1.
Boris Kustodiev
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Boris Mikhaylovich Kustodiev was a Russian painter and stage designer. Boris Kustodiev was born in Astrakhan into the family of a professor of philosophy, history of literature and his father died young, and all financial and material burdens fell on his mothers shoulders. The Kustodiev family rented a wing in a rich merchants house. It was there that the boys first impressions were formed of the way of life of the merchant class. The artist later wrote, The whole tenor of the rich and it was like something out of an Ostrovsky play. The artist retained these childhood observations for years, recreating them later in oils, between 1893 and 1896, Boris studied in theological seminary and took private art lessons in Astrakhan from Pavel Vlasov, a pupil of Vasily Perov. Subsequently, from 1896 to 1903, he attended Ilya Repin’s studio at the Imperial Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg, concurrently, he took classes in sculpture under Dmitry Stelletsky and in etching under Vasiliy Mate. I have great hopes for Kustodiev, wrote Repin and he is a talented artist and a thoughtful and serious man with a deep love of art, he is making a careful study of nature. When Repin was commissioned to paint a canvas to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the State Council. The painting was extremely complex and involved a great deal of hard work, together with his teacher, the young artist made portrait studies for the painting, and then executed the right-hand side of the final work. Also at this time, Kustodiev made a series of portraits of contemporaries whom he felt to be his spiritual comrades and these included the artist Ivan Bilibin, Moldovtsev, and the engraver Mate. Working on these portraits considerably helped the artist, forcing him to make a study of his model. In 1903, he married Julia Proshinskaya and he visited France and Spain on a grant from the Imperial Academy of Arts in 1904. Also in 1904, he attended the studio of René Ménard in Paris. After that he traveled to Spain, then, in 1907, to Italy, and in 1909 he visited Austria and Germany, during these years he painted many portraits and genre pieces. However, no matter where Kustodiev happened to be – in sunny Seville or in the park at Versailles – he felt the pull of his motherland. After five months in France he returned to Russia, writing with evident joy to his friend Mate that he was once more in our blessed Russian land. The Russian Revolution of 1905, which shook the foundations of society and he contributed to the satirical journals Zhupel and Adskaya Pochta
2.
Konstantin Somov
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Konstantin Andreyevich Somov was a Russian artist associated with the Mir iskusstva. Born into a family of an art historian and Hermitage Museum curator Andrey Ivanovich Somov, he became interested in 18th-century art. Somov studied at the Imperial Academy of Arts under Ilya Repin from 1888 to 1897, while at the Academy, he befriended Alexandre Benois, who would introduce him to Sergei Diaghilev and Léon Bakst. When the three founded the World of Art, Somov liberally contributed to its periodicals, Somov was homosexual, like many of the World of Art members. Inspired by Watteau and Fragonard, he preferred to work with watercolours, for three years he worked upon his masterpiece, Lady in Blue, painted in the manner of 18th-century portraitists. During the 1910s, Somov executed a number of rococo harlequin scenes, many of his works were exhibited abroad, especially in Germany, where the first monograph on him was published in 1909. Following the Russian Revolution, he emigrated to the United States and he was buried at the Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Cemetery. On June 14,2007, Somovs landscape The Rainbow was sold at Christies for US$7.33 million, a record for a work at an auction of Russian art
3.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
4.
Mir iskusstva
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In fact, few Europeans outside Russia actually saw issues of the magazine itself. From 1909, several of the miriskusniki also participated in productions of Sergei Diaghilevs Ballets Russes company based in Paris, the artistic group was founded in November 1898 by a group of students that included Alexandre Benois, Konstantin Somov, Dmitry Filosofov, Léon Bakst, and Eugene Lansere. The starting moments for the new group was organization of the Exhibition of Russian. The magazine was co-founded in 1899 in St. Petersburg by Alexandre Benois, Léon Bakst and they aimed at assailing low artistic standards of the obsolescent Peredvizhniki school and promoting artistic individualism and other principles of Art Nouveau. Apart from three founding fathers, active members of the World of Art included Mstislav Dobuzhinsky, Eugene Lansere, exhibitions organized by the World of Art attracted many illustrious painters from Russia and abroad, notably Mikhail Vrubel, Mikhail Nesterov, and Isaac Levitan. Representative works In its classical period the art group organized six exhibitions,1899,1900,1901,1902,1903,1906, in 1904-1910, Mir iskusstva did not exist as a separate artistic group. Its place was inherited by the Union of Russian Artists which continued officially until 1910, the Union included painters, illustrators, restorators, and scenic designers. In 1910 Benois published an article in the magazine Rech about the Union of Russian Artists. Nicholas Roerich became the new chairman, the group admitted new members including Nathan Altman, Vladimir Tatlin, and Martiros Saryan. Some said that the inclusion of Russian avant-garde painters demonstrated that the group had become an organization rather than an art movement. In 1917 the chairman of the group became Ivan Bilibin, the same year most members of the Jack of Diamonds entered the group. The group organized numerous exhibitions,1911,1912,1913,1915,1916,1917,1918,1921,1922 Saint-Petersburg, the last exhibition of Mir iskusstva was organized in Paris in 1927. Some members of the group entered the Zhar-Tsvet and Four Arts artistic movements, like the Romantics before them, the miriskusniki promoted understanding and conservation of the art of previous epochs, particularly traditional folk art and the 18th-century rococo. Antoine Watteau was probably the single artist whom they admired the most, such Revivalist projects were treated by the miriskusniki humorously, in a spirit of self-parody. They were fascinated with masks and marionettes, with carnaval and puppet theater, with dreams, everything grotesque and playful appealed to them more than the serious and emotional. Their favorite city was Venice, so much so that Diaghilev, as for media, the miriskusniki preferred the light, airy effects of watercolor and gouache to full-scale oil paintings. Seeking to bring art into every house, they designed interiors. Bakst and Benois revolutionized theatrical design with their ground-breaking decor for Cléopâtre, Carnaval, Petrushka, potter, Michelle, ‘Mir iskusstva, Serge Diaghilev’s Art Journal’, in NLA News, July 2005, Volume XV, Number 10 Mir iskusstva Artists at the Russian Art Gallery
5.
Ballets Russes
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The Ballets Russes was an itinerant ballet company based in Paris that performed between 1909 and 1929 throughout Europe and on tours to North and South America. The company never performed in Russia, where the Revolution disrupted society, after its initial Paris season, the company had no formal ties there. It also introduced European and American audiences to tales, music, the influence of the Ballets Russes lasts to the present day. The French plural form of the name, “Ballets Russes, ” specifically refers to the company founded by Sergei Diaghilev and active during his lifetime. ”To add to the confusion, some publicity material spelt the name in the singular. The names “Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo” and “The Original Ballet Russe” refer to companies that formed after Diaghilevs death in 1929, Sergei Diaghilev, the companys impresario, was chiefly responsible for its success. He was uniquely prepared for the role, born into a wealthy Russian family of vodka distillers, he was accustomed to moving in the upper-class circles that provided the companys patrons and benefactors. In 1890 he enrolled at the Faculty of Law, St. Petersburg, from childhood, Diaghilev had been passionately interested in music. His ambition to become a composer was dashed when Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov told him he had no talent, in 1898, several members of The Pickwickians founded the journal Mir iskusstva under the editorship of Diaghilev. As early as 1902, Mir iskusstva included reviews of concerts, operas, the latter were chiefly written by Alexandre Benois, who exerted considerable influence on Diaghilevs thinking. Mir iskusstva also sponsored exhibitions of Russian art in St. Petersburg and its enormous success created a Parisian fascination with all things Russian. Diaghilev organized a 1907 season of Russian music at the Paris Opéra, in 1908, Diaghilev returned to the Paris Opéra with six performances of Mussorgskys opera Boris Godunov, starring basso Fyodor Chaliapin. The performances were a sensation, though the costs of producing grand opera were crippling, in 1909, Diaghilev presented his first Paris Saison Russe devoted exclusively to ballet. Most of this company were resident performers at the Imperial Ballet of Saint Petersburg. The first seasons featured a variety of works chiefly choreographed by Michel Fokine, including Le Pavillon dArmide, the Polovtsian Dances from Prince Igor, Les Sylphides. The season also included Le Festin, a set by several choreographers to music by several Russian composers. The Ballets Russes was noted for the standard of its dancers, most of whom had been classically trained at the great Imperial schools in Moscow. Their high technical standards contributed a great deal to the success in Paris. The Ballets Russes was even more remarkable for raising the status of the dancer, largely ignored by choreographers
6.
