1.
Brooklyn
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Brooklyn is the most populous borough of New York City, with a Census-estimated 2,636,735 residents in 2015. It borders the borough of Queens at the end of Long Island. Today, if New York City dissolved, Brooklyn would rank as the third-most populous city in the U. S. behind Los Angeles, the borough continues, however, to maintain a distinct culture. Many Brooklyn neighborhoods are ethnic enclaves, Brooklyns official motto, displayed on the Borough seal and flag, is Eendraght Maeckt Maght which translates from early modern Dutch as Unity makes strength. Since 2010, Brooklyn has evolved into a hub of entrepreneurship and high technology startup firms. The history of European settlement in Brooklyn spans more than 350 years, the neighborhood of Marine Park was home to North Americas first tidal mill. It was built by the Dutch, and the foundation can be seen today, however, the area was not formally settled as a town. Many incidents and documents relating to this period are in Gabriel Furmans early compilation, what is today Brooklyn left Dutch hands after the final English conquest of New Netherland in 1664, a prelude to the Second Anglo–Dutch War. The English reorganized the six old Dutch towns on southwestern Long Island as Kings County on November 1,1683 and this tract of land was recognized as a political entity for the first time, and the municipal groundwork was laid for a later expansive idea of Brooklyn identity. On August 27,1776 was fought the Battle of Long Island, the first major engagement fought in the American Revolutionary War after independence was declared, and the largest of the entire conflict. British troops forced Continental Army troops under George Washington off the heights near the sites of Green-Wood Cemetery, Prospect Park. The fortified American positions at Brooklyn Heights consequently became untenable and were evacuated a few days later, One result of the Treaty of Paris in 1783 was the evacuation of the British from New York City, celebrated by residents into the 20th century. The New York Navy Yard operated in Wallabout Bay for the entire 19th century, the first center of urbanization sprang up in the Town of Brooklyn, directly across from Lower Manhattan, which saw the incorporation of the Village of Brooklyn in 1817. Reliable steam ferry service across the East River to Fulton Landing converted Brooklyn Heights into a town for Wall Street. Ferry Road to Jamaica Pass became Fulton Street to East New York, Town and Village were combined to form the first, kernel incarnation of the City of Brooklyn in 1834. Industrial deconcentration in mid-century was bringing shipbuilding and other manufacturing to the part of the county. Each of the two cities and six towns in Kings County remained independent municipalities, and purposely created non-aligning street grids with different naming systems and it later became the most popular and highest circulation afternoon paper in America. The publisher changed to L. Van Anden on April 19,1842, on May 14,1849 the name was shortened to The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, on September 5,1938 it was further shortened to Brooklyn Eagle
2.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
3.
Woods Hole, Massachusetts
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Woods Hole is a census-designated place in the town of Falmouth in Barnstable County, Massachusetts, United States. It lies at the extreme southwest corner of Cape Cod, near Marthas Vineyard, the population was 781 at the 2010 census. Historically, Woods Hole included one of the few good harbors on the side of Cape Cod. The community became a center for whaling, shipping, and fishing, prior to its dominance today by tourism, other notable businessmen established homes on Gansett Point, Nobska Point, and at Quissett Harbor, further from the village center. Woods Hole is located at the southwest tip of the town of Falmouth at 41°31′36″N 70°39′47″W, the term Woods Hole refers to a passage for ships between Vineyard Sound and Buzzards Bay known for its extremely strong current, approaching four knots. The strait separates Cape Cod from the Elizabeth Islands and it is one of four straits allowing maritime passage between Buzzards Bay and the Vineyard Sound. The others are Canapitsit Channel, Quicks Hole and Robinsons Hole, ferries operated by the Steamship Authority run regularly between Woods Hole and Marthas Vineyard. In the past ferries also ran between Woods Hole and Nantucket, but these have been discontinued in recent decades, much of Woods Hole centers around the enclosed harbor of Eel Pond. A drawbridge at the mouth of the harbor allows boats to enter, the local lighthouse at Nobska Point is operated by the United States Coast Guard, and the accompanying house is the home of the commander of the Coast Guard base at Little Harbor. Local landmark The Knob is a rocky outcropping that overlooks Buzzards Bay and it is a part of the privately owned Salt Pond bird sanctuaries. According to the United States Census Bureau, the Woods Hole CDP has an area of 3.9 square miles. 2.1 square miles of it is land, and 1.8 square miles of it is water, the annual Falmouth Road Race brings thousands of runners to Woods Hole in August each year. The Woods Hole School is the home of the Childrens School of Science, founded in 1913, this institution provides science classes for students between 8 and 15 years old that focus on scientific investigation by observation. Students regularly visit ecosystems around the village to study the organisms in their natural environments, the Childrens School of Science draws upon the talent brought to the village by the research institutions but also educates the children of both scientists and locals. Some mention of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution is made in the 1975 blockbuster film Jaws as having been the center of research for the fictional character Matt Hooper, Hooper is described as a marine biologist, focusing on the study of sharks. Coincidentally, a white shark was spotted some years later near Woods Hole in September 2004. Woods Hole is part of the Falmouth public school district, served by Mullen-Hall Elementary, Morse Pond Middle School, Lawrence Junior High School, Woods Hole students also often attend Upper Cape Cod Regional Technical High School, Sturgis Charter Public School, and Falmouth Academy. As of the census of 2000, there were 925 people,459 households, there were 942 housing units at an average density of 168. 4/km²
4.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
5.
Hughes Medal
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The Hughes Medal is awarded by the Royal Society of London in recognition of an original discovery in the physical sciences, particularly electricity and magnetism or their applications. Named after David E. Hughes, the medal is awarded with a gift of £1000, unlike other Royal Society medals, the Hughes Medal has never been awarded to the same individual more than once. J. Whelan for their contributions to the theory of diffraction and microscopy. As of 2011, the Hughes Medal has been awarded biennially, archived from the original on 19 June 2010. Hughes archive winners 1989 -1902, archived from the original on 19 June 2010
6.
Nobel Prize in Chemistry
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The Nobel Prize in Chemistry is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of chemistry. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895, awarded for outstanding contributions in chemistry, physics, literature, peace, and physiology or medicine. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and awarded by Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on proposal of the Nobel Committee for Chemistry which consists of five elected by Academy. The award is presented in Stockholm at a ceremony on December 10. The first Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded in 1901 to Jacobus Henricus van t Hoff, of the Netherlands, for his discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions. From 1901 to 2016, the award has been bestowed on a total of 174 individuals, though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died, and signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee that were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences were to award the Prize in Chemistry. The committee and institution serving as the board for the prize typically announce the names of the laureates in October. The prize is awarded at formal ceremonies held annually on December 10. The highlight of the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm is when each Nobel Laureate steps forward to receive the prize from the hands of His Majesty the King of Sweden, the Nobel Laureate receives three things, a diploma, a medal and a document confirming the prize amount. Later the Nobel Banquet is held in Stockholm City Hall, a maximum of three laureates and two different works may be selected. The award can be given to a maximum of three recipients per year and it consists of a gold medal, a diploma, and a cash grant. The Nobel Laureates in chemistry are selected by a committee that consists of five elected by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In its first stage, several people are asked to nominate candidates
7.
Franklin Medal
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The Franklin Medal was a science award presented from 1915 through 1997 by the Franklin Institute located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U. S. It was founded in 1914 by Samuel Insull, the Franklin Medal was the most prestigious of the various awards presented by the Franklin Institute. Together with other awards, it was merged into the Benjamin Franklin Medal. Recipients are listed in a database on The Franklin Institute website
8.
John J. Carty Award for the Advancement of Science
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Established by the American Telephone and Telegraph Company and first awarded in 1932, the medal has been awarded in specific fields since 1961. The recipient is awarded a $25,000 prize,2010 Andre Geim, for his experimental realization and investigation of graphene, the two-dimensional form of carbon. 2008 Thomas Eisner, for pathbreaking studies of the ways that organisms utilize chemistry to mediate ecological interactions. 2007 Joseph R. Ecker, for contributions in the areas of ethylene signal transduction,1997 Patrick V.1994 Marina Ratner, for her striking proof of the Raghunathan conjectures. 1984 Robert H. Burris, for his studies of the biochemistry of nitrogen fixation have enriched the agricultural sciences by deed
9.
Royal Society
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Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems
10.
