1.
Kingdom of Italy
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The state was founded as a result of the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which can be considered its legal predecessor state. Italy declared war on Austria in alliance with Prussia in 1866, Italian troops entered Rome in 1870, ending more than one thousand years of Papal temporal power. Italy entered into a Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882, victory in the war gave Italy a permanent seat in the Council of the League of Nations. Fascist Italy is the era of National Fascist Party rule from 1922 to 1943 with Benito Mussolini as head of government, according to Payne, Fascist regime passed through several relatively distinct phases. The first phase was nominally a continuation of the parliamentary system, then came the second phase, the construction of the Fascist dictatorship proper from 1925 to 1929. The third phase, with activism, was 1929–34. The war itself was the phase with its disasters and defeats. Italy was allied with Nazi Germany in World War II until 1943 and it switched sides to the Allies after ousting Mussolini and shutting down the Fascist party in areas controlled by the Allied invaders. Shortly after the war, civil discontent led to the referendum of 1946 on whether Italy would remain a monarchy or become a republic. Italians decided to abandon the monarchy and form the Italian Republic, the Kingdom of Italy claimed all of the territory which is modern-day Italy. The development of the Kingdoms territory progressed under Italian re-unification until 1870, the state for a long period of time did not include Trieste or Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, which are in Italy today, and only annexed them in 1919. After the Second World War, the borders of present-day Italy were founded, the Kingdom of Italy was theoretically a constitutional monarchy. Executive power belonged to the monarch, as executed through appointed ministers, two chambers of parliament restricted the monarchs power—an appointive Senate and an elective Chamber of Deputies. The kingdoms constitution was the Statuto Albertino, the governing document of the Kingdom of Sardinia. In theory, ministers were responsible to the king. However, in practice, it was impossible for an Italian government to stay in office without the support of Parliament, members of the Chamber of Deputies were elected by plurality voting system elections in uninominal districts. A candidate needed the support of 50% of those voting, and of 25% of all enrolled voters, if not all seats were filled on the first ballot, a runoff was held shortly afterwards for the remaining vacancies. After a brief multinominal experimentation in 1882, proportional representation into large, regional, Socialists became the major party, but they were unable to form a government in a parliament split into three different factions, with Christian Populists and classical liberals
2.
Free State of Fiume
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The Free State of Fiume was an independent free state which existed between 1920 and 1924. Its territory of 28 km2 comprised the city of Fiume and rural areas to its north, with a corridor to its west connecting it to Italy. Fiume gained autonomy for the first time in 1719 when it was proclaimed a port of the Holy Roman Empire in a decree issued by the Emperor Charles VI. In 1776, during the reign of the Empress Maria Theresa, the city briefly lost its autonomy in 1848 after being occupied by the Croatian ban Josip Jelačić, but regained it in 1868 when it rejoined the Kingdom of Hungary, again as a corpus separatum. Until 1924, Fiume existed for practical purposes as an entity with elements of statehood. In the 19th century, the city was populated mostly by Italians, and as minorities by Croats and Hungarians, National affiliations changed from census to census, as at that time nationality was defined mostly by the language a person spoke. The special status of the city, being placed between different states, created an identity among the majority of the population. In the countryside outside the city, a kind of Croatian Chakavian dialect with many Italian and Venetian words was spoken. After the First World War and the demise of Austria-Hungary, the question of the status of Fiume became an international problem. At the height of the dispute between the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and the Kingdom of Italy, the Great Powers advocated the establishment of an independent buffer state. President Woodrow Wilson of the U. S. became the arbiter in the Yugoslav-Italian dispute over the city and he suggested that Fiume be set up as an independent state, and indeed as the potential home for the League of Nations organisation. The National Council over-stamped Austro-Hungarian notes – the Fiume Krone – were used as official currency and this confusing situation was exploited by the Italian poet Gabriele DAnnunzio, who entered the city on 12 September 1919 and began a 15-month period of occupation. A year later after failure of negotiations with the Italian government, with this act the eternal Free State of Fiume was created, which, it turned out, would exist as an independent state for about one year de facto, and four years de jure. The newly created state was recognized by the United States, France. DAnnunzio refused to acknowledge the Agreement and was expelled from the city by the forces of the Italian Army. In April 1921, the approved the plan for a free state. The first parliamentary elections were held, contested between the autonomists and the pro-Italian National Bloc, the leader of the Autonomist Party, Kari Campos, became the President. Control over the Free State was in an almost constant state of flux, following the departure of DAnnunzios troops in December 1920, the Italian National Council of Fiume re-assumed control and appointed a provisional government
3.
Rijeka
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Rijeka is the principal seaport and the third-largest city in Croatia. It is located on Kvarner Bay, an inlet of the Adriatic Sea and has a population of 128,624 inhabitants, the metropolitan area, which includes adjacent towns and municipalities, has a population of more than 240,000. According to the 2011 census data, the majority of its citizens are presently Croats, along with small numbers of Bosniaks, Italians. Rijeka is the city of Primorje-Gorski Kotar County. The citys economy depends on shipbuilding and maritime transport. Rijeka hosts the Croatian National Theatre Ivan pl. Zajc, first built in 1765, as well as the University of Rijeka, founded in 1973, historically Fiumano served as a lingua franca for the many ethnicities inhabiting the multicultural port-town. In 2016, Rijeka was selected as the European Capital of Culture for 2020, alongside Galway, historically, Rijeka was also called Tharsatica, Vitopolis, or Flumen in Latin. The city is called Rijeka in Croatian, Reka in Slovene and it is called Fiume in Italian. All these names mean river in their respective languages, meanwhile, Hungarian has adopted the Italian name while in German the city has been called Sankt Veit am Flaum or Pflaum. The Bay of Rijeka, which is bordered by Vela Vrata, Srednja Vrata, the City of Rijeka lies at the mouth of river Rječina and in the Vinodol micro-region of the Croatian coast. Two important land transport routes start in Rijeka due to its location, the first route is to the Pannonian Basin given that Rijeka is located alongside the narrowest point of the Dinaric Alps. The other route, across Postojna Gate connects Rijeka with Slovenia, Italy, the city long retained its dual character. Pliny mentioned Tarsatica in his Natural History, in the time of Augustus, the Romans rebuilt Tharsatica as a municipium Flumen, situated on the right bank of small river Rječina. It became a city within the Roman Province of Dalmatia until the 6th century, after the 4th century Rijeka was rededicated to St. Vitus, the citys patron saint, as Terra Fluminis sancti Sancti Viti or in German Sankt Veit am Pflaum. From the 5th century onwards, the town was ruled successively by the Ostrogoths, the Byzantines, the Lombards, Croats settled the city starting in the 7th century giving it the Croatian name, Rika svetoga Vida. At the time, Rijeka was a feudal stronghold surrounded by a wall, at the center of the city, its highest point, was a fortress. In 799 Rijeka was attacked by the Frankish troops of Charlemagne and their Siege of Trsat was at first repulsed, during which the Frankish commander Duke Eric of Friuli was killed. However, the Frankish forces finally occupied and devastated the castle, while the Duchy of Croatia passed under the overlordship of the Carolingian Empire, from about 925, the town was part of the Kingdom of Croatia, from 1102 in personal union with Hungary
4.
Italian language
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By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages
5.
Authoritarianism
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Authoritarianism is a form of government characterized by strong central power and limited political freedoms. Individual freedoms are subordinate to the state and there is no constitutional accountability under an authoritarian regime, modern dictatorships use an authoritarian concept to form a government. Linz distinguished new forms of authoritarianism from personalistic dictatorships and totalitarian states, several subtypes of authoritarian regimes have been identified by Linz and others. Bureaucratic-military authoritarian regimes are those governed by a coalition of military officers, mark J. Linz also has identified three other subtypes of authoritarian regime, corporatist or organic-statistic, racial and ethnic democracy and post-totalitarian. Examples include the Soviet Eastern bloc states in the mid-1980s, authoritarian regimes are also sometimes subcategorized by whether they are personalistic or populist. Personalistic authoritarian regimes are characterized by arbitrary rule and authority exercised mainly through patronage networks and coercion rather than through institutitions, personalistic authoritarian regimes have been seen in post-colonial Africa. By contrast, populist authoritarian regimes are mobilizational regimes in which a strong, charismatic, examples include Argentina under Perón, Egypt under Nasser, and Venezuela under Chávez and Maduro. Authoritarianism is characterized by highly concentrated and centralized power maintained by political repression and it uses political parties and mass organizations to mobilize people around the goals of the regime. Adam Przeworski has theorized that authoritarian equilibrium rests mainly on lies, fear, authoritarian political systems may be weakened through inadequate performance to demands of the people. Because the legitimacy of the state is dependent on performance, authoritarian states that fail to adapt may collapse, authoritarianism is marked by indefinite political tenure of the ruler or ruling party or other authority. The transition from a system to a more democratic form of government is referred to as democratization. John Duckitt suggests a link between authoritarianism and collectivism, asserting that both stand in opposition to individualism, Duckitt writes that both authoritarianism and collectivism submerge individual rights and goals to group goals, expectations and conformities. Totalitarianism is a version of authoritarianism. Authoritarianism primarily differs from totalitarianism in that social and economic institutions exist that are not under governmental control, building on the work of Yale political scientist Juan Linz, Paul C. Concomitant role conceptions differentiate totalitarians from authoritarians, authoritarians view themselves as individual beings largely content to control, and often maintain, the status quo. The tyrant is less a person than a function to guide. Consequently, the utilisation of power for personal aggrandizement is more evident among authoritarians than totalitarians, lacking the binding appeal of ideology, authoritarians support their rule by a mixture of instilling fear and granting rewards to loyal collaborators, engendering a kleptocracy. Compared to totalitarianism, the state still maintains a certain distinction between state and society
6.
Republic
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It is a government where the head of state is not a monarch. Both modern and ancient republics vary widely in their ideology, composition, in the classical and medieval period of Europe, many states were fashioned on the Roman Republic, which referred to the governance of the city of Rome, between it having kings and emperors. The Italian medieval and Renaissance political tradition, today referred to as humanism, is sometimes considered to derive directly from Roman republicans such as Sallust. Republics were not equated with classical democracies such as Athens, but had a democratic aspect, Republics became more common in the Western world starting in the late 18th century, eventually displacing absolute monarchy as the most common form of government in Europe. In modern republics, the executive is legitimized both by a constitution and by popular suffrage, for instance, Article IV of the United States Constitution guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government. The term originates as the Latin translation of Greek word politeia, cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as res publica and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as republic. The term politeia can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime, and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. And also amongst classical Latin, the term republic can be used in a way to refer to any regime. In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments, in the late Middle Ages, writers, such as Giovanni Villani, began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. They used terms such as libertas populi, a free people, the terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states writers, most importantly Leonardo Bruni, adopted the Latin phrase res publica. While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term can quite literally be translated as public matter. It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, in subsequent centuries, the English word commonwealth came to be used as a translation of res publica, and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term res publica. Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, likewise, in Polish, the term was translated as rzeczpospolita, although the translation is now only used with respect to Poland. Presently, the term republic commonly means a system of government which derives its power from the rather than from another basis. After the classical period, during the Middle Ages, many cities developed again. The modern type of itself is different from any type of state found in the classical world. Nevertheless, there are a number of states of the era that are today still called republics
7.