Historical Slavic religion
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Slavic mythology is the mythological aspect of the polytheistic religion that was practised by the Slavs before Christianisation. Unlike ancient Greek, Hindu, Chinese or Egyptian mythology, there are no records for the study of Slavic mythology. It has not been proven that the Slavs had any sort of writing system before the arrival of Saints Cyril, fragments of old mythological beliefs and pagan festivals survive up to this day in folk customs, songs, stories and folk-tales of all the Slavic nations. Although Herodotus is himself not convinced by this rumour, he stresses that he has heard some swear it, the identification of Neuri with Proto-Slavs remains controversial, however. According to Procopius, these Slavs worshipped a single deity, who crafted lightning, though not named explicitly, it can be deduced this is a reference to the deity known as Perun in later historic sources, as in many Slavic languages today. Perun simply means thunder or lightning bolt and he also mentions the belief in various demons and nymphs, but does not mention any other names. The Slavic Primary Chronicle is a work with many valuable references to the pagan beliefs of Eastern Slavs. The chronicle treats the history of the early Eastern Slavic state, even though the manuscript was compiled at the beginning of the 12th century, it contains references to and copies of older documents, and describes events predating the Baptism of Kiev. Two deities, Perun and Veles/Volos, are mentioned in the text of the early 10th century peace treaties between pagan rulers of East Slavs and Byzantine Emperors, later, Nestor the Chronicler describes a state pantheon introduced by Prince Vladimir in Kiev in 980 CE. Vladimirs pantheon included Perun, Hors, Dažbog, Stribog, Simargl, the Hypatian Codex of the Primary Chronicle also mentions Svarog, compared to Greek Hephaestus. Also very interesting are the passages in the East Slavic epic The Tale of Igors Campaign referring to Veles, Dažbog, the original epic has been dated to the end of the 12th century, although there are marginal disputes over the authenticity of this work. The most numerous and richest written records are of West Slavic paganism, particularly of Wendish and Polabian tribes, the German missionaries and priests who criticized pagan religion left extensive records of old mythological systems they sought to overcome. However, they restrained themselves from pious lies, claiming pagan Slavs were idolatrous. As none of those missionaries learned any Slavic language, their records are confused and exaggerated, major works include a chronicle of Thietmar of Merseburg from the beginning of the 11th century, who described a temple in the city of Riedegost where the great deity Zuarasic was worshipped. According to Thietmar, this was the most sacred place in the land of pagan Slavs, another very valuable document is the Chronica Slavorum written in the late 12th century by Helmold, a German priest. Saxo meticulously described the worship of Svantevit, the associated with it. He also mentioned multi-headed deities of other Slavic tribes, Rugievit, Porewit, according to the manuscript, the most important Slavic deity was Triglav, whose temples in the city of Szczecin were respected oracles. In the cities of Wolgast and Havelberg, the war god Gerovit was worshiped, a corruption of Jarovit
7.
Folklore
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Folklore is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, it encompasses the traditions common to that culture, subculture or group. These include oral traditions such as tales, proverbs and jokes and they include material culture, ranging from traditional building styles to handmade toys common to the group. Folklore also includes customary lore, the forms and rituals of celebrations like Christmas and weddings, folk dances, each one of these, either singly or in combination, is considered a folklore artifact. Just as essential as the form, folklore also encompasses the transmission of these artifacts from one region to another or from one generation to the next, for folklore is not taught in a formal school curriculum or studied in the fine arts. Instead these traditions are passed along informally from one individual to another either through verbal instruction or demonstration, the academic study of folklore is called folkloristics. To fully understand folklore, it is helpful to clarify its component parts and it is well-documented that the term was coined in 1846 by the Englishman William Thoms. He fabricated it to replace the contemporary terminology of popular antiquities or popular literature, the second half of the compound word, lore, proves easier to define as its meaning has stayed relatively stable over the last two centuries. Coming from Old English lār instruction, and with German and Dutch cognates, it is the knowledge and traditions of a particular group, the concept of folk proves somewhat more elusive. When Thoms first created this term, folk applied only to rural, frequently poor, a more modern definition of folk is a social group which includes two or more persons with common traits, who express their shared identity through distinctive traditions. Folk is a concept which can refer to a nation as in American folklore or to a single family. This expanded social definition of folk supports a view of the material, i. e. the lore. These now include all things people make with words, things they make with their hands, Folklore is no longer circumscribed as being chronologically old or obsolete. The folklorist studies the traditional artifacts of a group and how they are transmitted. Transmission is a part of the folklore process. Without communicating these beliefs and customs within the group over space and time, for folklore is also a verb. These folk artifacts continue to be passed along informally, as a rule anonymously, the folk group is not individualistic, it is community-based and nurtures its lore in community. As new groups emerge, new folklore is created… surfers, motorcyclists, in direct contrast to high culture, where any single work of a named artist is protected by copyright law, folklore is a function of shared identity within the social group. Having identified folk artifacts, the professional folklorist strives to understand the significance of these beliefs, customs, for these cultural units would not be passed along unless they had some continued relevance within the group
8.
Saint Petersburg
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Saint Petersburg is Russias second-largest city after Moscow, with five million inhabitants in 2012, and an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea. It is politically incorporated as a federal subject, situated on the Neva River, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea, it was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on May 271703. In 1914, the name was changed from Saint Petersburg to Petrograd, in 1924 to Leningrad, between 1713 and 1728 and 1732–1918, Saint Petersburg was the capital of imperial Russia. In 1918, the government bodies moved to Moscow. Saint Petersburg is one of the cities of Russia, as well as its cultural capital. The Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Saint Petersburg is home to The Hermitage, one of the largest art museums in the world. A large number of consulates, international corporations, banks. Swedish colonists built Nyenskans, a fortress, at the mouth of the Neva River in 1611, in a then called Ingermanland. A small town called Nyen grew up around it, Peter the Great was interested in seafaring and maritime affairs, and he intended to have Russia gain a seaport in order to be able to trade with other maritime nations. He needed a better seaport than Arkhangelsk, which was on the White Sea to the north, on May 1703121703, during the Great Northern War, Peter the Great captured Nyenskans, and soon replaced the fortress. On May 271703, closer to the estuary 5 km inland from the gulf), on Zayachy Island, he laid down the Peter and Paul Fortress, which became the first brick and stone building of the new city. The city was built by conscripted peasants from all over Russia, tens of thousands of serfs died building the city. Later, the city became the centre of the Saint Petersburg Governorate, Peter moved the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg in 1712,9 years before the Treaty of Nystad of 1721 ended the war, he referred to Saint Petersburg as the capital as early as 1704. During its first few years, the city developed around Trinity Square on the bank of the Neva, near the Peter. However, Saint Petersburg soon started to be built out according to a plan, by 1716 the Swiss Italian Domenico Trezzini had elaborated a project whereby the city centre would be located on Vasilyevsky Island and shaped by a rectangular grid of canals. The project was not completed, but is evident in the layout of the streets, in 1716, Peter the Great appointed French Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond as the chief architect of Saint Petersburg. In 1724 the Academy of Sciences, University and Academic Gymnasium were established in Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great, in 1725, Peter died at the age of fifty-two. His endeavours to modernize Russia had met opposition from the Russian nobility—resulting in several attempts on his life
9.
