquell, Stella Artois Märzen Bock Dark lager Dunkel Dopplebock Schwarzbier The most common lager beers in worldwide production are pale lagers. The flavor of these lighter lagers is usually mild, and the producers often recommend that the beers be served refrigerated, pale lager is a very pale to golden-coloured lager with a well attenuated body and noble hop bitterness
10.
Malt liquor
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Malt liquor, in North America, is beer with high alcohol content. Legally, it includes any alcoholic beverage with 5% or more alcohol by volume made with malted barley. In common usage it refers to containing a high alcohol content, generally above 6%. This label is subject to the viewpoint of the brewer, and there are examples of brews containing high-quality, in parts of Canada, the term malt liquor is used to refer to any malt beverages in general. These beers tend to be mildly hopped, that is, they are not very bitter, Malt liquor is typically straw to pale amber in color. While typical beer is primarily from barley, water, and hops, malt liquors tend to make much greater use of inexpensive adjuncts such as corn, rice. Use of these adjuncts, along with the addition of special enzymes, higher alcohol versions, sometimes called high-gravity or just HG, may contain high levels of fusel alcohols, which gives off solvent- or fuel-like aromas and flavors. The confusing and inconsistent use of the malt liquor has to do with the vagaries of American alcoholic beverage regulations. In some states, products labeled beer must fall below a certain alcohol content, while ordinary beers in the United States average around 5% alcohol by volume, malt liquors typically range from 6% up to 9% alcohol by volume. A typical legal definition is Colorados Rev. Stat. ss, alcohol percentages measured by weight translate into larger figures when re-expressed as alcohol percentages by volume, because ethanol is less dense than water. The term malt liquor is documented in England in 1690 as a term encompassing both beer and ale. While Colt 45, St. Ides, Mickeys, Steel Reserve, King Cobra, and Olde English 800 are most closely associated with malt liquors in the United States, the beverage itself is older than these products. Clix is often credited as the first malt liquor made in the United States, the first widely successful malt liquor brand in America was Country Club, which was produced in the early 1950s by the M. K. Goetz Brewing Company in St. Joseph, Missouri. In the American vernacular, a forty-ounce or simply forty is a glass or plastic bottle that holds 40 fluid ounces of malt liquor, American domestic malt liquors tend to be very inexpensive although this is not necessarily true for foreign imports that are also labeled malt liquor. Dogfish Head Brewery has sporadically produced a high-end bottle-conditioned forty called Liquor de Malt, ballantine markets its ale in a forty-ounce bottle as well. Forties are often mentioned in hip-hop and rap culture by rap stars endorsing the 40 Ounce tradition, a similar trend was common around the late 1990s and early 2000s punk scene, with such songs as 40. oz Casualty by The Casualties and Rock the 40. Oz. by Leftöver Crack, and 40oz. to Freedom by Sublime, another example of an imported beer labeled as malt liquor is German brewer Spatens Optimator, a doppelbock that weighs in at 7.6 ABV. There was a short lived fashion for brewing American style malt liquors in Britain in the late 1970s, some of these were genuine American brands brewed under license, notably Colt 45, and some were simply inspired by the style
11.
Brown ale
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Brown ale is a style of beer with a dark amber or brown colour. The term was first used by London brewers in the late 17th century to describe their products, such as mild ale, 18th-century brown ales were lightly hopped and brewed from 100% brown malt. Today there are brown ales made in regions, most notably England, Belgium. In the 18th century, British brown ales were brewed to a variety of strengths and these beers died out around 1800 as brewers moved away from using brown malt as a base. Pale malt, being cheaper because of its yield, was used as a base for all beers, including Porter. The term brown ale was revived at the end of the 19th century when London brewer Mann introduced a beer with that name, however, the style only became widely brewed in the 1920s. The brown ales of this period were considerably stronger than most modern English versions, in 1926, Manns Brown Ale had an original gravity of 1.043 and an ABV of around 4%. Whitbread Double Brown was even stronger, an OG of 1.054, the introduction of these beers coincided with a big increase in demand for bottled beer in the UK. In the 1930s some breweries, such as Whitbread, introduced a second weaker and cheaper brown ale that was sometimes just a version of dark Mild. These beers had a gravity of around 1.037. After World War II, stronger brown ales, with the exception of a handful of examples from the northeast of England, the majority had an OG in the range 1. 030–1.035, or around 3% ABV, much like Manns Brown Ale today. North American brown ales trace their heritage to American home brewing adaptations of certain northern English beers, north American examples include Sam Adams Brown Ale and Brooklyn Brown Ale. They range from deep amber to brown in colour, caramel and chocolate flavours are evident. Brown ales from northeastern England tend to be strong and malty, often nutty, north American brown ales are usually drier than their English counterparts, with a slight citrus accent and an aroma, bitterness, and medium body due to American hop varieties. When chilled to cold temperatures, some haziness may be noticed
12.
Pale ale
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Pale ale is an ale made with predominantly pale malt. The higher proportion of pale malts results in a lighter color, the term pale ale first appeared around 1703 for beers made from malts dried with coke, which resulted in a lighter color than other beers popular at that time. Different brewing practices and hop levels have resulted in a range of taste, coke had been first used for dry roasting malt in 1642, but it wasnt until around 1703 that the term pale ale was first applied to beers made from such malt. By 1784, advertisements appeared in the Calcutta Gazette for light, by 1830, the expressions bitter and pale ale were synonymous. Breweries would tend to designate beers as pale ale, though customers would commonly refer to the beers as bitter. It is thought that customers used the term bitter to differentiate these pale ales from other less noticeably hopped beers such as porter and mild. A small amount of crystal or other colored malt is added to the pale ale base to produce a slightly darker color. In North America, American-variety hops are used in varying degrees of bitterness, in Australia the most popular Amber Ale is from Malt Shovel Brewery, branded James Squire in honour of Australias first brewer, who first brewed beer in Sydney in 1794. American Pale Ale was developed around 1980, the beer was popular, and became a regular in 1983. Other pioneers of a hoppy American pale ale were Jack McAuliffe of the New Albion Brewing Company, American Pale Ales are generally around 5% abv with significant quantities of American hops, typically Cascade. Although American brewed beers tend to use a cleaner yeast, the style is close to the American India Pale Ale, and boundaries blur, though IPAs are stronger and more assertively hopped. The style is close to Amber Ale, though Amber Ales are darker and maltier due to use of crystal malts. Bière de Garde, or keeping beer, is a pale ale brewed in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of France. These beers were brewed by farmhouses in the winter and spring. The origins of the lies in the tradition that it was matured/cellared for a period of time once bottled, to be consumed later in the year. Blonde ales are very pale in color, the term Blonde for pale beers is common in Europe and South America - particularly in France, Belgium, the UK, and Brazil - though the beers may not have much in common, other than color. Blondes tend to be clear, crisp, and dry, with bitterness and aroma from hops. Fruitiness from esters may be perceived, a lighter body from higher carbonation may be noticed
13.
Beer
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Beer is the worlds oldest and most widely consumed alcoholic drink, it is the third most popular drink overall, after water and tea. Most beer is flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, the fermentation process causes a natural carbonation effect, although this is often removed during processing, and replaced with forced carbonation. Beer is sold in bottles and cans, it may also be available on draught, particularly in pubs, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. The strength of beer is usually around 4% to 6% alcohol by volume, archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilisations. Approximately 5000 years ago, workers in the city of Uruk were paid by their employers in beer, the earliest known chemical evidence of barley beer dates to circa 3500–3100 BC from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran. The Ebla tablets, discovered in 1974 in Ebla, Syria, a fermented beverage using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC. Unlike sake, mould was not used to saccharify the rice, almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation. It is likely that many cultures, on observing that a liquid could be obtained from a source of starch. Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for development of other technologies, Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC, and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today, alongside the basic starch source, the early European beers might contain fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices and other substances such as narcotic herbs. What they did not contain was hops, as that was an addition, first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot. Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies. As of 2006, more than 133 billion litres, the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side, of beer are sold per year, the process of making beer is known as brewing. A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery, a company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company. Beer made on a scale for non-commercial reasons is classified as homebrewing regardless of where it is made. Brewing beer is subject to legislation and taxation in developed countries, however, the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963, followed by Australia in 1972 and the US in 1978, allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby
14.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
15.
