1.
West Java
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West Java is a province of Indonesia. The provinces population is 46.3 million and it is the most populous, all these cities are suburban to Jakarta. The oldest human inhabitant archaeological findings in the region were unearthed in Anyer with evidence of bronze, the prehistoric Buni culture clay pottery were later developed with evidence found in Anyer to Cirebon. Artefacts, such as food and drink containers, were mostly as burial gifts. Records of Tarumanegaras administration lasted until the sixth century, which coincides with the attack of Srivijaya, the Sunda Kingdom subsequently became the ruling power of the region, as recorded on the Kebon Kopi II inscription. An Ulama, Sunan Gunung Jati, settled in Cirebon, with the intention of spreading the word of Islam in the pagan town, in the meantime, the Sultanate of Demak in central Java grew to an immediate threat against the Sunda kingdom. To defend against the threat, Prabu Surawisesa Jayaperkosa signed a treaty with the Portuguese in 1512, in return, the Portuguese were granted an accession to build fortresses and warehouses in the area, as well as form trading agreements with the kingdom. This first international treaty of West Java with the Europeans was commemorated by the placement of the Padrao stone monument at the bank of the Ciliwung River in 1522, although the treaty with the Portuguese had been established, it could not come to realization. Sunda Kalapa harbour fell under the alliance of the Sultanate of Demak, in 1524/1525, their troops under Sunan Gunung Jati also seized the port of Banten and established the Sultanate of Banten which was affiliating with the Sultanate of Demak. The war between the Sunda kingdom with Demak and Cirebon sultanates then continued for five years until a treaty were made in 1531 between King Surawisesa and Sunan Gunung Jati. From 1567 to 1579, under the last king Raja Mulya, alias Prabu Surya Kencana, after 1576, the kingdom could not maintain its capital at Pakuan Pajajaran and gradually the Sultanate of Banten took over the former Sunda kingdoms region. The Mataram Sultanate from central Java also seized the Priangan region, in the sixteenth century, the Dutch and the British trading companies established their trading ships in West Java after the falldown of Sultanate of Banten. For the next three hundred years, West Java fell under the Dutch East Indies administration, West Java was officially declared as a province of Indonesia in 1950, referring to a statement from Staatblad number 378. On October 17,2000, as part of nationwide political decentralization, Banten was separated from West Java, there have been recent proposals to rename the province Pasundan after the historical name for West Java. Since the creation of West Bandung Regency in 2008, the Province of West Java has been subdivided into 9 cities and 17 regencies and these 26 cities and regencies are divided into 620 districts, which comprise 1,576 urban villages and 4,301 rural villages. West Java borders Jakarta and Banten province to the west, to the north is the Java Sea. To the south is the Indian Ocean, unlike most other provinces in Indonesia which have their capitals in coastal areas, the provincial capital, Bandung, is located in the mountainous area in the centre of the province. Banten Province was formerly part of West Java Province but was created a province in 2000
2.
Aceh
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Aceh, is a special region of Indonesia. The territory is located at the end of Sumatra. It is close to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India, there are 10 indigenous ethnic groups in this region, the largest being the Acehnese people, accounting for approximately 80% to 90% of the regions population. Aceh is thought to have been the place where the spread of Islam in Indonesia began, Islam reached Aceh around 1250 AD. In the early seventeenth century the Sultanate of Aceh was the most wealthy, powerful, Aceh has a history of political independence and resistance to control by outsiders, including the former Dutch colonists and the Indonesian government. Aceh has substantial natural resources, including oil and natural gas, relative to most of Indonesia, it is a religiously conservative area. It has the highest proportion of Muslims in Indonesia, who live according to Sharia customs. Aceh was the closest point of land to the epicenter of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, approximately 170,000 Indonesians were killed or went missing in the disaster. The disaster helped precipitate the peace agreement between the government of Indonesia and the Free Aceh Movement, Aceh was first known as Aceh Darussalam and then later as the Daerah Istimewa Aceh, Nanggroë Aceh Darussalam and Aceh. Past spellings of Aceh include Acheh, Atjeh, and Achin, according to several archaeological findings, the first evidence of human habitation in Aceh is from a site near the Tamiang River where shell middens are present. Stone tools and faunal remains were found on the site. Archeologists believe the site was first occupied around 10,000 BC, historic names such as Indrapurba, Indrapurwa, Indrapatra, and Indrapuri gave some hint of Indian influence on this region. However, there are no archaeological findings that link this region with Hinduism, evidence concerning the initial coming and subsequent establishment of Islam in Southeast Asia is thin and inconclusive. The historian Anthony Reid has argued that the region of the Cham people on the south-central coast of Vietnam was one of the earliest Islamic centers in Southeast Asia. Furthermore, as the Cham people fled the Vietnamese, one of the earliest locations that they established a relationship with was Aceh, furthermore, it is thought that one of the earliest centers of Islam was in the Aceh region. When Venetian traveller Marco Polo passed by Sumatra on his way home from China in 1292 he found that Peureulak was a Muslim town while nearby Basma, Basma and Samara are often said to be Pasai and Samudra but evidence is inconclusive. The gravestone of Sultan Malik as-Salih, the first Muslim ruler of Samudra, has found and is dated AH696. This is the earliest clear evidence of a Muslim dynasty in the Indonesia-Malay area, ibn Batutah, a Moroccan traveller, passing through on his way to China in 1345 and 1346, found that the ruler of Samudra was a follower of the Shafii school of Islam
3.
Banten
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Banten is the westernmost province on the island of Java, in Indonesia. The provincial capital city is Serang, the population of Banten was officially estimated at 11,834,087 at the start of 2014, up from over 10.6 million during the 2010 census. Formerly part of the province of West Java, Banten became a province in 2000. The province is a corridor to the neighbouring Indonesian island of Sumatra. Historically, it has had a distinct from the rest of Java. In the 5th century, Banten was part of the Kingdom of Tarumanagara, the inscriptions speak of the courage of king Purnawarman. After the collapse of the Tarumanagara kingdom, due to an attack by Srivijaya, the Chinese source, Chu-fan-chi, written circa 1225, Chou Ju-kua mentioned that in the early 13th Century, Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the Malay peninsula, and western Java. The source identifies the port of Sunda as strategic and thriving, the people worked in agriculture and their houses were built on wooden poles. However, robbers and thieves plagued the country and it was highly possible that the port of Sunda mentioned by Chou Ju-kua was probably refer to the port of Banten. The center of this sultanate, according to J. de Barros, was Banten which was a port in Southeast Asia rivaling Malacca. The city of Banten was located in middle of the bay which is three miles across. The city was 850 fathoms in length while the town was 400 fathoms in length. Through the middle of there was a clear river which ships. There is a tributary of the river extending to the edges of the town. Today, the river is not so large and only small boats can enter, there was a fortress very near to the town whose walls were made of brick and was seven palms wide. There were wooden defense buildings consisting of two levels and armed with good weapons, the middle of the town square was used for military activities and folk art, and as a market in the morning. The kings palace was located on the side of the square. Beside the building was an elevated and flat-roofed, called Srimanganti, to the west of the square was a great mosque
4.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
5.
Indonesian language
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Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia. It is a register of Malay, an Austronesian language that has been used as a lingua franca in the multilingual Indonesian archipelago for centuries. Indonesia is the fourth most populous nation in the world, of its large population, the majority speak Indonesian, making it one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. However, most formal education, and nearly all national mass media, governance, administration, judiciary, the Indonesian name for the language is Bahasa Indonesia or sometimes simplified as Bahasa. This term is occasionally found in English and other languages. Indonesian is a register of Riau Malay, which despite its common name is not the Malay dialect native to Riau. Originally spoken in Northeast Sumatra, Malay has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for half a millennium and it might be attributed to its ancestor, the Old Malay language. The Kedukan Bukit Inscription is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, trade contacts carried on by various ethnic peoples at the time were the main vehicle for spreading the Old Malay language, which was the main communications medium among the traders. Ultimately, the Old Malay language became a lingua franca and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago, Indonesian is essentially the same language as the official Malaysian, Singaporean and Brunei standards of Malay. However, it does differ from Malaysian in several respects, with differences in pronunciation and these differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian. Indonesian was also influenced by the Melayu pasar, which was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands. Malaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries, even though modern Malaysian has been influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax. The question of whether High Malay or Low Malay was the parent of the Indonesian language is still in debate. Some linguists have argued that it was the more common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language, however, the language had never been dominant among the population of the Indonesian archipelago as it was limited to mercantile activity. The VOC adopted the Malay language as the language of their trading outpost in the east. Following the bankruptcy of the VOC the Dutch crown took control of the colony in 1799 and it was then that education in. Even then, Dutch administrators were reluctant to promote the use of Dutch compared to other colonial regimes. Dutch thus remained the language of a elite, in 1940
6.
Arabic script
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The Arabic script is a writing system used for writing several languages of Asia and Africa, such as Arabic, dialects of Mandinka, Central Kurdish, Luri, Persian, Urdu, Pashto, and others. Until the 16th century, it was used to write some texts in Spanish. It is the second-most widely used writing system in the world by the number of countries using it, the Arabic script is written from right to left in a cursive style. In most cases the letters transcribe consonants, or consonants and a few vowels, the script was first used to write texts in Arabic, most notably the Qurʼān, the holy book of Islam. It is also the basis for the tradition of Arabic calligraphy, the Arabic script has been adopted for use in a wide variety of languages besides Arabic, including Persian, Malay and Urdu which are not Semitic. Such adaptations may feature altered or new characters to represent phonemes that do not appear in Arabic phonology, the modified version of the Arabic script originally devised for use with Persian is known as the Perso-Arabic script by scholars. In the cases of Bosnian, Kurdish, Kashmiri, and Uyghur writing systems, the Arabic script can therefore be used in both abugida and abjad, although it is often strongly, erroneously connected to the latter. Use of the Arabic script in West African languages, especially in the Sahel, to a certain degree the style and usage tends to follow those of the Maghreb. Additional diacritics have come into use to facilitate writing of sounds not represented in the Arabic language, the term ʻAjamī, which comes from the Arabic root for foreign, has been applied to Arabic-based orthographies of African languages. There is evidence that writing Arabic in this set of letters influenced the style of modern Arabic script. After this initial period, Garshuni writing has continued to the present day among some Syriac Christian communities in the Arabic-speaking regions of the Levant, Kazakh in China Kurdish in Northern Iraq and Northwest Iran. It is mainly used in Sri Lanka and the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu for religious purposes, arwi language is the language of Tamil Nadu Muslims. Malayalam language represented by Arabic script variant is known as Arabi Malayalam, the script has particular letters to represent the peculiar sounds of Malayalam. This script is used in madrasas of the South Indian state of Kerala. It is similar to Chittagonian language in neighboring Bangladesh and sometimes using the Roman script. Malay in the Arabic script known as Jawi, in some cases it can be seen in the signboards of shops or market stalls. In addition, some television programming uses Jawi, such as announcements, advertisements, news, social programs, Berber languages have often been written in an adaptation of the Arabic alphabet. The use of the Arabic alphabet, as well as the competing Latin, West Africa Zarma language of the Songhay family
7.