Munich
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Munich is the capital and largest city of the German state of Bavaria, on the banks of River Isar north of the Bavarian Alps. Munich is the third largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, the Munich Metropolitan Region is home to 5.8 million people. According to the Globalization and World Rankings Research Institute Munich is considered an alpha-world city, the name of the city is derived from the Old/Middle High German term Munichen, meaning by the monks. It derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who ran a monastery at the place that was later to become the Old Town of Munich, Munich was first mentioned in 1158. From 1255 the city was seat of the Bavarian Dukes, black and gold—the colours of the Holy Roman Empire—have been the citys official colours since the time of Ludwig the Bavarian, when it was an imperial residence. Following a final reunification of the Wittelsbachian Duchy of Bavaria, previously divided and sub-divided for more than 200 years, like wide parts of the Holy Roman Empire, the area recovered slowly economically. In 1918, during the German Revolution, the house of Wittelsbach, which governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich. In the 1920s, Munich became home to political factions, among them the NSDAP. During World War II, Munich was heavily bombed and more than 50% of the entire city, the postwar period was characterised by American occupation until 1949 and a strong increase of population and economic power during the years of the Wirtschaftswunder after 1949. The city is home to corporations like BMW, Siemens, MAN, Linde, Allianz and MunichRE as well as many small. Munich is home to national and international authorities, major universities, major museums. Its numerous architectural attractions, international events, exhibitions and conferences. Munich is one of the most prosperous and fastest growing cities in Germany and it is a top-ranked destination for migration and expatriate location, despite being the municipality with the highest density of population in Germany. Munich nowadays hosts more than 530,000 people of foreign background, the year 1158 is assumed to be the foundation date, which is the earliest date the city is mentioned in a document. The document was signed in Augsburg, by that time the Guelph Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, had built a bridge over the river Isar next to a settlement of Benedictine monks—this was on the Old Salt Route and a toll bridge. In 1175, Munich was officially granted city status and received fortification, in 1180, with the trial of Henry the Lion, Otto I Wittelsbach became Duke of Bavaria and Munich was handed over to the Bishop of Freising. In 1240, Munich was transferred to Otto II Wittelsbach and in 1255, Duke Louis IV, a native of Munich, was elected German king in 1314 and crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He strengthened the position by granting it the salt monopoly
10.
Art Nouveau
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Art Nouveau is an international style of art, architecture and applied art, especially the decorative arts, that was most popular between 1890 and 1910. A reaction to the art of the 19th century, it was inspired by natural forms and structures, particularly the curved lines of plants. English uses the French name Art Nouveau, according to the philosophy of the style, art should be a way of life. For many well-off Europeans, it was possible to live in an art nouveau-inspired house with art nouveau furniture, silverware, fabrics, ceramics including tableware, jewellery, cigarette cases, artists desired to combine the fine arts and applied arts, even for utilitarian objects. By 1910, Art Nouveau was already out of style and it was replaced as the dominant European architectural and decorative style first by Art Deco and then by Modernism. Art Nouveau took its name from the Maison de lArt Nouveau, in France, Art Nouveau was also sometimes called by the British term Modern Style due to its roots in the Arts and Crafts Movement, Style moderne, or Style 1900. It was also sometimes called Style Jules Verne, Le Style Métro, Art Belle Époque, in Belgium, where the architectural movement began, it was sometimes termed Style nouille or Style coup de fouet. In Britain, it was known as the Modern Style, or, because of the arts and crafts movement led by Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, as the Glasgow style. In Italy, because of the popularity in Italy of designs from Londons Liberty & Co department store, in the United States, due to its association with Louis Comfort Tiffany, it was often called the Tiffany style. In Germany and Scandinavia, a style emerged at about the same time, it was called Jugendstil. In Catalonia the related style was known as Modernisme, in Spain as Modernismo, Arte joven, in Russia, it was called Modern, and Jugendstil, and Nieuwe Kunst in the Netherlands. Some names refer specifically to the forms that were popular with the Art Nouveau artists, Stile Floreal in France, Paling Stijl in the Netherlands. The new art movement had its roots in Britain, in the designs of William Morris. Early prototypes of the include the Red House of Morris. In France, the style combined several different tendencies, in architecture, it was influenced by the architectural theorist and historian Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, a declared enemy of the historical Beaux-Arts architectural style. For each function its material, for each material its form and this book influenced a generation of architects, including Louis Sullivan, Victor Horta, Hector Guimard, and Antoni Gaudí. The French painters Maurice Denis, Pierre Bonnard and Édouard Vuillard played an important part in integrating fine arts painting with decoration, I believe that before everything a painting must decorate, Denis wrote in 1891. The choice of subjects or scenes is nothing and it is by the value of tones, the colored surface and the harmony of lines that I can reach the spirit and wake up the emotions
11.
Ilya Repin
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Ilya Yefimovich Repin was a Russian realist painter. He was the most renowned Russian artist of the 19th century and he played a major role in bringing Russian art into the mainstream of European culture. His major works include Barge Haulers on the Volga, Religious Procession in Kursk Province, Repin was born in Chuguyev, in Kharkov Governorate, Ukraine into a family of military settlers. His father traded horses and his grandmother ran an inn and he entered military school to study surveying. In 1863 he went to St. Petersburg Art Academy to study painting but had to enter Ivan Kramskoi preparatory school first and he met fellow artist Ivan Kramskoi and the critic Vladimir Stasov during the 1860s, and his wife, Vera Shevtsova in 1872. In 1874–1876 he showed at the Salon in Paris and at the exhibitions of the Itinerants Society in Saint Petersburg and he was awarded the title of academician in 1876. In 1880 Repin travelled to Zaporozhia in Ukraine to gather material for the 1891 Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks and his Religious Procession in Kursk Province was exhibited in 1883, and Ivan the Terrible and His Son Ivan in 1885. In 1892 he published the Letters on Art collection of essays and he taught at the Higher Art School attached to the Academy of Arts from 1894. In 1898 he purchased an estate, the Penates, in Kuokkala, in 1901 he was awarded the Legion of Honour. In 1911 he traveled with his common-law wife Natalia Nordman to the World Exhibition in Italy, in 1916 Repin worked on his book of reminiscences, Far and Near, with the assistance of Korney Chukovsky. He welcomed the Russian Revolution of 1917, celebrations were held in 1924 in Kuokkala to mark Repins 80th birthday, followed by an exhibition of his works in Moscow. In 1925 a jubilee exhibition of his works was held in the Russian Museum in Leningrad, Repin died in 1930 and was buried at the Penates. Repin was born in the town of Chuguyev, in the Kharkov Governorate of the Russian Empire and his father Yefim Vasilyevich Repin was a private in the Uhlan Regiment of the Imperial Russian Army. As a boy Ilya was educated at the school where his mother taught. From 1854 he attended a military Cantonist school and he did not have fond recollections of his childhood, mainly due to the military settlements his family lived in. In 1856 he became a student of Ivan Bunakov, an icon painter. In 1859–1863 he painted icons and wall-paintings by commission for the Society for the Encouragement of Artists, in 1864 he began attending the Imperial Academy of Arts, and met the painter Ivan Kramskoi. In 1869 he was awarded a gold medal for his painting Job
12.
Ukiyo-e
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The ukiyo-e genre of art flourished in Japan from the 17th through 19th centuries. The term ukiyo-e translates as picture of the floating world, Edo became the seat of government for the military dictatorship in the early 17th century. The merchant class at the bottom of the social order benefitted most from the rapid economic growth. Many indulged in the entertainments of kabuki theatre, courtesans, the term ukiyo came to describe this hedonistic lifestyle. The earliest success was in the 1670s with Moronobus paintings and monochromatic prints of beautiful women, colour in prints came gradually—at first added by hand for special commissions. By the 1740s, artists such as Masanobu used multiple woodblocks to print areas of colour, from the 1760s the success of Harunobus brocade prints led to full-colour production becoming standard, each print made with numerous blocks. Specialists have prized the portraits of beauties and actors by masters such as Kiyonaga, Utamaro, Following the deaths of these two masters, and against the technological and social modernization that followed the Meiji Restoration of 1868, ukiyo-e production went into steep decline. Some ukiyo-e artists specialized in making paintings, but most works were prints, as printing was done by hand, printers were able to achieve effects impractical with machines, such as the blending or gradation of colours on the printing block. Ukiyo-e was central to forming the Wests perception of Japanese art in the late 19th century–especially the landscapes of Hokusai, Prints since the late 20th century have continued in an individualist vein, often made with techniques imported from the West. The Kanō school of painting incorporated features of both, since antiquity, Japanese art had found patrons in the aristocracy, military governments, and religious authorities. Later works appeared by and for townspeople, including inexpensive monochromatic paintings of female beauties and scenes of the theatre and pleasure districts, the hand-produced nature of these shikomi-e limited the scale of their production, a limit that was soon overcome by genres that turned to mass-produced woodblock printing. During a prolonged period of war in the 16th century. In the early 17th century Tokugawa Ieyasu unified the country and was appointed Shogun with supreme power over Japan and he consolidated his government in the village of Edo, and required the territorial lords to assemble there in alternate years with their entourages. The demands of the growing capital drew many male labourers from the country, the village grew during the Edo period from a population of 1800 to over a million in the 19th century. The centralized shogunate put an end to the power of the machishū and divided the population into four classes, with the ruling samurai class at the top. The experience of the quarters was open to those of sufficient wealth, manners. Woodblock printing in Japan traces back to the Hyakumantō Darani in 770 CE, until the 17th century such printing was reserved for Buddhist seals and images. Movable type appeared around 1600, but as the Japanese writing system required about 100,000 type pieces, in Saga Domain, calligrapher Honami Kōetsu and publisher Suminokura Soan combined printed text and images in an adaptation of The Tales of Ise and other works of literature
13.