Latrobe, Pennsylvania
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Latrobe /leɪˈtroʊb/ is a city in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania in the United States and part of the Pittsburgh metropolitan area. The city population was 8,338 as of the 2010 census and it is located near Pennsylvanias scenic Chestnut Ridge. Latrobe was incorporated as a borough in 1854, and as a city in 1999, the current Mayor is Rosemarie M. Wolford. Among its claims to fame, Latrobe is the home of Saint Vincent Archabbey and it was the childhood home of Fred Rogers, childrens television personality who was buried there in Unity Cemetery after his death in 2003. While it was believed for years that the first professional American football game was played in Latrobe, Latrobe is home of the first banana split, invented in Latrobe by David Strickler in 1904. Latrobe is also home to the camp of the six time Super Bowl champion Pittsburgh Steelers. In May 2006, Anheuser-Busch purchased the Rolling Rock brands, in June 2006, City Brewing Company from La Crosse, Wisconsin entered into negotiations to buy the brewery. In September 2006, City Brewing Company agreed to purchase the brewery, sam Adams production did not last long. The plant is currently brewing Iron City Beer under contract, in addition, Duquesne Bottling Company has brewed the revived Duquesne Beer, The Prince of Pilseners, at the Latrobe plant. In 1852, Oliver Barnes laid out the plans for the community that was incorporated in 1854 as the Borough of Latrobe, Barnes named the town for his best friend and college classmate, Benjamin Latrobe, who was a civil engineer for the B&O Railroad. Its location along the route of the Pennsylvania Railroad helped Latrobe develop into a significant industrial hub, Latrobe was also served by the Ligonier Valley Railroad from 1877 to 1952. In 1904, the split was invented in Latrobe by David Evans Strickler at Stricklers Drug Store. Two interurban lines served Latrobe, The Westmoreland County Railway Company connected Latrobe to Derry, also, Latrobe Street Railway Company began operations in 1900, connecting Latrobe to Kingston. That line was purchased by West Penn Railways, which linked it with its network running through Youngstown, Pleasant Unity. Latrobe has two sites on the National Register of Historic Places within its city boundaries, Pennsylvania Railroad Station at Latrobe, citizens National Bank of Latrobe, At six stories, this is the city’s tallest building, previously known as the Mellon Bank Building. This 1926 structure was designed by the Greensburg firm of Batholomew & Smith, from 1895 until 1909, Latrobe was the home of the Latrobe Athletic Association, one of the earliest professional football teams. The teams quarterback, John Brallier, became the first football player to playing for money. In 1895 he accepted $10 and expenses to play for Latrobe in a 12-0 victory over the Jeannette Athletic Club, Brallier was thought to be the very first professional football player, until the 1960s
16.
Latrobe Brewing Company
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Latrobe Brewing Company in Latrobe, Pennsylvania, founded in 1893, was one of the largest breweries in the United States and the maker of Rolling Rock beer. It was purchased by Labatt Brewing Company in 1987, which in turn was purchased in 1995 by the Belgian brewing conglomerate corporation Interbrew, in May 2006, InBev announced that it was selling the Rolling Rock brands to Anheuser-Busch, the largest brewer in the United States. On June 21,2006, InBev signed a letter of intent with City Brewing Company from La Crosse, Wisconsin, City Brewing currently operates the historic G. Heileman Brewery in La Crosse. However, with the sale of the plant still in limbo, the Latrobe Brewing Company plant officially shut down on July 31,2006, in September 2006, City Brewing Company from La Crosse, Wisconsin agreed to purchase the Brewery. In March 2007, the Brewery reopened its doors and produced Samuel Adams, the Boston Beer Company signed a deal with the plants current owners, City Brewing Company in April 2007 to produce beer in the plant. The Boston Beer Company had pledged 3 to 7 million dollars to upgrade the plant and it is estimated that 200,000 to 250,000 barrels of beer would be produced in the plant during the remainder of 2007. In late October 2008, City Brewery-Latrobe laid off 70 workers forcing a temporary shutdown, Boston Beer Co. has since moved their operations to an old Schaefer plant they purchased near Allentown, PA. In May 2009, Iron City Brewing signed a deal with City Brewing Co to once again begin producing beer at the plant, with brewing started in June, in July 2009 some Southampton brands were moved to Latrobe from Lion Brewing. In addition to Iron City Beer, City Brewing also produces Stoneys and Stoneys Light, on December 8,2009 City Brewing completed the installation of a can line and started canning in 12 and 16 ounce packages. A24 ounce can line was expected to be completed in early 2010, in 2012, Diageo moved production of the U. S. supply of Red Stripe from Jamaica to the U. S. City Brewing Company is producing the supply in their Latrobe brewery, guinness Blonde is also currently being brewed in this brewery. City Brewery website Rolling Rock website
17.
Rolling Rock
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Rolling Rock is a 4. 4% abv American lager launched in 1939 by the Latrobe Brewing Company. Although founded as a beer in Western Pennsylvania, it was marketed aggressively and eventually became a national product. The brand was sold to Anheuser-Busch of St. Louis, Missouri, in mid-2006, from 1939 until July 26,2006, Rolling Rock was brewed at the Latrobe Brewing Company in Latrobe, Pennsylvania, a small city 34 miles ESE of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. As stated on the bottle, it was brewed in large glass-lined tanks, on May 19,2006, Anheuser-Busch purchased the Rolling Rock and Rolling Rock Green Light brands from InBev for $82 million and began brewing Rolling Rock at its Newark facility in mid July,2006. The final batch of Rolling Rock was shipped from Latrobe on July 31,2006, union leaders in Westmoreland County organized a nationwide boycott of Anheuser-Busch and InBev brands because of the move. Anheuser-Busch has said that Rolling Rocks original pledge on the label will be preceded by these words, To honor the tradition of this great brand, we quote from the original pledge of quality. In July 2008, InBev reached a deal to acquire Anheuser-Busch, thereby returning ownership of Rolling Rock to InBev, now known as Anheuser–Busch InBev, in 2009, Anheuser-Busch InBev announced that it was exploring the sale of the Rolling Rock brand. In 2015, Anheuser-Busch stopped brewing bottled Rolling Rock in glass-lined tanks, only the canned beer was now being brewed using the traditional process. Rolling Rocks 7 U. S. fl oz pony bottle has been very popular, indeed, advertising for Rolling Rock from the 1950s uses the term pony bottle generically, stating. Rolling Rock is the Largest Selling 7 oz. Pony Bottle of Premium Beer in Pennsylvania, though it did not originate the term, the popularity of Rolling Rock doubtless reinforced it, one could refer to a regular or small of the beer as a horse or pony respectively. It also likely lead to the standardization on a 7 oz. size, major national brands introduced 7 oz. pony bottles in the early 1970s, Rolling Rock 33 is named after a thoroughbred racehorse that was owned by the owners of Rolling Rock. Hence the thoroughbred racehorse pictured on the bottle, the number 33 is printed prominently on all bottles of Rolling Rock. Other theories concerning the number 33 are that there were exactly 33 stairsteps from the office to the brewing floor in the original Latrobe brewery. One widely held belief is that it marks the repeal of prohibition in 1933, the current pledge is on the 12 oz. bottles, while the little nip pledge is from the 7 oz. bottle version. A founding executive is said to have written 33 at the end of the slogan to indicate the number of words it comprised as a guide for the bottle printers and they assumed it was part of the text and incorporated it into the label graphics. Hence, the first batch of bottles carried the number 33, tito admitted, however, that there is no hard proof for this theory, and that at this point no one really knows what the true origin of the 33 may have been. The Rolling Rock nomenclature on the bottles was painted on, not paper or plastic, Anheuser-Busch slid out a red lager version of Rolling Rock called Rolling Rock Red. Iron City Brewing Company Rolling Rock Club Rolling Rock Town Fair Rolling Rock official website
18.
Germans
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Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe, who share a common German ancestry, culture and history. German is the mother tongue of a substantial majority of ethnic Germans. The English term Germans has historically referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages, before the collapse of communism and the reunification of Germany in 1990, Germans constituted the largest divided nation in Europe by far. Ever since the outbreak of the Protestant Reformation within the Holy Roman Empire, of approximately 100 million native speakers of German in the world, roughly 80 million consider themselves Germans. Thus, the number of Germans lies somewhere between 100 and more than 150 million, depending on the criteria applied. Today, people from countries with German-speaking majorities most often subscribe to their own national identities, the German term Deutsche originates from the Old High German word diutisc, referring to the Germanic language of the people. It is not clear how commonly, if at all, the word was used as an ethnonym in Old High German, used as a noun, ein diutscher in the sense of a German emerges in Middle High German, attested from the second half of the 12th century. The Old French term alemans is taken from the name of the Alamanni and it was loaned into Middle English as almains in the early 14th century. The word Dutch is attested in English from the 14th century, denoting continental West Germanic dialects, while in most Romance languages the Germans have been named from the Alamanni, the Old Norse, Finnish and Estonian names for the Germans were taken from that of the Saxons. In Slavic languages, the Germans were given the name of němьci, originally with a meaning foreigner, the English term Germans is only attested from the mid-16th century, based on the classical Latin term Germani used by Julius Caesar and later Tacitus. It gradually replaced Dutch and Almains, the latter becoming mostly obsolete by the early 18th century, the Germans are a Germanic people, who as an ethnicity emerged during the Middle Ages. Originally part of the Holy Roman Empire, around 300 independent German states emerged during its decline after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ending the Thirty Years War and these states eventually formed into modern Germany in the 19th century. The concept of a German ethnicity is linked to Germanic tribes of antiquity in central Europe, the early Germans originated on the North German Plain as well as southern Scandinavia. By the 2nd century BC, the number of Germans was significantly increasing and they began expanding into eastern Europe, during antiquity these Germanic tribes remained separate from each other and did not have writing systems at that time. In the European Iron Age the area that is now Germany was divided into the La Tène horizon in Southern Germany and the Jastorf culture in Northern Germany. By 55 BC, the Germans had reached the Danube river and had either assimilated or otherwise driven out the Celts who had lived there, and had spread west into what is now Belgium and France. Conflict between the Germanic tribes and the forces of Rome under Julius Caesar forced major Germanic tribes to retreat to the east bank of the Rhine, in Roman-held territories with Germanic populations, the Germanic and Roman peoples intermarried, and Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions intermingled. The adoption of Christianity would later become an influence in the development of a common German identity
19.