Specials (Unicode block)
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Specials is a short Unicode block allocated at the very end of the Basic Multilingual Plane, at U+FFF0–FFFF. Of these 16 codepoints, five are assigned as of Unicode 9, U+FFFD � REPLACEMENT CHARACTER used to replace an unknown, unrecognized or unrepresentable character U+FFFE <noncharacter-FFFE> not a character. FFFE and FFFF are not unassigned in the sense. They can be used to guess a texts encoding scheme, since any text containing these is by not a correctly encoded Unicode text. The replacement character � is a found in the Unicode standard at codepoint U+FFFD in the Specials table. It is used to indicate problems when a system is unable to render a stream of data to a correct symbol and it is usually seen when the data is invalid and does not match any character, Consider a text file containing the German word für in the ISO-8859-1 encoding. This file is now opened with an editor that assumes the input is UTF-8. The first and last byte are valid UTF-8 encodings of ASCII, therefore, a text editor could replace this byte with the replacement character symbol to produce a valid string of Unicode code points. The whole string now displays like this, f�r, a poorly implemented text editor might save the replacement in UTF-8 form, the text file data will then look like this, 0x66 0xEF 0xBF 0xBD 0x72, which will be displayed in ISO-8859-1 as f�r. Since the replacement is the same for all errors this makes it impossible to recover the original character, a better design is to preserve the original bytes, including the error, and only convert to the replacement when displaying the text. This will allow the text editor to save the original byte sequence and it has become increasingly common for software to interpret invalid UTF-8 by guessing the bytes are in another byte-based encoding such as ISO-8859-1. This allows correct display of both valid and invalid UTF-8 pasted together, Unicode control characters UTF-8 Mojibake Unicodes Specials table Decodeunicodes entry for the replacement character
8.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
9.
Far-right politics
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Far-right politics are right-wing politics further on the right of the left-right spectrum than the standard political right. Far-right politics often involve a focus on tradition, real or imagined, as opposed to policies, right-wing populism, a political ideology often combines laissez-faire, nationalism, ethnocentrism and anti-elitism is often described as far-right. Right-wing populism often involves appeals to common man and opposition to immigration, far-right politics include but are not limited to aspects of authoritarianism, anti-communism, and nativism. Claims that superior people should proportionally have greater rights than people are sometimes associated with the far right. The far right has historically favoured an elitist society based on its belief in the legitimacy of the rule of a supposed superior minority over the inferior masses. However, right-wing populist ideologies which are described by commentators as far-right often use appeals to the common man as opposed to the appeals of the elites. Far-right politics sometimes involves anti-immigration and anti-integration stances towards groups that are deemed inferior, hence, far right politics is associated with Othering. According to Christina Liang, this field is especially peculiar about its terminology. Each label carries with it a specific understanding of family of political parties as well as a particular set of assumptions regarding their origins. In an extensive survey of the literature, academic Cas Mudde found 26 definitions of right-wing extremism that contained 57 different ideological features, there is also debate about how appropriate the labels fascist or neo-Fascist are. Mudde lists nativism, authoritarianism, and populism as core elements of populist radical right political parties, in the United States, the term hard right and Alt-right have been used to describe groups such as the Tea Party movement and the Patriot movement. The term has also used to describe ideologies such as Paleoconservatism, Dominion Theology. The German political scientist Klaus von Beyme describes three phases in the development of far-right parties in Western Europe after World War II. From 1945 to the mid-1950s, far-right parties were marginalised, and their ideologies were discredited due to the recent existence and defeat of Nazism. Thus in the immediately following World War II, the main objective of far-right parties was survival. From the mid-1950s to the 1970s, the so-called populist protest phase emerged with sporadic electoral success, the most common demand-side theories are the social breakdown thesis, the relative deprivation thesis, the modernisation losers thesis and the ethnic competition thesis. The rise of political parties has also been viewed as a rejection of post-materialist values on the part of some voters. This theory which is known as the reverse post-material thesis blames both left-wing and progressive parties for embracing a post-material agenda that alienates traditional working class voters, another study argues that individuals who join far-right parties determine whether those parties develop into major political players or whether they remain marginalized
10.
Sunni Islam
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Sunni Islam is the largest group of Islam. Its name comes from the word Sunnah, referring to the behavior of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. According to Sunni tradition, Muhammad did not clearly designate a successor and this contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad intended his son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib to succeed him. Political tensions between Sunnis and Shias continued with varying intensity throughout Islamic history and they have been exacerbated in recent times by ethnic conflicts, as of 2009, Sunni Muslims constituted between 87–90% of the worlds Muslim population. Sunni Islam is the worlds largest religious denomination, followed by Catholicism and its adherents are referred to in Arabic as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah or ahl as-sunnah for short. In English, its doctrines and practices are sometimes called Sunnism, while adherents are known as Sunni Muslims, Sunnis, Sunnites, Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as orthodox Islam. The Quran, together with hadith and binding juristic consensus form the basis of all traditional jurisprudence within Sunni Islam, sunnī, also commonly referred to as Sunnīism, is a term derived from sunnah meaning habit, usual practice, custom, tradition. The Muslim use of this term refers to the sayings and living habits of the prophet Muhammad, in Arabic, this branch of Islam is referred to as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah, the people of the sunnah and the community, which is commonly shortened to ahl as-sunnah. One common mistake is to assume that Sunni Islam represents a normative Islam that emerged during the period after Muhammads death, and that Sufism and Shiism developed out of Sunni Islam. This perception is due to the reliance on highly ideological sources that have been accepted as reliable historical works. Both Sunnism and Shiaism are the end products of centuries of competition between ideologies. Both sects used each other to further cement their own identities and doctrines, the first four caliphs are known among Sunnis as the Rashidun or Rightly-Guided Ones. Sunni recognition includes the aforementioned Abu Bakr as the first, Umar who established the Islamic calendar as the second, Uthman as the third, Sunnis believe that the companions of Muhammad were the best of Muslims. Support for this view is found in the Quran, according to Sunnis. Sunnis also believe that the companions were true believers since it was the companions who were given the task of compiling the Quran, furthermore, narrations that were narrated by the companions are considered by Sunnis to be a second source of knowledge of the Muslim faith. A study conducted by the Pew Research Center in 2010 and released January 2011 found that there are 1.62 billion Muslims around the world, Islam does not have a formal hierarchy or clergy. Leaders are informal, and gain influence through study to become a scholar of Islamic law, according to the Islamic Center of Columbia, South Carolina, anyone with the intelligence and the will can become an Islamic scholar. During Midday Mosque services on Fridays, the congregation will choose a person to lead the service
11.
Islamism
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Islamism is a concept whose meaning has been debated in both public and academic contexts. It is commonly used interchangeably with the terms political Islam or Islamic fundamentalism and these movements have arguably altered the Middle East more than any trend since the modern states gained independence, redefining politics and even borders according to Robin Wright. Some authors hold the term Islamic activism to be synonymous and preferable to Islamism, Central and prominent figures of modern Islamism include Hasan al-Banna, Sayyid Qutb, Abul Ala Maududi, and Ruhollah Khomeini. Some Islamist thinkers emphasize peaceful political processes, whereas Sayyid Qutb in particular called for violence, however, Qutb, unlike modern extremists, denounced the killing of innocents. Following the Arab Spring, some Islamist currents became heavily involved in politics, while others spawned the most aggressive and ambitious Islamist militia to date. A theocratic ideology that seeks to impose any version of Islam over society by law, subsequently, clarified to be, the desire to impose any given interpretation of Islam on society. A movement so broad and flexible it reaches out to everything to everyone in Islam, making it unsustainable. and at the extremes, a violent vehicle for rejectionists and radicals. All who seek to Islamize their environment, whether in relation to their lives in society, their circumstances, or the workplace. Moderate and reformist Islamists who accept and work within the process include parties like the Tunisian Ennahda Movement. Jamaat-e-Islami of Pakistan is basically a socio-political and democratic Vanguard party but has gained political influence through military coup détats in the past. The Islamist groups like Hezbollah in Lebanon and Hamas in Palestine participate in the democratic, following the Arab Spring, Roy has described Islamism as increasingly interdependent with democracy in much of the Arab Muslim world, such that neither can now survive without the other. While Islamist political culture itself may not be democratic, Islamists need democratic elections to maintain their legitimacy, at the same time, their popularity is such that no government can call itself democratic that excludes mainstream Islamist groups. The term, which denoted the religion of Islam, first appeared in English as Islamismus in 1696. The term appears in the U. S. Supreme Court decision in In Re Ross, the term Islamism acquired its contemporary connotations in French academia in the late 1970s and early 1980s. From French, it began to migrate to the English language in the mid-1980s, a 2003 article in Middle East Quarterly states, In summation, the term Islamism enjoyed its first run, lasting from Voltaire to the First World War, as a synonym for Islam. Enlightened scholars and writers generally preferred it to Mohammedanism, eventually both terms yielded to Islam, the Arabic name of the faith, and a word free of either pejorative or comparative associations. To all intents and purposes, Islamic fundamentalism and Islamism have become synonyms in contemporary American usage, the AP Stylebook entry for Islamist now reads as follows, An advocate or supporter of a political movement that favors reordering government and society in accordance with laws prescribed by Islam. Do not use as a synonym for Islamic fighters, militants, extremists or radicals, where possible, be specific and use the name of militant affiliations, al-Qaida-linked, Hezbollah, Taliban, etc
12.
Vigilante
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A vigilante is a civilian or organization acting in a law enforcement capacity without legal authority. Vigilante justice is often rationalized by the concept that proper legal forms of punishment are either nonexistent, insufficient. Vigilantes normally see the government as ineffective in enforcing the law, persons alleged to be escaping the law or above the law are sometimes the victims of vigilantism. Vigilante conduct involves certain degrees of violence, Vigilantes could assault targets verbally and/or physically, damage and/or vandalize property, or even kill individuals. In a number of cases, vigilantism has involved targets with mistaken identities, in Britain in the early 2000s, there were reports of vandalism, assaults, and verbal abuse towards people wrongly accused of being pedophiles, following the murder of Sarah Payne. In Guyana in 2008, Hardel Haynes was beaten to death by a mob who mistook him for a thief, Vigilantism and the vigilante ethos existed long before the word vigilante was introduced into the English language. There are conceptual and psychological parallels between the Dark Age and medieval aristocratic custom of private war or vendetta and the modern vigilante philosophy, when Jacob protested that their actions might bring trouble upon him and his family, the brothers replied Should he treat our sister as a harlot. Similarly, in 2 Samuel 13, Absalom kills Amnon after King David, their father, fails to punish Amnon for raping Tamar, recourse to personal vengeance and dueling was considered a class privilege of the sword-bearing aristocracy before the formation of the modern centralized liberal-bureaucratic nation-state. In addition, sociologists have posited a complex legal and ethical interrelationship between vigilante acts and rebellion and tyrannicide, in the Western literary and cultural tradition, characteristics of vigilantism have often been vested in folkloric heroes and legendary outlaws. Vigilantism in literature, folklore and legend is connected to the issues of dissatisfied morality, injustice, the failures of authority. Formally-defined vigilantism arose in the early American colonies and these people would assault accused thieves, rapists and murderers. When they assaulted these thieves, they would steal their gold, other than reports and newspapers, there are not many records of vigilantes. Few names or groups are known, later in the United States, vigilante groups arose in poorly governed frontier areas where criminals preyed upon the citizenry with impunity. The death of Joseph Smith, Jr. on June 27,1844, in 1851 and 1856, San Francisco Vigilance Movement sought to eliminate crime, an element of this movement focused on immigrants like the Sydney Ducks. This touched off a cycle of retaliatory battles and raids by the two sides in which some 29 people were killed. In 1858 San Luis Obispo vigilantes ended the reign of the bandit gang of Pío Linares on El Camino Real between San Luis and Santa Barbara. In October 1862 in northern Texas, several Unionist sympathizers were arrested and taken to Gainesville, seven were tried and hanged, and 14 were hanged without trial. A few weeks later, Unionist sympathizers were hanged without trial across northern Texas, known as the Great Hanging at Gainesville, it may have been the deadliest act of vigilante violence in U. S. history
13.
