1.
Emperor's Mosque
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The Emperors Mosque is an important landmark in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, being the first mosque to be built after the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia. It is the largest single-subdome mosque in Bosnia and Herzegovina, built in the classical Ottoman style of the era and it was built by one Isaković-Hranušić who dedicated it to the Sultan, Mehmed the Conqueror, the conqueror of Constantinople. Considered one of the most beautiful mosques of the Ottoman period in the Balkans, the original mosque was built in the mid-fifteenth century and has a long and fascinating history. Damaged and totally destroyed at the end of century, it was rebuilt in 1565. The first mosque was made of wood and significantly smaller than existing building that was built in 1565, side rooms were added in 1800 and connected to the central prayer area in 1848. Between 1980 and 1983 the painted decorations in the interior of the mosque were conserved and restored. The burial ground beside the Emperors Mosque contains the graves of viziers, mullahs, muftis, sheikhs, the mosque was damaged during World War II but mostly in the wars during the 1990s, and renovation work is pending. The first settlements in Sarajevo were built around the mosque with the residence of the Sultans representatives then being built next to the mosque, Isa-bey also built a hammam and a bridge that led directly to the mosque. This bridge was disassembled during the Austro-Hungarian government and rebuilt just a few meters upstream where it exists today. On the other side of the river, he built a caravanserai, for the financing of these facilities, Isa-bey left a heritage of many shops, land and properties. Timeline of Islamic history Islamic architecture Islamic art List of mosques in Europe Islam in Bosnia and Herzegovina Official website
2.
Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
3.
Sarajevo
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Sarajevo is the capital and largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 275,524 in its current administrative limits. The Sarajevo metropolitan area, including Sarajevo Canton and East Sarajevo is home to 688,384 inhabitants, nestled within the greater Sarajevo valley of Bosnia, it is surrounded by the Dinaric Alps and situated along the Miljacka River in the heart of Southeastern Europe and the Balkans. Due to its long and rich history of religious and cultural variety and it is the only major European city to have a mosque, Catholic church, Orthodox church and synagogue within the same neighbourhood. Although settlement in the area back to prehistoric times, the modern city arose as an Ottoman stronghold in the 15th century. Sarajevo has attracted international attention several times throughout its history, in 1885, Sarajevo was the first city in Europe and the second city in the world to have a full-time electric tram network running through the city, following San Francisco. For nearly four years, from 1992 to 1996, the city suffered the longest siege of a city in the history of warfare during the Bosnian War. Sarajevo has been undergoing reconstruction, and is the fastest growing city in Bosnia. The travel guide series, Lonely Planet, has named Sarajevo as the 43rd best city in the world, in 2011, Sarajevo was nominated to be the European Capital of Culture in 2014 and will be hosting the European Youth Olympic Festival in 2019. The earliest known name for the large central Bosnian region of todays Sarajevo is Vrhbosna, Sarajevo is a slavicized word based on saray, the Turkish word for palace. The evo portion may come from the term saray ovası first recorded in 1455, the first mention of name Sarajevo was in 1507 letter written by Feriz Beg. The earliest is Šeher, which is the term Isa-Beg Ishaković used to describe the town he was going to build and it is a Turkish word meaning an advanced city of key importance which in turn comes from Persian, شهر shahr. As Sarajevo developed, numerous nicknames came from comparisons to other cities in the Islamic world, the most popular of these was European Jerusalem. Some argue that a correct translation of saray is government office or house. Saray is a word in Turkish for a palace or mansion. Sarajevo is located near the center of the triangular-shaped Bosnia-Herzegovina. It is situated 518 meters above sea level and lies in the Sarajevo valley, the valley itself once formed a vast expanse of greenery, but gave way to urban expansion and development in the post-World War II era. The city is surrounded by forested hills and five major mountains. The last four are known as the Olympic Mountains of Sarajevo
4.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, in short, often known informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeastern Europe located on the Balkan Peninsula. Sarajevo is the capital and largest city, in the central and eastern interior of the country the geography is mountainous, in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and the northeast is predominantly flatland. The inland is a larger region and has a moderate continental climate, with hot summers and cold. The southern tip of the country has a Mediterranean climate and plain topography, Bosnia and Herzegovina is a region that traces permanent human settlement back to the Neolithic age, during and after which it was populated by several Illyrian and Celtic civilizations. Culturally, politically, and socially, the country has a rich history, the Ottomans brought Islam to the region, and altered much of the cultural and social outlook of the country. This was followed by annexation into the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, which lasted up until World War I. In the interwar period, Bosnia was part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and after World War II, following the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the country proclaimed independence in 1992, which was followed by the Bosnian War, lasting until late 1995. The country is home to three ethnic groups or, officially, constituent peoples, as specified in the constitution. Bosniaks are the largest group of the three, with Serbs second and Croats third, a native of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regardless of ethnicity, is identified in English as a Bosnian. The terms Herzegovinian and Bosnian are maintained as a rather than ethnic distinction. Moreover, the country was simply called Bosnia until the Austro-Hungarian occupation at the end of the 19th century, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a bicameral legislature and a three-member Presidency composed of a member of each major ethnic group. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is itself complex and consists of 10 cantons, additionally, the country has been a member of the Council of Europe since April 2002 and a founding member of the Mediterranean Union upon its establishment in July 2008. The name is believed to have derived from the hydronym of the river Bosna coursing through the Bosnian heartland. According to philologist Anton Mayer the name Bosna could be derived from Illyrian Bass-an-as which would be a diversion of the Proto-Indo-European root bos or bogh, meaning the running water. According to English medievalist William Miller the Slavic settlers in Bosnia adapted the Latin designation Basante, to their own idiom by calling the stream Bosna, the name Herzegovina originates from Bosnian magnate Stephen Vukčić Kosačas title, Herceg of Hum and the Coast. Hum, formerly Zahumlje, was a medieval principality that was conquered by the Bosnian Banate in the first half of the 14th century. Bosnia is located in the western Balkans, bordering Croatia to the north and west, Serbia to the east and it has a coastline about 20 kilometres long surrounding the city of Neum. It lies between latitudes 42° and 46° N, and longitudes 15° and 20° E, the countrys name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them
5.
Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
6.
Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina
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However, local authorities sometimes restricted the right to worship of adherents of religious groups in areas where such persons are in the minority. 43% of Herzegovinian and Bosnian Muslims are non-denominational Muslims, societal abuses and discrimination based on religious belief and practice persisted. Religious intolerance directly reflected ethnic intolerance because of the virtually indistinguishable identification of ethnicity with religious background, discrimination against religious minorities occurred in nearly all parts of the country. In some communities local religious leaders and politicians contributed to intolerance, a number of illegally constructed religious objects continued to cause ethnic/religious tension and conflict in various communities. Religious symbols were often misused for political purposes, in a 2009 Gallup poll, 77% of respondents in Bosnia and Herzegovina answered yes to the question Is religion an important part of your daily life. In 1800 40% of Bosnians were Orthodox and nearly half were Muslim, Islam peaked in 1600 when three-quarters of Bosnians followed it. Bosniaks are generally associated with Islam, Bosnian Croats with the Roman Catholic Church, today, Muslims constitute 51% of the population, Christians 46%, and other groups 3%. Younger believers who grew up in the post-communist period also have more freedom to practice their religion, ethnic cleansing during the 1992–95 war caused internal migration and refugee flows, which segregated the population into separate ethnoreligious areas. Within the Federation, distinct Muslim and Catholic majority areas remain, for example, the prewar population of the eastern RS town of Bratunac was 64% Bosniak. In 1995 the population was almost completely Serb, in 2007, after the return of 6,500 Bosniaks, similarly, in Prijedor Municipality in the RS, approximately half of the prewar Bosniak population of 49,500 returned, partially reversing the effects of ethnic cleansing. The Serb Orthodox Church maintains its greatest influence in the RS, with the most influential bishops residing in Banja Luka, Trebinje, the Jewish community, like most other small religious groups in Bosnia, including Protestants, has its strongest membership in Sarajevo. There are several small Christian denominations throughout the country, in late 2011, a Rodnover association named Svaroži Krug, was established in the nation as a part of the panslavic Praskozorje movement. There are eight muftis located in municipalities, Sarajevo, Bihać, Travnik, Tuzla, Goražde, Zenica, Mostar. The more conservative Islamic communities in Bosnia are located in such as Travnik, Bocinja/Zavidovici, Tesanj, Maglaj, Bugojno. 38% of Herzegovinian and Bosnian Muslims described themselves as Sunni Muslims while 54% described themselves as nondenominational Muslims, however 7% of Muslims either refused to answer which Muslim branch they belonged to, said they belonged to no Muslim branch or said they did not know. The law also provides the basis for the establishment of relations between the state and religious communities, as a result of the governmental structure created by the Dayton Accords, parliamentary seats and most government positions are apportioned specifically to members of the three constituent peoples. These stipulations often result in discrimination against others and sympathizers of certain religious communities that do not fit neatly into the three groups. Their claims were not addressed during the reporting period, Bosnias state-level government does not officially recognize any religious holy days as an official holiday, and Parliament continued to disagree on a state law on national holidays
7.