Barrel
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A barrel, cask, or tun is a hollow cylindrical container, traditionally made of wooden staves bound by wooden or metal hoops. Traditionally, the barrel was a size of measure referring to a set capacity or weight of a given commodity. For example, in the UK a barrel of beer refers to a quantity of 36 imperial gallons, wine was shipped in barrels of 119 litres. Modern barrels and casks can also be made of aluminum, stainless steel, someone who makes barrels is called a barrel maker or cooper. Barrels are only one type of cooperage, other types include, but are not limited to, buckets, tubs, butter churns, hogsheads, firkins, kegs, kilderkins, tierces, rundlets, puncheons, pipes, tuns, butts, pins, and breakers. An aging barrel is used to age wine, distilled spirits such as whiskey, brandy, or rum, beer, tabasco sauce, when a wine or spirit ages in a barrel, small amounts of oxygen are introduced as the barrel lets some air in. Oxygen enters a barrel when water or alcohol is lost due to evaporation, in an environment with 100% relative humidity, very little water evaporates and so most of the loss is alcohol, a useful trick if one has a wine with very high proof. Most beverages are topped up from other barrels to prevent significant oxidation, although others such as vin jaune, beverages aged in wooden barrels take on some of the compounds in the barrel, such as vanillin and wood tannins. The presence of these depends on many factors, including the place of origin, how the staves were cut and dried. After roughly three years, most of a barrels flavor compounds have been leached out and it is well on its way to becoming neutral, barrels used for aging are typically made of French or American oak, but chestnut and redwood are also used. Some Asian beverages use Japanese cedar, which imparts an unusual, in Peru and Chile, a grape distillate named pisco is either aged in oak or in earthenware. Some wines are fermented on barrel, as opposed to in a container like steel or wine-grade HDPE tanks. Wine can also be fermented in large tanks, which—when open to the atmosphere—are called open-tops. Other wooden cooperage for storing wine or spirits range from smaller barriques to huge casks, the tastes yielded by French and American species of oak are slightly different, with French oak being subtler, while American oak gives stronger aromas. To retain the desired measure of oak influence, a winery will replace a certain percentage of its barrels every year, some winemakers use 200% new oak, where the wine is put into new oak barrels twice during the aging process. Bulk wines are more cheaply flavored by soaking oak chips in them instead of being aged in a barrel. Sherry is stored in 600-litre casks made of North American oak, the casks, or butts, are filled five-sixths full, leaving the space of two fists empty at the top to allow flor to develop on top of the wine. NOTE, This section uses both the U. S. –Irish typical spelling whiskey and the British–Canadian typical spelling whisky, laws in several jurisdictions require that whiskey be aged in wooden barrels
20.
Keg
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Traditionally, a wooden keg is made by a cooper and used to transport items such as nails, gunpowder, and a variety of liquids. More recently, a keg is often constructed of aluminum or steel and it is commonly used to store, transport, and serve beer. Other alcoholic or non-alcoholic drinks, carbonated or non-carbonated, may be housed in a keg as well, such liquids are generally kept under pressure. Beer kegs are made of steel, or less commonly. A keg has an opening on one end, called a bung. A tube called a spear extends from the opening to the other end, There is a self-closing valve that is opened by the coupling fitting which is attached when the keg is tapped. There is also an opening at the top of the spear that allows gas to drive the beer out of the keg, the coupling fitting has one or two valves that control the flow of beer out of and gas into the keg. The keg must be in the position, that is. Kegs can be contrasted to casks, which have two or more openings and no spear, most major breweries now use internally speared kegs. Historically a beer barrel was a size of 50 gallons, as opposed to a wine barrel at 32 gallons. Over the years barrel sizes have evolved and breweries throughout the world use different sized containers, even when the content capacity of two kegs are equal—e. g. Metricized to 50 liters—the keg shape and keg tap system may differ greatly, most U. S. brewers sell beer in 1⁄2 barrels of 15.5 gallons, 1⁄4 barrels of 7.75 gallons, and 1⁄6 barrels of 5.17 gallons. Since keg sizes are not standardized, the keg cannot be used as a unit of measure for liquid volumes. This size standard varies from country to country and brewery to brewery with many using the metric system rather than U. S. gallons. A keg, or half-barrel is a 15.5 U. S. gallon vessel, a quarter-barrel has a volume of 7.75 U. S. gallons. Generally a keg is a smaller than a barrel, thus. In the U. S. the terms half-barrel and quarter-barrel are derived from the U. S. beer barrel, the German DIN 6647-1 and DIN 6647-2 have also defined kegs in the sizes of 30 and 20 liters. A newer Euro regulation defines 50,30,25 and 20 liters where the keg shape is usually thicker, in some areas it is common to refer to the size not in liters but in beers
21.
Trust (business)
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A trust or corporate trust is an American English term for a large business with significant market power. It is often used in a sense to refer to monopolies or near-monopolies in the United States during the Second Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. Originally, the corporate trust was a device used to consolidate power in large American corporate enterprises. Nine individuals held trust certificates and acted as the board of trustees. One of those trustees was Rockefeller himself, who held 41% of the trust certificates and this kind of arrangement became popular and soon had many imitators. An 1888 article explained the difference between trusts in the sense and the newfangled corporate trusts, A trust is. Simply the case of one person holding the title of property, whether land or chattels, for the benefit of another, nothing can be more common or more useful. But the word is now applied to a certain class, of commercial agreements and, by reason of a popular and unreasoning dread of their effect. This is unfortunate, for it is difficult to find a substitute for it, for example, the Standard Oil Trust terminated its own trust agreement in March 1892. In 1898, President William McKinley launched the era when he appointed the U. S. The report of the Commission was seized upon by Theodore Roosevelt, prominent trusts included Standard Oil, U. S. Steel, the American Tobacco Company, the International Mercantile Marine Company, and the match companies controlled by Ivar Kreuger, the Match King. De Beers had a dominant role in the supply of diamonds, other trusts were formed by several companies, such as the Motion Picture Patents Company or Edison Trust which controlled the movie patents. Patents were also important to the Bell Telephone Company, as indicated by the litigation that came to be known as The Telephone Cases. The Truth About The Trusts, A Description and Analysis of the American Trust Movement, boudreaux, Donald J. and Thomas J. Dilorenzo. The Protectionist Roots of Antitrust The Review of Austrian Economics 6, barak Orbach and Grace Campbell, The Antitrust Curse of Bigness, Southern California Law Review. Media related to Private Trust Company at Wikimedia Commons
22.
Allegheny County, Pennsylvania
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Allegheny County is a county in the southwestern quarter of the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. As of 2014 the population was 1,231,225, making it the second-most populous county in Pennsylvania, Allegheny County is included in the Pittsburgh, PA Metropolitan Statistical Area. The county is in the Pittsburgh Designated Market Area, Allegheny County was the first in Pennsylvania to be given a Native American name, being named after the Allegheny River. The word Allegheny is of Lenape origin, with uncertain meaning and it is usually said to mean fine river, but sometimes said to refer to an ancient mythical tribe called Allegewi that lived along the river long ago before being destroyed by the Lenape. Not a great deal is known about the inhabitants of the region prior to European contact. During the colonial era various native groups claimed or settled in the area, resulting in a mix that included Iroquois, Lenape, Shawnee. European fur traders such as Peter Chartier established trading posts in the region in the eighteenth century. In 1749 Captain Pierre Joseph Céloron de Blainville, claimed the Ohio Valley, the captain traveled along the Ohio and Allegheny rivers inserting lead plates in the ground to mark the land for France. Since most of the towns during that era were developed along waterways, therefore, the British sent Major George Washington to try to compel the French to leave their posts, with no success. Having failed in his mission, he returned and nearly drowned crossing the ice-filled Allegheny River, in 1754, the English tried again to enter the area. This time, they sent 41 Virginians to build Fort Prince George, the French got news of the plan and sent an army to take over the fort, which they then resumed building with increased fortification, renaming it Fort Duquesne. The loss of the fort cost the English dearly because Fort Duquesne became one of the points of the French. The first attempt to retake the fort, the Braddock Expedition and it was not until General John Forbes attacked in 1758, four years after they had lost the original fort, that they recaptured and destroyed it. They subsequently built a new fort on the site, including a moat, the site is now Pittsburghs Point State Park. Both Pennsylvania and Virginia claimed the region that is now Allegheny County, Pennsylvania administered most of the region as part of its Westmoreland County. Virginia considered everything south of the Ohio River and east of the Allegheny River to be part of its Yohogania County, in addition, parts of the county were located in the proposed British colony of Vandalia and the proposed U. S. state of Westsylvania. The overlapping boundaries, multiple governments, and confused deed claims soon proved unworkable, in 1780 Pennsylvania and Virginia agreed to extend the Mason–Dixon line westward, and the region became part of Pennsylvania. From 1781 until 1788, much of what had been claimed as part of Yohogania County, Virginia, was administered as a part of the newly created Washington County, Allegheny County was officially created on September 24,1788, from parts of Washington and Westmoreland counties
23.