Gabriele D'Annunzio
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General Gabriele DAnnunzio, Prince of Montenevoso, Duke of Gallese OMS CMG MVM, sometimes spelled dAnnunzio, was an Italian writer, poet, journalist, playwright and soldier during World War I. He occupied a prominent place in Italian literature from 1889 to 1910 and he was often referred to under the epithets Il Vate or Il Profeta. DAnnunzio was associated with the Decadent movement in his literary works, such works represented a turn against the naturalism of the preceding romantics and was both sensuous and mystical. He came under the influence of Friedrich Nietzsche which would find outlets in his literary and his affairs with several women, including Eleonora Duse and Luisa Casati, received public attention. During the First World War, perception of DAnnunzio in Italy transformed from literary figure into a war hero. He was associated with the elite Arditi storm troops of the Italian Army, as part of an Italian nationalist reaction against the Paris Peace Conference, he set up the short-lived Italian Regency of Carnaro in Fiume with himself as Duce. The constitution made music the fundamental principle of the state and was corporatist in nature, some of the ideas and aesthetics influenced Italian fascism and the style of Benito Mussolini. He was born in Pescara, Abruzzo, the son of a wealthy landowner and his father had originally been born plain Rapagnetta, but at the age of 13 had been adopted by a childless rich uncle Antonio dAnnunzio. Legend has it that he was initially baptized Gaetano and given the name of Gabriele later in childhood, however, there is wide documentation to disprove this story. His precocious talent was recognised early in life, and he was sent to school at the Liceo Cicognini in Prato, Tuscany. In 1881 DAnnunzio entered the University of Rome La Sapienza, where he became a member of literary groups, including Cronaca Bizantina and wrote articles. In those university years he started to promote Italian irredentism and he published Canto novo, Terra vergine, Lintermezzo di rime, Il libro delle vergini and the greater part of the short stories that were afterwards collected under the general title of San Pantaleone. Intermezzo di rime is the beginning of DAnnunzios second and characteristic manner and his conception of style was new, and he chose to express all the most subtle vibrations of voluptuous life. Meanwhile, the review of Angelo Sommaruga perished in the midst of scandal, some entered the teaching career and were lost to literature, others threw themselves into journalism. Gabriele DAnnunzio took this course, and joined the staff of the Tribuna. For this paper, under the pseudonym of Duca Minimo, he did some of his most brilliant work, DAnnunzios first novel Il piacere was followed in 1891 by Giovanni Episcopo, and in 1892 by Linnocente. These three novels made a profound impression, Linnocente, admirably translated into French by Georges Herelle, brought its author the notice and applause of foreign critics. DAnnunzios poetic work of period, in most respects his finest, is represented by Il Poema Paradisiaco, the Odi navali, a superb attempt at civic poetry
8.
Italian Regency of Carnaro
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The Italian Regency of Carnaro was a self-proclaimed state in the city of Fiume led by Gabriele dAnnunzio between 1919 and 1920. It is also known by its lyrical name Fiume Endevour, during World War I, Italy made a pact with the Allies, the Treaty of London, in which it was promised all of the Austrian Littoral, but not the city of Fiume. Gabriele DAnnunzio was angered by what he considered to be handing over of the city of Fiume and their march from Ronchi dei Legionari to Fiume became known as the Impresa di Fiume. On the same day, DAnnunzio announced that he had annexed the territory to the Kingdom of Italy and he was enthusiastically welcomed by the Italian population of Fiume. This move was opposed by the Italian government and DAnnunzio tried to resist pressure from Italy, the plotters sought to have Italy annex Fiume, but were denied. Instead, Italy initiated a blockade of Fiume while demanding that the plotters surrender, during his time in Fiume in September 1919, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti called the leaders of the Exploit advance-guard deserters. The name Carnaro was taken from the Golfo del Carnaro, where the city is located and it was temporarily expanded by DAnnunzio in order to include the island of Veglia. The only other State to recognize the Italian Regency of Carnaro was the Soviet Union, the Charter of Carnaro was a constitution that combined anarchist, proto-fascist and democratic republican ideas. DAnnunzio is often seen as a precursor of the ideals and techniques of Italian fascism, de Ambris provided the legal and political framework, to which DAnnunzio added his skills as a poet. The legislative power vested in a legislature consisting of a Council of the Optimates. Joint sessions of the Councils, would be responsible for treaties with foreign powers, amendments to the constitution, the charter designated music to be one of the fundamental principles of the Fiume State. The approval of the Treaty of Rapallo on 12 November 1920 turned Fiume into an independent state, DAnnunzio ignored the Treaty of Rapallo and declared war on Italy itself. On 24 December 1920 the Italian army and a bombardment by the Royal Italian Navy forced the Fiuman legionnaires to evacuate and surrender the city. The Free State of Fiume would officially last until 1924, when Fiume was eventually annexed to the Kingdom of Italy under the terms of the Treaty of Rome,1924, the administrative division was called the Province of Carnaro. STATI LIBERO di FIUME - FREE STATE of FIUME, archived from the original on 22 December 2012
9.
Interwar period
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There were numerous new nations in Eastern Europe, most of them small in size. The United States gained dominance in world finance, by the middle of the decade, prosperity was widespread, with the second half of the decade known, especially in Germany, as the Golden Twenties. The Roaring Twenties highlighted novel and highly social and cultural trends. These trends, made possible by sustained economic prosperity, were most visible in major cities like New York, Chicago, Paris, Berlin, the Jazz Age began and Art Deco peaked. For women, knee-length skirts and dresses became socially acceptable, as did bobbed hair with a marcel wave, the women who pioneered these trends were frequently referred to as flappers. Not all was new, “normalcy” returned to politics in the wake of hyper-emotional wartime passions in the United States, France, and Germany. The leftist revolutions in Finland, Poland, Germany, Austria, Hungary and Spain were defeated by conservatives, but succeeded in Russia, in Italy the fascists came to power under Mussolini after threatening a march on Rome. Most independent countries enacted womens suffrage in the era, including Canada in 1917, Britain in 1918. There were a few countries that held out until after the Second World War. If women could work in factories, it seemed both ungrateful and illogical to deny them a place in the polling booth. But the vote was more than simply a reward for war work. The Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and Greece did especially well, in advanced economies the prosperity reached middle class households and many in the working class. With radio, automobiles, telephones, and electric lighting and appliances, there was unprecedented industrial growth, accelerated consumer demand and aspirations, and significant changes in lifestyle and culture. The media began to focus on celebrities, especially sports heroes, major cities built large sports stadiums for the fans, in addition to palatial cinemas. The Great Depression was a worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. The depression originated in the United States, after a decline in lofty stock prices. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession
10.
Treaty of Rapallo (1920)
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The treaty was signed on 12 November 1920 in Rapallo, near Genoa, Italy. Tension between Italy and Yugoslavia arose at the end of World War I, when the Austro-Hungarian Empire dissolved and these territories had an ethnically mixed population, with Slovenes and Croats composing over the half of the population of the region. The pact was therefore nullified with the Treaty of Versailles under pressure of President Woodrow Wilson, the objective of the Treaty of Rapallo was to find a compromise following the void created by the non-application of the London pact of 1915. This part of the treaty was revoked in 1924, when Italy and Yugoslavia signed the Treaty of Rome, which gave Fiume to Italy, the treaty left a large number of Slovenes and Croats in Italy. According to author Paul N. Hehn, the treaty left half a million Slavs inside Italy while only a few hundred Italians in the fledgling Yugoslav state. Indeed, according to the 1910 Austrian census 480,000 South Slavs became citizens of the Kingdom of Italy, while around 15,000 Italians became citizens of the new Yugoslav state
11.
Corpus separatum (Fiume)
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Since Hungary proper was some 500 kilometres away, the city was initially annexed to the Habsburg Kingdom of Croatia, whose territory began east of the city walls. Croatia was ruled in union with Hungary since 1102. The citys position was comparable to those of the regna, as Trieste was considered to be a crown land of the Austrian hereditary lands. After the royal rescript of 23 April 1779, the stage was set for all the political confrontations that were to happen in Fiume for more than a century and a half. In a sense, it can be said that all history that followed was a footnote on how to interpret the two acts of 1776 and 1779. The act presented a precedent for the Hungarian constitutional praxis, since it was the first time that a part of the Holy Roman Empire was given to the Hungarian-Croatian kingdom. Therefore, since the Croatian and Hungarian estates had widely diverging interests with respect to Fiume, the Croatians refused to accept the Hungarian reading of the document - they denied that the City could have been excluded from the surrounding territory, that was already framed into a comitatus. During the Napoleonic Wars, the city was part of the Illyrian Provinces. In 1868, following the Compromise of 1867 which created Austria–Hungary, the settlement was defined as provisory. For a definitive settlement, an agreement from Hungary, Croatia, the administration of the Corpus separatum was settled with the Statute given on 17 April 1872 by the Hungarian Minister of the Interior. At the top of Fiume and its district there was the Governor appointed directly from the King after a proposal from the Hungarian Prime Minister, the Governor of Fiume was entitled to membership in the House of Magnates. The municipal self-rule was entrusted to a Rappresentanza of 56 members whose mandate lasted 6 years, the citizens had the right to elect their representative at the House of Representatives. From 1896 onwards the Hungarian Government reduced the scope of municipal autonomy that was ended by 1913
12.
Croatia
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Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a sovereign state between Central Europe, Southeast Europe, and the Mediterranean. Its capital city is Zagreb, which one of the countrys primary subdivisions. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres and has diverse, mostly continental, Croatias Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The countrys population is 4.28 million, most of whom are Croats, the Croats arrived in the area of present-day Croatia during the early part of the 7th century AD. They organised the state into two duchies by the 9th century, tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Petar Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the unrecognized State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which seceded from Austria-Hungary, a fascist Croatian puppet state backed by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany existed during World War II. After the war, Croatia became a member and a federal constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991 Croatia declared independence, which came wholly into effect on 8 October of the same year, the Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration. A unitary state, Croatia is a republic governed under a parliamentary system, the International Monetary Fund classified Croatia as an emerging and developing economy, and the World Bank identified it as a high-income economy. Croatia is a member of the European Union, United Nations, the Council of Europe, NATO, the World Trade Organization, the service sector dominates Croatias economy, followed by the industrial sector and agriculture. Tourism is a significant source of revenue during the summer, with Croatia ranked the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world, the state controls a part of the economy, with substantial government expenditure. The European Union is Croatias most important trading partner, since 2000, the Croatian government constantly invests in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors. Internal sources produce a significant portion of energy in Croatia, the rest is imported, the origin of the name is uncertain, but is thought to be a Gothic or Indo-Aryan term assigned to a Slavic tribe. The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym *xъrvatъ is of variable stem, the first attestation of the Latin term is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir from the year 852. The original is lost, and just a 1568 copy is preserved—leading to doubts over the authenticity of the claim, the oldest preserved stone inscription is the 9th-century Branimir Inscription, where Duke Branimir is styled as Dux Cruatorvm. The inscription is not believed to be dated accurately, but is likely to be from during the period of 879–892, the area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period
13.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
14.