Eastern Orthodox Church
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The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission to the apostles. It practices what it understands to be the original Christian faith, the Eastern Orthodox Church is a communion of autocephalous churches, each typically governed by a Holy Synod. It teaches that all bishops are equal by virtue of their ordination, prior to the Council of Chalcedon in AD451, the Eastern Orthodox had also shared communion with the Oriental Orthodox churches, separating primarily over differences in Christology. Eastern Orthodoxy spread throughout the Roman and later Eastern Roman Empires and beyond, playing a prominent role in European, Near Eastern, Slavic, and some African cultures. As a result, the term Greek Orthodox has sometimes used to describe all of Eastern Orthodoxy in general. However, the appellation Greek was never in use and was gradually abandoned by the non-Greek-speaking Eastern Orthodox churches. Its most prominent episcopal see is Constantinople, there are also many in other parts of the world, formed through immigration, conversion and missionary activity. The official name of the Eastern Orthodox Church is the Orthodox Catholic Church and it is the name by which the church refers to itself in its liturgical or canonical texts, in official publications, and in official contexts or administrative documents. Orthodox teachers refer to the Church as Catholic and this name and longer variants containing Catholic are also recognized and referenced in other books and publications by secular or non-Orthodox writers. The common name of the Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, is a shortened practicality that helps to avoid confusions in casual use, for this reason, the eastern churches were sometimes identified as Greek, even before the great schism. After 1054, Greek Orthodox or Greek Catholic marked a church as being in communion with Constantinople and this identification with Greek, however, became increasingly confusing with time. Missionaries brought Orthodoxy to many regions without ethnic Greeks, where the Greek language was not spoken. Today, many of those same Roman churches remain, while a large number of Orthodox are not of Greek national origin. Eastern, then, indicates the element in the Churchs origin and development, while Orthodox indicates the faith. While the Church continues officially to call itself Catholic, for reasons of universality, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in a letter written about 110 AD from one Greek church to another. Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, thus, almost from the very beginning, Christians referred to the Church as the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. The Orthodox Church claims that it is today the continuation and preservation of that same Church, a number of other Christian churches also make a similar claim, the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Assyrian Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church, not directly from the Orthodox Church, the depth of this meaning in the Orthodox Church is registered first in its use of the word Orthodox itself, a union of Greek orthos and doxa
8.
Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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The Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina are one of the three constitutive nations of the country, predominantly residing in the political-territorial entity of Republika Srpska. In the other entity Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Serbs form the majority in Drvar, Glamoč, Bosansko Grahovo and they are frequently referred to as Bosnian Serbs in English, regardless of whether they are from Bosnia or Herzegovina. They are also known by names such as Krajišnici, Semberci, Bosanci, Hercegovci. The 2013 population census registered 1,086,733 Serbs or 30. 8% of the population of Bosnia. Bosnian Serbs are the most territorially widespread nation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the vast majority live on the territory of the Republika Srpska, where they constitute around 88% of population. The majority of Bosnian Serbs are adherents of the Serbian Orthodox Church, the Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina speak the Serbian language in its Ijekavian accent, similar to that of Serbs of Montenegro and Croatia, and also to the language of Bosniaks and Bosnian Croats. Slavs settled the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries, according to De Administrando Imperio, the Serbs had settled what is now Bosnia and Herzegovina. They inhabited and ruled Serbia, which included Bosnia, and the principalities of Travunija, Zahumlje and Paganija. Serbia was at the time ruled by the Vlastimirović dynasty, during the rule of Mutimir, the Serbs were Christianized. Prince Petar, defeated Tišemir in Bosnia, annexing the valley of Bosna, Petar took over the Neretva, after which he seems to have come into conflict with Michael, a Bulgarian vassal ruling Zahumlje. Časlav defeated the Magyars on the Drina river banks when protecting Bosnia, however, after his death, Duklja emerged as the most powerful Serb polity, ruled by the Vojislavljević dynasty. Constantine Bodin installed his relative Stefan as Ban of Bosnia, next, the Nemanjić dynasty acquired the rule of the Serbian lands. With the establishment of the autocephalous Serbian Church, Archbishop Sava founded the Metropolitanate of Zahumlje, with the Ottoman conquest of medieval Serbia, there were large migrations towards Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Serb Uprising of 1596–97 was suppressed at Gacko, in 1809, Jančićs Revolt broke out in Gradiška. In 1834, Priest Jovicas Revolt broke out in Gradiška, in 1858, Pecijas First Revolt broke out in Knešpolje. In 1875, the Herzegovina Uprising broke out in the Bosnia Vilayet, on July 2,1876, Golub Babić and his 71 commanders signed the Proclamation of the Unification of Bosnia with Serbia. In 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina became a protectorate of Austria-Hungary, the first parliamentary elections in Bosnia and Herzegovina were held in 1910, the winner was Serbian National Organization. On June 28,1914, Bosnian Serb Gavrilo Princip made international headlines after assassinating Arch Duke Francis Ferdinand in Sarajevo and this sparked World War I leading to Austria-Hungarys defeat and the incorporation of Bosnia and Herzegovina into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia
9.
Roman Catholics
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
10.
Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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They are a native ethnic group of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina have made significant contributions to the culture of Bosnia and their mother tongue is Croatian, and most identify as Roman Catholic, although there is a small minority of atheists. From the 15th to the 19th century, Croats in modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina were often persecuted under the Ottoman Empire, in the 20th century, political turmoil and poor economic conditions caused more to emigrate. Ethnic cleansing within Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 1990s saw Croats forced to different parts of Bosnia-Herzegovina, according to the report by the Bosnia and Herzegovina statistics office, on the census of 2013 there were 544,780 Croats living in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Croats settled the areas of modern Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 7th century, there, they assimilated with native Illyrians and Romans during the great migration of the Slavs. Red Croatia, to the south, was land of a few minor states, one of the most important events of the Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the early Middle Ages is the First Croatian Assembly held in 753 in Županjac. The second major event was the coronation of Tomislav, the first King of Croatia,925, in the fields of Županjac. By this act, Pannonian Croatia and Dalmatian Croatia formed a united Croatian kingdom, which included Dalmatia and part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Pannonia, and Savia. A basic feature of period in Croatia is its isolation from European cultural and political events which resulted in a small number of secular monuments. In 1102 Croatia entered into a union with the Kingdom of Hungary, after this, Bosnia, which was earlier part of the Kingdom of Croatia, started to disassociate with Croatia. In the 14th century, King Tvrtko I conquered part of western Serbia and later part of the Kingdom of Croatia, thus, the Kingdom of Bosnia emerged, but part of present territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina remained in the Kingdom of Hungary-Croatia. Another connection of Bosnia with Croatia is that Bosnian rulers always used the title ban in similarity with their Croatian counterparts. The specific religion in medieval Bosnia was Bogomilism and Bosnian Church, so some of the feudal lords in Medieval Bosnia were followers of this religion. Due to the scarcity of records, there are no definite figures dealing with the religious composition of medieval Bosnia. However, Croat scholars generally suggest that a majority of Bosnias medieval population were Catholics who, according to Zlopaša, some 100,000 were Bogomils and other 100,000 were Orthodox Christians. In the middle of the 15th century, Turks started to invade Bosnia, in 1451 they took Vrhbosna province and conquered Bosnia in 1463. Herzegovina was conquered in 1481, while northern Bosnia was still under Hungary and Croatia until 1527, after the Turkish conquest, many Catholic Bosnians converted to Islam, and their numbers in some areas shrank as many fled from fear of conversion and persecution. The present-day boundaries of Bosnia and Herzegovina were made in 1699, in the first 50 years of Ottoman rule, many Catholics fled from Bosnia
11.