Prohibition in the United States
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Prohibition in the United States was a nationwide constitutional ban on the production, importation, transportation and sale of alcoholic beverages that remained in place from 1920 to 1933. One result was that many communities in the late 19th and early 20th centuries introduced alcohol prohibition, Prohibition supporters, called drys, presented it as a victory for public morals and health. Promoted by the dry crusaders, a movement was led by rural Protestants and social Progressives in the Prohibition, Democratic and it gained a national grass roots base through the Womans Christian Temperance Union. After 1900 it was coordinated by the Anti-Saloon League, Prohibition was mandated in state after state, then finally nationwide under the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1920. Enabling legislation, known as the Volstead Act, set down the rules for enforcing the ban, for example, religious uses of wine were allowed. Private ownership and consumption of alcohol were not made illegal under federal law, in the 1920s the laws were widely disregarded, and tax revenues were lost. Opposition mobilized nationwide, and Prohibition ended with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment, some states continued statewide prohibition, marking one of the last stages of the Progressive Era. Anti-prohibitionists, known as wets, criticized the ban as an intrusion of mainly rural Protestant ideals on a central aspect of urban, immigrant. Some researchers contend that its failure is attributable more to a changing historical context than to characteristics of the law itself. Criticism remains that Prohibition led to unintended consequences such as the growth of urban crime organizations, as an experiment it lost supporters every year, and lost tax revenue that governments needed when the Great Depression began in 1929. The U. S. Senate proposed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 18,1917, upon being approved by a 36th state on January 16,1919, the amendment was ratified as a part of the Constitution. The Wartime Prohibition Act took effect June 30,1919, with July 1,1919, on October 28,1919, Congress passed the Volstead Act, the popular name for the National Prohibition Act, over President Woodrow Wilsons veto. The act established the definition of intoxicating liquors as well as penalties for producing them. Although the Volstead Act prohibited the sale of alcohol, the government lacked resources to enforce it. By the terms of the amendment, the country went dry one year later, by 1925, in New York City alone, there were anywhere from 30,000 to 100,000 speakeasy clubs. While Prohibition was successful in reducing the amount of liquor consumed, it stimulated the proliferation of rampant underground, organized, many were astonished and disenchanted with the rise of spectacular gangland crimes, when prohibition was supposed to reduce crime. Prohibition lost its advocates one by one, while the wet opposition talked of personal liberty, new tax revenues from legal beer and liquor, and the scourge of organized crime. On March 22,1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed into law the Cullen–Harrison Act, legalizing beer with a content of 3. 2%
24.
Distill
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Distillation is a process of separating the component or substances from a liquid mixture by selective evaporation and condensation. Distillation may result in complete separation, or it may be a partial separation that increases the concentration of selected components of the mixture. In either case the process exploits differences in the volatility of the mixtures components, in industrial chemistry, distillation is a unit operation of practically universal importance, but it is a physical separation process and not a chemical reaction. For example, In the fossil fuel industry distillation is a class of operation in obtaining materials from crude oil for fuels. Distillation permits separation of air into its components — notably oxygen, nitrogen, Distillation of fermented products produces distilled beverages with a high alcohol content, or separates out other fermentation products of commercial value. An installation for distillation, especially of alcohol, is a distillery, the distillation equipment is a still. Distillation is an old method of artificial desalination. Aristotle wrote about the process in his Meteorologica and even that ordinary wine possesses a kind of exhalation, later evidence of distillation comes from Greek alchemists working in Alexandria in the 1st century AD. Distilled water has been known since at least c,200, when Alexander of Aphrodisias described the process. Work on distilling other liquids continued in early Byzantine Egypt under the Greek-Egyptian Zosimus of Panopolis, Distillation in China could have begun during the Eastern Han Dynasty, but archaeological evidence indicates that actual distillation of beverages began in the Jin and Southern Song dynasties. A still was found in a site in Qinglong, Hebei province dating to the 12th century. Distilled beverages were more common during the Yuan dynasty, arabs learned the process from the Alexandrians and used it extensively in their chemical experiments. Clear evidence of the distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in the 12th century, fractional distillation was developed by Tadeo Alderotti in the 13th century. In 1500, German alchemist Hieronymus Braunschweig published Liber de arte destillandi the first book dedicated to the subject of distillation. In 1651, John French published The Art of Distillation the first major English compendium of practice and this includes diagrams with people in them showing the industrial rather than bench scale of the operation. As alchemy evolved into the science of chemistry, vessels called retorts became used for distillations, riveted joints were often kept tight by using various mixtures, for instance a dough made of rye flour. These alembics often featured a system around the beak, using cold water for instance. Today, the retorts and pot stills have largely supplanted by more efficient distillation methods in most industrial processes
25.
Tavern
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A tavern is a place of business where people gather to drink alcoholic beverages and be served food, and in most cases, where travelers receive lodging. An inn is a tavern which has a license to put up guests as lodgers, the word derives from the Latin taberna whose original meaning was a shed, workshop, stall, or pub. In the English language, a tavern was once an establishment which served wine whilst an inn served beer, over time, the words tavern and inn became interchangeable and synonymous. In England, inns started to be referred to as houses or pubs. Wowser was a term for Christian moralists in Australia, especially activists in temperance groups such as the Womans Christian Temperance Union. Historian Stuart Macintyre argues, the achievements of the wowsers were impressive, until the late 18th century, the only places for common people to eat out were inns and taverns, not restaurants. This chaotic system was enforced by an army of tax collectors, the resultant opposition took many forms. Wine growers and tavern keepers concealed wine and falsified their methods of selling it to advantage of lower tax rates. The retailers also engaged in clandestine refilling of casks from hidden stocks, wine merchants stealthily circumvented inspection stations to avoid local import duties. When apprehended, some defrauders reacted with resignation, while others resorted to violence. Taverns symbolized opposition to the regime and to religion, in 1765 in Paris was founded the first restaurant in the modern sense of the term. However, the first Parisian restaurant worthy of the name was the one founded by Beauvilliers in 1782 in the Rue de Richelieu, Émile Zolas novel LAssommoir depicted the social conditions typical of alcoholism in Paris among the working classes. The drunk destroyed not only his own body, but also his employment, his family, the characters Gervaise Macquart and her husband Coupeau exemplified with great realism the physical and moral degradation of alcoholics. Zolas correspondence with physicians reveal he used authentic medical sources for his depictions in the novel. A common German name for German taverns or pubs is Kneipe, Drinking practices in 16th-century Augsburg, Germany, suggest that the use of alcohol in early modern Germany followed carefully structured cultural norms. Drinking was not a sign of insecurity and disorder, Taverns were popular places used for business as well as for eating and drinking - the London Tavern was a notable meeting place in the 18th and 19th centuries, for example. However, the tavern is no longer in popular use in the UK as there is no distinction between a tavern and an inn. Both establishments serve wine and beer/ale, the term pub is now used to describe these houses
26.
Cumberland, Maryland
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Cumberland, officially the City of Cumberland, is a western gateway city and seat of Allegany County, Maryland, and the primary city of the Cumberland, MD-WV Metropolitan Statistical Area. At the 2010 census, the city had a population of 20,859, Cumberland is a regional business and commercial center for Western Maryland and the Potomac Highlands of West Virginia. Historically Cumberland was known as the Queen City, as it was once the second largest in the state, in this role, it supported the settlement of the Ohio Country and the lands in that latitude of the Louisiana Purchase. It also became a center, served by major roads, a canal connecting to Washington, DC. Industry declined after World War II, much of the later urban, business and technological development in the state has been concentrated in eastern coastal cities. Today the Cumberland, MD-WV Metropolitan Statistical Area is one of the poorest in the United States, Cumberland was named by English colonists after the son of King George II, Prince William, the Duke of Cumberland. This area had long been settled for thousands of years by indigenous peoples, the fort was developed along the Great Indian Warpath which tribes used to travel the backcountry. Cumberland also served as an outpost of Colonel George Washington during the French and Indian War, Washington returned as President of the United States in 1794 to Cumberland to review troops assembled to thwart the Whiskey Rebellion. During the 19th century, Cumberland was a key road, railroad and it became the second-largest city in Maryland after the port city of Baltimore. It was nicknamed The Queen City, Cumberland was the terminus, and namesake, of the Cumberland Road that extended westward to the Ohio River at Wheeling, West Virginia. This was the first portion of what would be constructed as the National Road, which eventually reached Ohio, Indiana, the surrounding hillsides were mined for coal and iron ore, and harvested for timber that helped supply the Industrial Revolution. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal had its terminus here, it was built to improve the movement of goods between the Midwest and Washington, DC, the eastern terminus. Construction of railroads superseded use of the canal, as trains were faster, the city developed as a major manufacturing center, with industries in glass, breweries, fabrics and tinplate. With the restructuring of industry in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic states following World War II. As a result, its population has declined by nearly half, Cumberland is in the Ridge and Valley physiographic province of the Appalachian Mountains at 39°38′52″N 78°45′46″W, at the junction of the North Branch of the Potomac River and Wills Creek. The majority of the land within the city lies in a created by the junction of these two streams. Interstate 68 runs through the city in an east/west direction, as does Alternate U. S.40, parts of Wills Mountain, Haystack Mountain, and Shriver Ridge are also within the city limits. The abandoned Chesapeake and Ohio Canal is now part of the Chesapeake, the canals towpath is maintained, allowing travel by foot, horse or bicycle between Cumberland and Washington, D. C. a distance of about 185 miles
27.