1905 Russian Revolution
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The Russian Revolution of 1905 was a wave of mass political and social unrest that spread through vast areas of the Russian Empire, some of which was directed at the government. It included worker strikes, peasant unrest, and military mutinies and it led to Constitutional Reform including the establishment of the State Duma, the multi-party system, and the Russian Constitution of 1906. According to Sidney Harcave, author of The Russian Revolution of 1905, newly emancipated peasants earned too little, and were not allowed to sell or mortgage their allotted land. A nascent industrial working class resented the government for doing too little to them, banning strikes. Finally, the educated class fomented and spread radical ideas after a relaxing of discipline in universities allowed a new consciousness to grow among students, vladimir Lenin was a political theorist who also contributed his own ideology of how a revolution would be caused. In his book Imperialism he claimed that driven imperialism and the dependence on overseas markets would be a factor to revolution. This would cause a rivalry between the powers, leading to war. Taken individually, these issues might not have affected the course of Russian history, the government finally recognized these problems, albeit in a shortsighted and narrow-minded way. The minister of interior Plehve stated in 1903 that, after the problem, the most serious ones plaguing the country were those of the Jews, the schools. This setback aggravated social unrest during the five years preceding the revolution of 1905, every year, thousands of nobles in debt mortgaged their estates to the noble land bank or sold them to municipalities, merchants, or peasants. By the time of the revolution, the nobility had sold off one-third of its land and this plan was meant to prevent proletarianisation of the peasants. However, the peasants were not given land to provide for their needs. Their earnings were often so small that they could buy the food they needed nor keep up the payment of taxes. By the tenth year of Nicholas IIs reign, their total arrears in payments of taxes and dues was 118 million rubles, masses of hungry peasants roamed the countryside looking for work and sometimes walked hundreds of kilometres to find it. Desperate peasants proved capable of violence and these violent outbreaks caught the attention of the government, so it created many committees to investigate their causes. The committees concluded that no part of the countryside was prosperous, some parts, although cultivated acreage had increased in the last half century, the increase had not been proportionate to the growth of peasant populations, which had doubled. The investigations revealed many difficulties but could not find solution that were both sensible and acceptable to the government, nineteenth-century Russians saw cultures and religions in a clear hierarchy. Non-Russian cultures were tolerated in the empire but were not necessarily respected, European civilization was valued over Asian culture, and Christianity was on the whole considered more progressive and true than other religions
14.
Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov
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Nikolai Andreyevich Rimsky-Korsakov was a Russian composer, and a member of the group of composers known as The Five. He was a master of orchestration, Scheherazade is an example of his frequent use of fairy tale and folk subjects. Rimsky-Korsakov believed, as did fellow composer Mily Balakirev and critic Vladimir Stasov, however, Rimsky-Korsakov appreciated Western musical techniques after he became a professor of musical composition, harmony and orchestration at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory in 1871. He undertook a rigorous program of self-education and became a master of Western methods, incorporating them alongside the influences of Mikhail Glinka. His techniques of composition and orchestration were further enriched by his exposure to the works of Richard Wagner and he wrote that he developed a passion for the ocean in childhood from reading books and hearing of his older brothers exploits in the navy. This love of the sea might have influenced him to two of his best-known orchestral works, the musical tableau Sadko and Scheherazade. Through his service as Inspector of Naval Bands, Rimsky-Korsakov expanded his knowledge of woodwind and brass playing and he passed this knowledge to his students, and also posthumously through a textbook on orchestration that was completed by his son-in-law, Maximilian Steinberg. Rimsky-Korsakov left a body of original Russian nationalist compositions. He prepared works by The Five for performance, which brought them into the classical repertoire. Rimsky-Korsakov is therefore considered the architect of what the classical music public considers the Russian style of composition. Rimsky-Korsakov was born in Tikhvin,200 kilometres east of Saint Petersburg, the father of the composer, Andrei Petrovich Rimsky-Korsakov, though born out of wedlock, went on to serve first as the vice-governor of Novgorod, and then in the Volhynian Governorate. The composers mother, Sofya Vasilevna, was the daughter of a peasant serf, the Rimsky-Korsakov family had a long line of military and naval service. Nikolais older brother Voin,22 years his senior, became a well-known navigator and he later recalled that his mother played the piano a little, and his father could play a few songs on the piano by ear. Beginning at six, he took lessons from local teachers and showed a talent for aural skills. Although he started composing by age 10, Rimsky-Korsakov preferred literature over music and he later wrote that from his reading, and tales of his brothers exploits, he developed a poetic love for the sea without ever having seen it. This love, and prompting from Voin, encouraged the 12-year-old to join the Imperial Russian Navy and he studied at the School for Mathematical and Navigational Sciences in Saint Petersburg and, at 18, took his final examination in April 1862. While at school, Rimsky-Korsakov took piano lessons from a man named Ulikh and these lessons were sanctioned by Voin, who now served as director of the school, because he hoped they would help the youth to develop social skills and overcome his shyness. Rimsky-Korsakov wrote that, while indifferent to lessons, he developed a love for music, fostered by visits to the opera and, later, Ulikh perceived that he had serious musical talent and recommended another teacher, Feodor A. Kanille
15.
The Golden Cockerel
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The Golden Cockerel is an opera in three acts, with short prologue and even shorter epilogue, by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov. Its libretto, by Vladimir Belsky, derives from Alexander Pushkins 1834 poem The Tale of the Golden Cockerel, the opera was completed in 1907 and premiered in 1909 in Moscow, after the composers death. Outside Russia it has often performed in French as Le coq dor. However the political situation in Russia at the time inspired him to take up the pen to compose a satire of the autocracy, of Russian imperialism. The Golden Cockerel had the same magic, Bilibin – Ivan Bilibin had already produced artwork for the Golden Cockerel, and this conjured up the same traditional Russian folk flavours as those in Tsar Saltan. Russo-Japanese War – Under Tsar Nikolay II, Russia became involved in a war with Japan and this war was highly unpopular amongst the Russian people. It proved to be a disaster, and Russia was eventually defeated. Russian Revolutionary Activity in 1905 – Many Russian people were not only upset by the Russo-Japanese War, on January 9,1905, several thousand people, led by a priest, demonstrated peacefully in the Palace Square in Sankt-Peterburg. They tried to hand in a petition asking for better working conditions, a day, a minimum wage. However, more than 1,000 persons were shot by the Tsarist troops, news of this massacre spread rapidly – there was an uprising in Odessa, where the sailors in the battleship Potemkin took over the ship and fired on the headquarters of the tsarist troops. Again, there was a massacre of people on the Odessa steps, the Students in the Sankt-Peterburg Conservatoire also demonstrated against the Tsar, and Rimsky-Korsakov supported their protest. For this he was dismissed from his post as head of the Conservatoire, Alexander Glazunov and Anatoly Lyadov resigned and left with him. See also Russian Revolution of 1905, Rimsky-Korsakov started work on his Golden Cockerel opera. The opera was banned by the Palace, and was not allowed to be staged. Rimsky-Korsakov’s health was affected by this, and he was dead by the time it was performed two years later. The premiere took place on 7 October 1909, at Moscows Solodovnikov Theatre in a performance by the Zimin Opera, Emil Cooper conducted, set designs were by Ivan Bilibin. The opera was given at the citys Bolshoi Theatre a month later, on 6 November, conducted by Vyacheslav Suk, the Met performed the work regularly through 1945. All Met performances before World War II were sung in French, during the final season in the Met repertory
16.