Chemistry
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Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. Chemistry is sometimes called the science because it bridges other natural sciences, including physics. For the differences between chemistry and physics see comparison of chemistry and physics, the history of chemistry can be traced to alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world. The word chemistry comes from alchemy, which referred to a set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism. An alchemist was called a chemist in popular speech, and later the suffix -ry was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as chemistry, the modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word al-kīmīā. In origin, the term is borrowed from the Greek χημία or χημεία and this may have Egyptian origins since al-kīmīā is derived from the Greek χημία, which is in turn derived from the word Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of Egypt in Egyptian. Alternately, al-kīmīā may derive from χημεία, meaning cast together, in retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term chymistry, in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, in 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word chemistry to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of chemistry to mean the study of matter, early civilizations, such as the Egyptians Babylonians, Indians amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didnt develop a systematic theory. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BC, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book De rerum natura, unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. Work, particularly the development of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis. He formulated Boyles law, rejected the four elements and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms. Before his work, though, many important discoveries had been made, the Scottish chemist Joseph Black and the Dutchman J. B. English scientist John Dalton proposed the theory of atoms, that all substances are composed of indivisible atoms of matter. Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current, british William Prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table. Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wöhlers synthesis of urea which proved that organisms were, in theory
11.
Physics
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Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
12.
General Electric
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General Electric, often abbreviated as GE, is an American multinational conglomerate corporation incorporated in New York and headquartered in Boston, Massachusetts. In 2011, GE ranked among the Fortune 500 as the 68th-largest firm in the U. S. by gross revenue, as of 2012, the company was listed the fourth-largest in the world among the Forbes Global 2000, further metrics being taken into account. The Nobel Prize has twice been awarded to employees of General Electric, Irving Langmuir in 1932, on January 13,2016, it was announced that GE will be moving its corporate headquarters from Fairfield, Connecticut to the South Boston Waterfront neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. The first group of workers arrived in the summer of 2016, morgan and the Vanderbilt family for Edisons lighting experiments. The new company also acquired Sprague Electric Railway & Motor Company in the same year, both plants continue to operate under the GE banner to this day. The company was incorporated in New York, with the Schenectady plant used as headquarters for years thereafter. Around the same time, General Electrics Canadian counterpart, Canadian General Electric, was formed, in 1896, General Electric was one of the original 12 companies listed on the newly formed Dow Jones Industrial Average. After 120 years, it is the one of the original companies still listed on the Dow index. In 1911, General Electric absorbed the National Electric Lamp Association into its lighting business, GE established its lighting division headquarters at Nela Park in East Cleveland, Ohio. Nela Park is still the headquarters for GEs lighting business, owen D. Young, through GE, founded the Radio Corporation of America in 1919 to further international radio. GE used RCA as its retail arm for radio sales from 1919, in 1927, Ernst Alexanderson of GE made the first demonstration of his television broadcasts at his General Electric Realty Plot home at 1132 Adams Rd, Schenectady, NY. The sound was broadcast on GEs WGY, experimental television station W2XAD evolved into station WRGB which—along with WGY and WGFM —was owned and operated by General Electric until 1983. GEs history of working with turbines in the field gave them the engineering know-how to move into the new field of aircraft turbosuperchargers. Led by Sanford Alexander Moss, GE introduced the first superchargers during World War I, superchargers became indispensable in the years immediately prior to World War II, and GE was the world leader in exhaust-driven supercharging when the war started. This experience, in turn, made GE a natural selection to develop the Whittle W.1 jet engine that was demonstrated in the United States in 1941, GE ranked ninth among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. In 2002, GE acquired the assets of Enron during its bankruptcy proceedings. Some consumers boycotted GE light bulbs, refrigerators and other products in the 1980s and 1990s to protest GEs role in weapons production. With IBM, Burroughs, NCR, Control Data Corporation, Honeywell, RCA and UNIVAC, GE had a line of general purpose and special purpose computers
13.
Walther Nernst
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Nernst helped establish the modern field of physical chemistry and contributed to electrochemistry, thermodynamics and solid state physics. He is also known for developing the Nernst equation, Nernst was born in Briesen in West Prussia as son of Gustav Nernst and Ottilie Nerger. His father was a country judge, Nernst had three older sisters and one younger brother. The third sister died due to cholera, Nernst went to elementary school at Graudenz. He studied physics and mathematics at the universities of Zürich, Berlin, Graz and Würzburg, in 1889, he finished his habilitation at University of Leipzig. It was said that Nernst was mechanically minded in that he was thinking of ways to apply new discoveries to industry. Nernsts hobbies included hunting and fishing, Nernst married in 1892 to Emma Lohmeyer with whom he had two sons and three daughters. Both of Nernsts sons died fighting in World War I and he was a colleague of Svante Arrhenius, and suggested setting fire to unused coal seams to increase the global temperature. He was a critic of Adolf Hitler and Nazism. In 1933, the rise of Nazism led to the end of Nernsts career as a scientist, Nernst died in 1941 and is buried near Max Planck, Otto Hahn and Max von Laue in Göttingen, Germany. After some work at Leipzig, he founded the Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry at Göttingen, Nernst invented, in 1897 an electric lamp, using an incandescent ceramic rod. His invention, known as the Nernst lamp, was the successor to the lamp of Edison. Nernst researched osmotic pressure and electrochemistry, in 1905, he established what he referred to as his New Heat Theorem, later known as the Third law of thermodynamics. This is the work for which he is best remembered, as it provided a means of determining free energies of reactions from heat measurements. Theodore Richards claimed Nernst had stolen the idea from him, in 1911, with Max Planck, he was the main organizer of the first Solvay Conference in Brussels. In 1912, the impressionist painter Max Liebermann painted his portrait, in 1914 Nernst showed his support for German militarism by signing the Manifesto of the Ninety-Three. He also accepted the post of Staff Scientific Advisor in the Imperial German Army, in 1918, after studying photochemistry, he proposed the atomic chain reaction theory. The atomic chain reaction theory stated that when a reaction in which atoms are formed
14.
Surface science
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It includes the fields of surface chemistry and surface physics. Some related practical applications are classed as surface engineering, the science encompasses concepts such as heterogeneous catalysis, semiconductor device fabrication, fuel cells, self-assembled monolayers, and adhesives. Surface science is related to interface and colloid science. Interfacial chemistry and physics are common subjects for both, in addition, interface and colloid science studies macroscopic phenomena that occur in heterogeneous systems due to peculiarities of interfaces. The field of surface chemistry started with heterogeneous catalysis pioneered by Paul Sabatier on hydrogenation, irving Langmuir was also one of the founders of this field, and the scientific journal on surface science, Langmuir, bears his name. The Langmuir adsorption equation is used to model monolayer adsorption where all surface adsorption sites have the affinity for the adsorbing species. Gerhard Ertl in 1974 described for the first time the adsorption of hydrogen on a surface using a novel technique called LEED. Similar studies with platinum, nickel, and iron followed, Surface chemistry can be roughly defined as the study of chemical reactions at interfaces. Surface science is of importance to the fields of heterogeneous catalysis, electrochemistry. The adhesion of gas or liquid molecules to the surface is known as adsorption and this can be due to either chemisorption or physisorption, and the strength of molecular adsorption to a catalyst surface is critically important to the catalysts performance. However, it is difficult to study these phenomena in real catalyst particles, instead, well-defined single crystal surfaces of catalytically active materials such as platinum are often used as model catalysts. Results can be fed into chemical models or used toward the design of new catalysts. Reaction mechanisms can also be clarified due to the precision of surface science measurements. The behavior of an interface is affected by the distribution of ions within the electrical double layer. These studies link traditional electrochemical techniques such as cyclic voltammetry to direct observations of interfacial processes, geologic phenomena such as iron cycling and soil contamination are controlled by the interfaces between minerals and their environment. Surface physics can be defined as the study of physical changes that occur at interfaces. The study and analysis of surfaces involves both physical and chemical analysis techniques, several modern methods probe the topmost 1–10 nm of surfaces exposed to vacuum. Many of these techniques require vacuum as they rely on the detection of electrons or ions emitted from the surface under study, at 0.1 mPa, it only takes 1 second to cover a surface with a contaminant, so much lower pressures are needed for measurements
15.