Gambrinus
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Gambrinus, is a legendary European culture hero celebrated as an icon of beer, brewing, joviality, and joie de vivre. Traditional songs, poems, and stories describe him as a king, duke, or count of Flanders, typical representations in the visual arts depict him as a rotund, bearded duke or king, holding a tankard or mug, and sometimes with a keg nearby. Gambrinus is sometimes called a patron saint, but he is neither a saint nor a tutelary deity. In one legendary tradition, he is beers inventor or envoy, although legend attributes to him no special powers to bless brews or to make crops grow, tellers of old tall tales are happy to adapt them to fit Gambrinus. Gambrinus stories use folklore motifs common to European folktales, such as the trial by ordeal, some, of course, imagine Gambrinus as a man who has an enormous capacity for drinking beer. Among the personages theorised to be the basis for the Gambrinus character are the ancient king Gampar, John the Fearless and John I, the source of the legend of Gambrinus is uncertain. An early written account, by German historian Johannes Aventinus, identifies Gambrinus with Gambrivius, two other men purported to have inspired the creation of Gambrinus are John I, Duke of Brabant, and John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy. In 1517, William IV, Duke of Bavaria had made Aventinus the official historiographer of his dukedom, Aventinus finished composing the history in 1523, the work that he compiled, Annals of Bavaria, extends beyond Bavaria, drawing on numerous ancient and medieval sources. However, it is also a work that blends history with myth, European anecdote credits Gambrinus with the invention of beer. Aventinus attempted to reconcile this account with much older stories attributing its origin to Osiris agricultural teachings, in Aventinus chronicle, Gambrivius was the paramour of Osiris wife and sister, Isis. It was by this association, he says, that Gambrivius learned the science of brewing, Aventinus account of Gambrivius contributed to the reverence for Osiris and Isis held by 17th-century European scholars. Perceiving Osiris and Isis as culture bearers enabled a willingness to see historical connections where there were none, according to Aventinus, Gambrivius is a seventh-generation descendant of the Biblical patriarch Noah. Tacitus alludes to a source who lists tribes called the Gambrivii and the Marsi among the peoples descended from Tuisto. Gampar claims new lands east of the Rhine, including Flanders and Brabant, the names of both these towns were theorized to be cognates of Gambrivius, as one of Hamburgs ancient Latin names was alleged to be Gambrivium. One of Aventinus sources was Officina, an encyclopedia compiled by French scholar Jean Tixier de Ravisi and this work purported that Tuisto and Gambrivius were giants descended from Noah. Some Francophone and Germanophone scholars reject the claim to Gambrinus as an appropriation of one of their own cultural heroes. Aventinus account did not just establish a claim to Gambrivius, but to a glorious ancestry, the myths also reimagined Gambrivius as a catalyst for the enlargement of the territory of a Germanic people, and made him a divine conduit into Germania for the Egyptians ancient beer lore. In 1543, Hans Guldenmundt published a series of 12 broadside prints called Ariovistus ein Künig aller Deutschen, the series includes Tuiscon and Gambrivius, Charlemagne, and other kings historical and mythological
28.
August Wagner Breweries
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August Wagner Breweries, Inc. was a well-known regional brewer in Columbus, Ohio. It marketed beers throughout the states of Ohio, Indiana and West Virginia under the Augustiner, Mark V, Robin Hood and Gambrinus brand names, like many other brewers, August Wagner immigrated from Germany in the late 1800s. After honing his craft at various brewers in the state of Ohio, the company survived Prohibition under the name of The August Wagner and Sons Products Company, Incorporated. Beer production resumed in 1933 following the repeal of Prohibition and the company was again renamed The August Wagner, in 1937 the company was renamed August Wagner Breweries, Inc. The brewery was owned by the Wagner family until 1968, when it was purchased by a group of investors from Detroit, in 1970 August Wagner Breweries purchased The Little Switzerland Brewing Company of Huntington, West Virginia, formerly known as the Fesenmeier Brewing Company. The Huntington plant was closed in 1971 and production was moved to Columbus, the brewery was sold to the Dispatch Printing Company, which later razed the brewery and developed office buildings on the property. The Pittsburgh Brewing Company purchased the brand names and other assets of the company and continued distributing beer under the Mark V, Robin Hood, Gambrinus, the companys most popular brand, was named after King Gambrinus, the legendary king of Flanders reputed for his mythical brewing abilities. A statue of King Gambrinus graced the front of the brewery for many years, August Wagner is credited as the model for that particular statue. Charter No.86259 August Wagner Breweries, Inc, Charter No.230779 August Wagner Realty Company, Charter No.86258
29.
Columbus, Ohio
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Columbus is the capital and largest city of the U. S. state of Ohio. It is the 15th-largest city in the United States, with a population of 850,106 as of 2015 estimates and this makes Columbus the fourth-most populous state capital in the United States, and the third-largest city in the Midwestern United States. It is the city of the Columbus, Ohio, Metropolitan Statistical Area. With a population of 2,021,632, it is Ohios third-largest metropolitan area, Columbus is the county seat of Franklin County. The city proper has also expanded and annexed portions of adjoining Delaware County, named for explorer Christopher Columbus, the city was founded in 1812 at the confluence of the Scioto and Olentangy rivers, and assumed the functions of state capital in 1816. As of 2013, the city has the headquarters of five corporations in the U. S, fortune 500, Nationwide Mutual Insurance Company, American Electric Power, L Brands, Big Lots, and Cardinal Health. In 2012, Columbus was ranked in BusinessWeeks 50 best cities in America. In 2013, Forbes gave Columbus an A rating as one of the top cities for business in the U. S. and later that included the city on its list of Best Places for Business. Columbus was also ranked as the No.1 up-and-coming tech city in the nation by Forbes in 2008, and the city was ranked a top-ten city by Relocate America in 2010. In 2007, fDi Magazine ranked the city no.3 in the U. S. for cities of the future, and the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium was rated no.1 in 2009 by USA Travel Guide. The area including modern-day Columbus once comprised the Ohio Country, under the control of the French colonial empire through the Viceroyalty of New France from 1663 until 1763. In the 18th century, European traders flocked to the area, the area found itself frequently caught between warring factions, including American Indian and European interests. In the 1740s, Pennsylvania traders overran the territory until the French forcibly evicted them, in the early 1750s, the Ohio Company sent George Washington to the Ohio Country to survey. Fighting for control of the territory in the French and Indian War became part of the international Seven Years War, during this period, the region routinely suffered turmoil, massacres, and battles. The 1763 Treaty of Paris ceded the Ohio Country to the British Empire, after the American Revolution, the Ohio Country became part of the Virginia Military District, under the control of the United States. Colonists from the East Coast moved in, but rather finding a empty frontier, they encountered people of the Miami, Delaware, Wyandot, Shawnee. The tribes resisted expansion by the fledgling United States, leading to years of bitter conflict, the decisive Battle of Fallen Timbers resulted in the Treaty of Greenville, which finally opened the way for new settlements. By 1797, a surveyor from Virginia named Lucas Sullivant had founded a permanent settlement on the west bank of the forks of the Scioto River
30.
Ohio
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Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round
31.