Bosniaks
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The Bosniaks are a South Slavic nation and ethnic group inhabiting mainly the area of Bosnia and Herzegovina. A native minority of Bosniaks live in countries in the Balkans, especially in the Sandžak region of Serbia and Montenegro. Over two million Bosniaks live in the Balkans, with an additional million settled and living around the world. Ethnic cleansing and genocide during the Bosnian War have had an effect on the distribution of the population. Partly due to this, a significant Bosniak diaspora exists in a number of countries, including Austria, Germany, Australia, Sweden, Turkey, Canada and the United States. The modern spelling is contained in the 1836 Penny Cyclopaedia V. 231/1, The inhabitants of Bosnia are composed of Bosniaks, a race of Sclavonian origin. In the Slavic languages, -ak is a suffix appended to words to create a masculine noun, for instance also found in the ethnonym of Poles. As such, Bosniak is etymologically equivalent to its non-ethnic counterpart Bosnian, from the perspective of Bosniaks, bosanstvo and bošnjaštvo are closely and mutually interconnected, as Bosniaks connect their identity with Bosnia and Herzegovina. The earliest attestation to a Bosnian ethnonym emerged with the historical term Bošnjanin which denoted the people of the medieval Bosnian kingdom, Bosniak, as well as the older term Bošnjanin, is originally a name defining the inhabitants of the medieval Bosnian state. The Bosniaks derive their ethnonym from Bosnia, first mentioned in De Administrando Imperio by the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII as the horion of Bosona, some scholars also connect the Roman road station Ad Basante, first attested in the 5th century Tabula Peutingeriana, to Bosnia. According to philologist Anton Mayer the name Bosna could essentially be derived from Illyrian Bass-an-as which would be a diversion of the Proto-Indo-European root *bhoĝ-, other theories involve the rare Latin term Bosina, meaning boundary, and possible Slavic and Thracian origins. Nevertheless, leaders and intellectuals of the Bosniak community may have various perceptions of what it means to be Bosniak, some may point to an Islamic heritage, while others stress the purely secular and national character of the Bosniak identity and its connection with Bosnian territory and history. Moreover, individuals outside of Bosnia and Herzegovina may hold their own interpretations as well. Some people, such as Montenegrin Abdul Kurpejović, recognize an Islamic component in the Bosniak identity, still others consider all Slavic Muslims in the former Yugoslavia to be Bosniaks. In Yugoslavia, unlike the preceding Austro-Hungarian Empire, there was no recognition of Bosniak ethnicity. In other ex-Yugoslav countries with significant Slavic Muslim populations, adoption of the Bosniak name has been less consistent, the effects of this phenomenon can best be seen in the censuses. For instance, the 2003 Montenegrin census recorded 48,184 people who registered as Bosniaks and 28,714 who registered as Muslim by nationality. Although Montenegros Slavic Muslims form one community with a shared culture and history
12.
Muslims (nationality)
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Notably, Muslims were one of the constitutive nations of the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. After the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878, the Austrian administration officially endorsed Bošnjaštvo as the basis of a multi-confessional Bosnian nation, after World War I, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was formed and it recognized only those three nationalities in its constitution. After World War II, in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, as a compromise, the Constitution of Yugoslavia was amended to list Muslims in a national sense, recognizing a constitutive nation, but not the Bosniak name. The use of Muslim as an ethnic denomination was criticized early on, however, to quote Bosnian president Hamdija Pozderac at the time, They dont allow Bosnianhood but they offered Muslimhood. We shall accept their offer, although the name is wrong, sometimes other terms, such as Muslim with capital M were used. On the other hand, some use the old name Muslimani, especially outside Bosnia. The election law of Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as the Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina, in Serbia, according to the 2011 census there were 22,301 Muslims by nationality and 145,278 Bosniaks. In Montenegro census of 2011,20,537 of the population declared as Muslims by nationality, while 53,605 declared as Bosniaks, while 11,110 Muslims by confession declared as Montenegrins. In 2002 Slovenia census,21,542 persons identified as Bosniaks,8,062 as Bosnians, in the Republic of Macedonia, the census of 2002 registered 17,018 Bosniaks and 2,553 Muslims by nationality. It is also important to note that most members of Pomaks, http, //www. savjetMuslimanacg. com Bosniaks Slavic Muslims Muslim minority of Greece
13.
Albanians
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Albanians are an ethnic group, native to Albania, Kosovo and neighboring countries. The term is used to refer to the citizens of the Republic of Albania. Ethnic Albanians speak the Albanian language and more than half of ethnic Albanians live in Albania, a large Albanian population lives in the Republic of Macedonia and Italy, with smaller Albanian populations located in Serbia and Montenegro. The majority of Albanians are nominally Muslims, and a minority are nominally Christians, during the 17th and 18th century Albanians in large numbers converted to Islam, often to escape higher taxes levied on Christian subjects. As Muslims, some Albanians attained important political and military positions within the Ottoman Empire, Albania gained its independence in 1912 and between 1945–1992, Albanians lived under a repressive communist regime. Between the 11th and 18th centuries, sizable numbers of Albanians migrated from the area of contemporary Albania to escape either various socio-political difficulties and/or the Ottoman conquest. Another population, who became the Arbëreshë settled in southern Italy and form the oldest continuous Albanian diaspora producing influential, smaller populations dating to migrations during the 18th century are located on Croatias Dalmatian coast and scattered communities across southern Ukraine. The Albanian diaspora also exists in a number of other countries, one of these is located in Turkey. Due to the Ottoman legacy, smaller populations of Albanians also exist in Egypt, in Western countries, a large and influential Albanian population exists in the United States formed from continuous emigration dating back to the 19th century. The Albanians and their country Albania have been identified by many ethnonyms, from these ethnonyms, names for Albanians were also derived in other languages that were or still are in use. The term for a people located in the area of contemporary Albania is first encountered in the works of Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates. He referred to them as Albanoi having taken part in a revolt against the Byzantine Empire in 1043 and these references have been disputed as to whether they refer to Albanians in an ethnic sense. A later reference to Albanians from the same Attaliates regarding the participation of Albanians in a rebellion around 1078 is undisputed. In later Byzantine usage, the terms Arbanitai and Albanoi with a range of variants were used interchangeably, the first reference to the Albanian language dates to the latter 13th century. The ethnonym Albanian has been hypothesized to be connected to and stem from the Albanoi, linguists believe that the alb part in the root word originates from an Indo-European term for a type of mountainous topography, of which other words such as alps is derived from. Through the root word alban and its rhotacized equivalents arban, albar, and arbar, the Albanian language was referred to as Arbnisht and Arbërisht. Two etymologies have been proposed for this ethnonym, one, derived from the etymology from the Albanian word for eagle, in Albanian folk etymology, this word denotes a bird totem, dating from the times of Skanderbeg as displayed on the Albanian flag. The other is within scholarship that connects it to the verb to speak from the Latin excipere, in this instance the Albanian endonym like Slav and others would originally have been a term connoting those who speak
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Romani people
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The Romani are widely known among English-speaking people by the exonym Gypsies, which some people consider pejorative due to its connotations of illegality and irregularity. Romani are dispersed, with their populations in Europe – especially Central, Eastern and Southern Europe including Turkey, Spain. Since the 19th century, some Romani have also migrated to the Americas, there are an estimated one million Roma in the United States, and 800,000 in Brazil, most of whose ancestors emigrated in the nineteenth century from eastern Europe. Brazil also includes some Romani descended from people deported by the government of Portugal during the Inquisition in the colonial era, in migrations since the late nineteenth century, Romani have also moved to other countries in South America and to Canada. In February 2016, during the International Roma Conference, the Indian Minister of External Affairs stated that the people of the Roma community were children of India. The conference ended with a recommendation to the Government of India to recognize the Roma community spread across 30 countries as a part of the Indian diaspora, the Romani language is divided into several dialects, which add up to an estimated number of speakers larger than two million. The total number of Romani people is at least twice as large, many Romani are native speakers of the language current in their country of residence, or of mixed languages combining the two, those varieties are sometimes called Para-Romani. French bohème, bohémien, from the Kingdom of Bohemia, whence they came, Rom means man or husband in the Romani, it has the variants dom and lom, related with the Sanskrit words dam-pati, dama, lom, lomaka loman, roman. Another possible origin is from Sanskrit डोम doma, Sanskrit सिनधु is a river or stream of water in general. In particular, it denotes the river Indus and the country around it, in the Romani language, Rom is a masculine noun, meaning man of the Roma ethnic group or man, husband, with the plural Roma. The feminine of Rom in the Romani language is Romni, however, in most cases, in other languages Rom is now used for people of all genders. Romani is the adjective, while Romano is the masculine adjective. Some Romanies use Rom or Roma as a name, while others do not use this term as a self-ascription for the entire ethnic group. Sometimes, rom and romani are spelled with a r, i. e. rrom. In this case rr is used to represent the phoneme /ʀ/, the rr spelling is common in certain institutions, or used in certain countries, e. g. Romania, to distinguish from the endonym/homonym for Romanians. In the English language, Rom is a noun and an adjective, while Romani is also a noun, both Rom and Romani have been in use in English since the 19th century as an alternative for Gypsy. Romani was initially spelled Rommany, then Romany, while today the Romani spelling is the most popular spelling, occasionally, the double r spelling mentioned above is also encountered in English texts. The term Roma is increasingly encountered during recent decades, as a term for the Romani people
15.