Bogatyr
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A bogatyr or vityaz is a stock character in medieval East Slavic legends, akin to a Western European knight-errant. In modern Russian, the word is used to describe a knight, a warrior or, figuratively, bogatyr is derived from baghatur, a historical Turco-Mongol honorific title. The etymology of word is uncertain, although the first syllable is very likely the Iranian word *baγ god. Many Rus epic poems, called Bylinas, prominently featured stories about heroes, as did several chronicles. Some bogatyrs are presumed to be figures, while others, like the giant Svyatogor, are purely fictional. Many of the stories about bogatyrs revolve around the court of Vladimir I of Kiev, there served the most notable bogatyrs or vityazes, the trio of Alyosha Popovich, Dobrynya Nikitich and Ilya Muromets. Most of those bogatyrs adventures are fictional, and often included fighting dragons, giants, however, the bogatyrs themselves were often based on real people. Historical prototypes of both Dobrynya Nikitich and Ilya Muromets are proven to have existed, the Novgorod Republic produced a specific kind of hero, an adventurer rather than a noble warrior. The most prominent examples were Sadko and Vasili Buslayev, later notable bogatyrs also include those who fought by Alexander Nevskys side and those who fought in the Battle of Kulikovo. Although based on history, the film also shows a strong bylina influence. Knight-errant Slavic mythology Beckwith, Christopher I, empires of the Silk Road, A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Богатыри и витязи Русской земли, По былинам, сказаниям и песням
17.
October Revolution
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It took place with an armed insurrection in Petrograd on 25 October 1917. During this time, urban workers began to organize into councils wherein revolutionaries criticized the provisional government and this immediately initiated the establishment of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the worlds first self-proclaimed socialist state. The revolution was led by the Bolsheviks, who used their influence in the Petrograd Soviet to organize the armed forces, Bolshevik Red Guards forces under the Military Revolutionary Committee began the takeover of government buildings on 24 October 1917. The following day, the Winter Palace, was captured, the long-awaited Constituent Assembly elections were held on 12 November 1917. The Bolsheviks only won 175 seats in the 715-seat legislative body, coming in second behind the Socialist Revolutionary party, the Constituent Assembly was to first meet on 28 November 1917, but its convocation was delayed until 5 January 1918 by the Bolsheviks. On its first and only day in session, the body rejected Soviet decrees on peace and land, as the revolution was not universally recognized, there followed the struggles of the Russian Civil War and the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922. At first, the event was referred to as the October coup or the Uprising of 25th, in Russian, however, переворот has a similar meaning to revolution and also means upheaval or overturn, so coup is not necessarily the correct translation. With time, the term October Revolution came into use and it is also known as the November Revolution having occurred in November according to the Gregorian Calendar. The Great October Socialist Revolution was the name for the October Revolution in the Soviet Union after the 10th anniversary of the Revolution in 1927. The February Revolution had toppled Tsar Nicolas II of Russia, however, the provisional government was weak and riven by internal dissension. It continued to wage World War I, which became increasingly unpopular, a nationwide crisis developed in Russia, affecting social, economic, and political relations. Disorder in industry and transport had intensified, and difficulties in obtaining provisions had increased, gross industrial production in 1917 had decreased by over 36% from what it had been in 1914. In the autumn, as much as 50% of all enterprises were closed down in the Urals, the Donbas, at the same time, the cost of living increased sharply. Real wages fell about 50% from what they had been in 1913, russias national debt in October 1917 had risen to 50 billion rubles. Of this, debts to foreign governments constituted more than 11 billion rubles, the country faced the threat of financial bankruptcy. In these months alone, more than a million took part in strikes. Workers established control over production and distribution in many factories and plants in a social revolution, by October 1917, there had been over 4,000 peasant uprisings against landowners. When the Provisional Government sent punitive detachments, it only enraged the peasants
18.
Cairo
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Cairo is the capital and largest city of Egypt. Cairo has long been a center of the political and cultural life. Cairo has the oldest and largest film and music industries in the Arab world, as well as the worlds second-oldest institution of higher learning, Al-Azhar University. Many international media, businesses, and organizations have regional headquarters in the city, with a population of 6.76 million spread over 453 square kilometers, Cairo is by far the largest city in Egypt. An additional 9.5 million inhabitants live in proximity to the city. Cairo, like many other mega-cities, suffers from high levels of pollution, Cairos metro, one of only two in Africa, ranks among the fifteen busiest in the world, with over 1 billion annual passenger rides. The economy of Cairo was ranked first in the Middle East in 2005, Egyptians often refer to Cairo as Maṣr, the Egyptian Arabic name for Egypt itself, emphasizing the citys importance for the country. In Coptic the city is known as Kahire, meaning Place of the Sun, possibly referring to the ancient city of Heliopolis, the location of the ancient city is the suburb of Ain Shams. The ancient Egyptian name for the area is thought to be Khere-Ohe, The Place of Combat, sometimes the city is informally referred to as Kayro. The area around present-day Cairo, especially Memphis, had long been a point of Ancient Egypt due to its strategic location just upstream from the Nile Delta. However, the origins of the city are generally traced back to a series of settlements in the first millennium. Around the turn of the 4th century, as Memphis was continuing to decline in importance and this fortress, known as Babylon, remained the nucleus of the Roman, and, later, the Byzantine, city and is the oldest structure in the city today. It is also situated at the nucleus of the Coptic Orthodox community, many of Cairos oldest Coptic churches, including the Hanging Church, are located along the fortress walls in a section of the city known as Coptic Cairo. Following the Muslim conquest in 640 AD the conqueror Amr ibn As settled to the north of the Babylon in an area became known as al-Fustat. Originally a tented camp Fustat became a permanent settlement and the first capital of Islamic Egypt, in 750, following the overthrow of the Ummayad caliphate by the Abbasids, the new rulers created their own settlement to the northeast of Fustat which became their capital. This was known as al-Askar as it was laid out like a military camp, a rebellion in 869 by Ahmad ibn Tulun led to the abandonment of Al Askar and the building of another settlement, which became the seat of government. This was al-Qattai, to the north of Fustat and closer to the river, Al Qattai was centred around a palace and ceremonial mosque, now known as the Mosque of ibn Tulun. In 905 the Abbasids re-asserted control of the country and their returned to Fustat
19.
Alexandria
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Alexandria is the second largest city and a major economic centre in Egypt, extending about 32 km along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country. Its low elevation on the Nile delta makes it vulnerable to rising sea levels. Alexandria is Egypts largest seaport, serving approximately 80% of Egypts imports and exports and it is an important industrial center because of its natural gas and oil pipelines from Suez. Alexandria is also an important tourist destination, Alexandria was founded around a small Ancient Egyptian town c.331 BC by Alexander the Great. Alexandria was the second most powerful city of the ancient world after Rome, Alexandria is believed to have been founded by Alexander the Great in April 331 BC as Ἀλεξάνδρεια. Alexanders chief architect for the project was Dinocrates, Alexandria was intended to supersede Naucratis as a Hellenistic center in Egypt, and to be the link between Greece and the rich Nile valley. The city and its museum attracted many of the greatest scholars, including Greeks, Jews, the city was later plundered and lost its significance. Just east of Alexandria, there was in ancient times marshland, as early as the 7th century BC, there existed important port cities of Canopus and Heracleion. The latter was rediscovered under water. An Egyptian city, Rhakotis, already existed on the shore also and it continued to exist as the Egyptian quarter of the city. A few months after the foundation, Alexander left Egypt and never returned to his city, after Alexanders departure, his viceroy, Cleomenes, continued the expansion. Although Cleomenes was mainly in charge of overseeing Alexandrias continuous development, the Heptastadion, inheriting the trade of ruined Tyre and becoming the center of the new commerce between Europe and the Arabian and Indian East, the city grew in less than a generation to be larger than Carthage. In a century, Alexandria had become the largest city in the world and and it became Egypts main Greek city, with Greek people from diverse backgrounds. Alexandria was not only a center of Hellenism, but was home to the largest urban Jewish community in the world. The Septuagint, a Greek version of the Tanakh, was produced there, in AD115, large parts of Alexandria were destroyed during the Kitos War, which gave Hadrian and his architect, Decriannus, an opportunity to rebuild it. On 21 July 365, Alexandria was devastated by a tsunami, the Islamic prophet, Muhammads first interaction with the people of Egypt occurred in 628, during the Expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha. He sent Hatib bin Abi Baltaeh with a letter to the king of Egypt and Alexandria called Muqawqis In the letter Muhammad said, I invite you to accept Islam, Allah the sublime, shall reward you doubly. But if you refuse to do so, you bear the burden of the transgression of all the Copts
20.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
21.