Treaty of London (1915)
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London Pact, or more correctly, the Treaty of London,1915, was a secret pact between the Triple Entente and the Kingdom of Italy. The treaty was signed in London on 26 April 1915 by the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the French Third Republic, the Russian Empire, and its intent was to gain the alliance of Italy against its former allies, including German empire and Austro-Hungary. The main lure was promising large swaths of Austria-Hungary to the north of Italy, Italy promised to enter the war the next month. The Allies could easily outbid Austria-Hungary and thereby won a military alliance with 36 million Italians, the secret provisions were published by the Bolsheviks when they came to power in Russia in late 1917. The First World War was a development that forced Italy to decide whether to honour the alliance with Germany. For six months Italy remained neutral, saying that the Triple Alliance was only for defensive purposes, Italy took the initiative in entering the war in spring 1915, despite strong popular and elite sentiment in favor of neutrality. Italy was a large, poor country whose political system was chaotic, its finances were heavily strained, the Triple Alliance meant little either to Italians or Austrians – Vienna had declared war on Serbia without consulting Rome. Two men, Prime Minister Antonio Salandra and Foreign Minister Sidney Sonnino made all the decisions and they operated in secret, enlisting the king later on, but keeping military and political leaders entirely in the dark. They negotiated with both sides for the best deal, and got one from the Entente, which was willing to promise large slices of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, including the Tyrol. Russia vetoed giving Italy Dalmatia and Albania, Britain was willing to pay to get 36 million Italians as new allies who threatened the southern flank of Austria. When the Treaty of London became public in May 1915, there was an uproar from antiwar elements, Salandra resigned but no one could form a majority against him, and he returned to office. Most politicians, and indeed most Italians opposed the war, including most Catholics, reports from around Italy showed the people feared war, and cared little about territorial gains. Rural folk saw war is a disaster, like drought, famine or plague, businessmen were generally opposed, fearing heavy-handed government controls and taxes, and loss of foreign markets. Reversing the decision seemed impossible, for the Triple Alliance did not want Italy back, pro-war supporters mobbed the streets with tens of thousands of shouting by nationalists, Futurists, anti-clericals, and angry young men. Benito Mussolini, an important Socialist Party editor took a leadership role, apart from Russia this was the only far left party in Europe that opposed the war. The fervor for war represented a bitterly hostile reaction against politics as usual, and the failures, frustrations, according to the pact, Italy was to leave the Triple Alliance and join Triple Entente, Italy was to declare war against Germany and Austria-Hungary within a month. The entire Austrian Littoral, including the port of Trieste and the Cherso-Lussino archipelago, but without the island of Krk, northern Dalmatia, including Zara, Sebenico, and most of the Dalmatian islands, except Arbe and Brač. The districts of Vipava, Idrija and Ilirska Bistrica in the Austrian Duchy of Carniola, the townships of Pontebba and Malborghetto Valbruna in the Austrian Duchy of Carinthia
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Austrian Littoral
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The Austrian Littoral was established as a crown land of the Austrian Empire in 1849. It consisted of three regions, the Istria peninsula, Gorizia and Gradisca, and the city of Trieste. Throughout history, the region has frequently contested, with parts of it controlled at various times by the Republic of Venice, Austria-Hungary, Italy. The Kingdom of Italy annexed it after World War I according to the Treaty of London, after World War II, it was split between Italy, Slovenia, and Croatia. Trieste had strategic importance as Austria-Hungarys primary seaport and the coast of the Littoral was a resort destination, the region was a multi-national one, with Italians, Slovenes, Croats, Germans and Friulians being the main ethnic groups. In 1910, it had an area of 7,969 square kilometres, the territory of the medieval Patriarchate of Aquileia had gradually been conquered by the Republic of Venice until the early 15th century. In the east, the Habsburg archdukes of Austria, based on the March of Carniola they held from 1335, had gained suzerainty over Istrian Pazin in 1374 and the port of Trieste in 1382. They also purchased Duino and Rijeka on the northern Adriatic coast in 1474, in 1511 Emperor Maximilian I annexed the city of Gradisca from Venice. The Habsburgs however did little initially to consolidate or develop their holdings in the Littoral, incorporated into the Austrian Circle of the Holy Roman Empire, Görz, Trieste and Istria remained separately administered and retained their autonomy until into the 18th century. Emperor Charles VI increased the sea power of the Habsburg Monarchy by making peace with the Ottomans, in 1719, Trieste and Fiume were made free ports. In 1730, administration of the Littoral was unified under the Intendancy in Trieste, however, in 1775, Emperor Joseph II divided the administration of the two main ports, assigning Trieste as the port for the Austrian hereditary lands and Fiume for the Kingdom of Hungary. Shortly after, Trieste was merged with the Princely County of Gorizia, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Habsburg Monarchy gained Venetian lands in the Istrian Peninsula and the Quarnero Islands as part of the Treaty of Campo Formio of 1797. However, these territories and all of the new Austrian Empires Adriatic lands were soon lost to the French Empires puppet state, the 1809 Treaty of Schönbrunn then transferred the area to the Illyrian Provinces which were directly ruled by France. From 1816, the Littoral was a part of the Austrian Empires Kingdom of Illyria, in 1822, Fiume and Civil Croatia were separated from the territory and ceded to the Kingdom of Hungary. The Littoral was officially the Trieste Province, one of two provinces of the Kingdom, the other being Laibach and it was subdivided into four districts, Gorizia, Istria, Trieste, and Trieste city. In 1849, the Kingdom of Illyria was dissolved and the Littoral became a crown land with a governor in Trieste. It was formally divided into the Margravate of Istria and the Princely County of Gorizia, following the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, the Littoral fell within Italys newly expanded borders as part of the Julian March. After World War II, most of it was included in the Second Yugoslavia, today Croatia and Slovenia each hold portions of the territory and the city of Trieste remains under Italian rule
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Paris Peace Conference, 1919
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It took place in Paris during 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities. The main result was the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, which in section 231 laid the guilt for the war on the aggression of Germany and this provision proved humiliating for Germany and set the stage for the expensive reparations Germany was intended to pay. They met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, the conference opened on 18 January 1919. Key recommendations were folded into the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, the five major powers controlled the Conference. Amongst the Big Five, in practice Japan played a small role, the four met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which in turn were ratified by other attendees. The open meetings of all the approved the decisions made by the Big Four. The conference came to an end on 21 January 1920 with the inaugural General Assembly of the League of Nations, the main result was the Treaty of Versailles, with Germany, which in section 231 laid the guilt for the war on the aggression of Germany and her allies. This provision proved humiliating for Germany and set the stage for very high reparations Germany was supposed to pay, republican Germany was not invited to attend the conference at Versailles. Representatives of White Russia were present, a central issue of the Conference was the disposition of the overseas colonies of Germany. The British dominions wanted their reward for their sacrifice, Australia wanted New Guinea, New Zealand wanted Samoa, and South Africa wanted South West Africa. Wilson wanted the League of Nations to administer all the German colonies until such time as they were ready for independence, Lloyd George realized he needed to support his dominions, and he proposed a compromise that there be three types of mandates. Mandates for the Turkish provinces were one category, they would be divided up between Britain and France, Wilson and the others finally went along with the solution. The dominions received Class C Mandates to the colonies they wanted, Japan obtained mandates over German possessions north of the equator. Wilson wanted no mandates for the United States, his top advisor Colonel House was deeply involved in awarding the others, Wilson was especially offended by Australian demands. He and Hughes had some clashes, with the most famous being, Wilson, But after all. Hughes, I represent sixty thousand dead, prior to Wilsons arrival in Europe in December 1918, no American president had ever visited Europe while in office. High hopes and expectations were placed on him to deliver what he had promised for the post-war era, in doing so, Wilson ultimately began to lead the foreign policy of the United States toward interventionism, a move strongly resisted in some domestic circles. Once Wilson arrived, however, he found rivalries, and conflicting claims previously submerged and he worked mostly trying to sway the direction that the French and British delegations were taking towards Germany and its allies in Europe, as well as the former Ottoman lands in the Middle East
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Kingdom of Yugoslavia
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The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was a state in Southeast Europe and Central Europe, that existed during the interwar period and first half of World War II. It was formed in 1918 by the merger of the provisional State of Slovenes, Croats, the Kingdom of Montenegro had united with Serbia five days previously, while the regions of Kosovo, Vojvodina and Vardar Macedonia were parts of Serbia prior to the unification. For its first eleven years of existence, the Kingdom was officially called the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, the official name of the state was changed to Kingdom of Yugoslavia by King Alexander I on 3 October 1929. The state was ruled by the Serbian dynasty of Karađorđević, which ruled the Kingdom of Serbia under Peter I from 1903 onwards. Peter I became the first king of Yugoslavia until his death in 1921 and he was succeeded by his son Alexander I, who had been regent for his father. He was known as Alexander the Unifier and he renamed the kingdom Yugoslavia in 1929 and he was assassinated in Marseille by Vlado Chernozemski, a member of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization, during his visit to France in 1934. The crown passed to his then-still under-aged son Peter and his cousin Paul ruled as Prince regent until 1941, when Peter II would come of age. The royal family flew to London the same year, prior to the country being invaded by the Axis powers, in April 1941, the country was occupied and partitioned by the Axis powers. A royal government-in-exile, recognized by the United Kingdom and, later, in 1944, after pressure from the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, the King recognized the government of Democratic Federal Yugoslavia as the legitimate government. This was established on 2 November following the signing of the Treaty of Vis by Ivan Šubašić, Trumbić faced initial hostility from Serbian Prime Minister Nikola Pašić, who preferred an enlarged Serbia over a unified Yugoslav state. In 1916, the Serbian Parliament in exile decided on the creation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia at a meeting inside the Municipal Theatre of Corfu. The Kingdom was formed on 1 December 1918 under the name Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, on 1 December 1918, the new kingdom was proclaimed by Alexander Karađorđević, Prince-Regent for his father, Peter I of Serbia. The creation of the state was supported by pan-Slavists and Serbian nationalists, for the pan-Slavic movement, all of the South Slav people had united into a single state. For Serbian nationalists, the goal of uniting the majority of the Serb population across south-eastern Europe into one state was also achieved. Furthermore, as Serbia already had a government, military, and police force, the newly established Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes participated in the Paris Peace Conference with Trumbić as the countrys representative. Almost immediately, it ran into disputes with most of its neighbours, Slovenia was difficult to determine, since it had been an integral part of Austria for 400 years. The Vojvodina region was disputed with Hungary, Macedonia with Bulgaria, a plebiscite was also held in the Province of Carinthia, which opted to remain in Austria. Austrians had formed a majority in this region although numbers reflected that some Slovenes did vote for Carinthia to become part of Austria, the Dalmatian port city of Zadar and a few of the Dalmatian islands were given to Italy