Gilbert N. Lewis
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Lewis successfully contributed to thermodynamics, photochemistry, and isotope separation, and is also known for his concept of acids and bases. G. N. Lewis was born in 1875 in Weymouth, several years later, he became the Dean of the college of Chemistry at Berkeley, where he spent the rest of his life. As a professor, he incorporated thermodynamic principles into the chemistry curriculum and he began measuring the free energy values related to several chemical processes, both organic and inorganic. In 1916, he proposed his theory of bonding and added information about electrons in the periodic table of the chemical elements. In 1933, he started his research on isotope separation, Lewis worked with hydrogen and managed to purify a sample of heavy water. He then came up with his theory of acids and bases, in 1926, Lewis coined the term photon for the smallest unit of radiant energy. He was a brother in Alpha Chi Sigma, the chemistry fraternity. Though he was nominated 41 times, G. N. Lewis never won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. On March 23,1946, Lewis was found dead in his Berkeley laboratory where he had working with hydrogen cyanide. After Lewis death, his children followed their fathers career in chemistry, Lewis was born in 1875 and raised in Weymouth, Massachusetts, where there exists a street named for him, G. N. Additionally, the wing of the new Weymouth High School Chemistry department has named in his honor. Lewis received his education at home from his parents, Frank Wesley Lewis, a lawyer of independent character. He read at age three and was intellectually precocious, in 1884 his family moved to Lincoln, Nebraska, and in 1889 he received his first formal education at the university preparatory school. In 1893, after two years at the University of Nebraska, Lewis transferred to Harvard University, where he obtained his B. S. in 1896. After a year of teaching at Harvard, Lewis took a fellowship to Germany, the center of physical chemistry. While working in Nernsts lab, Nernst and Lewis apparently developed a lifelong enmity, in the following years, Lewis started to criticize and denounce his former teacher on many occasions, calling Nernsts work on his heat theorem a regrettable episode in the history of chemistry. A friend of Nernsts, Wilhelm Palmær, was a member of the Nobel Chemistry Committee, after his stay in Nernsts lab, Lewis returned to Harvard in 1901 as an instructor for three more years. He was appointed instructor in thermodynamics and electrochemistry, in 1904 Lewis was granted a leave of absence and became Superintendent of Weights and Measures for the Bureau of Science in Manila, Philippines
16.
Cubical atom
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The cubical atom was an early atomic model in which electrons were positioned at the eight corners of a cube in a non-polar atom or molecule. This theory was developed in 1902 by Gilbert N. Lewis and published in 1916 in the article The Atom, lewiss theory was based on Abeggs rule. It was further developed in 1919 by Irving Langmuir as the cubical octet atom, the figure below shows structural representations for elements of the second row of the periodic table. The 1916 article by Lewis also introduced the concept of the pair in the covalent bond, the octet rule. Single covalent bonds are formed when two atoms share an edge, as in structure C below and this results in the sharing of two electrons. Ionic bonds are formed by the transfer of an electron from one cube to another, an intermediate state B where only one corner is shared was also postulated by Lewis. Double bonds are formed by sharing a face between two cubic atoms and this results in sharing four electrons, Triple bonds could not be accounted for by the cubical atom model, because there is no way of having two cubes share three parallel edges. Lewis suggested that the pairs in atomic bonds have a special attraction. This allows the formation of a bond by sharing a corner, a double bond by sharing an edge. It also accounts for the rotation around single bonds and for the tetrahedral geometry of methane
17.
Walther Kossel
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Walther was the son of Albrecht Kossel who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1910. Kossel began studies at the University of Heidelberg in 1906, but was at the University of Berlin during 1907 and 1908, in 1910, he became assistant to Philipp Lenard, who was also his thesis advisor. Kossel was awarded his Ph. D. in 1910, in 1913, the year in which Niels Bohr introduced the Bohr model of the atom, Kossel went to the University of Munich as assistant to Arnold Sommerfeld, under whom he did his Habilitation. Under Sommerfeld, Munich was a center for the developing atomic theory. In 1916, Kossel put forth his theory of the chemical bond. In papers published in 1914,1916, and 1920, Kossel was the first to explain the theory of limits in x-ray spectra. The edge appears at a frequency where absorption of the radiation largely begins with the resultant ejection of photoelectrons. In 1920, Kossel explained another phenomenon of x-ray spectra, under high resolution spectroscopy, the absorption edge has structure. He attributed this to absorption of radiation by electrons which are not ejected from matter as photoelectrons, in early years, this was known as “Kossel structure. ”In 1921, Kossel took an appointment as ordinarius professor of theoretical physics at the University of Kiel. In 1928, he put forth his theory of crystal growth. In 1932, Kossel took the appointment as professor of theoretical physics at the Technische Hochschule Danzig. During his tenure there in 1934, he discovered x-ray lattice interference of waves in crystals during the bombardment of single-crystal copper with a high-energy electron beam. In 1944, he was awarded the Max-Planck medal by the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, in 1945, Kossel became professor of theoretical physics and director of the Physics Institute at the University of Tübingen, where he was granted emeritus status in 1953. Kossel died in Tübingen and is buried, as is his father, Albrecht, in the Wald Friedhof, walther Kossel Bemerkung zur Absorption homogener Röntgenstrahlen, Verh. Received 27 September 1914, published in issue No.20 of 30 October 1914, as cited in Mehra, Volume 1, Part 2,2001, p.795. Walther Kossel Bemerkung zur Absorption homogener Röntgenstrahlen, received 23 October 1914, published in issue No.22 of 30 November 1914. As cited in Mehra, Volume 5, Part 2,2001, walther Kossel Bemerkung zum Seriencharakter der Röntgenstrahlen, Verh. Received 31 August 1916, published in issue No, as cited in Mehra, Volume 5, Part 2,2001, p.919
18.
Incandescent light bulb
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An incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe is an electric light with a wire filament heated to such a high temperature that it glows with visible light. The filament, heated by passing a current through it, is protected from oxidation with a glass or quartz bulb that is filled with inert gas or evacuated. In a halogen lamp, filament evaporation is prevented by a process that redeposits metal vapor onto the filament. The light bulb is supplied with current by feed-through terminals or wires embedded in the glass. Most bulbs are used in a socket which provides mechanical support, Incandescent bulbs are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, light output, and voltage ratings, from 1.5 volts to about 300 volts. They require no external regulating equipment, have low manufacturing costs, the remaining energy is converted into heat. The luminous efficacy of an incandescent bulb is 16 lumens per watt. Some applications of the incandescent bulb deliberately use the heat generated by the filament, such applications include incubators, brooding boxes for poultry, heat lights for reptile tanks, infrared heating for industrial heating and drying processes, lava lamps, and the Easy-Bake Oven toy. In addressing the question of who invented the incandescent lamp, historians Robert Friedel and Paul Israel list 22 inventors of incandescent lamps prior to Joseph Swan, historian Thomas Hughes has attributed Edisons success to his development of an entire, integrated system of electric lighting. In 1761 Ebenezer Kinnersley demonstrated heating a wire to incandescence and it was not bright enough nor did it last long enough to be practical, but it was the precedent behind the efforts of scores of experimenters over the next 75 years. Over the first three-quarters of the 19th century many experimenters worked with various combinations of platinum or iridium wires, carbon rods, many of these devices were demonstrated and some were patented. In 1835, James Bowman Lindsay demonstrated a constant electric light at a meeting in Dundee. He stated that he could read a book at a distance of one, however, having perfected the device to his own satisfaction, he turned to the problem of wireless telegraphy and did not develop the electric light any further. His claims are not well documented, although he is credited in Challoner et al. with being the inventor of the Incandescent Light Bulb, in 1838, Belgian lithographer Marcellin Jobard invented an incandescent light bulb with a vacuum atmosphere using a carbon filament. In 1840, British scientist Warren de la Rue enclosed a coiled platinum filament in a vacuum tube, although a workable design, the cost of the platinum made it impractical for commercial use. In 1841, Frederick de Moleyns of England was granted the first patent for an incandescent lamp, in 1845, American John W. Starr acquired a patent for his incandescent light bulb involving the use of carbon filaments. He died shortly after obtaining the patent, and his invention was never produced commercially, little else is known about him. In 1851, Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin publicly demonstrated incandescent light bulbs on his estate in Blois and his light bulbs are on display in the museum of the Château de Blois
19.