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
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The Republic comprised sixteen autonomous republics, five autonomous oblasts, ten autonomous okrugs, six krais, and forty oblasts. Russians formed the largest ethnic group, the capital of the Russian SFSR was Moscow and the other major urban centers included Leningrad, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod and Samara. The Russian Soviet Republic was proclaimed on November 7,1917 as a sovereign state, the first Constitution was adopted in 1918. In 1922 the Russian SFSR signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR, the economy of Russia became heavily industrialized, accounting for about two-thirds of the electricity produced in the USSR. It was, by 1961, the third largest producer of petroleum due to new discoveries in the Volga-Urals region and Siberia, trailing only the United States and Saudi Arabia. In 1974, there were 475 institutes of education in the republic providing education in 47 languages to some 23,941,000 students. A network of territorially organized public-health services provided health care, the effects of market policies led to the failure of many enterprises and total instability by 1990. On June 12,1990, the Congress of Peoples Deputies adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty, on June 12,1991, Boris Yeltsin was elected the first President. On December 8,1991, heads of Russia, Ukraine, the agreement declared dissolution of the USSR by its founder states and established the Commonwealth of Independent States. On December 12, the agreement was ratified by the Russian Parliament, therefore Russian SFSR denounced the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and de facto declared Russias independence from the USSR. On December 25,1991, following the resignation of Mikhail Gorbachev as president of the Soviet Union, on December 26,1991, the USSR was self-dissolved by the Soviet of Nationalities, which by that time was the only functioning house of the Supreme Soviet. After dissolution of the USSR, Russia declared that it assumed the rights and obligations of the dissolved central Soviet government, the new Russian constitution, adopted on December 12,1993 after a constitutional crisis, abolished the Soviet system of government in its entirety. Initially, the state did not have a name and wasnt recognized by neighboring countries for five months. Meanwhile, anti-Bolsheviks coined the mocking label Sovdepia for the nascent state of the Soviets of Workers, on January 25,1918 the third meeting of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets renamed the unrecognized state the Soviet Russian Republic. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed on March 3,1918, on July 10,1918, the Russian Constitution of 1918 renamed the country the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. By 1918, during the Russian Civil War, several states within the former Russian Empire seceded, internationally, in 1920, the RSFSR was recognized as an independent state only by Estonia, Finland, Latvia and Lithuania in the Treaty of Tartu and by the short-lived Irish Republic. On December 30,1922, with the creation of the Soviet Union, the final Soviet name for the republic, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, was adopted in the Soviet Constitution of 1936. By that time, Soviet Russia had gained roughly the same borders of the old Tsardom of Russia before the Great Northern War of 1700
22.
Imperial Academy of Arts
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The Russian Academy of Arts in Saint Petersburg, informally known as the Saint Petersburg Academy of Arts, was founded in 1757 by Ivan Shuvalov under the name Academy of the Three Noblest Arts. Catherine the Great renamed it the Imperial Academy of Arts and commissioned a new building, the academy promoted the neoclassical style and technique, and sent its promising students to European capitals for further study. Training at the academy was virtually required for artists to make successful careers, formally abolished in 1918 after the Russian Revolution, the academy was renamed several times. It established free tuition, students from across the country competed fiercely for its few places annually, in 1947 the national institution was moved to Moscow, and much of its art collection was moved to the Hermitage. The building in Leningrad was devoted to the Ilya Repin Leningrad Institute for Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, since 1991 it has been called the St. Petersburg Institute for Painting, Sculpture and Architecture. The academy was located in the Shuvalov Palace on Sadovaya Street, in 1764, Catherine the Great renamed it the Imperial Academy of Arts and commissioned its first rector, Alexander Kokorinov, to design a new building. It took 25 years to complete the Neoclassical edifice, which opened in 1789, konstantin Thon was responsible for the sumptuous decoration of the interiors. He also designed a quayside in front of the building, with stairs down to the Neva River, Ivan Betskoy reorganized the academy into a de facto government department, it supervised matters concerning art throughout the country, distributing orders and awarding ranks to artists. The academy vigorously promoted the principles of Neoclassicism by sending the most notable Russian painters abroad, in order to learn the ancient and Renaissance styles of Italy and it also had its own sizable collection of choice artworks intended for study and copying. The adherents of this movement became known as peredvizhniki, led by Ivan Kramskoi, they publicly broke with the Academy and organized their own exhibitions, which traveled from town to town across Russia. Ilya Repin, Mikhail Vrubel and some other painters still regarded the academys training as indispensable for the development of professional and technical skills. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Imperial Academy passed through a series of transformations, after the Academys move to Moscow that year, the building in what was then called Leningrad was renamed Ilya Repin Leningrad Institute for Painting, Sculpture and Architecture. The national academy has stayed in Moscow, in 1991 it was renamed the Russian Academy of Arts. The old academys art collection, which included works by Poussin, David. During the Soviet era, academies were free of tuition fees as they were financed by the government, many would-be students would apply to the Academy for as many as six or seven years in a row without success. With just twenty places available and thousands of applicants, the competition was brutal, well-known graduates of Ilya Repin Leningrad Institute for Painting, Sculpture and Architecture in 1930–1950s include, The Russian Academy of Arts has been headquartered in Moscow since 1947. Its current president is Zurab Tsereteli and its vice-president is Tair Salakhov and it is also called the St. Petersburg State Academic Institute of Fine Arts, Sculpture and Architecture. - Saint Petersburg, NP-Print Edition,2007, the Leningrad School Russian Academy of Arts The St. Petersburg State Academic Institute of Fine Arts Sergei V. Ivanov
23.
Siege of Leningrad
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The siege started on 8 September 1941, when the last road to the city was severed. Although the Soviets managed to open a land corridor to the city on 18 January 1943. It was one of the longest and most destructive sieges in history, Leningrads capture was one of three strategic goals in the German Operation Barbarossa and the main target of Army Group North. By 1939 the city was responsible for 11% of all Soviet industrial output and it has been reported Adolf Hitler was so confident of capturing Leningrad that he had invitations printed to the victory celebrations to be held in the citys Hotel Astoria. According to a sent to Army Group North on 29 September, After the defeat of Soviet Russia there can be no interest in the continued existence of this large urban center. Following the citys encirclement, requests for surrender negotiations shall be denied, since the problem of relocating and feeding the population cannot, in this war for our very existence, we can have no interest in maintaining even a part of this very large urban population. Hitlers ultimate plan was to raze Leningrad to the ground and give areas north of the River Neva to the Finns, Army Group North under Feldmarschall Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb advanced to Leningrad, its primary objective. Finnish military forces were north of Leningrad, while German forces occupied territories to the south, thus, it is argued that much of the Finns participation was merely defensive. The Germans planned on lack of food being their weapon against the citizens. On 27 June 1941, the Council of Deputies of the Leningrad administration organised First response groups of civilians, in the next days, Leningrads civilian population was informed of the danger and over a million citizens were mobilised for the construction of fortifications. Several lines of defences were built along the perimeter to repulse hostile forces approaching from north and south by means of civilian resistance. In the south, the line ran from the mouth of the Luga River to Chudovo, Gatchina, Uritsk, Pulkovo. Another line of defence passed through Peterhof to Gatchina, Pulkovo, Kolpino, in the north the defensive line against the Finns, the Karelian Fortified Region, had been maintained in Leningrads northern suburbs since the 1930s, and was now returned to service. Even the guns from the cruiser Aurora were moved inland to the Pulkovo Heights to the south of Leningrad, the 4th Panzer Group from East Prussia took Pskov following a swift advance and managed to reach Novgorod by 16 August. The Soviet defenders fought to the death, despite the German discovery of the Soviet defence plans on an officers corpse, after the capture of Novgorod, General Hoepners 4th Panzer Group continued its progress towards Leningrad. However, the 18th Army — despite some 350,000 men lagging behind — forced its way to Ostrov and Pskov after the Soviet troops of the Northwestern Front retreated towards Leningrad. On 10 July, both Ostrov and Pskov were captured and the 18th Army reached Narva and Kingisepp, from where advance toward Leningrad continued from the Luga River line. This had the effect of creating siege positions from the Gulf of Finland to Lake Ladoga, the Finnish Army was then expected to advance along the eastern shore of Lake Ladoga
24.