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Battles of the Isonzo
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In April 1915, in the secret Treaty of London Italy was promised by Allies the territory of Austro-Hungarian Empire which were mainly inhabited by ethnic Slovenes. The Italian army wanted to penetrate in central Carniola, present-day Slovenia, Italian Field Marshal Luigi Cadorna, a staunch proponent of the frontal assault, had plans of breaking into the Slovenian plateau, taking Ljubljana and threatening Vienna. The area between the northernmost part of the Adriatic Sea and the sources of the river Soča thus became the scene of twelve successive battles. As a result, the Austro-Hungarians were forced to some of their forces from the Eastern Front. The corridor is known as the Ljubljana Gate. By the autumn of 1915 one mile had been won by Italian troops, Italian troops did not reach the port of Trieste, the Italian General Luigi Cadornas initial target, until after the Armistice. The Austrians had fortified the mountains ahead of the Italians entry into the war on 23 May 1915, Italian Chief of Staff Luigi Cadorna judged that Italian gains were most feasible at the coastal plain east of the lower end of the Soča. However he also believed that the Italian army could strike further north, not that he expected operations in the Isonzo sector to be easy. He was well aware that the river was prone to flooding –, in the south geographic peculiarities, including an array of ridges and valleys, also gave an advantage to the Austro-Hungarian defenders. Cumulative casualties of the battles of the Isonzo were enormous. Half of the entire Italian war casualty total – some 300,000 of 600,000 – were suffered along the Soča, Austro-Hungarian losses, while by no means as numerous were nevertheless high at around 200,000. With almost continuous combat in the area, the number of battles forming the Isonzo campaign is debatable. Some historians have assigned names to a couple of the Isonzo struggles, most notably at Kobarid in October 1917. Italian poet Giuseppe Ungarettis autobiographical poem, I Fiumi, was written about the Isonzo whilst he was stationed on the Front. Mark Helprins A Soldier of the Great War refers to parts of the Isonzo campaign The twelfth battle is the subject of the novel Caporetto by the Swedish author F. J. Nordstedt, Stockholm 1972. FirstWorldWar. Com The Battles of the Isonzo, 1915–17 FirstWorldWar. Com Battlefield Maps, the Foundation preserves, restores and presents the historical and cultural heritage of the First World War in the area of the Isonzo Front for the study, tourist and educational purposes. The Kobarid Museum Društvo Soška Fronta Pro Hereditate – extensive site Interactive map with the documentation with 360° Surround photography virtual tours Rapporto Ufficiale. 10 books - free access to the full texts )
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Royal Italian Army
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The Royal Italian Army was the army of the Kingdom of Italy from the unification of Italy in 1861 to the birth of the Italian Republic in 1946. In World War II the Royal Army fought first as part of the Axis, after the monarchy ended, the army changed its name to become the Italian Army. The Regio Esercito dates from the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy, on 4 May 1861, Manfredo Fanti signed the creation decree, by which the new army was to replace the previous Armata Sarda and the Army of the Two Sicilies. On 20 September 1870, the IV Corps captured Rome, which had remained under Papal control up until then, on 8 February 1885, a corps of fewer than 1,000 soldiers landed at Massaua, Eritrea, starting the creation of an Italian colonial empire. The Italian advance was halted by a defeat at the Battle of Adwa by Ethiopian forces. The following year, as part of the Italian collaboration with the pacification program after the revolt against the Turkish domination in Cyprus. On 14 July 1900, another force was constituted to suppress the Boxer Rebellion in China in defense of the European protectorates. On 3 October 1911, Italy invaded Libya as part of the Italo-Turkish War, the war against the Ottoman Empire ended with the signing of the First Treaty of Lausanne in Ouchy, near Lausanne, Switzerland. The Royal Italian Armys first experience with modern warfare was in World War I, the war was fought mostly on the Italian Front in Northern Italy, costing the Italian Army serious casualties, including some 700,000 dead. The Regio Esercito was one of the largest ground forces in World War II, many Italian divisions were reinforced by a MVSN Gruppo di Assalto of two battalions due to the small size of the divisions. In 1943, Italy surrendered and split into the Italian Social Republic, which fielded its own army, the Kingdom was ultimately replaced by the Italian Republic in 1946, and the Royal Army accordingly changed its name to become the Esercito Italiano
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Granatieri di Sardegna Mechanized Brigade
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The Granatieri di Sardegna Mechanized Brigade is a mechanized infantry brigade of the Italian Army, based mainly in Rome and central Italy. The brigade fields one of the oldest regiments of the Army and is one of the regiments of the Italian president. The name of the dates back to the Kingdom of Sardinia. After the ascension to the throne of Charles Albert of Sardinia on 27 April 1831 a major reform of the military of the Kingdom of Piedmont was undertaken, thus on 25 October 1831 the Guards Grenadiers Brigade was raised as one of 10 infantry brigades of the kingdom. The 1st Grenadiers Regiment was founded as Regiment of the Guards on 18 April 1659 by the Duke of Savoy Charles Emmanuel II as his personal bodyguard regiment during military campaigns, the regiment participated in the War of the Spanish Succession where it excelled during the Siege of Turin. During the War of the First Coalition the regiment fought in the Italian campaigns against the French Army of Italy under Napoleon Bonaparte, after France annexed the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1799 the royal family went into exile on Sardinia and the Regiment of the Guards was disbanded. The 2nd Hunters Regiment was founded on 13 July 1774 as Regiment of Sardinia on the eponymous island, after the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813 the royal family returned to Turin and the re-building of the Sardinian Army commenced in 1814. In 1814 the Regiment of the Guards was raised again as the Guards Regiment, while the Regiment of Sardinia moved to Turin, when the two regiments were combined in a single brigade in 1831 they became the first units in the order of precedence of the kingdom. The brigade participated in the First Italian War of Independence fighting in the battles of Santa Lucia, Goito, Pastrengo, during the Battle of Goito the Sardinian King Charles Albert rallied the Guards Grenadiers Brigade to his position with the words a me le guardie. Which became the motto of the brigades regiments, after the war on 20 April 1850 the brigade was renamed as Grenadier Brigade and its regiments were renamed as 1st and 2nd Grenadier Regiment. In 1855 the brigade provided two battalions for the Sardinian Expeditionary Corps in the Crimean War, during the Second Italian War of Independence the brigade was involved in a skirmish near Lonato del Garda in June 1859. Afterwards the brigade as part of the 1st Division of the Line under the V Army Corps entered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies to aid Giuseppe Garibaldi in his Expedition of the Thousand. The brigade fought at San Giuliano on 26 October 1860 and at Garigliano on 29 October 1860, finally the brigade participated in the siege of Gaeta. After Italy had been unified the brigade moved to Florence, the capital of the newly united Italy, during the Third Italian War of Independence in 1866 the brigade fought at the Battle of Custoza. Between 1871 and 1881 the brigade level had been abolished in the Italian Army, afterwards the brigade participated in the first four Battles of the Isonzo aimed at conquering the city of Gorizia. The brigade tried to capture the Sabotin hill near Gorizia and later fought at Oslavia, there the brigade defended Mount Cenigo- the last position between the Austrians and the Italian plains. A loss of the mountain would have let to the encirclement of the Italian Armies along the Isonzo front, on Mount Cenigo the Granatieri di Sardegna stubbornly held the position even after ammunition had been expended and the enemy had broken into the brigades line. Ultimately the defence of Mount Cenigo ensured that the Austrians had to abandon the offensive, after the Austrian offensive had been defeated the brigade returned to the Isonzo front and participated in the sixth, seventh, and eighth Battle of the Isonzo
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Italian irredentism
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As a result, Piedmont-Sardinia was pressured to concede Nice and Savoy to France in exchange for France accepting and sending troops to help the unification of Italy. The claims were extended later to the city of Fiume, Corsica, the island of Malta, the County of Nice, to avoid confusion and in line with convention, this article uses modern English place names throughout. However, most places have names in Italian. See List of Italian place names in Dalmatia, similar nationalistic ideas were common in Europe in the late 19th century. The term irredentism was successfully coined from the Italian word in many countries in the world, indeed, Pasquale Paoli, the hero of Corsica, was called the precursor of Italian irredentism by Niccolò Tommaseo because he was the first to promote Italian language and socio-culture in his island. During the 19th century the Italian irredentism fully developed the characteristic of defending the Italian language from other peoples languages, the liberation of Italia irredenta was perhaps the strongest motive for Italys entry into World War I, and the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 satisfied many irredentist claims. In the first case there were the Risorgimento claims on Trento, for example, while in the second there were the fascist claims on the Ionian Islands, Savoy, the irredentists sought to annex all those areas to the newly unified Italy. The areas targeted were Corsica, Dalmatia, Gorizia, the Ionian islands, Istria, Malta, County of Nice, Ticino, small parts of Grisons and of Valais, Trentino, Trieste and Fiume. The Italian nation-building process can be compared to similar movements in Germany, Hungary, Serbia, simultaneously, however, in many parts of 19th-century Europe, liberalism and nationalism were ideologies which were coming to the forefront of political culture. In Eastern Europe, where the Habsburg Empire had long asserted control over a variety of ethnic and cultural groups, the notion of a single united Italy was related to the aspirations of the majority populations. Irredentism grew in importance in Italy in the next years, benedetto Cairoli, then Prime Minister of Italy, treated the agitation with tolerance. It was, however, mainly superficial, as most Italians did not wish a dangerous policy against Austria, one consequence of irredentist ideas outside of Italy was an assassination plot organized against the Emperor Francis Joseph in Trieste in 1882, which was detected and foiled. Guglielmo Oberdan, a Triestine and thus Austrian citizen, was executed, when the irredentist movement became troublesome to Italy through the activity of Republicans and Socialists, it was subject to effective police control by Agostino Depretis. Irredentism faced a setback when the French occupation of Tunisia in 1881 started a crisis in French–Italian relations, the government entered into relations with Austria and Germany, which took shape with the formation of the Triple Alliance in 1882. According to the pact, Italy was to leave the Triple Alliance, furthermore, Italy was to declare war on Germany and Austria-Hungary within a month. The declaration of war was published on 23 May 1915. In exchange, Italy was to obtain various territorial gains at the end of the war, the outcome of the First World War and the consequent settlement of the Treaty of Saint-Germain met some Italian claims, including many of the aims of the Italia irredenta party. Italy gained Trieste, Gorizia, Istria and the city of Zara, dAnnunzio briefly annexed to this Regency of Carnaro even the Dalmatian islands of Krk and Rab, where there was a numerous Italian community