Islamic religious police
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The Islamic religious police is the official vice squad of some Islamic states, who on behalf of the state, enforces Sharia law in respect to religious behavior, or the precepts of Wahhabism. The establishment of a religious police is considered justified with the Quran doctrine, enjoining what is right and forbidding what is wrong or promotion of virtue and it was originally a casual synonym for the religious police of Saudi Arabia. The formal short term for the Saudi religious police is هيئة hayah, the concept is thought to have originated from Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia. However, the use of police was prevalent during Taliban rule as a means to promote their fundamentalist interpretation of Deobandi Islam. The Mutaween in Saudi Arabia are tasked with enforcing Sharia as defined by the government, specifically by the Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice. The Mutaween of the CPVPV consists of “more than 3,500 officers in addition to thousands of volunteers. often accompanied by a police escort. They enforced Muslim dietary laws, prohibited the consumption or sale of alcoholic beverages and pork, additionally, they actively prevented the practice or proselytizing of other religions within Saudi Arabia, where they are banned. In April 2016 however, the Saudi Arabian cabinet removed the Mutaween power to arrest, the firemen who arrived on to help, were also males. Fifteen girls died and fifty were injured as a result, widespread public criticism followed, both internationally and within Saudi Arabia. Afghanistans Committee for the Propagation of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice was first instituted by the 1992 Rabbani regime and it was closed when the Taliban was ousted, but the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Afghanistan reinstated it in 2003. In 2006 the Karzai regime submitted draft legislation to create a new department, under the Ministry for Haj and Religious Affairs, devoted to the Promotion of Virtue, radio Free Europe quoted many Afghans who greeted news of the draft with alarm. They insured that women were veiled, especially in government offices and universities, GPRAWU was officially founded on March 3rd,2013 in the state of Georgia which is located in the United States. The purpose of the establishment at that time was to only encourage, since then operations of GPRAWU have expanded to a broader spectrum. GPRAWU is an international, non-profit, educational and religious organization that governs the affairs of the Islamic community internationally and it is also referred as hisbah. It operates in the manner of serving the Islamic community by maintaining civil order and its services are available regardless of gender, age, color, ethnicity, national origin, ancestry, citizenship or religion. <ref> |title = Hisbah in Minnesota |url = http, //gprawu. wixsite. com/hdqrs |date = April 2017 Sharia patrols The Religious Policeman Hisbah Muhtasib Muṭawwaʿ Cordesman, Saudi Arabia Enters the Twenty-first Century, The military and international security dimensions. Sharia police block womens rally – BBC News Sharia police, who are they, – The Jakarta Post - Star Tribune
14.
Warung
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A warung is a type of small family-owned business — often a casual shop, a modest small restaurant or café — in Indonesia, and to a lesser extent, Malaysia. A warung is an part of daily life in Indonesia. There are establishments on the touristy island of Bali and elsewhere that attach the term warung in their business to indicate their Indonesian nature, traditionally, warung is indeed a family-owned business, run by the family members, mostly by women. Traditional warungs are made from wooden, bamboo or thatched materials, more permanent warungs are made from bricks and concrete, some family-owned businesses are attached to their homes. Some smaller portable warungs are made from tin, zinc or some modern version might use fiberglass mold, Warung tenda ia a portable tent warung, covered with canvas, fabric or plastic sheet tent for roofing. The term warung simply denote a wide category of small businesses and it is widely used in Java and most of Indonesia, while in Sumatra and Malay Peninsula its synonym kedai is used instead. In Javanese culture areas, such as in Yogyakarta, Semarang and Surakarta, on the other hand, the term toko is used to a larger and more established shop. The term can also be used to refer to many other types of shops, including the wartel. A warung that sells food typically sells local food, pisang goreng and many kinds of gorengan, nasi goreng, in resort island of Bali and Lombok, a warung might refer to a touristy cabana cafe that sells locals favourites as well as Asian or western food. Other than Indonesian dishes, on their menu there might be a selection of soups, steaks, some types of warung are, Warung rokok or common warung is a very small street side shop, constructed from wood, bamboo or tin. Most of them measuring not more than 2 x 1 meters and they sells rokok, cold bottled drinks, snacks and candies, krupuk, soap, tooth paste and other daily necessities. This is the most commonly distributed warung, sprung in residential areas, slums, street sides, warkop or warung kopi is a small humble cafe or coffeeshop, they sells coffee and snacks, such as roasted peanuts, rempeyek, krupuk, pisang goreng and bread. Recently in Indonesia, the Malaysian and Singaporean counterpart kopi tiam, Warung nasi is a humble small restaurant that sells nasi with other Indonesian dishes. Usually they did not provides separate tables and chairs, but a long communal bar, warteg or warung tegal is a more specific warung nasi, established by Javanese people from the town Tegal in Central Java. They sells favourite Javanese dishes and rice, the array of pre-cooked dishes are arranged in glass windowed cupboard. They are well known on selling modestly-priced meals, popular among working class such as low-skilled labours in the cities, Warung padang is a small scaled Padang restaurant. Usually provides bar and bench instead of tables and chairs for seating, larger scale are more established Padang eateries are referred to as rumah makan padang or Padang restaurant instead. Warung jamu specifically selling jamu traditional herbal medicine, warnet or warung internet is an internet cafe
15.
Ramadan
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Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, and is observed by Muslims worldwide as a month of fasting to commemorate the first revelation of the Quran to Muhammad according to Islamic belief. This annual observance is regarded as one of the Five Pillars of Islam, the month lasts 29–30 days based on the visual sightings of the crescent moon, according to numerous biographical accounts compiled in the hadiths. The word Ramadan comes from the Arabic root ramiḍa or ar-ramaḍ, fasting is fardh for adult Muslims, except those who are suffering from an illness, travelling, are elderly, pregnant, breastfeeding, diabetic or going through menstrual bleeding. Fasting the month of Ramadan was made obligatory during the month of Shaban, while fasting from dawn until sunset, Muslims refrain from consuming food, drinking liquids, smoking, and engaging in sexual relations. Muslims are also instructed to refrain from behavior that may negate the reward of fasting, such as false speech. Food and drinks are served daily, before dawn and after sunset, spiritual rewards for fasting are also believed to be multiplied within the month of Ramadan. Fasting for Muslims during Ramadan typically includes the offering of salat. Chapter 2, Verse 185, of the Quran states, The month of Ramadan is that in which was revealed the Quran, a guidance for mankind, and clear proofs of the guidance, and the criterion. And whosoever of you is present, let him fast the month, and whosoever of you is sick or on a journey, a number of other days. Allah desires for you ease, He desires not hardship for you, and that you should complete the period, and that you should magnify Allah for having guided you, and that perhaps you may be thankful. It is believed that the Quran was first revealed to Muhammad during the month of Ramadan which has been referred to as the best of times, the first revelation was sent down on Laylat al-Qadr which is one of the five odd nights of the last ten days of Ramadan. According to hadith, all holy scriptures were sent down during Ramadan, the tablets of Ibrahim, the Torah, the Psalms, the Gospel and the Quran were sent down on 1st, 6th, 12th, 13th and 24th Ramadan respectively. According to the Quran, fasting was also obligatory for prior nations, God proclaimed to Muhammad that fasting for His sake was not a new innovation in monotheism, but rather an obligation practiced by those truly devoted to the oneness of God. The pagans of Mecca also fasted, but only on tenth day of Muharram to expiate sins, the ruling to observe fasting during Ramadan was sent down 18 months after Hijra, during the month of Shaban in the second year of Hijra in 624 CE. According to Philip Jenkins, Ramadan comes from the strict Lenten discipline of the Syrian churches, however, this suggestion is based on the orientalist idea that the Quran itself has Syrian origins, which was refuted by Muslim academics such as M. Al-Azami. The beginning and end of Ramadan are determined by the lunar Islamic calendar, hilāl is typically a day after the astronomical new moon. Since the new moon marks the beginning of the new month, however, to many Muslims, this is not in accordance with authenticated Hadiths stating that visual confirmation per region is recommended. The consistent variations of a day have existed since the time of Muhammad, Laylat al-Qadr, which in Arabic means the night of power or the night of decree, is considered the holiest night of the year
16.
Pressure group
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Advocacy groups use various forms of advocacy in order to influence public opinion and/or policy. They have played and continue to play an important part in the development of political and social systems. Groups vary considerably in size, influence, and motive, some have wide-ranging long term social purposes, motives for action may be based on a shared political, religious, moral, health or commercial position. Groups use varied methods to try to achieve their aims including lobbying, media campaigns, publicity stunts, polls, research, and policy briefings. Some groups are supported or backed by business or political interests and exert considerable influence on the political process. Some have developed into important social, political institutions or social movements, Some groups, generally ones with less financial resources, may use direct action and civil disobedience and in some cases are accused of being a threat to the social order or domestic extremists. Research is beginning to explore how advocacy groups use media to facilitate civic engagement. An advocacy group is a group or an organization tries to influence the government. The first mass social movement catalyzed around the political figure. Charged with seditious libel, Wilkes was arrested after the issue of a general warrant, as a result of this episode, Wilkes became a figurehead to the growing movement for popular sovereignty among the middle classes – people began chanting, Wilkes and Liberty in the streets. After a later period of exile, brought about by further charges of libel and obscenity, Wilkes stood for the Parliamentary seat at Middlesex, where most of his support was located. When Wilkes was imprisoned in the Kings Bench Prison on 10 May 1768 and this was the first ever sustained social advocacy group, —it involved public meetings, demonstrations, the distribution of pamphlets on an unprecedented scale and the mass petition march. The force and influence of this social movement on the streets of London compelled the authorities to concede to the movements demands. Wilkes was returned to Parliament, general warrants were declared as unconstitutional, another important advocacy group that emerged in the late 18th century was the British abolitionist movement against slavery. Starting with an organised sugar boycott in 1791, it led the great petition drive of 1806. In the opinion of Eugene Black. association made possible the extension of the politically effective public, modern extra parliamentary political organization is a product of the late eighteenth century the history of the age of reform cannot be written without it. From 1815, Britain after victory in the Napoleonic Wars entered a period of social upheaval characterised by the maturity of the use of social movements. Chartism was the first mass movement of the growing working-class in the world and they led, among other things, to the formation of green parties and organisations influenced by the new left
17.
Online campaign
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A protest is an expression of bearing witness on behalf of an express cause by words or actions with regard to particular events, policies or situations. Protests can take different forms, from individual statements to mass demonstrations. Various forms of self-expression and protest are sometimes restricted by policy, economic circumstances, religious orthodoxy, social structures. One state reaction to protests is the use of riot police, observers have noted an increased militarization of protest policing, with police deploying armored vehicles and snipers against the protesters. A protest can itself sometimes be the subject of a counter-protest, in such a case, counter-protesters demonstrate their support for the person, policy, action, etc. that is the subject of the original protest. In some cases, these protesters can violently clash, unaddressed protests may grow and widen into civil resistance, dissent, activism, riots, insurgency, revolts, and political and/or social revolution. 2013 through Feb.2014 Black Lives Matter 2016 South Korean protests 2017 Jallikattu protests Dakota Access Pipeline protests A protest can take many forms, the Dynamics of Collective Action project and the Global Nonviolent Action Database are two of the leading data collection efforts attempting to capture protest events. Reference to speeches, speakers, singing, preaching, often verified by indication of sound equipment of PA, ordinarily will include worship services, speeches, briefings. March, Reference to moving from one location to another, to be distinguished from rotating or walking in a circle with picket signs which by definition, but also no reference to sound systems or to marches, it may well be a vigil. Most vigils have banners, placards, or leaflets so that people passing by, despite silence from participants, picket, The modal activity is picketing, there may be references to picket line, to informational picketing, holding signs, carrying signs and walking around in a circle). Symbolic display, e. g. Menorah, Creche Scene, graffiti, cross burnings, signs, standing displays Attack by instigators Ethnic group victim of physical attack, boundary motivating attack is other groups identity, as in gay-bashing, lynching. Can also include verbal attack and/or threats, too, Riot, melee, mob violence, Large-scale, use of violence by instigators against persons, property, police, or buildings separately or in combination, lasting several hours. Strike, slow down and sick-ins employee work protest of any kind, Regular air strike through failure of negotiations, boycott, Organized refusal to buy or use a product or service, rent strikes. Press conference, If specifically named as such in report, could involve disclosure of information to educate the public or influence various decision-makers. Organization formation announcement or meeting announcement, meeting or press conference to announce the formation of a new organization, conflict, attack or clash, no instigator, This includes any boundary conflict in which no instigator can be identified, i. e. black/white conflicts, abortion/anti-abortion conflicts. Lawsuit, legal maneuver by social movement organization or group The Global Nonviolent Action database uses Gene Sharps classification of 198 methods of nonviolent action, there is considerable overlap with the Dynamics of Collective Action repertoire, although the GNA repertoire includes more specific tactics. Together, the two projects help define tactics available to protesters and document instances of their use, thomas Ratliff and Lori Hall have devised a typology of six broad activity categories of the protest activities described in the Dynamics of Collective Action project. Literal, symbolic, aesthetic and sensory - Artistic, dramaturgical, use of images, objects, graphic arts, musical performances, or vocal/auditory exhibitions
18.