Atomic hydrogen welding
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Atomic hydrogen welding is an arc welding process that uses an arc between two metal tungsten electrodes in a shielding atmosphere of hydrogen. The process was invented by Irving Langmuir in the course of his studies of atomic hydrogen, the electric arc efficiently breaks up the hydrogen molecules, which later recombine with tremendous release of heat, reaching temperatures from 3400 to 4000 °C. Without the arc, a torch can only reach 2800 °C. This is the third hottest flame after dicyanoacetylene at 4987 °C, an acetylene torch merely reaches 3300 °C. This device may be called an atomic hydrogen torch, nascent hydrogen torch or Langmuir torch, the process was also known as arc-atom welding. The heat produced by this torch is sufficient to weld tungsten, the presence of hydrogen also acts as a shielding gas, preventing oxidation and contamination by carbon, nitrogen, or oxygen, which can severely damage the properties of many metals. It eliminates the need of flux for this purpose, the arc is maintained independently of the workpiece or parts being welded. When the hydrogen strikes a relatively cold surface, it recombines into its diatomic form releasing the energy associated with the formation of that bond, the energy in AHW can be varied easily by changing the distance between the arc stream and the workpiece surface. This process is being replaced by gas welding, mainly because of the availability of inexpensive inert gases. In atomic hydrogen welding, filler metal may or may not be used, in this process, the arc is maintained entirely independent of the work or parts being welded. The work is a part of the circuit only to the extent that a portion of the arc comes in contact with the work. Manufacturing Engineering and Technology textbook Fifth edition, upper Saddle River, Pearson Education, Inc.2006 Atomic Hydrogen Welding. Archived from the original on 11 January 2008, archived from the original on 11 January 2008
20.
Socorro, New Mexico
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Socorro is a city in Socorro County in the U. S. state of New Mexico. It is in the Rio Grande Valley at an elevation of 4,579 feet, in 2012 the population was 8,906. It is the county seat of Socorro County, Socorro is located 74 miles south of Albuquerque and 146 miles north of Las Cruces. In June 1598, Juan de Oñate led a group of Spanish settlers through the Jornada del Muerto, as the Spaniards emerged from the desert, Piro Indians of the pueblo of Teypana gave them food and water. Therefore, the Spaniards renamed this pueblo Socorro, which means help or aid, later, the name Socorro would be applied to the nearby Piro pueblo of Pilabó. Nuestra Señora de Perpetuo Socorro, the first Catholic mission in the area, was established c. Fray Agustín de Vetancurt would later write that around 600 people lived in the area during this period, Mines in the Socorro mountains were opened by 1626. During the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, Spanish refugees stopped in the pueblo of Socorro, a number of Piro Indians followed the Spaniards as they left the province to go south to safety. With no protection of Spanish troops, Socorro was destroyed and the remaining Piro were killed by the Apache, the Spanish did not initially resettle Socorro when they re-conquered New Mexico. Other than El Paso, there were no Spanish settlements south of Sabinal until the 1800s, in 1800, governor Fernando Chacon gave the order to resettle Socorro and other villages in the area. However, Socorro was not resettled until about 1815, in 1817,70 Belen residents petitioned the crown for land in Socorro. The 1833 Socorro census lists over 400 residents, with a total of 1,774 people living within the vicinity of the village, the mission of San Miguel de Socorro was established soon after Socorro was resettled. The church was built on the ruins of the old Nuestra Señora de Socorro, in August 1846, during the Mexican–American War, New Mexico was occupied by the American Army. In Las Vegas, New Mexico, Colonel Stephen W. Kearny proclaimed New Mexicos independence from Mexico, on their way to begin their assault on Mexico, American troops stopped in Socorro. A British officer, Lt. George Ruxton, commented that these soldiers were unwashed and unshaven, were ragged and dirty, in September 1850, New Mexico became a territory of the United States. At the time, New Mexico encompassed what is now the states of New Mexico, in 1850, the population of Socorro was only 543 people. This included 100 American soldiers who were moved to Valverde. The first military post built near Socorro was Fort Conrad,30 miles south of the town, built in August 1851, the fort was badly constructed and was abandoned for Fort Craig, located a few miles away
21.
American Chemical Society
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The American Chemical Society is a scientific society based in the United States that supports scientific inquiry in the field of chemistry. Founded in 1876 at New York University, the ACS currently has more than 158,000 members at all levels and in all fields of chemistry, chemical engineering. It is the worlds largest scientific society by membership, the ACS is a 501 non-profit organization and holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code. Its headquarters are located in Washington, D. C. and it has a concentration of staff in Columbus. The ACS is a source of scientific information through its peer-reviewed scientific journals, national conferences. Its publications division produces 51 scholarly journals including the prestigious Journal of the American Chemical Society, the ACS holds national meetings twice a year covering the complete field of chemistry and also holds smaller conferences concentrating on specific chemical fields or geographic regions. The primary source of income of the ACS is the Chemical Abstracts Service, the organization also publishes textbooks, administers several national chemistry awards, provides grants for scientific research, and supports various educational and outreach activities. In 1874, a group of American chemists gathered at the Joseph Priestley House to mark the 100th anniversary of Priestleys discovery of oxygen. Two years later, on 6 April 1876, during a meeting of chemists at the University of the City of New York the American Chemical Society was founded, the society received its charter of incorporation from the State of New York in 1877. Charles F. Draper was a photochemist and pioneering photographer who had produced one of the first photographic portraits in 1840, chandler would later serve as president in 1881 and 1889. The Journal of the American Chemical Society was founded in 1879 to publish original chemical research and it was the first journal published by ACS and is still the societys flagship peer-reviewed publication. Chemical & Engineering News is a trade magazine that has been published by ACS since 1923. The society adopted a new constitution aimed at nationalizing the organization in 1890, in 1905, the American Chemical Society moved from New York City to Washington, D. C. ACS was reincorporated under a charter in 1937. It was granted by the U. S. Congress and signed by president Franklin D. Roosevelt, ACSs headquarters moved to its current location in downtown Washington in 1941. Divisional activities include organizing technical sessions at ACS meetings, publishing books and resources, administering awards and lectureships, as of 2016, there are 32 technical divisions of ACS. This is the largest division of the Society and it marked its 100th Anniversary in 2008. The first Chair of the Division was Edward Curtis Franklin, the Organic Division played a part in establishing Organic Syntheses, Inc. and Organic Reactions, Inc. and it maintains close ties to both organizations
22.
Langmuir (journal)
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Langmuir is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that was established in 1985 and is published by the American Chemical Society. It covers research in the areas of surface and colloid chemistry, the title honors Irving Langmuir, winner of the 1932 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. The founding editor-in-chief was Arthur W. Adamson, Langmuir is indexed in Chemical Abstracts Service, Scopus, EBSCOhost, British Library, PubMed, Web of Science, and SwetsWise
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Given name
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A given name is a part of a persons personal name. It identifies a person, and differentiates that person from other members of a group, such as a family or clan. The term given name refers to the fact that the name usually is bestowed upon a person and this contrasts with a surname, which is normally inherited, and shared with other members of the childs immediate family. Given names are used in a familiar and friendly manner in informal situations. In more formal situations the surname is commonly used, unless it is necessary to distinguish between people with the same surname. The idioms on a basis and being on first-name terms allude to the familiarity of addressing another by a given name. The order given name – family name, commonly known as the Western order, is used throughout most European countries and in countries that have cultures predominantly influenced by Western Europe. The order family name – given name, commonly known as the Eastern order, is used in East Asia, as well as in Southern and North-Eastern parts of India. The order given name - fathers family name - mothers family name is used in Spanish-speaking countries to acknowledge the families of both parents. Today the order can also be changed legally in Spain using given name - mothers family name - fathers family name, under the common Western naming convention, people may have one or more forenames. If more than one, there is usually a main forename for everyday use, sometimes however two or more forenames may carry equal weight. There is no particular ordering rule for forenames – often the main forename is at the beginning, a childs given name or names are usually chosen by the parents soon after birth. If a name is not assigned at birth, one may be given at a ceremony, with family. In most jurisdictions, a name at birth is a matter of public record, inscribed on a birth certificate. In western cultures, people normally retain the same name throughout their lives. However, in some cases names may be changed by petitioning a court of law. People may also change their names when immigrating from one country to another with different naming conventions, in France, the agency can refer the case to a local judge. Some jurisdictions, like in Sweden, restrict the spelling of names, parents may choose a name because of its meaning
24.