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Filippo Tommaso Marinetti
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Filippo Tommaso Emilio Marinetti was an Italian poet, editor, art theorist, and founder of the Futurist movement. He was associated with the utopian and Symbolists artistic and literary community Abbaye de Créteil between 1907 and 1908, Marinetti is best known as the author of the first Futurist Manifesto, which was written and published in 1909. Emilio Angelo Carlo Marinetti spent the first years of his life in Alexandria, Egypt, enrico was a lawyer from Piedmont, and his mother was the daughter of a literary professor from Milan. They had come to Egypt in 1865, at the invitation of Khedive Ismail Pasha and his love for literature developed during the school years. His mother was a reader of poetry, and introduced the young Marinetti to the Italian and European classics. At age seventeen he started his first school magazine, Papyrus and he first studied in Egypt then in Paris, obtaining a baccalauréat degree in 1894 at the Sorbonne, and in Italy, graduating in law at the University of Pavia in 1899. He decided not to be a lawyer but to develop a literary career and he experimented with every type of literature, signing everything Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. The Abbaye de Créteil was a community founded in the autumn of 1906 by the painter Albert Gleizes. The movement drew its inspiration from the Abbaye de Thélème, a creation by Rabelais in his novel Gargantua. It was closed down by its members early in 1908, Marinetti is known best as the author of the Futurist Manifesto, which he wrote in 1909. It was published in French on the front page of the most prestigious French daily newspaper, Le Figaro, in The Founding and Manifesto of Futurism, Marinetti declared that Art, in fact, can be nothing but violence, cruelty, and injustice. Georges Sorel, who influenced the political spectrum from anarchism to Fascism. Futurism had both anarchist and Fascist elements, Marinetti later became a supporter of Benito Mussolini. Marinetti, who admired speed, had a car accident outside Milan in 1908 when he veered into a ditch to avoid two cyclists. He referred to the accident in the Futurist Manifesto, the Marinetti who was helped out of the ditch was a new man, determined to end the pretense and decadence of the prevailing Liberty style. Together, he wrote, We will glorify war—the worlds only hygiene—militarism, patriotism, the gesture of freedom-bringers, beautiful ideas worth dying for. The Futurist Manifesto was read and debated all across Europe, in April, the opening night of his drama Le Roi bombance, written in 1905, was interrupted by loud, derisive whistling by the audience. And by Marinetti himself, who thus introduced another element of Futurism, Marinetti did, however, fight a duel with a critic he considered too harsh
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Desertion
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In military terminology, desertion is the abandonment of a duty or post without permission and is done with the intention of not returning. In contrast, unauthorized absence or absence without leave refers to a temporary absence, the United States Marine Corps, United States Navy, and United States Coast Guard generally refer to this as unauthorized absence or UA. Personnel are dropped from their unit rolls after thirty days and then listed as deserters, however, people who are away for more than thirty days but return voluntarily or indicate a credible intent to return may still be considered AWOL. Those who are away for fewer than thirty days but can credibly be shown to have no intent to return may nevertheless be tried for desertion, in rare occasions, they may be tried for treason if enough evidence is found. Missing movement is another term used to describe members of the armed forces fail to arrive at the appointed time to deploy with their assigned unit, ship. In the United States Armed Forces, this is a violation of the Article 87 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice, the offense is similar to absence without leave but may draw more severe punishment. Failure to repair consists of missing a formation or failing to appear at an assigned place and it is a lesser offense within article 86 of the UCMJ. In 2011, Vienna decided to honour Austrian Wehrmacht deserters, in 2014, on October, 24th a Memorial for the Victims of Nazi Military Justice was inaugurated on Viennas Ballhausplatz by Austrias President Heinz Fischer. The monument was created by German artist Olaf Nicolai and is located opposite the Presidents office, the inscription on top of the three step sculpture features a poem by Scottish poet Ian Hamilton Finlay with just two words, all alone. During WWI approximately 600 French soldiers were executed for desertion, during WWI, only 18 Germans who deserted in the First World War were executed. In contrast of the Germans who deserted the Wehrmacht,15,000 men were executed, in June 1988 the Initiative for the Creation of a Memorial to Deserters came to life in Ulm. A central idea was, Desertion is not reprehensible, war is, during WWI a total of 28 New Zealand soldiers were sentenced to death for desertion, of these, five were executed. These soldiers were pardoned in 2000 through the Pardon for Soldiers of the Great War Act. Those who deserted before reaching the front were imprisoned in what were claimed to be harsh conditions, the execution of soldiers for desertion is controversial, particularly considering the age of some of the soldiers and the potential of shell-shock. 270, dated August 16,1941, was issued by Joseph Stalin, the order required superiors to shoot deserters on the spot. Their family members were subjected to arrest,227, dated July 28,1942, directed that each Army must create blocking detachments which would shoot cowards and fleeing panicked troops at the rear. During World War II, the Soviets executed 158,000 soldiers for desertion, analyses of desertion rates argue that motivations were far less ideological than individual accounts claim. Desertion rates increased prior to announcements of upcoming operations, and were highest during the summer and winter, seasonal desertions were probably a response to the harsh weather conditions of the winter and immense field work required in the summer
24.
Ensign
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Ensign is the national flag flown on a vessel to indicate nationality. The ensign is the largest flag, generally flown at the stern of the ship, the naval ensign, used on warships, may be different from the civil ensign or the yacht ensign. Large versions of naval ensigns called battle ensigns are used when a warship goes into battle, the ensign differs from the jack which is flown from a jackstaff at the bow of a vessel. In its widest sense, an ensign is just a flag or other standard, the European military rank of ensign, once responsible for bearing a units standard derives from it. In contrast, the Arab rank of ensign, liwa, derives from the command of a unit or units with an ensign, not the carrier of such a units ensign, and is a general officer. In Arab armies, ensign is a title equivalent to a Western brigade. In nautical use, the ensign is flown on a ship or boat to indicate its appartenance, while this includes its nationality, it may well indicate more information rather than being the national flag itself. This is particularly common for commonwealth and European countries, ensigns are usually at the stern flagstaff when in port, and may be shifted to a gaff or mast amidships when the ship is under way, becoming known as a steaming ensign. Vexillologists distinguish three varieties of a national flag used as an ensign, A civil ensign is worn by merchant. In some countries the yacht ensign, used on boats or ships instead of merchant vessels. A state ensign or government ensign is worn by government vessels, a naval ensign is used by a countrys navy. Such ensigns are strictly regulated and indicate if the vessel is a warship, a merchant ship, several Commonwealth countries national flags had their origin in the ensigns of their original colonising power, the United Kingdom. Most notable of these flags are those of Australia, New Zealand. It is also likely that the original design from which the flag of the United States developed was strongly influenced by the British Red Ensign or the flag of the East India Company. With the creation of independent air forces and the growth in aviation in the first half of the 20th century. These may be divided into air force ensigns and civil air ensigns, in heraldry, an ensign is the ornament or sign, such as the crown, coronet, or mitre, borne above the charge or arms. Distinguishing mark Maritime flag Znamierowski, Alfred, the world encyclopedia of flags, The definitive guide to international flags, banners, standards and ensigns
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Italian Fascism
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Italian Fascism, also known simply as Fascism, is the original fascist ideology, as developed in Italy. According to Sternhell “most syndicalist leaders were among the founders of the Fascist movement, ” who, in years, gained key posts in Mussolini’s regime. ”Other historians argued that Fascism billed itself “not only as an alternative. This economic system intended to resolve conflict through collaboration between the classes. It was opposed to Marxist socialism because of its opposition to nationalism. It believed the success of Italian nationalism required respect for tradition, the National Fascist Party founded in 1921, declared that the party was to serve as a revolutionary militia placed at the service of the nation. It follows a policy based on three principles, order, discipline, hierarchy, Mussolini often referred to Fascist Italy during World War II as the proletarian nations that rise up against the plutocrats. It identifies modern Italy as the heir to the Roman Empire and Italy during the Renaissance, Italian Fascism historically sought to forge a strong Italian Empire as a Third Rome, identifying ancient Rome as the First Rome, and Renaissance-era Italy as the Second Rome. Italian Fascism has directly promoted imperialism, such as within the Doctrine of Fascism, ghostwritten by Giovanni Gentile on behalf of Mussolini, The Fascist state is a will to power, the Roman tradition is here a powerful force. According to the Doctrine of Fascism, an empire is not only a territorial or military or mercantile concept, but a spiritual and moral one. One can think of an empire, that is, a nation, Fascism sought the incorporation of claimed unredeemed territories to Italy. Mussolini identified Dalmatia as having strong Italian cultural roots for centuries via the Roman Empire, the Fascist regime imposed mandatory Italianization upon the German and South Slav populations living within Italys borders. This resulted in significant violence against South Slavs deemed to be resisting Italianization, the Fascist regime endorsed Albanian irredentism, directed against the predominantly Albanian-populated Kosovo and Epirus - particularly in Chameria inhabited by a substantial number of Albanians. The Fascist regime claimed the Ionian Islands as Italian territory, on the basis that the islands had belonged to the Venetian Republic from the mid-14th until the 18th century. To the west of Italy, the Fascists claimed that the territories of Corsica, Nice, as a result, Piedmont-Sardinia was pressured to concede Nice and Savoy to France in exchange for France accepting the unification of Italy. The Fascist regime produced literature on Corsica that presented evidence of the Italianità of the island, the Fascist regime produced literature on Nice that justified that Nice was an Italian land based on historic, ethnic, and linguistic grounds. The Fascists quoted Medieval Italian scholar Petrarch who said The border of Italy is the Var, to the north of Italy, the Fascist regime in the 1930s had designs on the largely Italian-populated region of Ticino and the Romansch-populated region of Graubünden in Switzerland. In November 1938, Mussolini declared to the Grand Fascist Council, the Fascist regime accused the Swiss government of oppressing the Romansch people in Graubünden. Mussolini argued that Romansch was an Italian dialect and thus Graubünden should be incorporated into Italy, Ticino was also claimed because the region had belonged to the Duchy of Milan from the mid-fourteenth century until 1515
26.
Kvarner Gulf
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The Kvarner Gulf, sometimes also Kvarner Bay, is a bay in the northern Adriatic Sea, located between the Istrian peninsula and the northern Croatian Littoral mainland. The bay is a part of Croatias internal waters, the largest islands within the Kvarner are Cres, Krk, Pag, Rab and Lošinj. The bay is notable for its depth, which allows for the city of Rijeka at its northernmost point to have a sea port that can accommodate Capesize ships
27.