Jakarta
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Jakarta /dʒəˈkɑːrtə/, officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta, is the capital and most populous city of the Republic of Indonesia. Located on the northwest coast of the worlds most populous island of Java, Jakarta is the economic, cultural and political centre. The official metropolitan area, known as Jabodetabek, is the second largest in the world, established in the fourth century, the city became an important trading port for the Kingdom of Sunda. It was the de facto capital of the Dutch East Indies, today, the city has continued as the capital of Indonesia since the countrys independence was declared in 1945. Jakarta is listed as a city in the 2012 Globalization and World Cities Study Group. Based on the global metro monitor by the Brookings Institution, in 2014, Jakarta has grown more rapidly than Kuala Lumpur, Beijing, and Bangkok. Jakarta has been home to multiple settlements along with their names, Sunda Kelapa, Jayakarta, Batavia, Djakarta. Its current name derives from the word Jayakarta, the origins of this word can be traced to the Old Javanese and ultimately to the Sanskrit language. Jayakarta translates as victorious deed, complete act, or complete victory, Jakarta is nicknamed the Big Durian, the thorny strongly-odored fruit native to the region, as the city is seen as the Indonesian equivalent of the US city of New York. In the colonial era, the city was known as Koningin van het Oosten, initially in the 17th century for the urban beauty of downtown Batavias canals, mansions. After expanding to the south in the 19th century, this came to be more associated with the suburbs, with their wide lanes, many green spaces. The area in and around modern Jakarta was part of the fourth century Sundanese kingdom of Tarumanagara, following the decline of Tarumanagara, its territories, including the Jakarta area, became part of the Hindu Kingdom of Sunda. From 7th to early 13th century port of Sunda was within the sphere of influence of the Srivijaya maritime empire. According to the Chinese source, Chu-fan-chi, written circa 1225, Chou Ju-kua reported in the early 13th century Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the source reports the port of Sunda as strategic and thriving, pepper from Sunda being among the best in quality. The people worked in agriculture and their houses were built on wooden piles, the harbour area became known as Sunda Kelapa and by the fourteenth century, it was a major trading port for Sunda kingdom. The first European fleet, four Portuguese ships from Malacca, arrived in 1513 when the Portuguese were looking for a route for spices, in 1527, Fatahillah, a Javanese general from Demak attacked and conquered Sunda Kelapa, driving out the Portuguese. Sunda Kelapa was renamed Jayakarta, and became a fiefdom of the Sultanate of Banten which became a major Southeast Asia trading centre, through the relationship with Prince Jayawikarta from the Sultanate of Banten, Dutch ships arrived in Jayakarta in 1596. In 1602, the English East India Companys first voyage, commanded by Sir James Lancaster, arrived in Aceh and this site became the centre of English trade in Indonesia until 1682
19.
Basuki Tjahaja Purnama
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Basuki Tjahaja Purnama is an Indonesian politician serving as the 17th Governor of Jakarta since November 14,2014. Basuki was inaugurated by President Joko Widodo on November 18,2014 and he was a legislator in the Indonesian Peoples Representative Council and Regent of East Belitung. He is also known by his Hakka Chinese nickname, Ahok, Basuki was also a Komisi II House of Representatives member for the 2009–2014 office term. However, he resigned from the position in 2012 to run for Lieutenant Governor Jakarta governor election, Basuki is the second governor with Chinese ancestry, and also the second Christian governor of Jakarta, following Henk Ngantung, who was governor during the period 1964–65. Basuki was born on 29 June 1966 and grew up in Manggar and he is the first son of Buniarti Ningsih and the late Indra Tjahaja Purnama. Basuki has three siblings, Basuri Tjahaja Purnama, Fifi Lety, and Harry Basuki, Basuki attended Trisakti University majoring in Mineral Resources & Technology. He graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in Geological Engineering in 1989, after two years of working in the company, he decided to pursue a masters degree in Financial Management at Prasetiya Mulya Business School in Jakarta. He graduated as a Master of Business Administration, Basuki is married to Veronica Tan and the couple has three children, Nicolas Sean, Natania, and Daud Albeneer. Basuki entered politics in his region of Belitung. He ran in the 2005 East Belitung regent election with Khairul Effendi as his mate and was elected as regent with 37. 13% of the vote. Basuki believes that Indonesia is breaking with the past, that had a long and often violent history of prejudice and he is nicknamed The Father and The Law for strong actions against corruption. After a month in office, Basuki confronted key issues related to congestion, labor, corruption. Basuki resigned from his position as East Belitung regent on 11 December 2006 in order to run in the 2007 Bangka-Belitung gubernatorial election and he later credited former Indonesian president Abdurrahman Wahid, for convincing him to run for public office. Wahid supported Basukis candidacy and praised Ahoks healthcare reforms, Basuki was defeated by Eko Maulana Ali. In 2008, Basuki wrote a biography titled Merubah Indonesia In 2009, Basuki was elected to the House of Representatives and he was elected with 119,232 votes and was assigned to the Second Commission. In 2011, he created a controversy during a visit to his local constituency and he was recorded by the local media condemning local tin mining businesses for causing environmental damage. The comment was regarded as an insult by a local youth NGO, in 2011, Basuki considered to run as Jakarta governor as an independent. However, he decided not to run as he was pessimistic about his chances on getting 250 thousand signatures, however, he then ran along Joko Widodo in the 2012 election as his running mate
20.
Iraq War
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The Iraq War was a protracted armed conflict that began in 2003 with the invasion of Iraq by a United States-led coalition that toppled the government of Saddam Hussein. The conflict continued for much of the decade as an insurgency emerged to oppose the occupying forces. An estimated 151,000 to 600,000 or more Iraqis were killed in the first 3–4 years of conflict and it became re-involved in 2014 at the head of a new coalition, the insurgency and many dimensions of the civil armed conflict continue. The invasion began on 20 March 2003, with the U. S. joined by the United Kingdom and several allies, launching a shock. Iraqi forces were overwhelmed as U. S. forces swept through the country. The invasion led to the collapse of the Baathist government, President Hussein was captured during Operation Red Dawn in December of that same year, the United States responded with a troop surge in 2007. The winding down of U. S. involvement in Iraq accelerated under President Barack Obama, the U. S. formally withdrew all combat troops from Iraq by December 2011. Select U. S. officials accused Saddam of harboring and supporting al-Qaeda, while others cited the desire to end a repressive dictatorship, after the invasion, no substantial evidence was found to verify the initial claims about WMDs. The rationale and misrepresentation of pre-war intelligence faced heavy criticism within the U. S. in the aftermath of the invasion, Iraq held multi-party elections in 2005. Nouri al-Maliki became Prime Minister in 2006 and remained in office until 2014, the al-Maliki government enacted policies that were widely seen as having the effect of alienating the countrys Sunni minority and worsening sectarian tensions. The Iraq War caused hundreds of thousands of civilian, and thousands of military casualties, the majority of casualties occurred as a result of the insurgency and civil conflicts between 2004 and 2007. A1990 Frontline report on The arming of Iraq said, Officially, most Western nations participated in an arms embargo against Iraq during the 1980s. Western companies, primarily in Germany and Great Britain, but also in the United States, sold Iraq the key technology for its chemical, missile, any Western governments seemed remarkably indifferent, if not enthusiastic, about those deals. N Washington, the government consistently followed a policy which allowed and perhaps encouraged the growth of Saddam Husseins arsenal. The Western arming of Iraq took place in the context of the Iran-Iraq War, prior to September 2002, the CIA was the George W. Bush administrations main provider of intelligence on Iraq. The agency was out to disprove linkage between Iraq and terrorism the Pentagon adviser told me, the U. N. had prohibited Iraq from developing or possessing such weapons after the Gulf War and required Iraq to permit inspections confirming compliance. This was confirmed by The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal, during 2002, Bush repeatedly warned of military action against Iraq unless inspections were allowed to progress unfettered. In accordance with U. N. Security Council Resolution 1441, Iraq agreed to new inspections under United Nations Monitoring, as part of its weapons inspection obligations, Iraq was required to supply a full declaration of its current weapons capabilities and manufacturing
21.
Hate crime
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A hate crime is a prejudice-motivated crime, which occurs when a perpetrator targets a victim because of his or her membership in a certain social group. Examples of such groups can include and are almost exclusively limited to, sex, ethnicity, disability, language, nationality, physical appearance, religion, non-criminal actions that are motivated by these reasons are often called bias incidents. Hate crime generally refers to acts which are seen to have been motivated by bias against one or more of the types above. Incidents may involve physical assault, damage to property, bullying, harassment, verbal abuse or insults, a hate crime law is a law intended to deter bias-motivated violence. Hate speech laws exist in many countries, the term hate crime came into common usage in the United States during the 1980s, but the term is often used retrospectively in order to describe events which occurred prior to that era. From the Roman persecution of Christians to the Nazi slaughter of Jews, during the past two centuries, typical examples of hate crimes in the U. S. The verb to lynch is attributed to the actions of Charles Lynch, originally the term referred to extrajudicial organized but unauthorized punishment of criminals. It later evolved to describe execution outside of ordinary justice and it is highly associated with white suppression of African Americans in the South, and periods of weak or nonexistent police authority, as in certain frontier areas of the Old West. The murders of Channon Christian and Christopher Newsom and the Wichita Massacre were not classified as crimes by U. S. investigative officials or the media. In the early 21st century, conservative commentators David Horowitz, Michelle Malkin and this is believed to be based on the history of African slavery in this country. One of the largest waves of hate crimes took place during the Civil Rights Movement, during the 1950s and 1960s, both violence and threats were common against African Americans, and hundreds of lives were taken due to such acts. Members of this social class faced violence from groups such as the Ku Klux Klan as well as violence from individuals who were committed to segregation. African Americans have been the target of hate crimes since the Civil War, other frequently reported bias motivations were bias against a religion, against a particular sexual orientation, and against an ethnicity/national origin. At times, these bias motivations overlap, as violence can be both anti-gay and anti-black, for example, analysts have compared groups in terms of the per capita rate of hate crimes committed against them, to allow for differing populations. Overall, the number of hate crimes committed since the first hate crime bill was passed in 1997 is 86,582. Among the groups mentioned in the Hate Crimes Statistics Act. During the Civil Rights Movement, some of the most notorious hate crimes included the 1968 assassination of Martin Luther King Jr, such acts began to take place more frequently after the racial integration of many schools and public facilities. High-profile murders targeting victims based on their sexual orientation have prompted the passage of hate crimes legislation, notably the cases of Sean W. Kennedy, kennedys murder was mentioned by Senator Gordon Smith in a speech on the floor of the US Senate while he advocated such legislation
22.
Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
23.
Arab Indonesians
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Arab Indonesians, or Hadharem, informally known as Jamaah, are citizens of Indonesia of Arab, mainly Hadrami, descent. The group also includes those of Arab descent from other Middle Eastern Arabic speaking nations, restricted under Dutch East Indies law until 1919, the community elites later gained economic power through real estate investment and trading. Currently found mainly in Java, especially West Java, they are almost all Muslims, Indonesia has had contact with the Arab world for hundreds of years, prior to the emergence of Islam in Indonesia as well as since pre-Islamic times. The earliest Arabians to arrive into South East Asia were traders came from Southern Arabia, most of the earliest Arabians were Christian Arabians, Sabeans and other Pagan religions before the coming of Islam. These traders helped to connect the spice and silk markets of South East Asia and far east Asia with the Arabian kingdoms, Persian Empire, most contact was with spice traders, but the first Arab settlements in the archipelago may date from the fifth century. Some later founded dynasties, including the Sultanate of Pontianak, while others intermingled with existing kingdoms and these early communities adopted much of the local culture, and some disappeared entirely while others formed ethnically distinct communities. Modern Arab Indonesians are generally descended from Hadramis, although there are also coming from Arabs of Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait. As liaison and to lead the community, the Dutch government appointed some Captain Arabs in the districts and these laws were repealed in 1919. A few Arabs from other countries came to Indonesia during Dutch colonial rule. The community elites began to build power through trade and real estate acquisition, buying large amounts of real estate in Batavia, Singapore. Through charity work and conspicuous consumption, they built and protected their social capital, eventually, some Arab Indonesians joined the Volksraad, to unite with the native in war against the imperialist, To forbids self isolation, to fulfill their responsibility as a citizen. Eventually leading to a cultural reorientation, first generation immigrants are referred to as wulayātī or totok. They are a minority of the Arab Indonesian population. The majority, muwallad, were born in Indonesia and may be of mixed heritage, Indonesian critics of Arab influence in Indonesia point to the founding of the radical group Jemaah Islamiah and leadership of Laskar Jihad and Front Pembela Islam by Indonesian Arabs. Many Arabs from Hadramaut were Sayyids of the Ba Alawi Sada family and Sharifs and had special status, the majority of Arab Indonesians live in Java, primarily in West and East Java and Madura. A sizable minority live in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Ambon, the earliest census figures that indicate the number of Hadhramis living in Dutch East Indies date from 1859, when it was found that there were 4992 Arab Indonesians living in Java and Madura. The census of 1870 recorded a total of 12412 Arab Indonesians, in 1900, total number of Arab population 27399,44902 in 1920, and 71335 in 1930. Arab Indonesians are almost all Muslim, according to the 2000 census,98.27 percent of Arab Indonesians are Muslim, historically, most have lived in so called kauman villages, in the areas around mosques, but this has changed in recent years
24.
Sufism
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Sufism or Taṣawwuf, which is often defined as Islamic mysticism, the inward dimension of Islam, or the phenomenon of mysticism within Islam, is a mystical trend in Islam characterized. These orders meet for sessions in meeting places known as zawiyas, khanqahs. They strive for ihsan as detailed in a hadith, Ihsan is to worship Allah as if you see Him, if you cant see Him, Rumi stated, The Sufi is hanging on to Muhammad, like Abu Bakr. Sufis regard Muhammad as al-Insān al-Kāmil, the perfect man who exemplifies the morality of God. The orders largely follow one of the four madhhabs of Sunni Islam, classical Sufis were characterized by their asceticism, especially by their attachment to dhikr, the practice of repeating the names of God, often performed after prayers. According to William Chittick, In a broad sense, Sufism can be described as the interiorization, historically, Muslims have used the Arabic word taṣawwuf to identify the practice of Sufis. In this view, it is necessary to be a Muslim to be a true Sufi. However, Islamic scholars themselves are not by any means in agreement about the meaning of the word sufi, Sufis themselves claim that Tasawwuf is an aspect of Islam similar to Sharia, inseparable from Islam and an integral part of Islamic belief and practice. Classical Sufi scholars have defined Tasawwuf as a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else, two origins of the word sufi have been suggested. Commonly, the root of the word is traced to ṣafā. Another origin is ṣūf, wool in Arabic, referring to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore, the two were combined by the Sufi al-Rudhabari, who said, The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity. Scholars generally agree that ṣūf or wool is probably the word of Sufi. This term was given to them because they wore woollen garments, the term labisal-suf meant he clad himself in wool and applied to a person who renounced the world and became an ascetic. Others have suggested that the word comes from the term ahl aṣ-ṣuffah and these men and women who sat at al-Masjid an-Nabawi are considered by some to be the first Sufis. Al-Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all other than ṣūf on linguistic grounds. Sufi orders are based on the bayah that was given to the Prophet Muhammad by his Sahaba, by pledging allegiance to the Prophet Muhammad, the Sahaba had committed themselves to the service of God. According to Islamic belief, by pledging allegiance to Prophet Muhammad and it is through the Prophet Muhammad that Sufis aim to learn about, understand and connect with God. Such a concept may be understood by the hadith, which Sufis regard to be authentic, in which Prophet Muhammad said, I am the city of knowledge, eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri refer to Ali as having a very high ranking in Tasawwuf
25.
Ahmadi
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Ahmadiyya is an Islamic religious movement founded in Punjab, British India, near the end of the 19th century. He claimed to have been appointed as the Mujaddid of Islam. The adherents of the Ahmadiyya movement are referred to as Ahmadi Muslims or simply Ahmadis, Ahmadiyya adherents believe that Ahmad appeared in the likeness of Jesus, to end religious wars, condemn bloodshed and reinstitute morality, justice, and peace. Thus, Ahmadis view themselves as leading the revival and peaceful propagation of Islam, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad founded the movement on 23 March 1889. The Ahmadis have a strong tradition and were among the earliest Muslim communities to arrive in Britain. Currently, the community is led by its Caliph, Mirza Masroor Ahmad, the population is almost entirely contained in the single, highly organized and united movement. In this sense there is one major branch. Some Ahmadiyya-specific beliefs have been thought of as opposed to contemporary mainstream Islamic thought since the movements birth, many Muslims consider Ahmadi Muslims as either kafirs or heretics. In a manifesto dated 4 November 1900, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad explained that the name did not refer to himself but to Ahmad, the alternative name of Muhammad. According to Ahmad, these names refer to two aspects or phases of Islam, and in later times it was the latter aspect that commanded greater attention. He also called it the Ahmadiyya madhab, And it is permissible that this also be referred to as ‘Muslims of the Aḥmadī way. Ahmadi beliefs are more aligned with the Sunni tradition, than they are with the Shia tradition, such as The Five Pillars of Islam and The Six articles of Islamic Faith. Likewise, Ahmadis accept the Quran as their text, face the Kaaba during prayer, practice the Sunnah. These are the central beliefs constituting Ahmadi Muslim thought, the distinguishing feature of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community is their belief in Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as the Promised Messiah and Mahdi, as prophesied by the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Through the proclamation of truth and by putting an end to conflicts, I should bring about peace. I am called upon to demonstrate spirituality which lies buried under egoistic darkness and it is for me to demonstrate by practice, and not by words alone, the Divine powers which penetrate into a human being and are manifested through prayer or attention. All this will be accomplished, not through my power, but through the power of the Almighty God, Who is the God of heaven and he believed that his message had special relevance for the Western world, which, he believed, had descended into materialism. The message which the founders of these religions brought was, therefore, essentially the same as that of Islam, the completion and consummation of the development of religion came about with the advent of Muhammad
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Shia Islam
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Shia is a branch of Islam which holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor. Shia Islam primarily contrasts with Sunni Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor, instead they consider Abu Bakr to be the correct Caliph. Adherents of Shia Islam are called Shias of Ali, Shias or the Shia as a collective or Shii individually, Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam, in 2009, Shia Muslims constituted 10–13% of the worlds Muslim population. Twelver Shia is the largest branch of Shia Islam, in 2012 it was estimated that perhaps 85 percent of Shias were Twelvers. Shia Islam is based on the Quran and the message of Muhammad attested in hadith, Shia consider Ali to have been divinely appointed as the successor to Muhammad, and as the first Imam. The word Shia means follower and is the form of the historic phrase shīʻatu ʻAlī, meaning followers of Ali, faction of Ali. Shia and Shiism are forms used in English, while Shiite or Shiite, as well as Shia, the term for the first time was used at the time of Muhammad. At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the community after Muhammad belongs to Ali, nawbakhti states that the term Shia refers to a group of Muslims that at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded Ali as the Imam and Caliph. Al-Shahrastani expresses that the term Shia refers to those who believe that Ali is designated as the Heir, Imam and caliph by Muhammad, for the Shia, this conviction is implicit in the Quran and history of Islam. And Allah is Hearing and Knowing, Shia search for the true meaning of the revelation to get the purpose of the life blood and the human destiny. Shia Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone and they believe God chose Ali to be Muhammads successor, infallible, the first caliph of Islam. The Shias believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by Gods command, Ali was Muhammads first cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammads daughter Fatimah. Ali would eventually become the fourth Muslim caliph, after the Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad ordered the gathering of Muslims at the pond of Khumm and it was there that Shia Muslims believe Muhammad nominated Ali to be his successor. The hadith of the pond of Khumm was narrated on 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah of 10 AH in the Islamic calendar at a place called Ghadir Khumm, located near the city of al-Juhfah, Saudi Arabia. Muhammad there stated, Shia Muslims believe this to be Muhammads appointment of Ali as his successor, when Muhammad died in 632 CE, Ali and Muhammads closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abu Bakr, Umar, Ali and his family accepted the appointment for the sake of unity in the early Muslim community. Alis rule over the early Muslim community was often contested, as a result, he had to struggle to maintain his power against the groups who betrayed him after giving allegiance to his succession, or those who wished to take his position. This dispute eventually led to the First Fitna, which was the first major civil war within the Islamic Caliphate, the Fitna began as a series of revolts fought against Ali ibn Abi Talib, caused by the assassination of his political predecessor, Uthman ibn Affan
27.
Indonesian National Armed Forces
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The Indonesian National Armed Forces, in 2016 comprises approximately 395,500 military personnel including the Army, Navy including the Indonesian Marine Corps, and the Air Force. The Indonesian Armed Forces was formed during the Indonesian National Revolution, under the 1945 Constitution, all citizens are legally entitled and obliged to defend the nation. Conscription is provided for by law, yet the Forces have been able to maintain mandated strength levels without resorting to a draft, most enlisted personnel are recruited in their own home regions and generally train and serve most of their time in units nearby. The Indonesian armed forces are voluntary, the available manpower fit for military service of males aged between 16 and 49 is 75,000,000, with a further 4,500,000 new suitable for service annually. Military spending in the budget was widely estimated 3% of GDP in 2005. Before the formation of the Indonesian Republic, the authority in the Dutch East Indies was held by the Royal Dutch East Indies Army. There were military training centres, military schools and academies in the Dutch East Indies, next to Dutch volunteers and European mercenaries, the KNIL also recruited indigenous, especially Ambonese, Kai Islanders, Timorese, and Minahasan people. Some of the soldiers that had enjoyed Dutch KNIL military academy education would later become important TNI officers. Indonesian nationalism and militarism started to gain momentum and support in World War II during the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, on 3 October 1943, the Japanese military formed the Indonesian volunteer army called PETA. The Japanese intended PETA to assist their forces oppose an invasion by the Allies. It also led to the formation of the Indonesian national armed force in 1945, the Indonesian armed forces have seen significant action since their establishment in 1945. Their first conflict was the 1945–1949 Indonesian National Revolution, in which the 1945 Battle of Surabaya was especially important. The decision to create a security corps and not an army, was taken to lessen the probability of the allied forces viewing it as an armed revolution and invading in full force. In January 1946, TRI was formed, in a step to professionalise the army. In June 1947 then, TRI changed its name to TNI which is a merger between the TRI with independent troopers paramilitary peoples struggle across Indonesia. From the 1950s to 1960s the Republic of Indonesia struggled to maintain its unity against local insurgencies, the TNI also helped bring the rebellion of Republic of South Maluku to a close in 1963. Meanwhile, the PRRI/Permesta rebellion holds a place in Indonesian military history because it was led by army officers in Sumatra. From 1961 to 1963, the TNI was involved in the campaign to incorporate Western New Guinea into Indonesia
28.