Hobby
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A hobby is a regular activity that is done for enjoyment, typically during ones leisure time. Hobbies can include collecting themed items and objects, engaging in creative and artistic pursuits, playing sports, a list of hobbies is lengthy and always changing as interests and fashions change. By continually participating in a hobby, one can acquire substantial skill. Engagement in hobbies has increased since the nineteenth century as workers have more leisure time and advancing production. As some hobbies have become popular, like stamp collecting, others have been created following technological advances. Hobbyists are a part of a group of people engaged in leisure pursuits where the boundaries of each group overlap to some extent. The Serious Leisure Perspective groups hobbyists with amateurs and volunteers and identifies three broad groups of activity with hobbies being found mainly in the Serious leisure category. Casual leisure is intrinsically rewarding, short-lived, pleasurable activity requiring little or no preparation b, Serious leisure is the systematic pursuit of an amateur, hobbyist, or volunteer that is substantial, rewarding and results in a sense of accomplishment. Project-based leisure is a short-term often a one-off project that is rewarding, in the 16th century, the term hobyn had the meaning of small horse and pony. The term hobby horse was documented in a 1557 payment confirmation for a Hobbyhorse from Reading, the item, originally called a Tourney Horse, was made of a wooden or basketwork frame with an artificial tail and head. It was designed for a child to mimic riding a real horse, by 1816 the derivative, hobby, was introduced into the vocabulary of a number of English people. Over the course of subsequent centuries, the term came to be associated with recreation, a hobby became an activity that is practised regularly and usually with some worthwhile purpose. Hobbies are usually, but not always, practised primarily for interest and enjoyment, the origins pursuits that others thought somewhat childish or trivial. However, as early as 1676 Sir Matthew Hale, in Contemplations Moral and Divine and he was acknowledging that a hobby horse produces a legitimate sense of pride. By the mid 18th century there was a flourishing of hobbies as working people had more hours of work. They spent more time to pursue interests that brought them satisfaction, however, there was concern that these working people might not use their leisure time in worthwhile pursuits. The hope of weaning people away from bad habits by the provision of counter-attractions came to the fore in the 1830s, the flourishing book and magazine trade of the day encouraged worthwhile hobbies and pursuits. The burgeoning manufacturing trade made materials used in hobbies cheap and was responsive to the interests of hobbyists
25.
Mountaineering
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The term mountaineering describes the sport of mountain climbing, including ski mountaineering. Hiking in the mountains can also be a form of mountaineering when it involves scrambling, or short stretches of the more basic grades of rock climbing. All require experience, athletic ability, and technical knowledge to maintain safety, mountaineering is often called Alpinism, especially in European languages, which implies climbing with difficulty such high and often snow and ice-covered mountains as the Alps. A mountaineer with such great skill is called an Alpinist, historically, many cultures have harbored superstitions about mountains, which they often regarded as sacred due to their proximity with heaven, such as Mount Olympus for the Ancient Greeks. In 1492 Antoine de Ville, lord of Domjulien and Beaupré, was the first to ascend the Mont Aiguille, in France, with a team, using ladders. It appears to be the first recorded climb of any technical difficulty, in 1573 Francesco De Marchi and Francesco Di Domenico ascended Corno Grande, the highest peak in the Apennine Mountains. During the Enlightenment, as a product of the new spirit of curiosity for the natural world, in 1741 Richard Pococke and William Windham made a historic visit to Chamonix. By the early 19th century many of the peaks were reached, including the Grossglockner in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812. In 1808 Marie Paradis became the first female to climb Mont Blanc and this inaugurated what became known as the Golden age of alpinism, with the first mountaineering club - the Alpine Club - being founded in 1857. Well-known guides of the era include Christian Almer, Jakob Anderegg, Melchior Anderegg, J. J. Bennen, Michel Croz, in the early years of the golden age, scientific pursuits were intermixed with the sport, such as by the physicist John Tyndall. In the later years, it shifted to a more competitive orientation as pure sportsmen came to dominate the London-based Alpine Club and this ascent is generally regarded as marking the end of the mountaineering golden age. By this point the sport of mountaineering had largely reached its modern form, with a body of professional guides, equipment, mountaineering in the Americas became popular in the 1800s. In North America, Pikes Peak in the Colorado Rockies was first climbed by Edwin James, though lower than Pikes Peak, the heavily glaciated Fremont Peak in Wyoming was thought to be the tallest mountain in the Rockies when it was first climbed by John C. Frémont and two others in 1842, pico de Orizaba, the tallest peak in Mexico and third tallest in North America, was first climbed by U. S. military personnel which included William F. Raynolds and a half dozen other climbers in 1848. Heavily glaciated and more technical climbs in North American were not achieved until the late 19th, in 1897 Mount Saint Elias on the Alaska-Yukon border was summitted by the Duke of the Abruzzi and party. But it was not until 1913 that Mount Mckinley, the tallest peak in North America was successfully climbed by Hudson Stuck, Mount Logan, the tallest peak in Canada was first summitted by a half dozen climbers in 1925 in an expedition that took more than two months. In 1879-1880 the exploration of the highest Andes in South America began when English mountaineer Edward Whymper climbed Chimborazo, the summit of Aconcagua was finally reached on January 14,1897 by Swiss mountaineer Matthias Zurbriggen during an expedition led by Edward FitzGerald that began in December 1896. The Andes of Bolivia were first explored by Sir William Martin Conway in 1898 and it took until the late 19th century for European explorers to penetrate Africa
26.
Skiing
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Skiing is a mode of transport, recreational activity and competitive winter sport in which the participant uses skis to glide on snow. Many types of skiing events are recognized by the International Olympic Committee. Skiing has a history of almost five millennia, although modern skiing has evolved from beginnings in Scandinavia, it may have been practiced as early as 600 BC in what is now China. The word ski is one of a handful of words Norway has exported to the international community and it comes from the Old Norse word skíð which means split piece of wood or firewood. Asymmetrical skis were used at least in northern Finland and Sweden until the late 19th century, on one leg the skier wore a long straight non-arching ski for sliding, and on the other a shorter ski for kicking. Early skiers used one long pole or spear, the first depiction of a skier with two ski poles dates to 1741. Until the mid-19th century skiing was primarily used for transport, and since then has become a recreation, military ski races were held in Norway during the 18th century, and ski warfare was studied in the late 18th century. As equipment evolved and ski lifts were developed skiing evolved into two main genres during the late 19th and early 20th century, Alpine and Nordic, also called downhill skiing, alpine skiing typically takes place on a piste at a ski resort. It is characterized by fixed-heel bindings that attach at both the toe and the heel of the skiers boot, because alpine equipment is somewhat difficult to walk in, ski lifts, including chairlifts, bring skiers up the slope. Backcountry skiing can be accessed by helicopter, snowcat, hiking, facilities at resorts can include night skiing, après-ski, and glade skiing under the supervision of the ski patrol and the ski school. Alpine skiing branched off from the older Nordic skiing around the 1920s, Alpine equipment specialized to where it can only be used with the help of lifts. The Nordic disciplines include cross-country skiing and ski jumping, which share in common the use of binding that attach at the toes of the skiers boots, cross-country skiing may be practiced on groomed trails or in undeveloped backcountry areas. Ski jumping skiing is practiced at certain areas that are deemed for ski jumping only, Telemark skiing is a ski turning technique and FIS-sanctioned discipline. It is named after the Telemark region of Norway, using equipment similar to nordic skiing, the ski bindings having the ski boot attached only at the toe. This allows the skier to raise his/her heel throughout the turn, the following disciplines are sanctioned by the FIS and USSA. Many have their own cups and are in the Winter Olympic Games. Cross-country, The sport encompasses a variety of formats for cross-country skiing races over courses of varying lengths, such races occur over homologated, groomed courses designed to support classic and free-style events, where the skiers may employ skate skiing. Alpine skiing discliplines include combined, downhill, slalom, giant slalom, Super-G, one run of each even like one run of Super-G and one run of Slalom skiing this is called a Super Combined
27.