Turkish people
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Turkish people, or the Turks, also known as Anatolian Turks, are a Turkic ethnic group and nation living mainly in Turkey and speaking Turkish, the most widely spoken Turkic language. They are the largest ethnic group in Turkey, as well as by far the largest ethnic group among the speakers of Turkic languages, ethnic Turkish minorities exist in the former lands of the Ottoman Empire. In addition, a Turkish diaspora has been established with modern migration, the ethnonym Turk may be first discerned in Herodotus reference to Targitas, first king of the Scythians, furthermore, during the first century AD. Pomponius Mela refers to the Turcae in the north of the Sea of Azov. The first definite references to the Turks come mainly from Chinese sources in the sixth century, in these sources, Turk appears as Tujue, which referred to the Göktürks. Although Turk refers to Turkish people, it may sometimes refer to the wider language group of Turkic peoples. In the 19th century, the word Türk only referred to Anatolian villagers, the Ottoman ruling class identified themselves as Ottomans, not usually as Turks. In the late 19th century, as the Ottoman upper classes adopted European ideas of nationalism the term Türk took on a more positive connotation. The Turkish-speakers of Anatolia were the most loyal supporters of Ottoman rule, Turkish Jews, Christians, or even Alevis may be considered non-Turks. On the other hand, Kurdish Arab followers of the Sunni branch of Islam who live in eastern Anatolia are sometimes considered Turks, article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a Turk as anyone who is bound to the Turkish state through the bond of citizenship. Anatolia was first inhabited by hunter-gatherers during the Paleolithic era, most of the Turkic peoples were followers of Tengriism, sharing the cult of the sky god Tengri, although there were also adherents of Manichaeism, Nestorian Christianity and Buddhism. However, during the Muslim conquests, the Turks entered the Muslim world proper as servants, during the booty of Arab raids, the Turks began converting to Islam after Muslim conquest of Transoxiana through the efforts of missionaries, Sufis, and merchants. Although initiated by the Arabs, the conversion of the Turks to Islam was filtered through Persian, under the Umayyads, most were domestic servants, whilst under the Abbasids, increasing numbers were trained as soldiers. By the ninth century, Turkish commanders were leading the caliphs’ Turkish troops into battle, as the Abbasid caliphate declined, Turkish officers assumed more military and political power taking over or establishing provincial dynasties with their own corps of Turkish troops. During the 11th century the Seljuk Turks who were admirers of the Persian civilization grew in number and were able to occupy the province of the Abbasid Empire. By 1055, the Seljuk Empire captured Baghdad and began to make their first incursions into the edges of Anatolia, when the Seljuk Turks won the Battle of Manzikert against the Byzantine Empire in 1071, it opened the gates of Anatolia to them. Although ethnically Turkish, the Seljuk Turks appreciated and became the purveyors of the Persian culture rather than the Turkish culture, in dire straits, the Byzantine Empire turned to the West for help setting in motion the pleas that led to the First Crusade. Once the Crusaders took Iznik, the Seljuk Turks established the Sultanate of Rum from their new capital, Konya, by the 12th century the Europeans had begun to call the Anatolian region Turchia or Turkey, meaning the land of the Turks
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Sunni Islam
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Sunni Islam is the largest group of Islam. Its name comes from the word Sunnah, referring to the behavior of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. According to Sunni tradition, Muhammad did not clearly designate a successor and this contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad intended his son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib to succeed him. Political tensions between Sunnis and Shias continued with varying intensity throughout Islamic history and they have been exacerbated in recent times by ethnic conflicts, as of 2009, Sunni Muslims constituted between 87–90% of the worlds Muslim population. Sunni Islam is the worlds largest religious denomination, followed by Catholicism and its adherents are referred to in Arabic as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah or ahl as-sunnah for short. In English, its doctrines and practices are sometimes called Sunnism, while adherents are known as Sunni Muslims, Sunnis, Sunnites, Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as orthodox Islam. The Quran, together with hadith and binding juristic consensus form the basis of all traditional jurisprudence within Sunni Islam, sunnī, also commonly referred to as Sunnīism, is a term derived from sunnah meaning habit, usual practice, custom, tradition. The Muslim use of this term refers to the sayings and living habits of the prophet Muhammad, in Arabic, this branch of Islam is referred to as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah, the people of the sunnah and the community, which is commonly shortened to ahl as-sunnah. One common mistake is to assume that Sunni Islam represents a normative Islam that emerged during the period after Muhammads death, and that Sufism and Shiism developed out of Sunni Islam. This perception is due to the reliance on highly ideological sources that have been accepted as reliable historical works. Both Sunnism and Shiaism are the end products of centuries of competition between ideologies. Both sects used each other to further cement their own identities and doctrines, the first four caliphs are known among Sunnis as the Rashidun or Rightly-Guided Ones. Sunni recognition includes the aforementioned Abu Bakr as the first, Umar who established the Islamic calendar as the second, Uthman as the third, Sunnis believe that the companions of Muhammad were the best of Muslims. Support for this view is found in the Quran, according to Sunnis. Sunnis also believe that the companions were true believers since it was the companions who were given the task of compiling the Quran, furthermore, narrations that were narrated by the companions are considered by Sunnis to be a second source of knowledge of the Muslim faith. A study conducted by the Pew Research Center in 2010 and released January 2011 found that there are 1.62 billion Muslims around the world, Islam does not have a formal hierarchy or clergy. Leaders are informal, and gain influence through study to become a scholar of Islamic law, according to the Islamic Center of Columbia, South Carolina, anyone with the intelligence and the will can become an Islamic scholar. During Midday Mosque services on Fridays, the congregation will choose a person to lead the service
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Hanafi
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The Hanafi school is one of the four religious Sunni Islamic schools of jurisprudence. It is named after the scholar Abū Ḥanīfa an-Nu‘man ibn Thābit, the other major schools of Sharia in Sunni Islam are Maliki, Shafii and Hanbali. Hanafi is the fiqh with the largest number of followers among Sunni Muslims and it is predominant in the countries that were once part of the historic Ottoman Empire, Mughal Empire and Sultanates of Turkic rulers in the Indian subcontinent, northwest China and Central Asia. Thus, the Hanafi school came to be known as the Kufan or Iraqi school in earlier times. Ali and Abdullah, son of Masud formed much of the base of the school, as well as other such as Muhammad al-Baqir, Jafar al-Sadiq. Many jurists and historians had lived in Kufa including one of Abu Hanifas main teachers, in the early history of Islam, Hanafi doctrine was not fully compiled. The fiqh was fully compiled and documented in the 11th century, the Abbasids patronized the Hanafi school from the 10th century onwards. The Seljuk Turkish dynasties of 11th and 12th centuries, followed by Ottomans adopted Hanafi fiqh, the Turkic expansion spread Hanafi fiqh through Central Asia and into South Asia, with the establishment of Seljuk Empire, Timurid dynasty, Khanates and Delhi Sultanate. Nurit Tsafrir, The History of an Islamic School of Law, the Second Formation of Islamic Law, The Ḥanafī School in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire
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Jurisprudence
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Jurisprudence is the study and theory of law. It includes principles behind law that make the law, scholars of jurisprudence, also known as jurists or legal theorists, hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature of law, of legal reasoning, legal systems, and of legal institutions. Modern jurisprudence began in the 18th century and was focused on the first principles of the law, civil law. Contemporary philosophy of law, which deals with general jurisprudence, addresses problems in two groups, Problems internal to law and legal systems. Problems of law as a social institution as law relates to the larger political and social situation in which it exists. Answers to these questions come from four schools of thought in general jurisprudence. The foundations of law are accessible through reason and it is from these laws of nature that human-created laws gain whatever force they have. Legal positivism, by contrast to natural law, holds that there is no connection between law and morality and that the force of law comes from some basic social facts. Legal positivists differ on what facts are. Critical legal studies are a younger theory of jurisprudence that has developed since the 1970s and it holds that the law is largely contradictory, and can be best analyzed as an expression of the policy goals of a dominant social group. A further relatively new field is known as jurisprudence, concerned with the impact of legal processes on wellbeing. The English word is based on the Latin maxim jurisprudentia, juris is the form of jus meaning law. The word is first attested in English in 1628, at a time when the word prudence had the meaning of knowledge of or skill in a matter, the word may have come via the French jurisprudence, which is attested earlier. Ancient Indian jurisprudence is available in various Dharmaśāstra texts starting from the Dharmasutra of Bhodhayana. Jurisprudence already had this meaning in Ancient Rome even if at its origins the discipline was a in the jus of mos maiorum, an iudex then would judge a remedy according to the facts of the case. The law was implemented with new evolutive Institutiones, while remaining in the traditional scheme. Praetors were replaced in the 3rd century BC by a body of prudentes. Admission to this body was conditional upon proof of competence or experience, under the Roman Empire, schools of law were created, and the activity constantly became more academic
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Muslim