Krk
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Krk is a Croatian island in the northern Adriatic Sea, located near Rijeka in the Bay of Kvarner and part of Primorje-Gorski Kotar County. For many years, Krk has been thought to be the largest Adriatic island, with an area of 405.78 km2, Krk is the most populous Adriatic island, with many towns and villages that contain a total of 19,383 inhabitants. Archeological finds show that the island has been inhabited without interruption since the Neolithic age although not much about the earliest people is known. In later periods, Greek and Latin sources refer to Κύριστα or Curicta as one of the Apsyrtidian or Electridian islands held by the Liburnians, the Liburnians called the island Curicum, which is assumed to be an illyrized name given the island by its original inhabitants. There are the remains of settlements near Draga Bašćanska and Bronze Age and Iron age earthworks near Malinska, Dobrinj, Vrbnik. Krk came under Roman rule once they defeated the Liburnians, the Town of Krk became a town with Italic law whose status evolved to give it the rights of a municipality. Nothing is known about the organizations of the town of Krk during this time. Near the present day Franciscan monastery, the remains of thermal baths have been found, the defensive walls of Roman Curicum were among the most secure of all the towns on the Eastern Adriatic fortified by the Romans. Not far from Krk in 49 BCE there was a sea battle between Caesar and Pompey, which was described impressively by the Roman writer Lucan in his work Pharsalia. When the Empire was divided, Krk came under the Eastern Roman Empire, the walls of the town of Krk could not withstand attacks by the Avars, but in contrast to Salona, Scardona and Aeona, life in Krk quickly returned to normal. The Croats penetrated into the town on several occasions and they retained many of the Roman names they found there and so it is said that Krk has a mosaic dialect. Following the Treaty of Aachen the entire island was ceded to the Byzantine Empire and was governed according to the norms of that Empire. During the reign of Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, Krk was known as Vekla, of which the Romanized variant, there are no extant documents showing when Krk became part of the Croatian state. It is known that from around 875 the Byzantine town paid the Croatian rulers 110 gold pieces a year to be able peacefully to keep their hold there, while the Croatian state was being established, Krk found itself on the Venetians route to the Mediterranean. The Venetians conquered the town for the first time in 1001, during the reign of Peter Krešimir IV the Croatian rulers regained their power, but the Venetians took Krk for the second time in 1118. When the Venetians conquered Krk for the time in 1118, the local noble family, the unknown Dujams, received Krk as part of a pact with Venice. When Dujam died in 1163, Venice allowed his sons to make their position hereditary, in a short time the Krk Counts became so strong that at one time from 1244 to 1260, Venice rescinded their authority. This failed to impede their rise however and they increased economic exploitation, but they also endeavoured to strengthen old traditions and rights with various statutes
28.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
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Anarchism
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Anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations, Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful. While anti-statism is central, anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of all relations, including, but not limited to. Anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a particular world view. Many types and traditions of anarchism exist, not all of which are mutually exclusive, Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have often divided into the categories of social. The term anarchism is a word composed from the word anarchy and the suffix -ism, themselves derived respectively from the Greek ἀναρχία, i. e. anarchy. The first known use of this word was in 1539, various factions within the French Revolution labelled opponents as anarchists although few shared many views of later anarchists. The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, on the other hand, some use libertarianism to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as libertarian anarchism. The earliest anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works of Taoist philosopher Laozi, zhuangzis philosophy has been described by various sources as anarchist. Zhuangzi wrote, A petty thief is put in jail, a great brigand becomes a ruler of a Nation. Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics, their contemporary Zeno of Citium, Jesus is sometimes considered the first anarchist in the Christian anarchist tradition. Georges Lechartier wrote that The true founder of anarchy was Jesus Christ, the first anarchist society was that of the apostles. This is exemplified when the glorification of the state is viewed as a form of sinful idolatry, the French renaissance political philosopher Étienne de La Boétie wrote in his most famous work the Discourse on Voluntary Servitude what some historians consider an important anarchist precedent. The radical Protestant Christian Gerrard Winstanley and his group the Diggers are cited by authors as proposing anarchist social measures in the 17th century in England. The term anarchist first entered the English language in 1642, during the English Civil War, as a term of abuse, used by Royalists against their Roundhead opponents. By the time of the French Revolution some, such as the Enragés, began to use the term positively, in opposition to Jacobin centralisation of power, by the turn of the 19th century, the English word anarchism had lost its initial negative connotation. Modern anarchism emerged from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment, as part of the political turmoil of the 1790s in the wake of the French Revolution, William Godwin developed the first expression of modern anarchist thought
30.
Fascism
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Fascism /ˈfæʃɪzəm/ is a form of radical authoritarian nationalism that came to prominence in early 20th-century Europe. The first fascist movements emerged in Italy during World War I, opposed to liberalism, Marxism, and anarchism, fascism is usually placed on the far-right within the traditional left–right spectrum. Fascists saw World War I as a revolution that brought changes to the nature of war, society, the state. The advent of war and the total mass mobilization of society had broken down the distinction between civilians and combatants. A military citizenship arose in which all citizens were involved with the military in some manner during the war, Fascism rejects assertions that violence is automatically negative in nature, and views political violence, war, and imperialism as means that can achieve national rejuvenation. Fascists advocate a mixed economy, with the goal of achieving autarky through protectionist and interventionist economic policies. Since the end of World War II in 1945, few parties have openly described themselves as fascist, the descriptions neo-fascist or post-fascist are sometimes applied more formally to describe parties of the far right with ideologies similar to, or rooted in, 20th century fascist movements. The Italian term fascismo is derived from fascio meaning a bundle of rods and this was the name given to political organizations in Italy known as fasci, groups similar to guilds or syndicates. According to Mussolinis own account, the Fascist Revolutionary Party was founded in Italy in 1915, in 1919, Mussolini founded the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento in Milan, which became the Partito Nazionale Fascista two years later. The symbolism of the fasces suggested strength through unity, a rod is easily broken. Similar symbols were developed by different fascist movements, for example, historians, political scientists, and other scholars have long debated the exact nature of fascism. Each interpretation of fascism is distinct, leaving many definitions too wide or narrow, according to many scholars, fascism—especially once in power—has historically attacked communism, conservatism and parliamentary liberalism, attracting support primarily from the far right. Roger Griffin describes fascism as a genus of political ideology whose mythic core in its various permutations is a form of populist ultranationalism. Griffin describes the ideology as having three components, the rebirth myth, populist ultra-nationalism and the myth of decadence. Fascism is a revolutionary, trans-class form of anti-liberal, and in the last analysis. Fascist Philosophies vary by application, but remain distinct by one theoretic commonality, all traditionally fall into the far-right sector of any political spectrum, catalyzed by afflicted class identities over conventional social inequities. John Lukacs, Hungarian-American historian and Holocaust survivor, argues there is no such thing as generic fascism. He claims that National Socialism and Communism are essentially manifestations of populism, Fascism was influenced by both left and right, conservative and anti-conservative, national and supranational, rational and anti-rational
31.
Alceste De Ambris
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Alceste De Ambris, was an Italian syndicalist, the brother of Amilcare De Ambris. De Ambris had a part to play in the agrarian strike actions of 1908. De Ambris was born in Licciana Nardi, province of Massa-Carrara and he engineered the split within the Milanese Syndical Union through his August 18,1914 public speech, when he took the side of interventionism and advocated Italys entry into World War I. With Gabriele DAnnunzio, he coauthored the Charter of Carnaro, a constitution for Fiume and he and DAnnunzio were asked by Fascist supporters to run in the elections of May 15,1921, but both refused. He continued attacking the regime through his writings and he died at Brive, France, in 1934. Il Dannunzianesimo dopo Fiume Short bio
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Music
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Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. The common elements of music are pitch, rhythm, dynamics, different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. The word derives from Greek μουσική, Ancient Greek and Indian philosophers defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. Common sayings such as the harmony of the spheres and it is music to my ears point to the notion that music is often ordered and pleasant to listen to. However, 20th-century composer John Cage thought that any sound can be music, saying, for example, There is no noise, the creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. There are many types of music, including music, traditional music, art music, music written for religious ceremonies. For example, it can be hard to draw the line between some early 1980s hard rock and heavy metal, within the arts, music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art or as an auditory art. People may make music as a hobby, like a teen playing cello in a youth orchestra, the word derives from Greek μουσική. According to the Online Etymological Dictionary, the music is derived from mid-13c. Musike, from Old French musique and directly from Latin musica the art of music and this is derived from the. Greek mousike of the Muses, from fem. of mousikos pertaining to the Muses, from Mousa Muse. In classical Greece, any art in which the Muses presided, Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace. With the advent of recording, records of popular songs. Some music lovers create mix tapes of their songs, which serve as a self-portrait. An environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved, amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure, and derive their income elsewhere. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings, There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians, in community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and community orchestras. However, there are many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings are popular in classical music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally taped live concerts are prized by music lovers
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Corporatism
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It is theoretically based on the interpretation of a community as an organic body. The term corporatism is based on the Latin root word corpus meaning body, in 1881, Pope Leo XIII commissioned theologians and social thinkers to study corporatism and provide a definition for it. Corporatism is related to the concept of structural functionalism. Corporate social interaction is common within kinship groups such as families, clans, in addition to humans, certain animal species like penguins exhibit strong corporate social organization. Corporatist types of community and social interaction are common to many ideologies, Corporatism may also refer to economic tripartism involving negotiations between business, labour, and state interest groups to establish economic policy. This is sometimes referred to as neo-corporatism and is associated with social democracy. Kinship-based corporatism emphasizing clan, ethnic, and family identification has been a phenomenon in Africa, Asia. Confucian societies based upon families and clans in East Asia and Southeast Asia have been considered types of corporatism, China has strong elements of clan corporatism in its society involving legal norms concerning family relations. Islamic societies often feature strong clans which form the basis for a community-based corporatist society, in Italy, various function-based groups and institutions were created, including universities, guilds for artisans and craftspeople, and other professional associations. Some Catholic corporatist states include Austria under the leadership of Federal Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, in response to the Roman Catholic corporatism of the 1890s, Protestant corporatism was developed, especially in Germany, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia. However, Protestant corporatism has been less successful in obtaining assistance from governments than its Roman Catholic counterpart. In social psychology and biology, researchers have found the presence of corporate social organization amongst animal species. Research has shown that penguins are known to reside in densely populated corporate breeding colonies, ancient Greece developed early concepts of corporatism. Aristotle in Politics also described society as being divided along natural classes and functional purposes that were priests, rulers, slaves, after the French Revolution, the existing absolutist corporatist system was abolished due to its endorsement of social hierarchy and special corporate privilege for the Roman Catholic Church. The new French government considered corporatisms emphasis on group rights as inconsistent with the promotion of individual rights. Subsequently corporatist systems and corporate privilege throughout Europe were abolished in response to the French Revolution, from 1789 to the 1850s, most supporters of corporatism were reactionaries. A number of reactionary corporatists favoured corporatism in order to end liberal capitalism, from the 1850s onward progressive corporatism developed in response to classical liberalism and Marxism. These corporatists supported providing group rights to members of the middle classes and this was in opposition to the Marxist conception of class conflict
34.
Dictator
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A dictator is a political leader who wields absolute power. A state ruled by a dictator is called a dictatorship, the word originated as the title of a magistrate in the Roman Republic appointed by the Senate to rule the republic in times of emergency. Like the term tyrant, and to a lesser degree autocrat, dictator came to be used almost exclusively as a term for oppressive, even abusive rule. The term dictator is comparable to – but not synonymous with – the ancient concept of a tyrant, initially tyrant, like dictator and they may hold left or right-wing views, or may be apolitical. Originally an emergency appointment in the Roman Republic, the term Dictator did not have the negative meaning it has now. A Dictator was a magistrate given sole power for a limited duration, at the end of the term, the Dictators power returned to normal Consular rule whereupon a dictator provided accountability, though not all dictators accepted a return to power sharing. Following Julius assassination, his heir Augustus was offered the title of dictator, later successions also denied the title of dictator, with the usage of the title soon diminishing among Roman rulers. As late as the half of the 19th Century, the term Dictator had occasional positive implications. For example, when creating an executive in Sicily during the Expedition of the Thousand in 1860. Shortly afterwards, during the 1863 January Uprising in Poland, Dictator was also the title of four leaders. Past that time, however, Dictator assumed a negative connotation. In popular usage, dictatorship is often associated with brutality and oppression, as a result, it is often also used as a term of abuse for political opponents. The term has come to be associated with megalomania. Many dictators create a cult of personality and have come to favor increasingly grandiloquent titles, in the movie The Great Dictator, Charlie Chaplin satirized not only Adolf Hitler but the institution of dictatorship itself. The association between the dictator and the military is a one, many dictators take great pains to emphasize their connections with the military. In other cases, the association is mere pretense, because of the negative associations, modern leaders very rarely use the term in their formal titles. The Dictatorial Government of Sicily was an executive government appointed by Giuseppe Garibaldi to rule Sicily. The government ended when Sicilys annexation into the Kingdom of Italy was ratified by plebiscite, Poland Józef Chłopicki was styled Dictator from 5 December 1830 – December 1830 and again in December 1830 –25 January 1831 Jan Tyssowski was Dictator from 24 February 1846 –2 March 1846
35.