Wiranto
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Wiranto is a retired Indonesian army General. He was the Commander of the military of Indonesia from February 1998 to October 1999, on 27 July 2016 Wiranto was appointed to the position of Coordinating Minister for Political, Legal, and Security Affairs, replacing Luhut Binsar Panjaitan. Both the United Nations and domestic groups have gathered evidence on this, in January 2000, an Indonesian commission placed general responsibility for these injustices on Wiranto. Some claim that Wiranto played a key role as an influence during the turbulent times of 1998 when Suharto resigned. He had the power to military rule, but refused to do so. Taufik Darusman labeled him a military reformist because Wiranto reduced the role in Indonesian politics. He initiated the reduction of their seats in parliament and separated the police from the military, nonetheless, more than 2,000 East Timorese were killed in violence under his watch, as well as 500,000 forced into displacement. Wiranto was born on 4 April 1947 in Yogyakarta to RS Wirowijoto and he was the sixth out of nine children. Only one month old, Wiranto and his family moved from Yogyakarta to Boyolali near Surakarta for safety reasons as the Dutch were planning to launch an attack on Yogyakarta, at Surakarta, Wiranto completed his primary and secondary education. When he was a child, Wiranto dreamed of a military career, however, training to become an architect was not feasible financially, so Wiranto decided to join the National Military Academy. Wiranto graduated from AMN in 1968 and spent the part of his military career in North Sulawesi. There he worked his way up from being a Platoon Commander to a Battalion Commander in 1982, from there he worked in the ABRI Headquarters for two years before joining Kostrad in 1985 as a Brigade Chief of Staff in East Java. In 1987, he was transferred to Jakarta where became Deputy Operations Assistant to the Kostrad Chief of Staff, in 1989, his career had a major break when he was selected to become an aide-de-camp to President Suharto. The position of presidential aide-de-camp was a one in the New Order regime as it became a launching pad for officers to have successful military careers. By Wirantos own accounts,2 Army Commanders,3 Armed Services Chiefs of Staffs, in 1993, Wiranto became KODAM Jaya Chief of Staff and became commander of KODAM Jaya in 1994. Two years later, he became commander of Kostrad and in 1997, was appointed Army Chief of Staff, Wirantos appointment as Commander of ABRI in February 1998 came at a crucial time. Indonesia was suffering from the effects of the Asian Financial Crisis, nevertheless, Suharto was re-elected for a seventh term as president by the Peoples Consultative Assembly as the situation continued to deteriorate. In Suhartos new Cabinet, Wiranto was named as the Minister of Defense, as the situation worsened, Wiranto tried to calm the situation down through dialogue
29.
WikiLeaks
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WikiLeaks /ˈwɪkiliːks/ is an international non-profit organisation that publishes secret information, news leaks, and classified media from anonymous sources. Its website, initiated in 2006 in Iceland by the organisation Sunshine Press, Julian Assange, an Australian Internet activist, is generally described as its founder, editor-in-chief, and director. The group has released a number of significant documents that have become front-page news items, early releases included documentation of equipment expenditures and holdings in the Afghanistan war and a report informing a corruption investigation in Kenya. In July of the year, WikiLeaks released Afghan War Diary. In October 2010, the released a set of almost 400,000 documents called the Iraq War Logs in coordination with major commercial media organisations. In April 2011, WikiLeaks began publishing 779 secret files relating to prisoners detained in the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, in November 2010, WikiLeaks collaborated with major global media organisations to release U. S. State Department diplomatic cables in redacted format. During the 2016 U. S. presidential election campaign, WikiLeaks released emails and other documents from the Democratic National Committee and from Hillary Clintons campaign manager and these releases caused significant damage to the Clinton campaign and may have contributed to the Democratic Partys loss. The U. S. intelligence community expressed high confidence that the emails had been hacked by Russia and supplied to WikiLeaks. During the campaign, WikiLeaks promoted conspiracy theories about Clinton and the Democratic Party, WikiLeaks has also been criticised for inadequately curating its content and violating the personal privacy of individuals. WikiLeaks has, for instance, revealed Social Security numbers, medical information, credit card numbers, the wikileaks. org domain name was registered on 4 October 2006. The website was established and published its first document in December 2006, sarah Harrison, Kristinn Hrafnsson and Joseph Farrell are the only other publicly known and acknowledged associates of Assange. Harrison is also a member of Sunshine Press Productions along with Assange, WikiLeaks was originally established with a wiki communal publication method, which was terminated by May 2010. As of June 2009, the website had more than 1,200 registered volunteers, despite some popular confusion, WikiLeaks and Wikipedia are not affiliated. Wikia, a for-profit corporation affiliated loosely with the Wikimedia Foundation, according to the WikiLeaks website, its goal is to bring important news and information to the public. One of our most important activities is to publish original source material alongside our news stories so readers, another of the organisations goals is to ensure that journalists and whistleblowers are not prosecuted for emailing sensitive or classified documents. The online drop box is described by the WikiLeaks website as an innovative, secure and that is why in the US Constitution the Bill of Rights says that Congress is to make no such law abridging the freedom of the press. It is to take the rights of the press outside the rights of the law because those rights are superior to the law because in fact create the law. Every constitution, every bit of legislation is derived from the flow of information, similarly every government is elected as a result of people understanding things
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Sharia
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Sharia, Sharia law, or Islamic law is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran. In Arabic, the term refers to Gods divine law and is contrasted with fiqh. The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists, traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of sharia, the Quran, sunnah, qiyas, and ijma. Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two branches of law, ʿibādāt and muʿāmalāt, which together comprise a wide range of topics. Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories, mandatory, recommended, permitted, abhorred, thus, some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God’s will. Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists, ottoman rulers achieved additional control over the legal system by promulgating their own legal code and turning muftis into state employees. Non-Muslim communities had legal autonomy, except in cases of interconfessional disputes, in the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models. Judicial procedures and legal education in the Muslim world were brought in line with European practice. While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence. The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for full implementation of sharia, including reinstatement of hudud corporal punishments, in some cases, this resulted in traditionalist legal reform, while other countries witnessed juridical reinterpretation of sharia advocated by progressive reformers. The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world, attempts to impose it on non-Muslims have caused intercommunal violence in Nigeria and may have contributed to the breakup of Sudan. Some Muslim-minority countries in Asia, Africa and Europe recognize the use of sharia-based family laws for their Muslim populations, there are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and womens rights. The word sharīʿah is used by Arabic-speaking peoples of the Middle East to designate a prophetic religion in its totality, for example, sharīʿat Mūsā means law or religion of Moses and sharīʿatu-nā can mean our religion in reference to any monotheistic faith. Within Islamic discourse, šarīʿah refers to regulations governing the lives of Muslims. For many Muslims, the word means simply justice, and they will consider any law that promotes justice, Muslims of different perspectives agree in their respect for the abstract notion of sharia, but they differ in how they understand the practical implications of the term. Classical sharia, the body of rules and principles elaborated by Islamic jurists during the first centuries of Islam, historical sharia, the body of rules and interpretations developed throughout Islamic history, ranging from personal beliefs to state legislation and varying across an ideological spectrum. Classical sharia has often served as a point of reference for these variants, Contemporary sharia, the full spectrum of rules and interpretations that are developed and practiced at present
31.
Twitter
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Twitter is an online news and social networking service where users post and interact with messages, tweets, restricted to 140 characters. Registered users can post tweets, but those who are unregistered can only read them, users access Twitter through its website interface, SMS or a mobile device app. Twitter Inc. is based in San Francisco, California, United States, Twitter was created in March 2006 by Jack Dorsey, Noah Glass, Biz Stone, and Evan Williams and launched in July. The service rapidly gained worldwide popularity, in 2012, more than 100 million users posted 340 million tweets a day, and the service handled an average of 1.6 billion search queries per day. In 2013, it was one of the ten most-visited websites and has described as the SMS of the Internet. As of 2016, Twitter had more than 319 million monthly active users. On the day of the 2016 U. S. presidential election, Twitter proved to be the largest source of breaking news, Twitters origins lie in a daylong brainstorming session held by board members of the podcasting company Odeo. Jack Dorsey, then a student at New York University. The original project name for the service was twttr, an idea that Williams later ascribed to Noah Glass, inspired by Flickr. The developers initially considered 10958 as a code, but later changed it to 40404 for ease of use. Work on the project started on March 21,2006, when Dorsey published the first Twitter message at 9,50 PM Pacific Standard Time, Dorsey has explained the origin of the Twitter title. we came across the word twitter, and it was just perfect. The definition was a short burst of inconsequential information, and chirps from birds, and thats exactly what the product was. The first Twitter prototype, developed by Dorsey and contractor Florian Weber, was used as a service for Odeo employees. Williams fired Glass, who was silent about his part in Twitters startup until 2011, Twitter spun off into its own company in April 2007. Williams provided insight into the ambiguity that defined this early period in a 2013 interview, With Twitter and they called it a social network, they called it microblogging, but it was hard to define, because it didnt replace anything. There was this path of discovery with something like that, where over time you figure out what it is, Twitter actually changed from what we thought it was in the beginning, which we described as status updates and a social utility. It is that, in part, but the insight we eventually came to was Twitter was really more of an information network than it is a social network, the tipping point for Twitters popularity was the 2007 South by Southwest Interactive conference. During the event, Twitter usage increased from 20,000 tweets per day to 60,000, the Twitter people cleverly placed two 60-inch plasma screens in the conference hallways, exclusively streaming Twitter messages, remarked Newsweeks Steven Levy
32.