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A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims will accept anyone who has publicly pronounced Shahadah as a Muslim, the shahadah states, There is no god but the God and Muhammad is the last messenger of the God. The testimony authorized by God in the Quran that can found in Surah 3,18 states, There is no god except God, which in Arabic, is the exact testimony which God Himself utters, as well as the angels and those who possess knowledge utter. The word muslim is the active participle of the verb of which islām is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral S-L-M to be whole. A female adherent is a muslima, the plural form in Arabic is muslimūn or muslimīn, and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt. The Arabic form muslimun is the stem IV participle of the triliteral S-L-M, the ordinary word in English is Muslim. It is sometimes transliterated as Moslem, which is an older spelling, the word Mosalman is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central Asia. Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans, although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God. Other obsolete terms include Muslimite and Muslimist, musulmán/Mosalmán is a synonym for Muslim and is modified from Arabic. In English it was sometimes spelled Mussulman and has become archaic in usage, the Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi said, A Muslim is a person who has dedicated his worship exclusively to God. Islam means making ones religion and faith Gods alone. The Quran states that men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values. Thus, in Surah 3,52 of the Quran, Jesus disciples tell him, We believe in God, and you be our witness that we are Muslims. In Muslim belief, before the Quran, God had given the Tawrat to Moses, the Zabur to David and the Injil to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets. The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12. 7% of the worlds Muslims, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. About 20% of the worlds Muslims lives in the Middle East and North Africa, Sizable minorities are found in India, China, Russia, Ethiopia. The country with the highest proportion of self-described Muslims as a proportion of its population is Morocco
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Sufism
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Sufism or Taṣawwuf, which is often defined as Islamic mysticism, the inward dimension of Islam, or the phenomenon of mysticism within Islam, is a mystical trend in Islam characterized. These orders meet for sessions in meeting places known as zawiyas, khanqahs. They strive for ihsan as detailed in a hadith, Ihsan is to worship Allah as if you see Him, if you cant see Him, Rumi stated, The Sufi is hanging on to Muhammad, like Abu Bakr. Sufis regard Muhammad as al-Insān al-Kāmil, the perfect man who exemplifies the morality of God. The orders largely follow one of the four madhhabs of Sunni Islam, classical Sufis were characterized by their asceticism, especially by their attachment to dhikr, the practice of repeating the names of God, often performed after prayers. According to William Chittick, In a broad sense, Sufism can be described as the interiorization, historically, Muslims have used the Arabic word taṣawwuf to identify the practice of Sufis. In this view, it is necessary to be a Muslim to be a true Sufi. However, Islamic scholars themselves are not by any means in agreement about the meaning of the word sufi, Sufis themselves claim that Tasawwuf is an aspect of Islam similar to Sharia, inseparable from Islam and an integral part of Islamic belief and practice. Classical Sufi scholars have defined Tasawwuf as a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else, two origins of the word sufi have been suggested. Commonly, the root of the word is traced to ṣafā. Another origin is ṣūf, wool in Arabic, referring to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore, the two were combined by the Sufi al-Rudhabari, who said, The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity. Scholars generally agree that ṣūf or wool is probably the word of Sufi. This term was given to them because they wore woollen garments, the term labisal-suf meant he clad himself in wool and applied to a person who renounced the world and became an ascetic. Others have suggested that the word comes from the term ahl aṣ-ṣuffah and these men and women who sat at al-Masjid an-Nabawi are considered by some to be the first Sufis. Al-Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all other than ṣūf on linguistic grounds. Sufi orders are based on the bayah that was given to the Prophet Muhammad by his Sahaba, by pledging allegiance to the Prophet Muhammad, the Sahaba had committed themselves to the service of God. According to Islamic belief, by pledging allegiance to Prophet Muhammad and it is through the Prophet Muhammad that Sufis aim to learn about, understand and connect with God. Such a concept may be understood by the hadith, which Sufis regard to be authentic, in which Prophet Muhammad said, I am the city of knowledge, eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri refer to Ali as having a very high ranking in Tasawwuf
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Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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The Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the highest legal document of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The current Constitution is the Annex 4 of The General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina, also known as the Dayton Agreement, the Constitution saw the end of war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, however it has seen a large amount of criticism. The Preamble states, among other things, the commitment of Bosnia and Herzegovina to freedom, equality, tolerance,1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide 2. 1949 Geneva Conventions I-IV on the Protection of the Victims of War,1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1966 Protocol thereto 4. 1957 Convention on the Nationality of Married Women 5,1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness 6. 1965 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination 7,1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the 1966 and 1989 Optional Protocols thereto 8. 1966 Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 9,1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women 10. 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment 11,1987 European Convention on the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment 12. 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child 13,1990 International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families 14. 1992 European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages 15, the Constitution also states that no amendment to the Constitution can eliminate or diminish any of the rights and freedoms referred to in Article II of the Constitution. The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina has made several decisions in the interpretation of these provisions. However, the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina declined this position in its decision number U-5/04, the Constitution does not say who has the right, and under what rules, to present the amendments to the Parliamentary Assembly. Also, in the paragraph 2 of the Article X, the Constitution states that the rights and freedoms, as seen in the Article II, cannot be derogated, sejdić and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina The Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Bosnia (region)
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Bosnia is the northern region of Bosnia and Herzegovina, encompassing roughly 80% of the country, the other eponymous region, the southern part, is Herzegovina. Bosnia is a term for the whole country. The two regions have formed a geopolitical entity since medieval times, and the name Bosnia commonly occurs in historical and geopolitical senses as generally referring to both regions, the official use of the combined name started only in the late period of Ottoman-rule. Bosnia lies mainly in the Dinaric Alps, ranging to the borders of the Pannonian plain, with the rivers Sava. The area of Bosnia comprises approximately 41,000 km2, and makes up about 80% of the territory of the state of Bosnia. There are no borders between the region of Bosnia and the region of Herzegovina. Unofficially, Herzegovina is south of the mountain Ivan planina, according to another unofficial definition, Herzegovina encompasses watersheds Neretva and Trebišnjica rivers. The historical records of the region are scarce until its first recorded standalone ruler and viceroy of Bosnian state, Ban Borić, de Administrando Imperio describes a small župa of Bosona that was located around the river Bosna in the modern-day fields of Sarajevo and of Visoko. The area is thought to have been inhabited by the Illyrian tribe of the Daesitiates. Under its first known ruler, Stephen, Duke of Bosnia, in the 1080s, the region spanned the upper course of the rivers Bosna, the Vrbas. At the end of the 14th century, under Tvrtko I of Bosnia, the kingdom lost its independence to the Ottoman Empire in 1463. The region of Bosnias westernmost city at the time of the conquest was Jajce, the Ottoman Empire initially expanded into Bosnia and Herzegovina through a territory called the Bosansko Krajište. It was transformed into the Sanjak of Bosnia and the Sanjak of Herzegovina after 1462/1463, eventually, following the Great Turkish War, in the 18th century the Eyalet came to encompass the area largely matching that of todays Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1833, the Eyalet of Herzegovina was temporarily split off under Ali-paša Rizvanbegović, the area acquired the name of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1853 as a result of a twist in political events following his death. After the 1864 administrative reform, the province was named Vilayet of Bosnia, Austria-Hungary occupied the whole country in 1878. It remained formally part of the Ottoman Empire under the title of Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina until 1908, bosanska Krajina, western Birač, eastern Posavina, northernmost Semberija, northeastern Herzegovina
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Herzegovina