Perth
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Perth is the capital and largest city of the Australian state of Western Australia. It is the fourth-most populous city in Australia, with a population of 2.06 million living in Greater Perth. The first areas settled were on the Swan River, with the central business district. Perth was founded by Captain James Stirling in 1829 as the centre of the Swan River Colony. It gained city status in 1856, and was promoted to the status of a Lord Mayorality in 1929. The city is named after Perth, Scotland, due to the influence of Sir George Murray, Member of Parliament for Perthshire and Secretary of State for War and the Colonies. The citys population increased substantially as a result of the Western Australian gold rushes in the late 19th century, largely as a result of emigration from the eastern colonies of Australia. During Australias involvement in World War II, Fremantle served as a base for operating in the Pacific Theatre. An influx of immigrants after the war, predominantly from Britain, Greece, Italy and Yugoslavia, Aboriginal people have inhabited the Perth area for 38,000 years, as evidenced by archaeological remains at Upper Swan. The Noongar people occupied the southwest corner of Western Australia and lived as hunter-gatherers, the wetlands on the Swan Coastal Plain were particularly important to them, both spiritually and as a source of food. The Noongar people know the area where Perth now stands as Boorloo, Boorloo formed part of Mooro, the tribal lands of Yellagongas group, one of several based around the Swan River and known collectively as the Whadjuk. The Whadjuk were part of a group of fourteen tribes that formed the south-west socio-linguistic block known as the Noongar. The judgment was overturned on appeal, the first documented sighting of the region was made by the Dutch Captain Willem de Vlamingh and his crew on 10 January 1697. The British colony would be officially designated Western Australia in 1832, Captain James Stirling, aboard Parmelia, said that Perth was as beautiful as anything of this kind I had ever witnessed. On 12 August that year, Helen Dance, wife of the captain of the ship, Sulphur. The only contemporary information on the source of the name comes from Fremantles diary entry for 12 August, Murray was born in Perth, Scotland, and was in 1829 Secretary of State for the Colonies and Member for Perthshire in the British House of Commons. The town was named after the Scottish Perth, in Murrays honour, the racial relations between the Noongar people and the Europeans were strained due to these happenings. Because of the amount of building in and around Boorloo
32.
Alan Bond
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Born in London and raised in Australia from the age of 12, Bond began his career as a signwriter and formed what became the Bond Corporation in 1959. He became a hero in his adopted country after bankrolling challenges for the Americas Cup. His Australia II syndicate won the 1983 Americas Cup, which had held by the New York Yacht Club since 1851. In 1992, Bond was declared bankrupt with debts totalling A$1.8 billion. The funds were used to shore up the resources of the ailing Bond Corporation. Alan Bond was born on 22 April 1938, the son of Frank and Kathleen Bond in the Hammersmith district of London, in 1950, aged 12, he emigrated to Australia with his parents and his older sister Geraldine, living in Fremantle, near Perth. At age 14, he was charged with stealing and being unlawfully on premises, at age 18, he was arrested for being unlawfully on premises and reportedly admitted planning a robbery. The Perth-based Bond made his fortune initially in property development and at one time was one of Australias most prominent businesspeople, in 1970 he bought three Americas Cup challenge yachts from Sir Frank Packer. He later extended his business interests into other fields including brewing, gold mining, television, in 1987, Australias first private university, Bond University was founded by Bond Corporation. He purchased QTQ-9 Brisbane and settled an outstanding defamation dispute the station had with the Queensland premier, in 1987, Bond purchased Vincent van Goghs renowned painting, Irises, for $54 million—the highest price ever paid for a single painting. However, the purchase was funded by a loan from the auctioneer, Sothebys. The transaction was criticised by art dealers as possibly a manipulated sale designed to artificially inflate values generally, the painting was subsequently re-sold in 1990 to the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles. Also in 1987, he built and developed the Bond Centre in Hong Kong and it was later bought by the Lippo Group of Indonesia and is now known as the Lippo Centre, Hong Kong. In 1987, Bond paid $1 billion for the Australia-wide Channel Nine television network from Kerry Packers PBL, and said, Well, I dont really want to sell my stations. And I said, Oh, is that right, so, anyway, after much discussion, Kerry thumped the table and said, Listen, if you can pay me $1 billion, Ill sell them to you, otherwise bugger off. Hen I rang the National Australia Bank, I said, Look, Im in discussions here to buy these television stations. Kerry will sell to me, and what I want to do is put our stations together and then, with Sky Channel, Im going to float it off as a separate entity, said $1 billion, but I think Ill get it for $800 million. Duly rang back and said yes, Ill go and have some further negotiations with Kerry, which I did
33.
Entrepreneurship
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What appears as a real opportunity ex ante might actually be a non-opportunity or one that cannot be actualized by entrepreneurs lacking the necessary business skills, financial or social capital. Traditionally, an entrepreneur has been defined as a person who starts, organizes and manages any enterprise, especially a business, usually with considerable initiative and risk. Rather than working as an employee, an entrepreneur runs a business and assumes all the risk and reward of a given business venture, idea. The entrepreneur is commonly seen as a leader and innovator of new ideas. They act as the manager and oversee the launch and growth of an enterprise, Entrepreneurship is the process by which an individual identifies a business opportunity and acquires and deploys the necessary resources required for its exploitation. For Schumpeter, the changes and dynamic disequilibrium brought on by the innovating entrepreneur, the ‘norm’ of a healthy economy. Entrepreneurial spirit is characterized by innovation and risk-taking, for example, in the 2000s, the field of social entrepreneurship has been identified, in which entrepreneurs combine business activities with humanitarian, environmental or community goals. In the 2010s, entrepreneurship can be studied in college or university as part of the disciplines of management or business administration, Entrepreneur, is a loanword from French. First used in 1723, today the term entrepreneur implies qualities of leadership, initiative, economist Robert Reich has called team-building, leadership, and management ability essential qualities for the entrepreneur. Historically the study of entrepreneurship reaches back to the work in the late 17th and early 18th centuries of Richard Cantillon and Adam Smith, which was foundational to classical economics. In the 20th century, entrepreneurship was studied by Joseph Schumpeter in the 1930s and other Austrian economists such as Carl Menger, Ludwig von Mises, the term entrepreneurship was coined around the 1920s, while the loan from French of the word entrepreneur dates to the 1850s. According to Schumpeter, an entrepreneur is willing and able to convert a new idea or invention into a successful innovation, thus, creative destruction is largely responsible for long-term economic growth. The idea that leads to economic growth is an interpretation of the residual in endogenous growth theory. For Schumpeter, entrepreneurship resulted in new industries and in new combinations of currently existing inputs, Schumpeters initial example of this was the combination of a steam engine and then current wagon making technologies to produce the horseless carriage. In this case the innovation, the car, was transformational and it did not immediately replace the horse-drawn carriage, but in time, incremental improvements reduced the cost and improved the technology, leading to the modern auto industry. Despite Schumpeters early 20th-century contributions, traditional microeconomic theory did not formally consider the entrepreneur in its theoretical frameworks, in this treatment, the entrepreneur was an implied but unspecified actor, consistent with the concept of the entrepreneur being the agent of x-efficiency. For Schumpeter, the entrepreneur did not bear risk, the capitalist did, Schumpeter was of the opinion that entrepreneurs shift the Production Possibility Curve to a higher level using innovations. Cantillon emphasized the willingness of the entrepreneur to assume risk and to deal with uncertainty, thus, he draws attention to the function of the entrepreneur, and distinguishes clearly between the function of the entrepreneur and the owner who provides the money
34.
National City Corp.
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Subsidiary National City Mortgage is credited for doing the first mortgage in America. Its core businesses included commercial and retail banking, mortgage financing and servicing, consumer finance, the bank reached out to customers primarily through mass advertising and offered comprehensive banking services online. In its last years, the company was known in the media by the abbreviated NatCity. In 2007, National City Corp. ranked number 188 on the Fortune 500 list, PNC Financial Services announced October 24,2008, its purchase of National City for about $5.2 billion in stock with funds from the U. S. Treasury. At the time of the acquisition, National City had been the 7th largest bank in the United States, the deal was finalized on December 31,2008, and the National City name was retired on June 14,2010. The Wall Street Journal reported on June 6,2008, that National City Corp. had entered into a memorandum of understanding with federal regulators, terms of the confidential agreement, entered into a month earlier with the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, were not known. On June 10,2008, National City Corp. confirmed that it had reached agreements with regulators regarding capital levels, risk-management practices, the company stated that there had been no material developments in these areas since these memorandums of understanding were signed in April and May 2008. Severance, formerly of the Firemans Insurance Company, organized The City Bank of Cleveland, the citys only bank at the time, opened its doors to the public at No.52 Superior Street. In February 1992, National City announced that all member banks would change over to operate under the National City name within three years, up to this time, all acquired banks had continued to operate under the same name that they were using at the time of their acquisition. This change would allow a unified brand through the company and simplify advertizing, in February 1975, National City Corp. announced that it was seeking to acquire the assets of the failed Northern Ohio Bank from the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation. The acquisition was completed by March 1975, in March 1975, National City Corp. announced that it was acquiring the Cleveland-based Bank of Cleveland for an undisclosed amount. The acquisition was completed in January 1976, in December 1975, National City Corp. announced that it was acquiring the Elyria-based First National Bank of Elyria for $4.6 million in cash. The acquisition was completed in August 1976, in April 1977, National City Corp. announced that it was acquiring the Dayton-based First National Bank of Dayton for $40 million. In July 1979, National City Corp. announced that it was acquiring the Norwalk-based Huron County Banking Company for an undisclosed price, the acquisition was completed in May 1979. In September 1981, National City Corp. announced that it was acquiring the Akron-based Goodyear Bank for an undisclosed price, in December 1981, National City Corp. announced that it was acquiring the Toledo-based Ohio Citizens Bancorp for $64 million in cash and notes. In March 1984, National City Corp. announced that it was acquiring the Columbus-based BancOhio Bancorp for $310 million in stock, in May 1986, the troubled Cleveland-based Broadview Savings & Loan Company announced that it was selling 18 of its 38 offices to National City for $24 million. In June 1989, National City Corp. announced that it was acquiring the insolvent Dayton-based Gem Savings Association without the assistance of Federal aid, the acquisition was completed in January 1990. In April 1993, National City Corp. announced that it was acquiring the Youngstown-based Ohio Bancorp for $200 million in stock and cash and integrating it into National City Bank, the acquisition was completed in October 1993
35.