Liberalism
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Liberalism is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality. Liberalism first became a political movement during the Age of Enlightenment. Liberalism rejected the social and political norms of hereditary privilege, state religion, absolute monarchy. The 17th-century philosopher John Locke is often credited with founding liberalism as a philosophical tradition. Locke argued that man has a natural right to life, liberty and property. Liberals opposed traditional conservatism and sought to replace absolutism in government with representative democracy, prominent revolutionaries in the Glorious Revolution, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution used liberal philosophy to justify the armed overthrow of what they saw as tyrannical rule. Liberalism started to spread rapidly especially after the French Revolution, the 19th century saw liberal governments established in nations across Europe, South America, and North America. During the 20th century, liberal ideas spread even further as liberal democracies found themselves on the side in both world wars. In Europe and North America, the establishment of social liberalism became a key component in the expansion of the welfare state, today, liberal parties continue to wield power and influence throughout the world. Words such as liberal, liberty, libertarian, and libertine all trace their history to the Latin liber, which means free. One of the first recorded instances of the word occurs in 1375. The words early connection with the education of a medieval university soon gave way to a proliferation of different denotations and connotations. In 16th century England, liberal could have positive or negative attributes in referring to someones generosity or indiscretion, in Much Ado About Nothing, Shakespeare wrote of a liberal villaine who hath. confest his vile encounters. With the rise of the Enlightenment, the word acquired decisively more positive undertones, being defined as free from narrow prejudice in 1781, in 1815, the first use of the word liberalism appeared in English. In Spain, the Liberales, the first group to use the label in a political context. From 1820 to 1823, during the Trienio Liberal, King Ferdinand VII was compelled by the liberales to swear to uphold the Constitution, by the middle of the 19th century, liberal was used as a politicised term for parties and movements worldwide. Over time, the meaning of the word began to diverge in different parts of the world. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, In the United States, liberalism is associated with the policies of the New Deal programme of the Democratic administration of Pres
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Multiculturalism
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This can happen when a jurisdiction is created or expanded by amalgamating areas with two or more different cultures or through immigration from different jurisdictions around the world. Multiculturalism has been described as a bowl and cultural mosaic. Two different and seemingly inconsistent strategies have developed through different government policies and strategies, the first focuses on interaction and communication between different cultures, this approach is also often known as interculturalism. The second centers on diversity and cultural uniqueness which can result in intercultural competition over jobs among other things. Cultural isolation can protect the uniqueness of the culture of a nation or area. A common aspect of many policies following the approach is that they avoid presenting any specific ethnic, religious. Multiculturalism centers on the thought in political philosophy about the way to respond to cultural and it is closely associated with identity politics, the politics of difference, and the politics of recognition. It is also a matter of economic interests and political power, Multiculturalism can refer to a demographic fact, a particular set of philosophical ideas, or a specific orientation by government or institutions toward a diverse population. Most of the debate over multiculturalism centers around whether or not public multiculturalism is the way to deal with diversity. The term multiculturalism is most often used in reference to Western nation-states, the Canadian government has often been described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration. The Canadian Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism is often referred to as the origins of political awareness of multiculturalism. In the Western English-speaking countries, multiculturalism as an national policy started in Canada in 1971. It was quickly adopted as policy by most member-states of the European Union. Recently, right-of-center governments in several European states—notably the Netherlands and Denmark— have reversed the national policy, a similar reversal is the subject of debate in the United Kingdom, among others, due to evidence of incipient segregation and anxieties over home-grown terrorism. Many nation-states in Africa, Asia, and the Americas are culturally diverse, in some, communalism is a major political issue. The Australian government retains multiculturalism in policy, and as an aspect of Australia today. The White Australia Policy was quietly dismantled after World War II by various changes to immigration policy, the election of John Howards Liberal-National Coalition government in 1996 was a major watershed for Australian multiculturalism. Howard had long been a critic of multiculturalism, releasing his One Australia policy in the late 1980s, the first edition was published in 1999
34.
Pancasila (politics)
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Pancasila is the official philosophical foundation of the Indonesian state. Pancasila consists of two Old Javanese words, pañca meaning five, and sīla meaning principles and it comprises five principles held to be inseparable and interrelated, Belief in the absoluteness of God. Democracy guided by the wisdom in the unanimity arising out of deliberations amongst representatives. Social justice for all of the people of Indonesia, in 1945, facing the need to pull together the diverse archipelago, the future President Sukarno promulgated Pancasila as the philosophical foundation of the Indonesian state. Sukarnos political philosophy was mainly a fusion of elements of socialism, nationalism and monotheism, the fifth sila concerning religiosity was promoted to become the first sila. Internationalism, justice and humanity remain as parts of the second sila, the previously first sila about nationalism became the third sila about Indonesian unity. The third and fourth sila about democracy and social welfare become the fourth and fifth sila, Pancasila was thus intended to help solve the conflicting priorities among Muslims, nationalists and Christians. The 1945 Constitution of Indonesia then set forth Pancasila as the embodiment of basic principles of an independent Indonesian state, since its inception, Pancasila has been the subject of differences of opinion. One prime area of concerns the first of the five pillars. During the negotiations concerning this principle the nationalists were concerned that the formulation ought to promote religious freedom, the Muslims wanted a formulation where the religion of Indonesia is Islam. A historical anachronism is found in the Constitution, on 18 August 1945, the group that ratified the Constitution unanimously agreed that the term Allah should be replaced by Tuhan, a more general term which was supported by the Hindus. The word Ketuhanan and Allah is used in the preamble to the Constitution, but the term Allah appears in Article 9, there is an alternative presidential promise in the same article which does not mention God at all. The content of the philosophy has been interpreted by different philosophers. Pancasila has been an object of philosophical discourse since 1945 onwards, the Pancasila philosophers continually reinterpreted the content, so that its meaning varied from time to time. The following are chronological analyses of the content of philosophies of Pancasila, the first draft of Pancasila was formulated by Sukarno, delivered on 1 June 1945 before the Investigating Committee for the Preparation for Independence, without the word Indonesia. The second draft of Pancasila was formulated in the Jakarta Charter by the Committee of Nine, Sukarno accepted the suggestion of the other members of the committee to change the sequence of Pancasila. The fifth Sila of Sukarno become the first Sila of the Jakarta Charter, the first draft of the Pancasila philosophy was formulated by Sukarno on 1 June 1945. Ketuhanan, to him, was indigenous, while Kemanusiaan was inspired by the Hindu concept of Tat Twam Asi, the Islamic concept of fardhukifayah
35.
National Monument (Indonesia)
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The National Monument is a 132 m tower in the centre of Merdeka Square, Central Jakarta, symbolizing the fight for Indonesia. It is the monument of the Republic of Indonesia, built to commemorate the struggle for Indonesian independence. Construction began in 1961 under the direction of President Soekarno, Monas was opened to the public in 1975. It is topped by a covered with gold foil. The monument and the museum are open daily from 07.00 am until 12.00 am Western Indonesia Time throughout the week except for the last Monday of each month when the monument is closed. On 17 August 1954, a National Monument Committee was established, a repeat competition was held in 1960, but once again, none of the 136 entries met the criteria. The chairman of the team then asked Silaban to show his design to Sukarno. However, Sukarno did not like the design as he wanted the monument to be in the form of a linga and yoni. Silaban was asked to design such a monument, but his design was for a monument so large that it would have been given the economic conditions at the time. Silaban refused to design a monument, suggesting that construction be delayed until the Indonesian economy improved. Sukarno then asked the architect R. M, soedarsono to continue with the design. Soedarsono incorporated the numbers 17,8 and 45, representing the 17 August 1945 Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, the construction of Monas proceeded in three stages. The first period, from 1961/1962–1964/1965 began with the start of construction on 17 August 1961 with Sukarno ceremonially driving in the first concrete pile. A total of 284 piles were used for the foundation block, a further 360 piles were driven in for the museum foundations, with work being completed in March 1962. The walls of the museum in the base were completed by October, construction of the obelisk then commenced and was finished in August 1963. Work in the stage, from 1966 to 1968, was delayed by shortages of funding. In the final phase, from 1969–1976, the dioramas for the museum were added. Problems remained once construction was complete, and work was needed to solve problems with water leaking into the museum, Monas was officially opened to the public on 12 July 1975
36.
Christianity in Indonesia
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Christianity is Indonesias second-largest religion, after Islam. Indonesias 24 million Christians constitute 10% of the population, with 7% Protestant. Christianity, a minority religion in Indonesia, is not evenly spread throughout the archipelago, Indonesian provinces with a majority of the population self-identifying as Christian are Papua, West Papua, East Nusa Tenggara, and North Sulawesi. Among Indonesian provinces in 2010, Aceh reported the fifth smallest number of Christians or 0. 23% of Christians within Indonesia, Aceh had the second smallest percentage of Christians, effectively tying with Gorontalo for the smallest percentage of Catholics and including the third smallest percentage of Protestants. Sumatras northern-most province, Aceh, operates Sharia law and all regencies are 99%+ Muslim, with the exception of Aceh Singkil and Southeast Aceh. There are more than 100 churches, serving Southeast Acehs 20,000 Christians, but the government of Aceh Singkil permits only one church, among Indonesian provinces in 2010, North Sumatra reported the second highest number of Christians or 17. 2% of Christians within Indonesia. North Sumatra had the seventh highest percentage of Christians, including the sixth highest percentage of Protestants, among Indonesian provinces in 2010, South Sumatra reported the eleventh smallest number of Christians or 0. 49% of Christians within Indonesia. South Sumatra had the third smallest percentage of Christians, including the second smallest percentage of Protestants, West Sumatra province is another that is 99%+ Muslim in all areas, with the exception of the Mentawai Islands, whose 75,000 population is 80% Christian. The province of Riau has a population of 5.5 million, which is 10% Christian, mainly of Batak ethnicity, the remaining provinces of Sumatra, all consist of 2–3% Christians. Only Batam, which is 20% Christian, has more than around 5% Christians of the regencies outside Aceh, Riau and North Sumatra. Banten, Javas westernmost province has 3. 6% Christians out of 10 million people, who live almost entirely in Tangerang regency, Tangerang city, Jakarta has around 11% Christian population, of which 2/3 is Protestant and the remainder Catholic. Christians are distributed all over Jakarta, with the exception of the Thousand Islands, Christianity in Jakarta is linked to the Batak and Chinese population, and the most Christian district, Kelapa Gading is 35% Christian due to its large Chinese population. West Java province has only around 1 million Christians out of a population of 40 million and this population is concentrated in the cities of Bandung and Bekasi. The 32 million population of Central Java include 900,000 Christians and this population is again concentrated in cities, with Semarang 12% Christian, and Salatiga and Surakarta exceeding 20% Christians. The special region of Yogyakarta is overall around 7. 5% Christian, yogyakartas Christian population is around 2/3 Catholic. East Javas population of 37.5 million includes 900,000 Christians, the provinces of Java range from 5% Christian up to 12% in the capital, Jakarta. West Kalimantan province has 1.5 million Christians of its 4.4 million population, coastal regions of West Kalimantan have a Muslim majority, as well as significant Chinese Buddhist population, of up to 30%. Away from the coasts, there is overall a Christian majority, the 2.2 million population of Central Kalimantan includes 350,000 Protestants, and 60,000 Catholics
37.
Singkil
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Singkíl is a folk dance of the Maranao people of Lake Lanao based on the Indian epic of Ramayana, which was popularised by the Bayanihan Philippine National Folk Dance Company. The Singkíl originated from the Maranao people who inhabit the shores of Lake Lanao and it is derived from a story in the Darangen, the pre-Islamic Maranao interpretation of the ancient Hindu Indian epic, the Ramayana. The name of the dance itself means to entangle the feet with disturbing objects such as vines or anything in your path and it is a popular dance performed during celebrations and other festive entertainment. Originally only women, particularly royalty, danced the Singkíl, which serves as either a conscious or unconscious advertisement to potential suitors, a kulintang and agung ensemble always accompanies the dance. While often erroneously referred to by non-Maranaos as a Muslim dance, initially, the dance was performed with just one pair of bamboo poles, eventually adopting the use of two criss-crossing pairs. When the Bayanihan Dance Company began performing the Singkíl, the dance was adapted to convey Western aesthetics. The Bayanihan portrayal, branded as the Princess Dance or the Royal Maranao Fan Dance, a notable variation from the original is its inclusion of male dancers, as pole clappers and in the role of the Prince, Rajah Bantugan. Additional sets of criss-crossing bamboo poles were also added, further adaptation divided the dance into four movements, First movement- Asik, where the slave with umbrella is introduced. Second movement- entrance of Putri Gandingan, the entourage of female fan or scarf dancers, third movement- Patay, which is a slow section, and is a structural dance convention often found in Western performances. Fourth movement- the climax in which all dancers dance to the crescendo of music, the Bayanihan version attempts to blatantly exposit the story as per Western conventions, and re-tells the Darangen. The dance itself narrates a scene where Putri Gandingan escapes her abductor, the demon king Lawana, the modification of this detail possibly suggests acculturation, where the monistic, Hindu aspects of the narrative were edited to conform with the monotheistic beliefs of Islam. Performers would therefore gracefully step in and out of bamboo poles, some dance companies have even fused the Singkíl with ballet, or make use of multiple layers of overlapping bamboos. The Singkíl was performed in the 2001 American independent film The Debut, the movie was directed by Filipino American filmmaker Gene Cajayon and starred Dante Basco. The film captured the essence of Filipino traditions and the blending of these with modern American culture, tinikling, a similar Spanish-era Filipino folk dance using bamboo poles Hudhud, the Ifugao epic based on the Indian epic Mahabharta Hinduism in the Philippines
38.