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Herzegovina is the southern region of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Measurements of the range from 11,419 km2, or around 22% of the total area of the present-day country, to 12,276 km2. The name Herzegovina means dukes land, referring to the duchy of Stjepan Vukčić Kosača who took the title Herceg of Saint Sava. Herceg is derived from the German title Herzog, the terrain of Herzegovina is mostly hilly karst with high mountains in the north such as Čvrsnica and Prenj, except for the central valley of the river Neretva River. The largest city is Mostar, in the center of the region, other larger towns include Trebinje, Stolac, Široki Brijeg, Posusje, Ljubuski, Grude, Konjic, and Čapljina. Borders between Bosnia and Herzegovina are unclear and often disputed, the upper flow of the Neretva River lies in the northern parts of Herzegovina, a heavily forested area with fast flowing rivers and high mountains. Towns like Konjic and Jablanica lie in this area, considered by many the most beautiful part of Bosnia, the Neretva rises on Lebršnik Mountain, close to the border to Montenegro, and as the river flows towards west, it enters Herzegovina. The entire upper catchment of Neretva constitutes a precious ecoregion with many endemic, the Rakitnica River flows into Neretva upstream from Konjic. The Neretva then flows towards northwest, through the town of Konjic, the river enters the Jablanica Reservoir, one of the largest in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The lake ends near the town of Jablanica, from here on, the Neretva turns southward continuing its course towards the Adriatic Sea. With mountains lining its shores gradually receding, the Neretva enters a valley where the city of Mostar lies and it flows under the well-known old bridge and continues now more widely flowing towards the town of Čapljina and the Neretva Delta in Croatia before emptying into the Adriatic Sea. Mostar is the best known and the unofficial capital and it is also the only city with over 100,000 citizens. There are no large cities in Herzegovina, though some have illustrious histories. Stolac, for example, is perhaps the oldest city in Herzegovina, there have been settlements dating from the Paleolithic period. An Illyrian tribe lived in the city of Daorson, there were several Roman settlements alongside the Bregava River and medieval inhabitants left large and beautiful stone grave monuments called stećak in Radimlja. Trebinje, on the Trebišnjica River, is the southernmost city in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Čapljina and Ljubuški are known for their history and their rivers, the village of Međugorje has religious importance for many Croats and Catholics. In the modern Bosnian-Herzegovinian state, Herzegovina is divided between two entities, Republika Srpska and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, while the population of Herzegovina throughout history has been ethnically mixed, the Bosnian War in the 1990s resulted in mass ethnic cleansing and large-scale displacement of people. The last pre-war census in 1991 recorded a population of 437,095 inhabitants, Serbs are the majority in eastern Herzegovina, including the municipalities of Berkovići, Bileća, Gacko, Istočni Mostar, Ljubinje, Nevesinje, Foča and Trebinje
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Kingdom of Bosnia
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The Kingdom of Bosnia was a medieval kingdom that evolved from the Banate of Bosnia. Bosnia enjoyed de facto independence in the 13th and 14th centuries despite being a part of the Hungarian Crown Lands and its difficult terrain and remoteness enabled the Bosnians to maneuver between their two powerful neighbors, Hungary and Serbia, usually managing to avoid subordination to either. Several capable rulers allowed Bosnia briefly to play the role of a power in the 14th century. After 1290, Bosnia enjoyed virtual independence from Hungary and gained significant territory in Dalmatia at Serbias expense, however, feudal fragmentation remained strong in Bosnia, and after his death the country lost its importance. The Ottoman Empire annexed portions of eastern Bosnia in the 1440s and 1450s, the Banate of Bosnia was a medieval state comprising at its peak most of what is today Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as parts of Dalmatia, Serbia and Montenegro. Although nominally in vassalage to the Kingdom of Hungary, Bosnia was a de facto independent state, the Banate of Bosnia existed until 1377, when it was elevated into a kingdom with the coronation of Tvrtko I. By the mid-14th century, Bosnia reached its peak under Ban Tvrtko I of the House of Kotromanić, by having done so, he became a ruler of the newly proclaimed Kingdom of Bosnia, a state that followed the Banate of Bosnia. At its peak the Kingdom became one of the most influential, throughout the Middle Ages, Herzegovina was made up of several smaller polities, Zahumlje, centered around the town of Blagaj, and Travunia, centered on the town of Trebinje. These statelets were in periods ruled by semi-independent princes, mostly under suzerainty of the Serbian medieval monarchy and their territories included modern Herzegovina and parts of Montenegro and southern Dalmatia. The name Herzegovina was adopted when Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, the Duke of St. Sava asserted its independence in 1435–48, the assembly of these noblemen was called stanak and was quite influential. Bosnia reached its peak under Ban Tvrtko I, a member of the Kotromanić dynasty, in 1372, Tvrtko formed an alliance with Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović, one of the regional lords in the territory of the disintegrated Serbian Empire. The next year, Tvrtko and Lazar attacked the domain of Nikola Altomanović, after defeating Altomanović, they divided his lands, except for his littoral districts of Dračevica, Konavle, and Trebinje, which were seized by Đurađ I Balšić, the Lord of Zeta. Tvrtko received parts of Zahumlje, the reaches of the Drina and Lim rivers, as well as the districts of Onogošt. This acquisition included the important Serbian Orthodox monastery of Mileševa, in 1377, Tvrtko took the littoral districts from Balšić. That year, on 26 October, he was crowned King of Serbia, Bosnia, the Primorje, and this was made possible by the royal Nemanjić line having died out with Uroš in 1371. The crown was sent to him by Hungarian king Louis of Anjou, in contrast, some earlier historiographers, mostly represented by scholars from Serbia, consider that he was crowned in the Orthodox Monastery of Mileševa, by the Metropolitan of Mileševa. However, after the defeat of Nikola Altomanović, Prince Lazar had emerged as the most powerful lord on the territory of the former Serbian Empire and he wanted to reunite the Serbian state, and the Serbian Orthodox Church saw him as most fitted to succeed the Nemanjić dynasty. The Church, which was the strongest cohesive force among the Serbs at the time, by 1390, Tvrtko I expanded his realm to include a part of Croatia and Dalmatia, and expanded his title to King of Rascia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, Croatia and the Littoral
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Gazi Husrev-beg Mosque
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The Gazi Husrev-bey Mosque, is a mosque in the city of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Built in 16th century, it is the largest historical mosque in Bosnia and Herzegovina, being the central Sarajevan mosque since the days of its construction, today it also serves as the main congregational mosque of the Islamic community of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in the Baščaršija neighborhood in the Stari Grad municipality and, being one of architectural monuments in the town. The Gazi Husrev-beg Mosque was built in 937 AH as the object of the Begs endowment, which also included a maktab and a madrasa, a bezistan. The foundation of this waqf by the contemporary Ottoman governor of Bosnia had a point in the development of the town. It is still possible that Sinan himself did inspect the work on the spot, historical documents testify that Rhagusean masons, requested from their government by Gazi Husrev-beg, participated in the building process. Gazi Husrev-bey Mosque was the first mosque in the world to receive electricity, the mosque belongs to the type of complex-spaced, multi-domed mosques and it is a represent of the Early Period of Classical Ottoman Architecture. The Kibla side of the mosque is extended with a space which is covered by a semi-dome resting on two highly developed muqarnas structures. They stand in function of pendetives, reducing the rectangular outline of the level to the near semi-circle shape in level of the semi-dome. This area houses central architectural elements with religious purposes, mihrab, minbar and kurs and, being open to the space with a huge arch. Two smaller spaces, called tetime are located on the left and right sides of the central space and they are covered by two lower domes resting on pendentives. The exterior is dominated by the dome, topped out only by a simple. Monumental portal is decorated with muqarnas, as well as columns capitels. In his legacy, he stated, Good deeds drive away evil, and one of the most worthy of good deeds is the act of charity, of all charitable deeds, the most beautiful is one that continually renews itself. During the Siege of Sarajevo, Serbian forces purposely targeted many centers of the culture, such as museums, libraries, and mosques. As the largest and best known, the Begs mosque was an obvious target, having suffered a significant amount of destruction, the reconstruction of the Mosque started with foreign help in 1996, right after the war. Austro-Hungarian decoration, performed mostly in pseudo-Moorish style, remains only on the portal of the Mosque today, timeline of Islamic history Islamic architecture Islamic art List of mosques Gazi Husrev-Beg Mosque - location and informations Gazi Husrev-Beg Mosque - Sarajevo
26.
Mostar
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Mostar is a city and municipality in southern Bosnia and Herzegovina. Inhabited by 105,797 people, it is the most important city in the Herzegovina region, its capital. Mostar is situated on the Neretva River and is the fifth-largest city in the country, Mostar was named after the bridge keepers who in the medieval times guarded the Stari Most over the Neretva. Human settlements on the river Neretva, between the Hum Hill and the Velež Mountain, have existed since prehistory, as witnessed by discoveries of fortified enceintes and cemeteries, evidence of Roman occupation was discovered beneath the present town. As far as medieval Mostar goes, although the Christian basilicas of late antiquity remained in use, few historical sources were preserved, during this time it was also the seat of a kadiluk. Since Mostar was on the route between the Adriatic and the mineral-rich regions of central Bosnia, the settlement began to spread to the right bank of the river. Prior to the 1474 the names of two towns appear in historical sources, along with their later medieval territories and properties – the towns of Nebojša. In the early 15th century the county of Večenike covered the site of the present-day Mostar along the bank of the Neretva, including the sites of Zahum, Cim, Ilići, Raštani. It was at the center of area, which in 1408 belonged to Radivojević. Mostar is indirectly referred to in a 1454 charter of King Alfonso V of Aragon as Pons, prior to 1444, the Nebojša fort was built on the left bank of the Neretva, which belonged to the late medieval county still known as Večenike or Večerić. ”. In 1468 the region came under Ottoman rule and the urbanization of the settlement began and it was named Köprühisar, meaning fortress at the bridge, at the centre of which was a cluster of 15 houses. Following the unwritten rule, the town was organized into two distinct areas, čaršija, the crafts and commercial centre of the settlement, and mahala or a residential area. The town was fortified between the years 1520 and 1566, and the bridge was rebuilt in stone. The stone bridge, the Old Bridge, was erected in 1566 on the orders of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent,28 metres long and 20 metres high, quickly became a wonder in its own time. In the late 16th century, Köprühisar was one of the towns of the Sanjak of Herzegovina and it is thrown from rock to rock as high as the sky. During this period, Mostar was recognized as the capital of Herzegovina. The first church in the city of Mostar, a Serbian Orthodox Church, was built in 1834 during Ottoman rule, in 1881 the town became the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Mostar-Duvno and in 1939, it became a part of the Banovina of Croatia. During World War II Mostar was also an important city in the fascist Independent State of Croatia, after World War II, Mostar developed a production of plastics, tobacco, bauxite, wine, aircraft and aluminium products
27.