Bankruptcy
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Bankruptcy is a legal status of a person or other entity that cannot repay the debts it owes to creditors. In most jurisdictions, bankruptcy is imposed by a court order, Bankruptcy is not the only legal status that an insolvent person may have, and the term bankruptcy is therefore not a synonym for insolvency. In some countries, including the United Kingdom, bankruptcy is limited to individuals, in the United States, bankruptcy is applied more broadly to formal insolvency proceedings. In France, the cognate French word banqueroute is used solely for cases of fraudulent bankruptcy, in Ancient Greece, bankruptcy did not exist. If a man owed and he could not pay, he and his wife, children or servants were forced into debt slavery, until the creditor recouped losses through their physical labour. Many city-states in ancient Greece limited debt slavery to a period of five years, debt slaves had protection of life and limb, which regular slaves did not enjoy. However, servants of the debtor could be retained beyond that deadline by the creditor and were forced to serve their new lord for a lifetime. An exception to rule was Athens, which by the laws of Solon forbade enslavement for debt, as a consequence. The Statute of Bankrupts of 1542 was the first statute under English law dealing with bankruptcy or insolvency, Bankruptcy is also documented in East Asia. According to al-Maqrizi, the Yassa of Genghis Khan contained a provision that mandated the death penalty for anyone who became bankrupt three times, a failure of a nation to meet bond repayments has been seen on many occasions. Philip II of Spain had to declare four state bankruptcies in 1557,1560,1575 and 1596, at the edge of Europe, Egypt, Russia, and Turkey have histories of chronic default as well. For private households, it is argued to be insufficient to merely dismiss debts after a certain period and it is important to assess the underlying problems and to minimize the risk of financial distress to re-occur. In most EU Member States, debt discharge is conditioned by a partial payment obligation, in the United States, discharge is conditioned to a lesser extent. The spectrum is broad in the EU, with the UK coming closest to the US system, the Other Member States do not provide the option of a debt discharge. It is almost impossible to discharge student loan debt by filing bankruptcy, unlike most other debtors, the individual with student debt must give a series of reasons and tests to prove that the debtor could not pay the debt. If the person were to file bankruptcy, he or she is encouraged to do so under Chapter 13. In order to avoid bankruptcy, one could negotiate with the lender to lower monthly payments, student loan bankruptcy is considered a last resort. However, some find themselves being forced to file bankruptcy, as the lender refused to lower payments
36.
Aluminium bottle
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An aluminium bottle is a bottle made of aluminium. In some countries, it is referred to as a bottlecan. It is a bottle made entirely of aluminium that holds beer, soft drinks, wine, the Powerade aluminium bottles were supplied by Exal Corporation. C2C technology also utilizes post consumer recycled aluminium alloy to manufacture aluminium bottles, the aluminium bottlecan is made of 100 percent recyclable aluminium similar to that of an aluminium beverage can. However, it is shaped similar to a beverage bottle. A broad range of aluminium beverage bottle profiles, styles, and configurations, are available for production, including “traditional”, “oval”. A variety of finishes are available for aluminium bottlecans that are designed to work with industry standard closures and caps. Some traditional finishes include,26 mm standard crown cap,38 mm lug finish,38 mm continuous thread with plastic sleeve,38 mm ROPP and 28 mm continuous thread finishes. Beverage marketers choose aluminium bottlecans for many reasons, including the fact that they are resealable, recyclable and durable, the bottle itself serves as the label and bottles can also be shaped in a variety of ways. While the glass versus aluminium debate may make sense in connection with beer bottles, the majority of those bottles are currently plastic, while most beer bottles are glass. Aluminium is a silver-white, soft metal and the most abundant metallic element and it must be combined with oxygen and other elements and processed to produce the aluminium used in bottlecans. Bottlecans are made from 100 percent recyclable aluminium through either an extrusion or Coil to Can process to a range of shapes and sizes. Impact extruded bottles are produced three times the aluminium of a traditional beer can, which provides for increased insulation. C2C bottles use 30%-40% to less aluminium than impact extruded aluminium bottles, Exal Corporation has pioneered the use C2C technology to manufacture aluminium bottles. According to Earth911. com, each year the US aluminium industry pays $800 million for empty aluminium bottles and this is for the benefit of communities, industry and the environment. List of bottle types, brands and companies Photos of aluminium bottles
37.
City Brewing Company
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City Brewing Company is a large brewery located in La Crosse, Wisconsin, USA. It also goes by the name of City Brewery. In 1999 the old G. Heileman Brewing Companys former brewery buildings in La Crosse were bought by a group of investors who founded the City Brewing Company, in September 2006, the company agreed to purchase the Latrobe Brewery in Latrobe, Pennsylvania. The new City Brewery Latrobe entered into an agreement with Boston Beer Company in April 2007, City Brewery is also the name of another Wisconsin company founded by Johann Braun in 1846 which merged into the Valentin Blatz Brewing Company of Milwaukee. City Brewery is also the name of a company founded in 1855 in Dunkirk by George Dotterweich. George Dotterweich died in 1884 and the brewery was taken over by his brother, in 1900, Andrew J. died and the brewery was taken over by his son Andrew C. The company name was changed to the A. Dotterweich Brewing Company. As Anheuser-Busch moved production of Rolling Rock to New Jersey in 2006, City Brewery completed the purchase and in March 2007, the Latrobe brewery reopened its doors and produced Samuel Adams. The Boston Beer Company signed a deal with the current owners in April 2007. The Boston Beer Company had pledged 3 to 7 million dollars to upgrade the plant and it is estimated that 200,000 to 250,000 barrels of beer would be produced in the plant during the remainder of 2007. In late October 2008, City Brewery-Latrobe laid off 70 workers forcing a temporary shutdown, Boston Beer Co. moved their operations to an old Schaefer brewery they purchased near Allentown, PA. In May 2009, Iron City Brewing signed a deal with City Brewing Co to begin producing beer at the plant, with brewing started in June, in July 2009 some Southampton brands were moved to Latrobe from Lion Brewing. In addition to Iron City Beer, City Brewing also produces Stoneys and Stoneys Light in Latrobe, on December 8,2009 City Brewing Latrobe completed the installation of a can line and started canning in 12 and 16 ounce packages. A 24-ounce can line is now available. A number of breweries and beverage companies contract or have contracted out to City Brewing Company. Delano,2004, published by the University of Wisconsin–La Crosse Foundation, cityBrewery. com, official website Article on the brewery in Wisconsin Business Journal
38.
Pilsner
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Pilsner is a type of pale lager which accounts for more than two-thirds of the beer produced in the world. It takes its name from Plzeň, a city in Bohemia, then in the Austrian Empire, now in the Czech Republic, the world’s first blond lager, the original Pilsner Urquell, is still produced there today. The City of Pilsen began brewing in 1295, but until the mid-1840s, the taste and standards of quality often varied widely, and in 1838, consumers dumped whole barrels to show their dissatisfaction. The officials of Pilsen founded a brewery in 1839, called Měšťanský pivovar Plzeň. Brewers had begun aging beer made with bottom-fermenting yeasts in caves, part of this research benefited from the knowledge already expounded on in a book, written by Czech brewer František Ondřej Poupě from Brno. The Pilsen brewery recruited the Bavarian brewer Josef Groll who, using new techniques and paler malts, Groll returned to Vilshofen, three years later in 1845, and there later inherited his fathers brewery. Emergence of efficient glass manufacturing in Europe, around the same time and this allowed the general population to purchase glass drinking vessels for the first time. These former luxury items showcased the visually pleasing golden clarity of the recently invented Bohemian style, in 1853 the beer was available in 35 pubs in Prague, in 1856 came to Vienna and in 1862 to Paris. Improving transport and communications also meant that this new beer was available throughout Europe. In 1859, “Pilsner Bier” was registered as a name at the Chamber of Commerce. In 1898, the Pilsner Urquell trade mark was created to put emphasis on being the original brewery, until recently the Pilsner Urquell brewery fermented its beer using open barrels in the cellars beneath their brewery. This changed in 1993 with the use of large cylindrical tanks, small samples are still brewed in a traditional way for taste comparisons. A modern pilsner has a light, clear colour from pale to golden yellow. The alcohol strength is typically around 4. 5%-5%, if pilsner is brewed stronger, pilsners compete in categories like European-Style Pilsner at the World Beer Cup or other similar competitions. Pilsen style lagers are marketed internationally by numerous small brewers and larger conglomerates. V
39.