Aircraft pilot
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A pilot or aviator is a person who controls the flight of an aircraft by operating its directional flight controls. Other aircrew members such as attendants, mechanics and ground crew, are not classified as aviators. In recognition of the qualifications and responsibilities, most militaries and many airlines worldwide award aviator badges to their pilots. The first recorded use of the aviator was in 1887, as a variation of aviation, from the Latin avis. The term aviatrix, now archaic, was used for a female aviator. These terms were used more in the days of aviation, when airplanes were extremely rare. For example, a 1905 reference work described the Wright brothers first airplane, The weight, the Aéro-Club de France delivered the first certificate to Louis Blériot in 1908—followed by Glenn Curtiss, Léon Delagrange, and Robert Esnault-Pelterie. The absolute authority given to the pilot in command derives from that of a ships captain, when flying for an airline, pilots are usually referred to as airline pilots, with the pilot in command often referred to as the captain. While the flight decks of U. S. and European airliners do have ex-military pilots, military training and flying, while rigorous, is fundamentally different in many ways from civilian piloting. Pilots licensing in Canada is similar to the United States, the Aeronautics Act of 1985 and Canadian Aviation Regulations provide rules for pilots in Canada. Retirement age is provided by each airline with some set to age 60, in 1930, the Air Commerce Act established pilot licensing requirements for American civil aviation. Commercial airline pilots in the United States have a retirement age of 65. Military pilots fly with the forces of a government or nation-state. Their tasks involve combat and non-combat operations, including direct hostile engagements, military pilots undergo specialized training, often with weapons. Examples of military pilots include fighter pilots, bomber pilots, transport pilots, military pilots also serve as flight crews on aircraft for government personnel, such as Air Force One and Air Force Two in the United States. Military pilots are trained with a different syllabus than civilian pilots and this is due to the different aircraft, flight goals, flight situations and chains of responsibility. Many military pilots do transfer to civilian-pilot qualification after they leave the military, the person controlling a remotely piloted UAV may be referred to as its pilot or operator. Most jurisdictions have restrictions on the use of UAVs which have limited their use in controlled airspace, UAVs have mostly been limited to military
28.
Classical music
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Classical music is art music produced or rooted in the traditions of Western music, including both liturgical and secular music. The central norms of this tradition became codified between 1550 and 1900, which is known as the common-practice period, Western staff notation is used by composers to indicate to the performer the pitches, tempo, meter and rhythms for a piece of music. This can leave less room for such as improvisation and ad libitum ornamentation. The term classical music did not appear until the early 19th century, the earliest reference to classical music recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary is from about 1836. This score typically determines details of rhythm, pitch, and, the written quality of the music has enabled a high level of complexity within them, J. S. The use of written notation also preserves a record of the works, Musical notation enables 2000s-era performers to sing a choral work from the 1300s Renaissance era or a 1700s Baroque concerto with many of the features of the music being reproduced. That said, the score does not provide complete and exact instructions on how to perform a historical work, even if the tempo is written with an Italian instruction, we do not know exactly how fast the piece should be played. Bach was particularly noted for his complex improvisations, during the Classical era, the composer-performer Mozart was noted for his ability to improvise melodies in different styles. During the Classical era, some virtuoso soloists would improvise the cadenza sections of a concerto, during the Romantic era, Beethoven would improvise at the piano. The instruments currently used in most classical music were largely invented before the mid-19th century and they consist of the instruments found in an orchestra or in a concert band, together with several other solo instruments. The symphony orchestra is the most widely known medium for music and includes members of the string, woodwind, brass. The concert band consists of members of the woodwind, brass and it generally has a larger variety and number of woodwind and brass instruments than the orchestra but does not have a string section. However, many bands use a double bass. Many of the used to perform medieval music still exist. Medieval instruments included the flute, the recorder and plucked string instruments like the lute. As well, early versions of the organ, fiddle, Medieval instruments in Europe had most commonly been used singly, often self accompanied with a drone note, or occasionally in parts. From at least as early as the 13th century through the 15th century there was a division of instruments into haut, during the earlier medieval period, the vocal music from the liturgical genre, predominantly Gregorian chant, was monophonic, using a single, unaccompanied vocal melody line. Polyphonic vocal genres, which used multiple independent vocal melodies, began to develop during the medieval era, becoming prevalent by the later 13th
29.
Chestnut Hill Academy
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From 1861 to 1952 Chestnut Hill Academy was an all-male Pre-K through 8th grade independent college preparatory school located in Northwest Philadelphia. The 9th though 12th grades were added, one per year, in 2011, CHA merged with its academic partner and neighbor, the all-girls school Springside School. The two schools together are now known as Springside Chestnut Hill Academy, the schools main building at 500 West Willow Grove Avenue was formerly known as the Wissahickon Inn. & W. D. Hewitt and built by Henry H. Houston, Houston also built the Philadelphia Cricket Club across the street, and additional land across the street played host to the Philadelphia Horse Show. These were popular attractions for Houstons 3, 000-acre real estate development, in 1897, the Inns business began to decline when the Philadelphia Horse Show moved, and improved transportation caused guests to seek more distant travel spots. In 1898, Chestnut Hill Academy moved to the Wissahickon Inn from its previous residence on 8030 Germantown Avenue. The school and the Inn functioned simultaneously, the school making use of the facilities during its off season. The Wissahickon Inn closed in 1901, and Chestnut Hill Academy took permanent possession of the property, the Wissahickon Inn is listed on National Register of Historic Places, and the school retains many of the Inns original structures today. Gibson, author of the Shadow mystery stories Allyn Joslyn, stage, film, radio, irving Langmuir, winner of the 1932 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. David Nalle, American diplomat and scholar, CHASS Robotics Website Springside Chestnut Hill Academy
30.
Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia
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Chestnut Hill is a neighborhood in the Northwest Philadelphia section of the United States city of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It is known for its high incomes and real estate values, Chestnut Hill is bounded as follows, on the northwest by Northwestern Avenue, on the west by the Wissahickon Gorge, on the northeast by Stenton Avenue, and on the southeast by the Cresheim Valley. The USPS does not officially correlate neighborhood names to Philadelphia ZIP codes, however, the 19118 ZIP code is almost entirely coterminous with the cultural-consensus boundaries of Chestnut Hill. It served as a gateway between Philadelphia and the nearby farmlands, Chestnut Hill is still stereotypically known as one of the more affluent sections of Philadelphia. However, there are residents who fall within lower/middle class incomes. Chestnut Hill became part of the City of Philadelphia in 1854 as part of the Act of Consolidation, when the County, in the same year, the Chestnut Hill Railroad opened, making an easy commute to and from Center City. During the American Civil War, Chestnut Hill was home to Mower U. S. Army General Hospital, the neighborhood contains a wide variety of 19th and early 20th century residential buildings by many of the most prominent Philadelphia architects. In 2011, Chestnut Hill had a home sale price of $629. This price was an increase of 57% from its 2005 median price, the Chestnut Hill listings on the National Register of Historic Places, Anglecot, designed by Wilson Eyre. Chestnut Hill Historic District Druim Moir Historic District, includes Romanesque Revival mansion, gravers Lane Station, designed by Frank Furness. John Story Jenks School, designed by Irwin T. Catharine, Wissahickon Inn, designed by G. W. & W. D. Hewitt. Other historic and notable properties include, High Hollow, The George Howe House, designed by George Howe Inglewood Cottage, the former site of Boxly, the estate of Frederick Winslow Taylor, where Taylor often received the business-management pilgrims who came to meet the Father of Scientific Management. Esherick House, designed by Louis Kahn, vanna Venturi House, designed by Robert Venturi. Public transportation in southeastern Pennsylvania, which includes Philadelphia and the counties, is provided by SEPTA. Two SEPTA Regional Rail lines serve Chestnut Hill, the Chestnut Hill East Line, Chestnut Hill is served by SEPTA bus routes from both the City Transit Division and the Suburban Division. Trams in the southeastern Pennsylvania region are known as trolleys, the trolley network of this region was very extensive prior to World War II, but has shrunk since that era. Chestnut Hill was formerly served by trolleys, Trolley service to Chestnut Hill began in 1894, and trolley tracks still run down the Belgian-block-paved main street of the neighborhood, Germantown Avenue, which was served by SEPTA Route 23. SEPTA temporarily suspended regular trolley service in 1992, from 1992 until 1996, weekend-only service ran between Chestnut Hill and Mount Airy, re-branded The Chestnut Hill Trolley
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Metallurgy