Livno
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Livno is a city and municipality in the west of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is part of Canton 10 of the Federation of Bosnia, the plains of Livno have been populated since approximately 2000 BC. In the late Bronze Age, the Neolithic population was replaced by more Indo-European tribes known as the Illyrians, the region was inhabited by Illyrian tribe of Dalmatae which capital was Delminium in todays Tomislavgrad. They left remains that testify about their presence in this area, the most important of them are the gradine, remains of Illyrian settlements which were distributed along the Livno Field. The three most important are Velika gradina, Mala gradina and Kasalov gradac, after the Roman conquest of the area, it was part of the province of Dalmatia. During the twenties of the first century AD, Roman government built a road connecting Salona, a city on the coast with Servitium and its route passed through the Livno Field where two road stations have been established. The station of Pelva was located at the area of village Lištani, Livno celebrates its founding date as 28 September 892 AD, being mentioned in a document from Duke Mutimir which was released at that time. It was the centre of Hlebiana županija of the Kingdom of Croatia, from 1199 Emeric until 1326 Mladen II Šubić of Bribir, who was a resident of Livno, it was part of the Chelmensis territory. From 1326 until 1463 Livno was part of the Bosnian Kingdom, one of the noble families of the Bosnian Kingdom bought Livno, Duvno, and Kupres then called Tropolje. The beginning of 15th century saw the Ottoman Empire advance, invade, Mosque complex in the picture the Hajji Ahmed the Ducat Minters Mosque is one of the most recognizable architectural symbols of Livno. Constructed upon design by Mimar Sinan in 1574 and it is situated on a hill overlooking the old town of Livno, the river Bistrica and the spring Duman in the upper section of the old town of Livno. The mosque complex consists of main building of the mosque under a dome and uncharacteristically short minaret, with a clock tower which was erected around 1659. Within the perimeter is an almost 500-year-old necropolis with characteristic early Bosnian Muslim tombstones, in 1878 Livno was occupied by the Austro-Hungarian Empire. From 1918 it was part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, in 1929 the kingdom was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and divided into nine banates. Livno was divided into the Littoral Banovina, with its centre in the city of Split and this division brought Livno politically closer to Croatia. In 1939, the banates were further redrawn so that there was a Croatian banate of which Livno was also part, from 1941-45, Livno was part of the Independent State of Croatia. Croatian writer Ivan Goran Kovačić joined the Partisans where he wrote his epic poem Jama and he finished his poem in Livno. At the end of World War II, Livno was a part of Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Yugoslavia, and after its collapse in 1995, Livno is 96 km from Split,127 km from Mostar,167 km from Banja Luka and 212 km from Sarajevo
28.
Ferhadija Mosque in Sarajevo
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This mosque has one dome above the prayer area and three small domes at the cloister and is one of the greatest achievements of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s 16th century Ottoman and Islamic architecture. The Ferhadija mosque reflects the maturity of the classical Ottoman style-domed mosque, portico with small domes. Research works on the decoration inside the mosque carried out in the 1964/1965 revealed five painted layers dating from various periods. The oldest and extremely valuable decorations of the first layer date from the 16th century, belonging to the known as Rumi ornament. The next layers consists of purely floral decorations with the features of 18th-century style, the third and fourth layers date from the late 19th century, and the first quarter of the 20th. The mosque was damaged during the Bosnian War in 1992-1995, Islamic architecture Islamic art List of mosques in Europe Ferhadija Mosque - Sarajevo
29.
Ferhat Pasha Mosque
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The mosque was demolished in 1993 at the order of the authorities of Republika Srpska, and was rebuilt and opened on 7 May 2016. The mosque with its classical Ottoman architecture was most probably designed by a pupil of Mimar Sinan, the ensemble of the Ferhadija mosque consisted of the mosque itself, the courtyard, a graveyard, the fountain,3 mausoleums and the surrounding wall with the gate. The original canopied wall was pulled down after 1884 and a massive wall partly of masonry and wrought iron was built with a new gate. In the courtyard there was a fountain with a stone basin. The water for the fountain was brought from a spring that is known as Šadrvan. One of three small adjacent mausoleums - Ferhad Pasha Turbe - contained the tombs of Ferhat-paša Sokolović, the others were for his granddaughter Safi-kaduna, a clock tower was added later. Like most buildings of this type in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the mosque was on a modest scale,18 meters wide,14 meters long and 18 meters high at the top of the main dome, the minaret was 43 m high. Ferhadija was listed as a Bosnia and Herzegovina cultural heritage site in 1950 and it was subsequently protected by UNESCO until its destruction in 1993. Today the site, with the remains, is listed as a national monument of Bosnia. The mosque was one of 16 destroyed in the city of Banja Luka during the Bosnian War between 1992 and 1995, the Republika Srpska authorities ordered the demolition of the entire Ferhadija and Arnaudija mosque complexes, which stood approximately 800 m apart. Both mosques were destroyed in the night within 15 minutes of each other. The Serb militia blew up the Ferhadija Mosque on the night of 6–7 May 1993, may 6 is the date of the Serbian Othodox holiday of Đurđevdan. The minaret survived the first explosion, but was razed to the ground. Most of the debris was taken to the city dump, some stone, the leveled site was turned into a parking lot. Several weeks after the destruction of Ferhadija the nearby Sahat Kula and he was sentenced to a single prison term of 32 years. The Brđanin case proved that the destruction of the mosques was orchestrated as part of the ethnic cleansing1|2 campaign, in 2001 a building permit was granted to the Islamska Zajednica Banjaluke to reconstruct the mosque. On May 7, Serb nationalists attacked about 300 Bosniaks attending the ceremony to mark the laying of the cornerstone, Bosnian Serb police eventually released them. More than 30 Bosniaks were injured and at least eight were taken to the Banja Luka hospital, one died later from head injuries
30.
Banja Luka
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Banja Luka or Banjaluka is the largest city of the Republika Srpska entity and second largest city in Bosnia and Herzegovina after the capital Sarajevo. Traditionally, it has been the centre of the Bosanska Krajina region and it is home of the University of Banja Luka, as well as numerous state and entity institutions of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The city lies on the River Vrbas and is known in the countries of the former Yugoslavia for being full of tree-lined avenues, boulevards, gardens. According to the 2013 census the City of Banja Luka, has 185,042 inhabitants, the name Banja Luka was first mentioned in a document dated 6 February 1494, by Vladislav II. The name is interpreted as Bans meadow, from the words ban, the identity of the ban and the meadow in question remain uncertain, and popular etymology combines the modern words banja, or bajna and luka. A different interpretation is suggested by the Hungarian name Lukácsbánya, i. e. Lukes Mine, in modern usage, the name is pronounced and usually declined as one word, and often written as such, the citizens reportedly prefer the form with inflected adjective. Banja Luka covers some 96.2 km2 of land in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the city is located at 44. 78°N17. 19°E /44.78,17.19. Banja Lukas downtown is at 163 m above sea level, surrounded by hills, the source of the Vrbas River is about 90 km to the south. The tributary rivers Suturlija, Crkvena, and Vrbanja flow into the Vrbas at Banja Luka, Banja Luka has also a number of springs close by. The area around Banja Luka is mostly woodland, although there are mountains a little further from the city, the city itself is built in the Banja Luka valley, which is located at the transition between high and low mountain areas. The most notable of these mountains are Manjača, Čemernica, and these are all part of the Dinaric Alps mountain range. Banja Luka has a humid subtropical climate which borders a humid continental climate, with cold winters. The warmest month of the year is July, with a temperature of 21.3 °C. The coldest month of the year is January, when temperatures average near freezing at 0.8 °C, annual precipitation for Banja Luka is about 988 millimetres. Banja Luka has an average of 143 rainy days a year, due to the citys latitude, it snows in Banja Luka almost every year. Strong winds come from the north and northeast, sometimes southern winds which bring hot weather are also prevalent. The history of inhabitation of the area of Banja Luka dates back to ancient times, there is a substantial evidence of the Roman presence in the region during the first few centuries A. D. including an old fort Kastel in the centre of the city. The area of Banja Luka was entirely in the kingdom of Illyria and then a part of the Roman province of Illyricum, ancient Illyrian maps call the settlement in Banja Lukas present day location as Ad Ladios, a settlement located on the river Vrbas
31.
Tuzla
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Tuzla is a city in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is the seat of the Tuzla Canton and is the economic, scientific, cultural, educational, health, after Sarajevo and Banja Luka, Tuzla is the third largest city in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Preliminary results from the 2013 Census indicate that the municipality has a population of 120,441, Tuzla is an educational center and is home to two universities. The city of Tuzla is home to Europes only salt lake as part of its park and has more than 100,000 people visiting its shores every year. The history of the city back to the 9th century. The name Tuzla is the Ottoman Turkish word for mine, tuzla. Archaeological evidence suggests that Tuzla was a rich Neolithic settlement, being inhabited continuously for more than 6,000 years, Tuzla is one of the oldest European sustained settlements. During the period of the Roman Republic, Tuzla was ruled by the Illyrian tribe Breuci, the city was first mentioned in 950 by Constantine Porphyrogenitus in his De Administrando Imperio as a fort named Salines. The name Soli was used in the Middle Ages and it means salts in Bosnian and the citys present name means place of salt in Ottoman Turkish. During the Middle Ages it belonged mostly to the medieval Kingdom of Bosnia and it remained under Ottoman rule for nearly 400 years, where it was administered as part of the Sanjak of Zvornik. In 1878 it was annexed by Austria-Hungary, after the dissolution of the monarchy it became the part of the newly formed Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The Husino uprising took place in 1920, in December 1944, the city was unsuccessfully attacked by Chetnik forces of Draža Mihailović along with the Serbian Assault Corps. After the war it developed into an industrial and cultural centre during the Communist period in the former Yugoslavia. In the 1990 elections the Reformists won control of the municipality being the municipality in Bosnia where non-nationalists won. During the Bosnian war for independence between 1992–95 the town was the municipality not governed by nationalist authorities. After Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence and was recognized by the United Nations the city was besieged by nationalist Serbian forces, a few days later Serbian forces attacked Tuzla. The town was not spared the atrocities of the Bosnian war,1992 Yugoslav Peoples Army column incident in Tuzla was an attack on the 92nd Yugoslav Peoples Army Motorized Brigade in the city of Tuzla that took place on 15 May 1992. The incident occurred at the junction of Brčanska Malta as the JNA was undergoing an agreed-upon withdrawal from the city
32.