Bekasi
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Bekasi is a city in West Java, Indonesia, located on the eastern border of Jakarta within the Jabodetabek metropolitan region, as such it serves as a dormitory and factory city for Jakarta. The borders for this city are Bekasi Regency at the north, Bogor Regency and Depok City at the south, at the west is East Jakarta, at the east is Bekasi Regency. It is Indonesias most populated incorporated city to Jakarta, and one of the most populated worldwide. The large number of companies, has apparently attracted a lot of expatriates to settle in Bekasi. It has an area of 210.49 square kilometres and had 2,663,011 people in 2014, the 2010 population was 2,378,211, making it Indonesias fourth largest city, and second in West Java only to Bandung. Many middle-up satellite cities have developed in Bekasi, complete with their own shopping malls, schools, club houses, water park. Substantial urban areas surround the city and it serves as a commuter city for Jakarta, although it has notable trade, business and processing industries. These are primarily clustered in the area of Cikarang, Bekasi is one of the oldest cities in Indonesia, and has a history of being the capital city of the Kingdom of Tarumanagara. At that time, the name of Bekasi was Dayeuh Sundasembawa, the earliest evidence of its existence dates from the 5th century according to the Tugu inscription. In recent years, many residences have developed along the Jatibening/Cikunir — Tambun toll highway and these include Harapan Indah, Summarecon Bekasi, Kemang Pratama, Grand Galaxy City, and Grand Wisata. There are several shopping centers in Bekasi, the largest is Grand Metropolitan with over 125,000 m² of floor space. Many hotels developed in Bekasi, such as Santika, Horison, Harris, Aston Imperial, Amaris, Amaroossa, Bekasi is connected by the Trans-Java Highway, the main road across Java. There are two connections from the Jabodetabek urban area. The first is the Jakarta–Cikampek Toll Road, which has four exits in Bekasi, the other is the Jakarta Outer Ring Road, which provides access to Tangerang, Jakarta, and Bogor. Owing to its location as a city of Jakarta, heavy rush hour traffic jams have become common on the roads between East Jakarta and Bekasi. Efforts have been made to overcome these problems, mainly by widening the roads between Sumber Arta and Bekasi Cyber Park along the Kalimalang river, the most recent traffic project is the constructing Becakayu toll road, which will be an alternate to the Jakarta-Cikampek Toll Road. Its route will be West Bekasi-Cawang-Kampung Melayu, commuter train KRL Jabotabek, serves from Bekasi to Jatinegara–Manggarai–Jakarta Kota vice versa. The government is constructing a double track railway connecting Manggarai to Cikarang
39.
Ahmadiyya
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Ahmadiyya is an Islamic religious movement founded in Punjab, British India, near the end of the 19th century. He claimed to have been appointed as the Mujaddid of Islam. The adherents of the Ahmadiyya movement are referred to as Ahmadi Muslims or simply Ahmadis, Ahmadiyya adherents believe that Ahmad appeared in the likeness of Jesus, to end religious wars, condemn bloodshed and reinstitute morality, justice, and peace. Thus, Ahmadis view themselves as leading the revival and peaceful propagation of Islam, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad founded the movement on 23 March 1889. The Ahmadis have a strong tradition and were among the earliest Muslim communities to arrive in Britain. Currently, the community is led by its Caliph, Mirza Masroor Ahmad, the population is almost entirely contained in the single, highly organized and united movement. In this sense there is one major branch. Some Ahmadiyya-specific beliefs have been thought of as opposed to contemporary mainstream Islamic thought since the movements birth, many Muslims consider Ahmadi Muslims as either kafirs or heretics. In a manifesto dated 4 November 1900, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad explained that the name did not refer to himself but to Ahmad, the alternative name of Muhammad. According to Ahmad, these names refer to two aspects or phases of Islam, and in later times it was the latter aspect that commanded greater attention. He also called it the Ahmadiyya madhab, And it is permissible that this also be referred to as ‘Muslims of the Aḥmadī way. Ahmadi beliefs are more aligned with the Sunni tradition, than they are with the Shia tradition, such as The Five Pillars of Islam and The Six articles of Islamic Faith. Likewise, Ahmadis accept the Quran as their text, face the Kaaba during prayer, practice the Sunnah. These are the central beliefs constituting Ahmadi Muslim thought, the distinguishing feature of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community is their belief in Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as the Promised Messiah and Mahdi, as prophesied by the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Through the proclamation of truth and by putting an end to conflicts, I should bring about peace. I am called upon to demonstrate spirituality which lies buried under egoistic darkness and it is for me to demonstrate by practice, and not by words alone, the Divine powers which penetrate into a human being and are manifested through prayer or attention. All this will be accomplished, not through my power, but through the power of the Almighty God, Who is the God of heaven and he believed that his message had special relevance for the Western world, which, he believed, had descended into materialism. The message which the founders of these religions brought was, therefore, essentially the same as that of Islam, the completion and consummation of the development of religion came about with the advent of Muhammad
40.
Bogor
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Bogor is a city in the West Java province, Indonesia. Located around 60 kilometers south from the capital of Jakarta, Bogor is the 6th largest city of Jabodetabek. Bogor is an important economic, scientific, cultural and tourist center, in the Middle Ages, the city served as the capital of Sunda Kingdom and was called Pakuan Pajajaran or Dayeuh Pakuan. During the Dutch colonial era, it was named Buitenzorg and served as the residence of the Governor-General of Dutch East Indies. With several hundred people living on an area of about 20 km2. The city has a palace and a botanical garden – one of the oldest and largest in the world. It bears the nickname the Rain City, because of frequent rain showers and it nearly always rains even during the dry season. The first mentioning of a settlement at present Bogor dates to the 5th century when the area was part of Tarumanagara and it was named Pakuan Pajajaran, that in old Sundanese means a place between the parallel, and became the predecessor of the modern Bogor. Over the next centuries, Pakuan Pajajaran become one of the largest cities in medieval Indonesia with population reaching 48,000. The name Pajajaran was then used for the kingdom. The chronicles of that time were written in Sanskrit, which was the used for official and religious purposes, using the Pallava writing system. The prasasti found in and around Bogor differ in shape and text style from other Indonesian prasasti and are among the attractions of the city. In the 9–15th centuries, the capital was moving between Pakuan and other cities of the kingdom, and finally returned to Pakuan by King Siliwangi on 3 June 1482 – the day of his coronation, since 1973, this date is celebrated in Bogor as an official city holiday. In 1579, Pakuan was captured and almost completely destroyed by the army of Sultanate of Banten, the city was abandoned and remained uninhabited for decades. The formal transition occurred on 17 April 1684 by signing an agreement between the Crown Prince of Banten and the VOC. The first, and temporal, colonial settlement at Pakuan was a camp of lieutenant Tanoejiwa, in a short time, several agricultural settlements appeared around Pakuan, the largest being Kampung Baru. In 1701, they were combined into a district, Tanoejiwa was chosen as the head of the district and is regarded as the founder of the modern Bogor Regency. The district was developed during the 1703 Dutch mission headed by the Inspector General of the VOC Abraham van Riebeeck
41.
East Lombok Regency
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East Lombok Regency is a regency of the Indonesian Province of West Nusa Tenggara. It is located on the island of Lombok and the capital is Selong, to the north lies the Java Sea. To the west is Central Lombok Regency, the north of the Regency is on the eastern flank of Mount Rinjani which at 3,726 m is the third highest mountain the second largest volcano in the country. The mountain is a volcano, the oldest recorded historical eruption was in 1847. The area of East Lombok Regency is 2,679.88 km², consisting of an area of 1,605.55 km ². Kabupaten Lombok Timur is one of Lomboks four Regencies or administrative regions, Governor of NTB, Drs. HM Sukiman AZMY, MM, Regent of Kabupaten Lombok Timur. East Lombok Regency consists of twenty districts, tabulated below with their populations at the 2010 Census, the majority of the population are Sasak people. In 2008 East Lombok Regency recorded a total of 1,068,486 residents,494,149 males and 574,337 females. In the 2010 Census, East Lombok Regency recorded 1,105,671 inhabitants,24. 7% being officially below Indonesian poverty level, the population of this regency are primarily Muslim, with few people of Balinese origin compared with West Lombok. The Sasak people are the people of Lombok and form the majority of East Lomboks residents. Islam is the religion of the majority of the population of East Lombok, other religions practised in East Lombok are Christianity, Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. Most people in east Lombok normally the Sasak language, bahasa Sasak is the native language of the indigenous people of Lombok. Bahasa Indonesian is the language most widely used in everyday interactions at places such as hotels, larger shops in the township of Praya, when at home or a place of recreation east Lombok residents tend to use local eastern Lombok dialects of the Sasak language. Rivers and catchment areas, Lombok Island has four main watersheds, menanga watershed, which is administratively in the territory of East Lombok, has been declared by the Governor of Nusa Teggara Barat to be a critical watershed by Decree No.122 in 2005. Lombok is faced with a water supply and management problem, caused by increasing forest and water table damage, land degradation. West Nusa Tenggara province as a whole is threatened with a crisis caused by increasing forest and water table damage. The region is agrarian in activity with rice, copra, casava, tobacco. Rainfall is lower in the south of the Regency and higher in the north as the land rises toward Mount Rinjani, Rinjani supplies a rainfall catchment area to the region and several into eastern Lombok rivers flow from its slopes
42.
Tasikmalaya
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Tasikmalaya is a city in West Java province, Indonesia. The city is dubbed the City of a Thousand Pesantrens for its abundance of Islamic boarding schools. Located around 120 kilometres southeast from the capital of Bandung. The city is located in the mountainous Preanger region of Java at an elevation of 351 metres, the population of the city was 635,464 according to the 2010 Census, the latest official is 719,528. Its built-up area made of Tasikmalaya City and 14 districts spread on Tasikmalaya, the population of the city Tasikmalaya according to the census in the year 2005 was 579.671 people, and in 2010 increased to 635.464. For the latest data population of the city increased to 719.528 people in 2015, the city of Tasikmalaya was the site of a widely reported riot in late December 1996. Four people were killed and several churches and dozens of mostly Chinese-owned businesses were destroyed in the violence and it was also fueled by frustration with allegedly corrupt local government officials. The event was among the earliest of many riots with religion-, on 5 April 1982, the volcano of Gunung Galunggung erupted about 24 km from the city, causing major damage through lahar and ash projection, and forcing a temporary evacuation of the area. On 2 September 2009 a magnitude 7 earthquake struck, destroying a number of buildings in the city, on 26 June 2010, a Magnitude 6.3 earthquake struck Tasikmalaya at 4, 45pm Waktu Indonesia Barat. No injuries or destroyed buildings reported caused by this earthquake On 20 May 2012, earthquake happened at 07, 37pm Waktu Indonesia Barat. No injuries or destroyed buildings reported, a toll road is planned to be built in 2018 connecting Tasikmalaya and Bandungs Ring Road 2. Wiriadinata Airport in Cibeureum nowadays is a airport, but is in the process of becoming a commercial airport too. It was predicted that its commercial permit will be issued before the end of March 2015, with 1,200 meters runway length, it can accommodate CN295 airplanes with 95 passengers. Mumin Ainul Mubarak Rhoma Irama Susi Susanti
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