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The production of metals involves the processing of ores to extract the metal they contain, and the mixture of metals, sometimes with other elements, to produce alloys. Metallurgy is distinguished from the craft of metalworking, although metalworking relies on metallurgy, as medicine relies on medical science, Metallurgy is subdivided into ferrous metallurgy and non-ferrous metallurgy or colored metallurgy. Ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on iron while non-ferrous metallurgy involves processes, the production of ferrous metals accounts for 95 percent of world metal production. The roots of metallurgy derive from Ancient Greek, μεταλλουργός, metallourgós, worker in metal, from μέταλλον, métallon, metal + ἔργον, érgon, in the late 19th century it was extended to the more general scientific study of metals, alloys, and related processes. In English, the pronunciation is the more common one in the UK. The /ˈmetələrdʒi/ pronunciation is the common one in the USA. The earliest recorded metal employed by humans appears to be gold, small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late Paleolithic period, c.40,000 BC. Silver, copper, tin and meteoric iron can also be found in native form, egyptian weapons made from meteoric iron in about 3000 BC were highly prized as daggers from heaven. Certain metals, notably tin, lead and copper, can be recovered from their ores by simply heating the rocks in a fire or blast furnace, a process known as smelting. The first evidence of this extractive metallurgy dates from the 5th and 6th millennia BC and was found in the sites of Majdanpek, Yarmovac and Plocnik. To date, the earliest evidence of copper smelting is found at the Belovode site, other signs of early metals are found from the third millennium BC in places like Palmela, Los Millares, and Stonehenge. However, the ultimate beginnings cannot be ascertained and new discoveries are both continuous and ongoing. These first metals were single ones or as found, about 3500 BC, it was discovered that by combining copper and tin, a superior metal could be made, an alloy called bronze, representing a major technological shift known as the Bronze Age. The extraction of iron from its ore into a metal is much more difficult than for copper or tin. The process appears to have been invented by the Hittites in about 1200 BC, the secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in the success of the Philistines. Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a variety of past cultures. A 16th century book by Georg Agricola called De re metallica describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction, Agricola has been described as the father of metallurgy. Extractive metallurgy is the practice of removing valuable metals from an ore, in order to convert a metal oxide or sulphide to a purer metal, the ore must be reduced physically, chemically, or electrolytically
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Stevens Institute of Technology
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Stevens Institute of Technology is a private, coeducational research university located in Hoboken, New Jersey, United States. The university also has a location in Washington, D. C. Incorporated in 1870, it is one of the oldest technological universities in the United States, the campus encompasses Castle Point, the highest point in Hoboken, and several other buildings around the city. The university is home to three national Centers of Excellence as designated by the U. S. Department of Defense and U. S. Department of Homeland Security. Two members of the Stevens community, as alumni or faculty, have awarded the Nobel Prize, Frederick Reines, in Physics. Dr. Nariman Farvardin is the president of Stevens. He took office on July 1,2011, Stevens Institute of Technology is named after a family of accomplished inventors and engineers who also oversaw the development of Hoboken from an old farm into a thriving city. This innovation would be employed by ferries to Manhattan which still run from Hobokens piers, along with his brother Edwin A. Stevens, Robert created Americas first commercial railroad presently operating as a large portion of Amtrak’s Northeast Corridor. John Cox Stevens, John Stevens eldest son, was the first commodore of the New York Yacht Club, the NY Yacht Club would defend its title until the 1983 race. In his will, he left a bequest for the establishment of an institution of learning, providing his trustees with land, edwin’s will was executed by surviving wife Martha Stevens who would also serve as a lifetime Trustee of the Institute. Stevens Fund for Municipal Research, manual training schools for boys and young girls in Hoboken, the Hoboken Public Library and Manual Training School. Stevens Institute of Technology opened in 1870 and initially was dedicated to mechanical engineering, the original course of study was a single, rigorous curriculum based upon the European Polytechnic model of engineering science, rather than the shop schools that were common at that time. Mechanical Engineer was the degree offered, in addition to a Ph. D. in mechanical engineering, chemistry. Stevens granted several Ph. D. s between 1870 and 1900, making it one of the earliest Ph. D. granting institutions in the United States, the broad-based interdisciplinary philosophy was put into practice by the founders from the first graduating class. Despite the title of the degree and concentration in mechanical engineering, the curriculum included courses in all engineering disciplines of the time, mechanical, civil, chemical, and electrical. In 1880, Robert H. Thurston, professor of engineering, was nominated the first president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. The campus began on the edge of the estate at Castle Point in Hoboken. It occupied a building now designated the Edwin A. Stevens Building
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Hoboken, New Jersey
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Hoboken is a city in Hudson County, New Jersey, United States. Hoboken is part of the New York metropolitan area and is the site of Hoboken Terminal, Hoboken was first settled as part of the Pavonia, New Netherland colony in the 17th century. During the early 19th century the city was developed by Colonel John Stevens, first as a resort and it became a township in 1849 and was incorporated as a city in 1855. Hoboken is the location of the first recorded game of baseball and of the Stevens Institute of Technology, located on the Hudson Waterfront, the city was an integral part of the Port of New York and New Jersey and home to major industries for most of the 20th century. The character of the city has changed from a blue collar town to one of upscale shops, the name Hoboken was chosen by Colonel John Stevens when he bought land, on a part of which the city still sits. Like Weehawken, its neighbor to the north, Communipaw and Harsimus to the south, Hoebuck, old Dutch for high bluff and likely referring to Castle Point, was used during the colonial era and later spelled as Hobuck, Hobock, Hobuk and Hoboocken. The origin of Hobokens name was not related to the Hoboken district of Antwerp, however, in the nineteenth century, a folk etymology had emerged linking the town of to the similarly-named Flemish town. Hoboken was originally an island, surrounded by the Hudson River on the east and it was a seasonal campsite in the territory of the Hackensack, a phratry of the Lenni Lenape, who used the serpentine rock found there to carve pipes. Soon after it part of the province of New Netherland. Three Lenape sold the land that was to become Hoboken for 80 fathoms of wampum,20 fathoms of cloth,12 kettles, six guns and these transactions, variously dated as July 12,1630 and November 22,1630, represent the earliest known conveyance for the area. Pauw failed to settle the land, and he was obliged to sell his holdings back to the Company in 1633 and it was later acquired by Hendrick Van Vorst, who leased part of the land to Aert Van Putten, a farmer. In 1643, north of what would be known as Castle Point, Van Putten built a house. In series of Indian and Dutch raids and reprisals, Van Putten was killed and his buildings destroyed, deteriorating relations with the Lenape, its isolation as an island, or relatively long distance from New Amsterdam may have discouraged more settlement. In 1664, the English took possession of New Amsterdam with little or no resistance, english-speaking settlers interspersed with the Dutch, but it remained scarcely populated and agrarian. At the end of the Revolutionary War, Bayards property was confiscated by the Revolutionary Government of New Jersey, in 1784, the land described as William Bayards farm at Hoebuck was bought at auction by Colonel John Stevens for £18,360. In the early 19th century, Colonel John Stevens developed the waterfront as a resort for Manhattanites, on October 11,1811, Stevens ship the Juliana, began to operate as a ferry between Manhattan and Hoboken, making it the worlds first commercial steam ferry. In 1825, he designed and built a locomotive capable of hauling several passenger cars at his estate. Sybils Cave, a cave with a spring, was opened in 1832
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Schenectady, New York