Daniel O'Connell
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Daniel OConnell, often referred to as The Liberator or The Emancipator, was an Irish political leader in the first half of the 19th century. OConnell was born at Carhan near Cahersiveen, County Kerry, to the OConnells of Derrynane, a once-wealthy Roman Catholic family, among his uncles was Daniel Charles, Count OConnell, an officer in the Irish Brigades of the French Army. A famous aunt was Eibhlín Dubh Ní Chonaill, while Sir James OConnell, in his early years, he became acquainted with the pro-democracy radicals of the time and committed himself to bringing equal rights and religious tolerance to his own country. While in Dublin studying for the law, OConnell was under his Uncle Maurices instructions not to become involved in any militia activity, when Wolfe Tones French invasion fleet entered Bantry Bay in December 1796, OConnell found himself in a quandary. Politics was the cause of his unsettlement and he desired to enter Parliament, yet every allowance that the Catholics had been led to anticipate, two years previously, was now flatly vetoed. As a law student, OConnell was aware of his own talents and he read the Jockey Club as a picture of the governing class in England and was persuaded by it that, vice reigns triumphant in the English court at this day. The spirit of liberty shrinks to protect property from the attacks of French innovators, the corrupt higher orders tremble for their vicious enjoyments. Later that month, for the sake of expediency, he joined the Lawyers Artillery Corps, on 19 May 1798, OConnell was called to the Irish Bar and became a barrister. Four days later, the United Irishmen staged their rebellion which was put down by the British with great bloodshed, OConnell did not support the rebellion, he believed that the Irish would have to assert themselves politically rather than by force. He went on the Munster circuit, and for over a decade, although he was ultimately to inherit Derrynane from his uncle Maurice, the old man lived to be almost 100 and in the event Daniels inheritance did not cover his debts. He also condemned Robert Emmets Rebellion of 1803, of Emmet, a Protestant, he wrote, A man who could coolly prepare so much bloodshed, so many murders—and such horrors of every kind has ceased to be an object of compassion. He was noted for his fearlessness in Court, if he thought poorly of a judge he had no hesitation in making this clear, OConnell returned to politics in the 1810s. In 1811, he established the Catholic Board, which campaigned for Catholic emancipation, that is, the opportunity for Irish Catholics to become members of parliament. In 1823, he set up the Catholic Association which embraced other aims to better Irish Catholics, such as, electoral reform, reform of the Church of Ireland, tenants rights, and economic development. The Association was funded by membership dues of one penny per month, the subscription was highly successful, and the Association raised a large sum of money in its first year. The money was used to campaign for Catholic emancipation, specifically funding pro-emancipation members of parliament standing for the British House of Commons. Members of the Association were liable to prosecution under a statute. OConnell was often briefed for the defence, and showed extraordinary vigour in pleading the rights of Catholics to argue for emancipation, in 1815 a serious event in his life occurred
25.
Baba Yaga
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In Slavic folklore, Baba Yaga /ˈbɑːbə jəˈɡɑː/ is a supernatural being who appears as a deformed and/or ferocious-looking witch. Baba Yaga flies around in a mortar, wields a pestle, Baba Yaga may help or hinder those that encounter or seek her out. She sometimes plays a role, and also has associations with forest wildlife. According to Vladimir Propps folktale morphology, Baba Yaga commonly appears as either a donor or villain, andreas Johns identifies Baba Yaga as one of the most memorable and distinctive figures in Slavic European folklore, and observes that she is enigmatic and often exhibits striking ambiguity. Variations of the name Baba Yaga are found in the languages of the Eastern Slavic peoples, the first element, baba, is transparently a babble word, meaning woman, or, specifically, old woman. The same word is used for both grandmother and old woman in general in Bulgarian, Macedonian, Romanian and Serbo-Croatian languages. In modern Russian, the word бабушка babushka derives from it, Baba may also have a pejorative connotation in modern Ukrainian and Russian, both for women as well as for an unmanly, timid, or characterless man. In Polish, the term is considered to be pejorative, meaning vicious or ugly woman, in Czech both of those meanings apply. Similarly to other terms in Slavic languages, baba may be employed outside of kinship. For example, in variety of Slavic languages and dialects, the word baba may be applied to animals, natural phenomena. This function extends to various geographic features, in the Polesia region of Ukraine, the plural баби baby may refer to an autumn funeral feast. These associations have led to a variety of theories on the figure of Baba Yaga, the element may appear as a means of glossing the second element, yaga, with a familiar component. Additionally, baba may have also applied as a means of distinguishing Baba Yaga from a male counterpart. While a variety of etymologies have been proposed for the element of the name, Yaga, it remains far more etymologically problematic. For example, in the 19th century, Alexander Afanasyev proposed the derivation of Proto-Slavic *ǫžь and this etymology has subsequently been explored by other scholars in the 20th century. Related terms to the element of the name, Yaga, appear in various Slavic languages, Serbo-Croatian jeza, Slovenian jeza, Old Czech jězě, modern Czech jezinka. The term appears in Old Church Slavonic as jęza or jędza, in other Indo-European languages the element iaga has been linked to Lithuanian engti, ingti and ingas, Old English inca, and Old Norse ekki. The first clear reference to Baba Yaga occurs in 1755, Mikhail V. Lomonosovs Rossiiskaya grammatika, in Lomonosovs grammar, Baba Yaga is mentioned twice among other figures largely from Slavic tradition
26.
Vasilisa the Beautiful
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Vasilisa the Beautiful is a Russian fairy tale collected by Alexander Afanasyev in Narodnye russkie skazki. By his first wife, a merchant had a single daughter, when the girl was eight years old, her mother died. On her deathbed, she gave Vasilisa a tiny wooden doll with instructions to give it a little to eat and a little to drink if she were in need, and then it would help her. As soon as her mother died, Vasilisa gave it a little to drink and a little to eat, after a time, her father remarried, the new wife was a woman with two daughters. Vasilisas stepmother was cruel to her, but with the help of the doll. When young men came wooing, the stepmother rejected them all because it was not proper for the younger to marry before the older, one day the merchant had to embark on a journey. His wife sold the house and moved all to a gloomy hut by the forest. One day she gave each of the girls a task and put out all the fires except a single candle and her older daughter then put out the candle, whereupon they sent Vasilisa to fetch light from Baba Yagas hut. The doll advised her to go, and she went, while she was walking, a mysterious man rode by her in the hours before dawn, dressed in white, riding a white horse whose equipment was all white, then a similar rider in red. She came to a house stood on chicken legs and was walled by a fence made of human bones. A black rider, like the white and red riders, rode past her, Vasilisa was too frightened to run away, and so Baba Yaga found her when she arrived in her mortar. Baba Yaga said that Vasilisa must perform tasks to earn the fire and she was to clean the house and yard, wash Baba Yagas laundry, and cook her a meal. She was also required to separate grains of corn from sound corn. Baba Yaga left, and Vasilisa despaired, as she worked herself into exhaustion, when all hope of completing the tasks seemed lost, the doll whispered that she would complete the tasks for Vasilisa, and that the girl should sleep. At dawn, the white rider passed, at or before noon, as the black rider rode past, Baba Yaga returned and could complain of nothing. She bade three pairs of disembodied hands seize the corn to squeeze the oil from it, then asked Vasilisa if she had any questions. Vasilisa asked about the identities and was told that the white one was Day, the red one the Sun. But when Vasilisa thought of asking about the hands, the doll quivered in her pocket
27.