Universal suffrage
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The concept of universal suffrage, also known as general suffrage or common suffrage, consists of the right to vote of all except a small number of adult citizens. As minors are excluded, the concept is frequently described as universal adult suffrage. Many countries make an exception for small numbers of adults that are considered incapable of voting. Other countries also exclude people convicted of crimes or people in jail. In some countries, including the United States, it is very difficult, in any case, where universal suffrage exists, the right to vote is not restricted by race, sex, belief, wealth, or social status. The term active suffrage is sometimes used for the right to vote, passive suffrage for the right to run for office, the equivalent term when talking about both genders would then be universal full suffrage, or full universal suffrage. Greece recognized full male suffrage in 1830 and France and Switzerland have continuously done so since the 1848 Revolution, the German Empire implemented full male suffrage in 1871. In 1893, the self-governing colony New Zealand became the first country in the world to grant active universal suffrage by giving women the right to vote and it did not grant universal full suffrage until 1919. In 1902 Australia become the first country to grant full suffrage for women, however, universal suffrage was not implemented, as aboriginals didnt get the right to vote until 1962. It also elected the worlds first female members of parliament the following year, in most countries, universal suffrage followed about a generation after universal male suffrage. Notable exceptions in Europe were France, where women could not vote until 1944, Greece and it is worth noting that countries that took a long time to adopt womens suffrage had previously often been pioneers in granting universal male suffrage. In the first modern democracies, governments restricted the vote to those with property and wealth, in some jurisdictions, other restrictions existed, such as requiring voters to practice a given religion. In all modern democracies, the number of people who could vote has increased progressively with time, in the 19th century in Europe, Great Britain and North America, there were movements advocating universal suffrage. The democratic movement of the late 19th century, unifying liberals and social democrats, particularly in northern Europe, used the slogan Equal, the concept of universal suffrage requires the right to vote to be granted to all its residents. All countries, however, do not allow certain categories of citizens to vote, saudi Arabia was the last major country that did not allow women to vote, but admitted women both to voting and candidacy in the 2015 municipal elections. France, under the 1793 Jacobin constitution, was the first major country to enact suffrage for all adult males, the Second French Republic did institute adult male suffrage after the revolution of 1848. In 1867, Germany enacted suffrage for all adult males, in the United States following the American Civil War, slaves were freed and granted rights of citizens, including suffrage for adult males. Several European nations that had enacted universal suffrage had their legal process, or their status as an independent nation, interrupted during
36.
Benito Mussolini
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Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was an Italian politician, journalist, and leader of the National Fascist Party, ruling the country as Prime Minister from 1922 to 1943. He ruled constitutionally until 1925, when he dropped all pretense of democracy, known as Il Duce, Mussolini was the founder of Italian Fascism. In 1912 Mussolini was the member of the National Directorate of the Italian Socialist Party. Mussolini was expelled from the PSI for withdrawing his support for the stance on neutrality in World War I. He served in the Royal Italian Army during the war until he was wounded and discharged in 1917, Mussolini denounced the PSI, his views now centering on nationalism instead of socialism, and later founded the fascist movement. Following the March on Rome in October 1922 he became the youngest Prime Minister in Italian history until the appointment of Matteo Renzi in February 2014, within five years he had established dictatorial authority by both legal and extraordinary means, aspiring to create a totalitarian state. Mussolini remained in power until he was deposed by King Victor Emmanuel III in 1943, a few months later, he became the leader of the Italian Social Republic, a German client regime in northern Italy, he held this post until his death in 1945. Mussolini had sought to delay a major war in Europe until at least 1942, however, Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, resulting in declarations of war by France and the United Kingdom and starting World War II. In the summer of 1941 Mussolini sent Italian forces to participate in the invasion of the Soviet Union, and war with the United States followed in December. On 24 July 1943, soon after the start of the Allied invasion of Italy, the Grand Council of Fascism voted against him, on 12 September 1943, Mussolini was rescued from prison in the Gran Sasso raid by German special forces. In late April 1945, with total defeat looming, Mussolini attempted to escape north and his body was then taken to Milan, where it was hung upside down at a service station for public viewing and to provide confirmation of his demise. Mussolini was born in Dovia di Predappio, a town in the province of Forlì in Romagna on 29 July 1883. During the Fascist era, Predappio was dubbed Duces town, pilgrims went to Predappio and Forlì, to see the birthplace of Mussolini. His father, Alessandro Mussolini, was a blacksmith and a Socialist, while his mother, Benito was the eldest of his parents three children. His siblings Arnaldo and Edvige followed, as a young boy, Mussolini would spend some time helping his father in his smithy. His fathers political outlook combined views of anarchist figures like Carlo Cafiero and Mikhail Bakunin, the military authoritarianism of Garibaldi, in 1902, at the anniversary of Garibaldis death, Benito Mussolini made a public speech in praise of the republican nationalist. The conflict between his parents about religion meant that, unlike most Italians, Mussolini was not baptized at birth, as a compromise with his mother, Mussolini was sent to a boarding school run by Salesian monks. After joining a new school, Mussolini achieved good grades, in 1902, Mussolini emigrated to Switzerland, partly to avoid military service
37.
Regia Marina
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The Royal Navy was the navy of the Kingdom of Italy from 1861 to 1946. In 1946, with the birth of the Italian Republic, the Royal Navy changed its name to Military Navy, the Regia Marina was established on 17 March 1861 following the proclamation of the formation of the Kingdom of Italy. These problems were compounded by the continuation of separate officer schools at Genoa and Naples and these innovations quickly made older warships obsolete. The new navys baptism of fire came on 20 July 1866 at the Battle of Lissa during the Third Italian War of Independence, the battle was fought against the Austrian Empire and occurred near the island of Vis in the Adriatic sea. The Italian fleet, commanded by Admiral Persano, mustered 12 ironclad and 17 wooden-hulled ships, though only one, in 1896 the corvette Magenta completed a circumnavigation of the world. The following year the Regia Marina conducted experiments with Guglielmo Marconi in the use of radio communications,1909 saw the first use of aircraft with the fleet. An Italian naval officer, Vittorio Cuniberti, was the first in 1903 to envision in an article the all-big gun battleship design. In 1911 and 1912, the Regia Marina was involved in the Italo-Turkish War against forces of the Ottoman Empire, in the Red Sea the Italian forces were vastly superior to those of the Ottomans who only possessed a squadron of gunboats there. These were destroyed while attempting to withdraw into the Mediterranean at the Battle of Kunfuda Bay, during the war, the Regia Marina spent its major efforts in the Adriatic Sea, fighting the Austro-Hungarian Navy. Considered a relatively minor part of the warfare of World War I. For most of the war the Italian and Austro-Hungarian navies each kept a relatively passive watch over their adversaries, the Italian fleet lost the pre-dreadnought battleship Benedetto Brin at Brindisi and the dreadnought Leonardo da Vinci at Taranto due to a magazine explosion. The battleship SMS Tegetthoff was handed over to Italy as a war prize in 1919, during the interwar years the Italian government set about modernizing the Regia Marina in a way that could enable it to reach dominance over the Mediterranean Sea. Italian naval construction was limited by the Washington Naval Conference, the 1922 treaty required a parity in naval forces between the Italian and French navies, with equality in total displacement in battleships and carriers. The treaty influenced the development of the Italian fleet over the years between the two world wars, much of these new naval units were responses to French naval constructions, as the Marine nationale was seen until the mid 1930s as the most likely enemy in a hypothetical conflict. In theory this would allow them to engage or break off at their own choosing, New guns were developed with longer ranges than their British counterparts of similar caliber. Speed was emphasized in their new construction, subsequently, newer Italian cruisers such as the Giovanni dalle Bande Nere were built with a newly designed and relatively thin armour. The armor of these vessels was 24 mm, as compared to 102 mm on their contemporaries and this would have a decisive role in a number of naval battles, including the Battle of Cape Spada. The modernization work on the four Great War era battleships turned into a significant reconstruction project, the ships guns were upgraded in main armament, going from 13 guns of 305mm diameter, to 10 guns of 320mm diameter
38.
Annexation
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Annexation is the political transition of land from the control of one entity to another. It is also the incorporation of unclaimed land into a states sovereignty, in international law it is the forcible transition of one states territory by another state or the legal process by which a city acquires land. Usually, it is implied that the territory and population being annexed is the smaller, more peripheral and it can also imply a certain measure of coercion, expansionism or unilateralism on the part of the stronger of the merging entities. Because of this, more positive euphemisms like political union/unification or reunification are sometimes seen in discourse, during World War II, the use of annexation deprived whole populations of the safeguards provided by international laws governing military occupations. The Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949 amplified the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 with respect to the question of the protection of civilians, the team cemented in a brass plaque on Halls Ledge and hoisted the Union Flag to stake the UKs claim. One example of a claimed annexation after World War II is the Kingdom of Norways southward expansion of the dependent territory Queen Maud Land. On most maps there had been an area between Queen Maud Lands borders of 1939 and the South Pole until June 12,2015 when Norway formally claimed to have annexed that area. The Antarctic Treaty, however, states, The treaty does not recognize, dispute, nor establish territorial sovereignty claims, within countries that are subdivided noncontiguously, annexation can also take place whereby a lower-tier subdivision can annex territory under the jurisdiction of a higher-tier subdivision. An example of this is in the United States, where incorporated cities, municipalities can also annex or be annexed by other municipalities, though this is less common in the United States. Laws governing the ability and the extent cities can expand in this fashion are defined by the individual states constitutions, annexation of neighbouring communities occurs in Canada. Irredentism List of national border changes since World War I Texas annexation Adam Roberts, transformative military occupation, applying the laws of war and human rights,100 The American Journal of International Law
39.