Austria-Hungary
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The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
33.
Albania
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Albania, officially the Republic of Albania, is a country in Southeastern Europe. It has a population of 3.03 million as of 2016, Tirana is the nations capital and largest city, followed by Durrës and Vlorë. The country has a coastline on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea, the Adriatic Sea to the west. Albania is less than 72 km from Italy, across the Strait of Otranto which connects the Adriatic Sea to the Ionian Sea. In antiquity, the area of Albania was home to several Illyrian, Thracian. After the Illyrian Wars, it part of the Roman provinces of Dalmatia, Macedonia and Moesia Superior. In 1190, the first Albanian state, the Principality of Arbanon was established by archon Progon in the region of Krujë, the territory of Albania was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century, of which it remained part of for the next five centuries. After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in Europe, following the Balkan Wars, the Kingdom of Albania was invaded by Italy in 1939, which formed Greater Albania, before becoming a Nazi German protectorate in 1943. The following year, a socialist Peoples Republic was established under the leadership of Enver Hoxha, Albania experienced widespread social and political transformations in the communist era, as well as isolation from much of the international community. In 1991, the Socialist Republic was dissolved and the Republic of Albania was established, Albania is a democratic and developing country with an upper-middle income economy. The service sector dominates the economy, followed by the industrial. After the fall of communism in Albania, Free-market reforms have opened the country to foreign investment, especially in the development of energy, Albania has a high HDI and provides universal health care system and free primary and secondary education to its citizens. Albania is a member of the United Nations, NATO, WTO, World Bank, the Council of Europe, the OSCE and it is also an official candidate for membership in the European Union. Albania is one of the members of the Energy Community, Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation. It is home to the largest lake in Southern Europe and one of the oldest lakes in Europe, Albania is the Medieval Latin name of the country. The name may have a continuation in the name of a settlement called Albanon and Arbanon. During the Middle Ages, the Albanians called their country Arbëri or Arbëni, Albanians today call their country Shqipëri. As early as the 17th century the placename Shqipëria and the ethnic demonym Shqiptarë gradually replaced Arbëria, the two terms are popularly interpreted as Land of the Eagles and Children of the Eagles
34.
Kosovo
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Kosovo is a disputed territory and partially recognised state in Southeastern Europe that declared independence from Serbia in February 2008 as the Republic of Kosovo. Kosovo is landlocked in the central Balkan Peninsula, with its strategic position in the Balkans, it serves as an important link in the connection between central and south Europe, the Adriatic Sea, and Black Sea. Its capital and largest city is Pristina, and other urban areas include Prizren, Pejë. It is bordered by Albania to the southwest, the Republic of Macedonia to the southeast, Montenegro to the west, while Serbia recognises administration of the territory by Kosovos elected government, it still continues to claim it as its own Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija. In antiquity, the Dardanian Kingdom, and later the Roman province of Dardania was located in the region, the area was inhabited by several ancient Illyrian tribes. In the Middle Ages, it was part of the Byzantine, Bulgarian and Serbian Empires, Kosovo was the core of the medieval Serbian state and it has been the seat of the Serbian Orthodox Church from the 14th century when its status was upgraded into a patriarchate. After being part of the Ottoman Empire from the 15th to the early 20th century, the war ended with a military intervention of NATO, which forced the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to withdraw its troops from Kosovo, which became a UN protectorate under UNSCR1244. On 17 February 2008 Kosovos Parliament declared independence and it has since gained diplomatic recognition as a sovereign state by 111 UN member states, Taiwan, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, the Cook Islands and Niue. Serbia refuses to recognise Kosovo as a state, although with the Brussels Agreement of 2013 it has accepted the legitimacy of Kosovar institutions, the entire region is commonly referred to in English simply as Kosovo and in Albanian as Kosova or Kosovë. The name of the plain was applied to the Kosovo Province created in 1864, Albanians refer to Kosovo as Dardania, the name of a Roman province located in Central Balkans that was formed in 284 AD which covered the territory of modern Kosovo. The name is derived from the Albanian word dardha/dardā which means pear, the former Kosovo President Ibrahim Rugova had been an enthusiastic backer of a Dardanian identity and the Kosovan flag and presidential seal refer to this national identity. However, the name Kosova remains more widely used among the Albanian population, the official conventional long name of the state is Republic of Kosovo, as defined by the Constitution of Kosovo, and is used to represent Kosovo internationally. This arrangement, which has dubbed the asterisk agreement, was agreed in an 11-point arrangement agreed on 24 February 2012. By the independence declaration in 2008, its long name became Republic of Kosovo. In prehistory, the succeeding Starčevo culture, Vinča culture, Bubanj-Hum culture, the area in and around Kosovo has been inhabited for nearly 10,000 years. During the Neolithic age, Kosovo lay within the area of the Vinča-Turdaş culture which is characterised by West Balkan black, bronze and Iron Age tombs have been found in Metohija. However, life during the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age is not confirmed yet, therefore, until arguments of Paleolithic and Mesolithic man are confirmed, Neolithic man, respectively the Neolithic sites are considered as the chronological beginning of population in Kosovo. From this period until today Kosovo has been inhabited, and traces of activities of societies from prehistoric, ancient, whereas, in some archaeological sites, multilayer settlements clearly reflect the continuity of life through centuries
35.
Muhacir
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Muhacir, Macırlar, or Muhajir, is a term used to refer to an estimated 10 million Ottoman Muslim citizens who emigrated to Anatolia from the late 18th century until the end of the 20th century. Initially, approximately 5-7 million Muslim migrants from hostile regions arrived in Ottoman Anatolia from 1783 to 1914. The influx of migration during the late 19th century and early 20th century was due to the loss of almost all Ottoman territory during the Balkan War of 1912-13 and World War I. These Muhacirs, or refugees, saw the Ottoman Empire, and subsequently the Republic of Turkey, many of the Muhacir escaped to Anatolia as a result of the widespread persecution of Ottoman Muslims that occurred during the last years of the Ottoman Empire. By the 1930s migration accelerated as another two million Muslims settled in Turkey, the bulk of these immigrants were the Balkan Turks who faced harassment and discrimination in their homelands. Today, between a third and a quarter of Turkeys population are the descendants of these Muhacirs, the first wave of immigrants from Bulgaria occurred during the Russo-Turkish War when around 30,000 Bulgarian Turks arrived in Turkey. The second wave of about 750,000 immigrants left Bulgaria during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, more than 200,000 of the rest remained inside the present borders of Turkey whilst the others were sent to other parts of the Ottoman Empire. The aftermath of the war led to major restructuring of the ethnic. As a result of migrations, the percentage of Turks in Bulgaria was reduced from more than one-third of the population immediately after the Russo-Turkish War to 14. 2% in 1900. By 1934 the Turkish population fell to 9. 7% of Bulgaria’s total population, in August 1950 the Bulgarian government announced that 250,000 ethnic Turks had made applications to emigrate and pressured Turkey to accept them within three months. However, the Turkish authorities declared that the country could not accept these numbers in such a short time, in what was tantamount to an expulsion, pressure for ethnic Turks to leave continued, and by late 1951 some 155,000 Turks left Bulgaria. The latest wave of Turkish emigration began with the exodus in 1989, known as the big excursion. The campaign began with a ban on wearing traditional Turkish dress, however, on 21 August 1989, Turkey reintroduced immigration visa requirements for Bulgarian Turks. It was estimated that about 360,000 ethnic Turks had left for Turkey, nonetheless, once the Bulgarian communist regime fell, and Bulgarian citizens were allowed freedom of travel again, some 218,000 Bulgarians left the country for Turkey. By 1992, emigration to Turkey resumed at a greater rate, however, this time they were pushed by economic reasons since the country’s economic decline affected especially ethnically mixed regions. The Bulgarian Turks were left without state subsidies or other forms of state assistance, according to the 1992 census, some 344,849 Bulgarians of Turkish origin had migrated to Turkey between 1989 and 1992, which resulted in significant demographic decline in southern Bulgaria. From 1771 until the beginning of the 19th century approximately 500,000 Crimean Tatars arrived in Anatolia. The first wave of immigration from Cyprus occurred in 1878 when the Ottomans were obliged to lease the island to Great Britain, economic motives played an important part as conditions for the poor in Cyprus during the 1920s were especially harsh
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