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Schenectady /skᵻˈnɛktədi/ is a city in Schenectady County, New York, United States, of which it is the county seat. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 66,135, the name Schenectady is derived from a Mohawk word skahnéhtati meaning beyond the pines. The city was founded on the side of the Mohawk River by Dutch colonists in the 17th century. They were prohibited from the fur trade by the Albany monopoly, residents of the new village developed farms on strip plots along the river. Connected to the west via the Mohawk River and Erie Canal, by 1824 more people worked in manufacturing than agriculture or trade, and the city had a cotton mill, processing cotton from the Deep South. Numerous mills in New York had such ties with the South, the city was part of emerging technologies, with GE collaborating in the production of nuclear-powered submarines and, in the 21st century, working on other forms of renewable energy. The city is in eastern New York, near the confluence of the Mohawk and it is in the same metropolitan area as the state capital, Albany, which is about 19 miles southeast. In December 2014, the announced that the city was one of three sites selected for development of off-reservation casino gambling, under terms of a 2013 state constitutional amendment. The project would redevelop an ALCO brownfield site in the city along the waterfront, with hotels, housing, when first encountered by Europeans, the Mohawk Valley was the territory of the Mohawk nation, one of the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, or Haudenosaunee. They had occupied territory in the region since at least 1100 AD, in the 1640s, the Mohawk had three major villages, all on the south side of the Mohawk River. The easternmost one was Ossernenon, located about 9 miles west of present-day Auriesville, about 3200 acres of this unique ecosystem are now protected as the Albany Pine Bush. Eventually, this word entered the lexicon of the Dutch settlers, the settlers in Fort Orange used skahnéhtati to refer to the new village at the Mohawk flats, which became known as Schenectady. In 1661 Arent van Curler, a Dutch immigrant bought a big piece of land on the side of the Mohawk River. Other colonists were given grants of land by the government in this portion of the flat fertile river valley. The settlers recognized that these bottomlands had been cultivated for maize by the Mohawk for centuries, Van Curler took the largest piece of land, the remainder was divided into 50-acre plots for the other first fourteen proprietors. As most early colonists were from the Fort Orange area, they may have anticipated working as fur traders, the settlers here turned to farming. Their 50-acre lots were unique for the colony, laid out in strips along the Mohawk River, with the narrow edges fronting the river and they relied on rearing livestock and wheat. From the early days of interaction, early Dutch traders in the valley had unions with Mohawk women and their children were raised within the Mohawk community, which had a matrilineal kinship system, considering children born into the mothers clan
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Guglielmo Marconi
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He is often credited as the inventor of radio, and he shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with Karl Ferdinand Braun in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy. Marconi was an entrepreneur, businessman, and founder of The Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company in the United Kingdom in 1897 and he succeeded in making a commercial success of radio by innovating and building on the work of previous experimenters and physicists. In 1929, the King of Italy ennobled Marconi as a Marchese, Marconi was born into the Italian nobility as Guglielmo Giovanni Maria Marconi in Bologna on 25 April 1874, the second son of Giuseppe Marconi and his Irish/Scots wife Annie Jameson. Between the ages of two and six, Marconi and his elder brother Alfonso were brought up by his mother in the English town of Bedford, Marconi received further education in Florence at the Istituto Cavallero and, later, in Livorno. Marconi did not do well in school, according to Robert McHenry and he was baptized as a Catholic but had been brought up as a member of the Anglican Church, being married into it. Marconi was confirmed in the Catholic faith and became a member of the Church before his marriage to Maria Christina in 1927. During his early years, Marconi had an interest in science and electricity, the transmission of telegraph messages without connecting wires as used by the electric telegraph. There was a deal of interest in radio waves in the physics community. Righis article renewed Marconis interest in developing a wireless telegraphy based on radio waves. In the summer of 1894, he built a storm alarm made up of a battery, a coherer, and an electric bell, soon after he was able to make a bell ring on the other side of the room by pushing a telegraphic button on a bench. One night in December 1894, Guglielmo woke his mother and invited her into his secret workshop and showed her the experiment that he had created. The next day, he showed his work to his father. In the summer of 1895, Marconi moved his experimentation outdoors, with these improvements the system was capable of transmitting signals up to 2 miles and over hills. The monopole antenna reduced the frequency of the waves compared to the dipole antennas used by Hertz, by this point, he concluded that a device could become capable of spanning greater distances, with additional funding and research, and would prove valuable both commercially and militarily. Marconis experimental apparatus proved to be the first engineering-complete, commercially successful radio transmission system, Marconi wrote to the Ministry of Post and Telegraphs, then under the direction of the honorable Pietro Lacava, explaining his wireless telegraph machine and asking for funding. He never received a response to his letter which was dismissed by the Minister who wrote to the Longara on the document. In 1896, Marconi spoke with his family friend Carlo Gardini, Honorary Consul at the United States Consulate in Bologna, Gardini wrote a letter of introduction to the Ambassador of Italy in London, Annibale Ferrero, explaining who Marconi was and about these extraordinary discoveries. In his response, Ambassador Ferrero advised them not to reveal the results until after they had obtained the copyrights
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Diffusion pump
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Diffusion pumps use a high speed jet of vapor to direct gas molecules in the pump throat down into the bottom of the pump and out the exhaust. However, the principle of operation might be more precisely described as gas-jet pump, in modern text books, the diffusion pump is categorized as a momentum transfer pump. The diffusion pump is used in both industrial and research applications. Most modern diffusion pumps use oil or polyphenyl ethers as the working fluid. Cecil Reginald Burch discovered the possibility of using oil in 1928. An oil diffusion pump is used to achieve higher vacuum than is possible by use of positive displacement pumps alone, although its use has been mainly associated within the high-vacuum range, diffusion pumps today can produce pressures approaching 10−10 mbar when properly used with modern fluids and accessories. Diffusion pumps cannot discharge directly into the atmosphere, so a mechanical forepump is typically used to maintain a pressure around 0.1 mbar. The oil diffusion pump is operated with an oil of low vapor pressure, the high speed jet is generated by boiling the fluid and directing the vapor through a jet assembly. Note that the oil is gaseous when entering the nozzles, within the nozzles, the flow changes from laminar, to supersonic and molecular. Often, several jets are used in series to enhance the pumping action, the outside of the diffusion pump is cooled using either air flow or a water line. As the vapor jet hits the outer cooled shell of the diffusion pump, unlike turbomolecular pumps and cryopumps, diffusion pumps have no moving parts and as a result are quite durable and reliable. They can function over pressure ranges of 10−10 to 10−2 mbar and they are driven only by convection and thus have a very low energy efficiency. One major disadvantage of diffusion pumps is the tendency to backstream oil into the vacuum chamber and this oil can contaminate surfaces inside the chamber or upon contact with hot filaments or electrical discharges may result in carbonaceous or siliceous deposits. Often cold traps and baffles are used to minimize backstreaming, although this results in loss of pumping ability. The oil of a diffusion pump cannot be exposed to the atmosphere when hot, if this occurs, the oil will burn and has to be replaced. The steam ejector is a form of diffusion pump for vacuum distillation. A jet of steam entrains the vapour that must be removed from the vacuum chamber, steam ejectors can have single or multiple stages, with and without condensers in between the stages. One class of vacuum pumps is the multistage compressed-air driven ejector
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Tungsten
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Tungsten, also known as wolfram, is a chemical element with symbol W and atomic number 74. The word tungsten comes from the Swedish language tung sten, which translates to heavy stone. Its name in Swedish is volfram, however, in order to distinguish it from scheelite, a hard, rare metal under standard conditions when uncombined, tungsten is found naturally on Earth almost exclusively in chemical compounds. It was identified as a new element in 1781, and first isolated as a metal in 1783 and its important ores include wolframite and scheelite. The free element is remarkable for its robustness, especially the fact that it has the highest melting point of all the elements discovered, melting at 3,422 °C,6,192 °F. Its high density is 19.3 times that of water, comparable to that of uranium and gold, polycrystalline tungsten is an intrinsically brittle and hard material, making it difficult to work. However, pure single-crystalline tungsten is more ductile, and can be cut with a hard-steel hacksaw, tungstens many alloys have numerous applications, including incandescent light bulb filaments, X-ray tubes, electrodes in TIG welding, superalloys, and radiation shielding. Tungstens hardness and high density give it military applications in penetrating projectiles, tungsten compounds are also often used as industrial catalysts. Tungsten is the metal from the third transition series that is known to occur in biomolecules. It is the heaviest element known to be essential to any living organism, tungsten interferes with molybdenum and copper metabolism and is somewhat toxic to animal life. In its raw form, tungsten is a hard metal that is often brittle. If made very pure, tungsten retains its hardness, and becomes malleable enough that it can be worked easily and it is worked by forging, drawing, or extruding. Tungsten objects are commonly formed by sintering. Of all metals in pure form, tungsten has the highest melting point, lowest vapor pressure, although carbon remains solid at higher temperatures than tungsten, carbon sublimes, rather than melts, so tungsten is considered to have a higher melting point. Tungsten has the lowest coefficient of expansion of any pure metal. The low thermal expansion and high melting point and tensile strength of tungsten originate from strong covalent bonds formed between tungsten atoms by the 5d electrons, alloying small quantities of tungsten with steel greatly increases its toughness. Tungsten exists in two crystalline forms, α and β. The former has a cubic structure and is the more stable form
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