Treaty of Rome (1924)
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According to the treaty, Fiume and Sušak would share joint administration of the port facilities. Today these two towns are part of Rijeka in Croatia, following a period of Fiume existing under Gabrielle DAnnunzios Italian Regency of Carnaro, the Treaty of Rapallo from 1920 had created the independent Free State of Fiume. The Free State of Fiume was immediately recognized by other states, including the United States of America, France. The state survived only one year de facto and four years de jure, the joint administration of the port was never created. On April 24,1921, the first general elections for parliament elected President Riccardo Zanella, on March 3,1922, a movement directed by fascist deputy Francesco Giunta forced Zanella to resign. On September 17,1923, Gaetano Giardino, an Italian General, was sent by Benito Mussolini with the task of reinstating public order, in the meantime, negotiations started between Italy and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes to dissolve the Free State of Fiume. All parties ratified the agreement in Rome on February 22,1924 and it was registered in the League of Nations Treaty Series on April 7,1924. With the Treaty of Rome, parts of the Treaty of Rapallo were revoked, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes asserted her sovereignty over the delta of the Rječina River, including the seaport of Sušak and the northern part of Fiume County. Italy was given the city of Fiume and some surrounding land, the exact definition of the borders were the object of a joint commission, whose results were agreed upon on July 20,1925 in the Treaty of Nettuno
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Province of Carnaro
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The Province of Carnaro was a province of the Kingdom of Italy from 1924 to 1943, then under control of the Italian Social Republic and German Wehrmacht from 1943 to 1945. It took its name after the Gulf of Carnaro. The province was divided into 13 municipalities and in 1938 had an area of 1,121.29 km ² with a population of 109,018 inhabitants, dAnnunzios initiative was a personal one, however, and the Italian army evacuated the poets soldiers. With the Treaty of Rapallo Fiume and its surroundings, counting around 50,000 Italian-speakers and 13,000 Croatian-speakers, were declared a free city. Nationalist and fascists kept on pushing for an annexation of Fiume, after a staged coup in 1922. The province was created in 1924, with the Treaty of Rome. The new province was formed by the zone of the Free State, which became the district of Fiume. In 1928, districts were abolished and two other municipalities passed under the jurisdiction of Fiume, Matteria and Castelnuovo dIstria, amongst those arrested was Giovanni Palatucci, the Italian questore of Fiume, who saved the lives of thousands of Jews. He also created a Committee comprising both Italians and Slavic partisans, as well as Jews, as an attempt to safeguard the independence of Fiume once Germany would have been defeated and he was deported to Dachau and died there in 1945. Only in 1947, however, was the Italian Province of Fiume formally abolished in accordance with international law, nowadays, its former territory roughly corresponds to Primorje-Gorski Kotar County in Croatia. Amongst the municipalities with the highest percentage of Italian population was Laurana, followed by Volosoca, the majority of inhabitants of the municipalities besides the Italian presence, were ethnic Croats. An exception to this was Opatija, where there was no majority but were over-represented by Italians, Croats, and Slovenes. Abbazia, Apriano, Crissizza, Lipovizza, Pogliane, Preluca, Scherbici, Slatina, Vassania, Draga di Moschiena, Bersezio, Cala, Obers, Riva Mošćenička, Ruins, San Pietro, St. Antonio, Selza, Trebisca, Monte Maggiore, Valsantamarina. Laurana, Bacova, Cali, Cosuli, Dobrecchi, Draga Laurana, Giagnetici, Ica, Monte, Oprino, Carnaro of Saint Francis, Saint-Roch Ligani, Smarici, Tuliano, Visozze, Ucovazzi. Primano, Berdo San Giovanni, Bittigne di Sopra, Bittigne di Sotto, Ceglie, Mt Chilovi, castel Iablanizza, Cottésevo, Iasena of Bisterza, Terciane, Verbizza, Verbovo, Villa Podigraie, Zabice Castelvecchio di Sopra Zemon, Zemon di Sotto. Villa del Nevoso, Torrenova Bucovizza Large, Small Bucovizza, Caries, Cossese, Merecce, Poglie, Postegna, Postegnesca, Sarecce, Sarecizza Val Timavo, Sose, Tomigna, Topolza, Bisterza of Torrenova. Knežak, Baccia of Bisterza, Coritenza of Bisterza, Drescozze, Sagòria San Martin, San Giorgio, Sémbie, Taborgrande, Tabor Sémbie. Jelšane, Berdo of Elsane, Berze, Cracinanova, Dolegne of Elsane, Fabice, Lippa of Elsane, Passiaco, Ruppa, Sappiane, Sussa, clana, Isera, San Rocco, Scalnizza, Studena, Zidovje
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The Doctrine of Fascism
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The Doctrine of Fascism is an essay attributed to Benito Mussolini. In truth, the first part of the essay, entitled Idee Fondamentali was written by philosopher Giovanni Gentile, while only the part is the work of Mussolini himself. It was first published in the Enciclopedia Italiana of 1932, as the first section of an entry on Fascismo. The entire entry on Fascism spans pages 847–884 of the Enciclopedia Italiana, the Mussolini essay leads off the entry, FASCISMO - Movimento politico italiano creato da Benito Mussolini. The second section of the essay is titled, Dottrina Politica e sociale, the Mussolini entry starts on page 847 and ends on 851 with the credit line Benito Mussolini. All subsequent translations of The Doctrine of Fascism are from this work and we are free to believe that this is the century of authority, a century tending to the right, a Fascist century. If the 19th century was the century of the individual we are free to believe that this is the collective century, and therefore the century of the State. For if the century was a century of individualism it may be expected that this will be a century of collectivism. —Benito Mussolini, The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism, ” Jane Soames authorized translation, Hogarth Press, London,1933, against individualism, the Fascist conception is for the State, and it is for the individual in so far as he coincides with the State. It is opposed to classical Liberalism, Liberalism denied the State in the interests of the particular individual, Fascism reaffirms the State as the true reality of the individual. 1935 version Yet the Fascist State is unique, and an original creation and it is not reactionary, but revolutionary. Thus understood, Fascism is totalitarian, and the Fascist State—a synthesis and a unit inclusive of all values—interprets, develops, Fascism is therefore opposed to Socialism to which unity within the State is unknown, and which sees in history nothing but the class struggle. I therefore hope this assembly will accept the claims advanced by national syndicalism. Fascism the precise negation of that doctrine which formed the basis of the so-called Scientific or Marxian Socialism, after Socialism, Fascism attacks the whole complex of democratic ideologies and rejects them both in their theoretical premises and in their applications or practical manifestations. Fascism is definitely and absolutely opposed to the doctrines of liberalism, —Benito Mussolini,1935, The Doctrine of Fascism, Firenze, Vallecchi Editore. In view of the fact that private organisation of production is a function of national concern, State intervention in economic production arises only when private initiative is lacking or insufficient, or when the political interests of the State are involved. This intervention may take the form of control, assistance or direct management, —Benito Mussolini,1935, Fascism, Doctrine and Institutions, Rome, Ardita Publishers. It thus repudiates the doctrine of Pacifism – born of a renunciation of the struggle, war alone brings up to its helghast tension all human energy and puts the stamp of nobility upon the peoples who have courage to meet it
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Postage stamps and postal history of Fiume
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After World War I, the city of Fiume was claimed by both the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and Italy. While its status was unresolved, its system was operated by a variety of occupation forces. Between 17 November 1918 and 12 September 1919, the first postage stamps for Fiume were issued 1 December 1918. They were produced by overprinting “FIUME” on the stamps of Hungary. Both handstamping and printing presses were used, in January 1919, two postage due and a savings bank stamp were surcharged as well. These stamps—even the most common values—were extensively forged, serious collectors will require close examination of all stamps. January also saw the first appearance of an issue produced specifically for Fiume, the first printings were inscribed just “FIUME”, while in July they were redesigned with the inscription “POSTA FIUME”, along with other minor changes. Meanwhile, a set of 12 semi-postal stamps was issued 18 May, later in 1919 the higher values were surcharged with lower values, and the semi-postals were overprinted “Valore globale” for use as regular stamps. In January 1921, Italian troops put an end to rule. On 24 April 1921, the 1st constituent assembly overprinted the semi-postals of 1919 with “24 - IV - 1921”, the following year the 2nd assembly added a “1922” to the overprints. On 23 March,1923 a new issue put an end to the flurry of overprints. Its 12 values, inscribed “Posta di Fiume”, used four designs, a Venetian sailing ship, a Roman arch, St. Vitus, after the Treaty of Rome assigned Fiume to Italy, these stamps were overprinted “REGNO / D’ITALIA” and then “ANNESSIONE / ALL’ITALIA”. Subsequently Fiume used the stamps of Italy, stanley Gibbons Ltd, various catalogues Encyclopaedia of Postal Authorities Rossiter, Stuart & John Flower
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Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
44.
Wikisource
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Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
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Italian invasion of Albania
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The Italian invasion of Albania was a brief military campaign by the Kingdom of Italy against the Albanian Kingdom. The conflict was a result of the imperialist policies of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, Albania was rapidly overrun, its ruler, King Zog I, forced into exile, and the country made part of the Italian Empire as a separate kingdom in personal union with the Italian crown. Albania had long been of strategic importance to the Kingdom of Italy. Italian naval strategists coveted the port of Vlorë and the island of Sazan at the entrance to the Bay of Vlorë, in addition, Albania could provide Italy with a beachhead in the Balkans. Before World War I Italy and Austria-Hungary had been supportive to the creation of an independent Albanian state, at the outbreak of the war, Italy had seized the chance to occupy the southern half of Albania, to avoid it being captured by the Austro-Hungarians. That success did not last long, as Albanian resistance during the subsequent Vlora War and post-war domestic problems forced Italy to pull out in 1920, the desire to compensate for this failure would be one of Mussolinis major motives in invading Albania. Later, during the High Middle Ages, some areas had been influenced and owned by Italian powers, chiefly the Kingdom of Naples. The Italian Fascist regime legitimized its claim to Albania through studies proclaiming the racial affinity of Albanians and Italians, when Mussolini took power in Italy he turned with renewed interest to Albania. Italy began penetration of Albanias economy in 1925, when Albania agreed to allow Italy to exploit its mineral resources and that was followed by the First Treaty of Tirana in 1926 and the Second Treaty of Tirana in 1927, whereby Italy and Albania entered into a defensive alliance. Among other things the Albanian government and economy were subsidised by Italian loans, despite strong Italian influence, King Zog I refused to give in completely to Italian pressure. In 1931 he stood up openly to the Italians, refusing to renew the 1926 Treaty of Tirana, after Albania signed trade agreements with Yugoslavia and Greece in 1934, Mussolini made a failed attempt to intimidate the Albanians by sending a fleet of warships to Albania. As Nazi Germany annexed Austria and moved against Czechoslovakia, Italy saw itself becoming the member of the Pact of Steel. The imminent birth of an Albanian royal child meanwhile threatened to give Zog a lasting dynasty, after Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia without notifying Mussolini in advance, the Italian dictator decided to proceed with his own annexation of Albania. Italys King Victor Emmanuel III criticized the plan to take Albania as an unnecessary risk, Rome, however, delivered Tirana an ultimatum on March 25,1939, demanding that it consent to Italys occupation of Albania. Zog refused to accept money in exchange for allowing a full Italian takeover, the Albanian government tried to keep secret the news of the Italian ultimatum. While Radio Tirana persistently broadcast that nothing was happening, people became suspicious, on April 5 the kings son was born and the news was announced by cannons. People poured out into the streets alarmed, but the news of the newborn prince calmed them, people were suspicious that something else was going on, which led to an anti-Italian demonstration in Tirana the same day. On 6 April there were demonstrations in Albanias main cities
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