George Wiedemann
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George Wiedemann, Sr. was a German-American brewer. Wiedemann was born in Eisenach, Germany, in 1833 and he came to the United States as a young man in 1854. First finding work in the industry in New York, Louisville. He moved to Newport, Kentucky in 1870 and he was the founder of the George Wiedemenn Brewing Company, which became Kentuckys largest brewery. It was located at 601 Columbia Street in Newport, Kentucky, Wiedemann beer was synonymous with Newport. Wiedemann promoted itself as Americas only registered beer and often used humorous radio commercials as part of its advertising campaigns, Wiedemann married Agnes Rohman and they had six children. Newspaper accounts described Wiedemann as an honest man with a natural sociability, on May 28,1890, George Wiedemann became ill and died at his home at 188 East Third St in Newport. The business was continued to operate by his sons, George Jr. Wiedemann Brewing was merged with G. Heileman Brewing Company, in 1967 and was operated as Wiedemann Division, G. Heileman Brewing Company, Inc. The primary brands were Wiedemann Fine Beer, Royal Amber Beer, Blatz Beer/Cream Ale, the brewery was closed in 1983. The Wiedemann name was sold and was brewed by the Pittsburgh Brewing Co. in Pittsburgh. In 2012, a Newport, Kentucky company, Geo, Wiedemann Brewing Company, LLC, re-established the brand and started brewing Wiedemann Special Lager as a small-batch, craft beer. Guide to the Wiedemann Brewery Blueprint Collection
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Samuel Adams (beer)
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Samuel Adams is the flagship brand of the Boston Beer Company. The brand name of Samuel Adams was chosen in honor of Founding Father Samuel Adams, Adams inherited his fathers brewery on King Street. Some histories say he was a brewer, while others describe him as a maltster, the Samuel Adams brewery is located in Boston, Massachusetts, where visitors can take a tour, and shop beers and merchandise. Samuel Adams beer is brewed by the Boston Beer Company, which was founded by Jim Koch, Samuel Adams beer was started using a recipe now known as the Samuel Adams Boston Lager. Following Jim Koch’s great-great grandfather’s recipe, Samuel Adams continued to use traditional brewing processes, including decoction mash, Boston Lager is also dry hopped using the Hallertau Mittelfrueh and Tettnang Tettnanger hops. In addition to year-round offerings, Samuel Adams also has four seasonal offerings, the spring seasonal beers are Cold Snap, a Witbier and Escape Route, a Kölsch. The spring seasonals are sold from January to March, the Summer offerings are available from April through August and include Summer Ale, a wheat ale and Porch Rocker, a radler. The Autumn seasonal beers are available August through October and are Octoberfest, a Marzen and Pumpkin Batch, the Winter/Holiday seasonal beers are available November through December and are, Winter Lager, a Bock and White Christmas an Ale. Samuel Adams also offers seasonal variety packs which include a mix of year-round, first brewed in 2014, Samuel Adams Rebel IPA is a West Coast style India Pale Ale. The beer is brewed with five American hops - American Cascade, Simcoe, Chinook, Centennial, in early 2015, Samuel Adams released Rebel Rouser, a double India Pale Ale, and Rebel Rider, a session India Pale Ale. There are five options in the Rebel Family, Rebel Juiced IPA, Rebel Grapefruit IPA, Repel Rouser IPA, Rebel Cascade IPA. Introduced in 2001 Sam Adams Light was the light beer the company brewed. The company previously sold Boston Lightship which was introduced in 1993 and these Belgian style beers are left in large wood barrels to age and pick up some of the flavors of the wood. The beers in this collection include American Kriek, New World, Stony Brook Red, Thirteenth Hour and Tetravis. There are currently nine brews of this variant available, Fresh as Helles, Ella Blanc IPL, Noble Pils, Winter Lager, White Christmas, Octoberfest, Cold Snap, Summer Ale, and Porch Rocker. Originally brewed in a brewery in 2014, the Nitro Project is a collection of two styles that are infused with nitrogen gas in the carbonation process. The two brews are Nitro Coffee Stout and Nitro White Ale, there was also a third style, Nitro IPA, which is not currently brewed. In a Boston Globe article, Jim Koch describes the process of infusing the nitrogen as difficult, the company followed this up in 2002 with Utopias, at 24% abv, it was marketed as the strongest commercial beer in the world
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Pittsburgh Steelers
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The Pittsburgh Steelers are a professional American football team based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The Steelers compete in the National Football League, as a club of the leagues American Football Conference North division. Founded in 1933, the Steelers are the oldest franchise in the AFC, Pittsburgh has won more Super Bowl titles and hosted more conference championship games than any other NFL team. The Steelers have won 8 AFC championships, tied with the Denver Broncos and they share the record for most conference championship games played in with the San Francisco 49ers. The Steelers share the record for second most Super Bowl appearances with the Broncos, and Dallas Cowboys, the Steelers lost their most recent championship appearance, Super Bowl XLV, on February 6,2011. The Steelers were founded as the Pittsburgh Pirates on July 8,1933, by Art Rooney, taking its name from the baseball team of the same name. The ownership of the Steelers has remained within the Rooney family since its founding, the current owner is Arts son, Dan Rooney, who has given much control of the franchise to his son Art Rooney II. The Steelers enjoy a large, widespread fanbase nicknamed Steeler Nation, the Steelers currently play their home games at Heinz Field on Pittsburghs North Side in the North Shore neighborhood, which also hosts the University of Pittsburgh Panthers. Built in 2001, the stadium replaced Three Rivers Stadium which hosted the Steelers for 31 seasons, prior to Three Rivers, the Steelers had played their games in Pitt Stadium and Forbes Field. The Pittsburgh Steelers of the NFL first took to the field as the Pittsburgh Pirates on September 20,1933, through the 1930s, the Pirates never finished higher than second place in their division, or with a record better than.500. Prior to the 1940 season, the Pirates renamed themselves the Steelers, during World War II, the Steelers experienced player shortages. They twice merged with other NFL franchises to field a team, during the 1943 season, they merged with the Philadelphia Eagles forming the Phil-Pitt Eagles and were known as the Steagles. In 1944, they merged with the Chicago Cardinals and were known as Card-Pitt and this team finished 0–10, marking the only winless team in franchise history. The Steelers made the playoffs for the first time in 1947 and this forced a tie-breaking playoff game at Forbes Field, which the Steelers lost 21–0. The Steelers also received a $3 million relocation fee, which was a windfall for them, the Steelers history of bad luck changed with the hiring of coach Chuck Noll for the 1969 season. The Pittsburgh Steelers 1974 draft was their best ever, no team has ever drafted four future Hall of Famers in one year. They also enjoyed a regular season streak of 49 consecutive wins against teams that would finish with a record that year. The Steelers suffered a rash of injuries in the 1980 season, the 1981 season was no better, with an 8–8 showing
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Alcoa
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Alcoa Inc. is an American industrial corporation, it ranks as the worlds third largest producer of aluminum, behind Rio Tinto Alcan and Rusal, with corporate headquarters in New York City. It is the worlds largest Aluminium company by revenue, from its operational base in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in the United States, Alcoa conducts operations in 31 countries. Aluminum and alumina represent more than three-fourths of Alcoa’s revenue, non-aluminum products include precision castings and aerospace and industrial fasteners. Alcoa’s products are used worldwide in aircraft, automobiles, commercial transportation, packaging, building and construction, oil and gas, defense, in May 2007 Alcoa made a US$27 billion hostile takeover bid for Alcan in an attempt to form the worlds largest aluminum producer. The bid was withdrawn when Alcan announced a takeover by Rio Tinto in July 2007. Among Alcoas other businesses are fastening systems, building products, the sale of the packaging unit was announced on December 21,2007, and closed in the first quarter of 2008. On November 1,2016, Alcoa split into two new entities, Alcoa Corporation and Arconic Inc, the split completed a process that was initiated by the company in September 2015. In 1886, Charles Martin Hall, a graduate of Oberlin College, discovered the process of smelting aluminum and he realized that by passing an electric current through a bath of cryolite and aluminum oxide, the then semi-rare metal aluminum remained as a byproduct. This discovery, now called the Hall-Héroult process, is still the only used to make aluminum. Probably fewer than ten sites in the United States and Europe produced any aluminum at the time. In 1887, Hall made an agreement to try his process at the Electric Smelting and Aluminum Company plant in Lockport, New York, but it was not used and Hall left after one year. On Thanksgiving Day 1888, with the help of Alfred E. Hunt, he started the Pittsburgh Reduction Company with an experimental smelting plant on Smallman Street in Pittsburgh, in 1891, the company went into production in New Kensington, Pennsylvania. In 1895, a third site opened at Niagara Falls, by about 1903, after a settlement with Halls former employer, and while its patents were in force, the company was the only legal supplier of aluminum in the United States. By 1902 New Kensington consisted of 173,000 sq. Louis, the Aluminum Company of America became the firms new name on January 1,1907. The acronym Alcoa was coined in 1910, given as a name to two of the locales where major corporate facilities were located, and in 1999 was adopted as the corporate name. In 1907 it created the town of Pine Grove, New York. In Baden, Alcoa, Maryville and elsewhere the company funded the construction of schools, parks, playgrounds and medical facilities. By the end of World War I Alcoas New Kensington facility accounted for 3,292 workers—a fifth of the local population—and covered over 1 million square feet of manufacturing space on 75 acres
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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