Ivan Tsarevich
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Ivan Tsarevich is one of the main heroes of Russian folklore, usually a protagonist, often engaged in a struggle with Koschei. Along with Ivan the Fool, Ivan Tsarevich is a name rather than a certain character. He is often, but not always, the youngest son of three, in the tale The Three Tsardoms, he is a son of Nastasya the Golden Braid. Different legends describe Ivan as having wives, including Yelena the Beautiful, Vasilisa the Wise. Ivan is sometimes depicted with magic abilities and has the Sword Kladenets, Ivan is the main hero of Russian folktales. He is almost always portrayed as either the son of a peasant family or the third son of a king. In the latter stories, he is called Ivan Tsarevich, which means tsars son, Ivan is one of the most common Russian names. The friends and foes of Ivan Tsarevich are often mythic figures, the most famous folktale featuring Ivan as the protagonist is Prince ivan, the firebird and the gray wolf. In this story, Ivan was aided by a wolf as he captured the firebird. The firebird inspired Igor Stravinskys ballet of the same name, in this tale, the animal helpers were a lion, a bird and a magical horse that belonged to baba Yaga. It was on this horse that Ivan defeated Koschei, Ivan the peasants son has as many tales as Ivan Tsarevich. One of the best known is the story the Little Humbacked Horse, in which a magical, talking horse helped Ivan to become a hero and marry the princess he loved
28.
Firebird (Slavic folklore)
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In Slavic folklore, the Firebird is a magical glowing bird from a faraway land, which is both a blessing and a bringer of doom to its captor. Some believe it can see the future, the Firebird is described as a large bird with majestic plumage that glows brightly emitting red, orange, and yellow light, like a bonfire that is just past the turbulent flame. The feathers do not cease glowing if removed, and one feather can light a room if not concealed. In later iconography, the form of the Firebird is usually that of a smallish fire-colored peacock, complete with a crest on its head and it is beautiful but dangerous showing no sign of friendliness. The story of the Firebird inspired many works, including The Little Humpback Horse by Pyotr Yershov. A typical role of the Firebird in fairy tales is as an object of a difficult quest, the Firebird is a marvel, highly coveted, but the hero, initially charmed by the wonder of the feather, eventually blames it for his troubles. There are many versions of the Firebird story as it was told orally in the beginning. One version is the tale of Ivan Tsarevich and the Grey Wolf, suzanne Massie retells another story of the Firebird legend. A modest and gentle orphan girl named Maryushka lives in a small village, people would come from all over to buy her embroidery, and many merchants asked her to come away and work for them. She told them all that she would sell to any who found her work beautiful, one day the evil sorcerer Kaschei the Immortal heard of Maryushka’s beautiful needlework and transformed himself into a beautiful young man and visited her. Upon seeing her ability he became enraged that a mortal could produce finer work than he himself possessed. He tried to tempt her by offering to make her Queen if she would embroider for him alone, but she refused saying she never wanted to leave her village. Because of this last insult to his ego he turned Maryushka into a Firebird, and himself into a great black Falcon, picked her up in his talons, to leave a memory of herself with her village forever she shed her feathers onto the land below. As the last feather fell Maryushka died in the falcon’s talons, the glowing rainbow feathers were magic and remain undimmed, but show their colors only to those who love beauty and seek to make beauty for others. Irina Zheleytova translates another version, The Firebird and Princess Vasilisa, in this version a king’s archer is on a hunt and runs across a firebird’s feather. The archer’s horse warns the archer not to touch it, as bad things will happen, the archer ignores the advice and takes it to bring back to the king so he will be praised and rewarded. When the king is presented with the feather he demands the entire firebird or the death of the archer, the archer weeps to his horse, who instructs him to put corn on the fields in order to capture the firebird. The firebird comes down to eat, allowing the archer to capture the bird, when the king is presented with the firebird he demands that the archer fetch the Princess Vassilissa so the king may marry her, otherwise, the archer will be killed
29.
Sadko
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Sadko is the principal character in a Russian medieval epic Bylina. He was an adventurer, merchant, and gusli musician from Novgorod, Sadko played the gusli on the shores of a lake. The Sea Tsar enjoyed his music, and offered to help him, Sadko was instructed to make a bet with the local merchants about catching a certain fish in the lake, when he caught it, the merchants had to pay the wager, making Sadko a rich merchant. Sadko traded on the seas with his new wealth, but did not pay respects to the Tsar as per their agreement. The Tsar stopped Sadkos ships in the sea and he and his sailors tried to appease the Sea Tsar with gold, to no avail. Sadkos crew forced him to jump into the sea, there, he played the gusli for the Sea Tsar, who offered him a new bride. On advice, he took the last maiden in a long line and he woke up on the shore and rejoined his wife. In some variants, Sadko is chosen to jump overboard by throwing lots between the men and this motif, derived from the Biblical story of Jonah, is a widespread device, appearing, for instance, in Child ballad 57 Brown Robyns Confession. In 1953, Aleksandr Ptushko directed a film based on the opera entitled Sadko, a shortened and heavily modified American version of this film entitled The Magic Voyage of Sinbad was spoofed on Mystery Science Theater 3000. Sadko can be viewed as a metaphor for Yaroslav the Wise, the liberation of the Novgorodian people by Sadko can also be linked to the establishment of the Novgorod Republic by Yaroslav. Sadko may also be based on a certain Sedko Sitinits, who is mentioned in the Novgorodian First Chronicle as the patron of the stone Church of Boris, Sadko Sadko Jūratė and Kastytis - a similar Lithuanian legend. Sadko the bylina Prose version Sadko as collected by Arthur Ransome in Old Peters Russian Tales Sadko as collected by Arthur Ransome in Old Peters Russian Tales as a librivox. org audiobook
30.
Buyan
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In Slavic mythology, Buyan is described as a mysterious island in the ocean with the ability to appear and disappear using tides. Three brothers—Northern, Western, and Eastern Winds—live there, and also the Zoryas and it is also mentioned in The Tale of Tsar Saltan, of His Son the Renowned and Mighty Bogatyr Prince Gvidon Saltanovich, and of the Beautiful Princess-Swan and many other Slavic folktales. Furthermore, it also has the stone with healing and magic powers, known as the alatyr. Some scholars interpret Buyan as a sort of Proto-Indo-European Otherworld, others assert that Buyan is actually a Slavic name for some real island, most likely Rügen. The Buyan-class corvette is a class of corvettes used by the Russian Navy, Buyan. an uninhabited island on the northern parts of the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago off the northern coast of Russia. Buyan Insula, an insula within Ligeia Mare on Saturns moon Titan
31.
Ilya Muromets
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Ilya Muromets, or Ilya of Murom, sometimes Ilya Murometz, is a folk hero of Kievan Rus, a bogatyr and a character of many bylinas. In the legends he is featured alongside fellow bogatyrs Dobrynya Nikitich. Although Ilya Murometss adventures are mostly a matter of epic fiction, he is believed to have a prototype, a medieval warrior. Venerable Ilya Pechersky is beatified as a saint of the Orthodox Church. His relics are preserved in the Kiev Pechersk Lavra, according to legends, Ilya Muromets, the son of a farmer, was born in a village near Murom. He suffered an illness in his youth and was unable to walk until the age of 33. He could only lie on a Russian oven, until he was healed by two pilgrims. He was then given super-human strength by a knight, Svyatogor. Along the way he defended the city of Chernihiv from nomadic invasion and was offered knighthood by the local ruler. In the forests of Bryansk he then killed the forest-dwelling monster Nightingale the Robber, in Kiev, Ilya was made chief bogatyr by Prince Vladimir and he defended Rus from numerous attacks by the steppe people, including Kalin, the tsar of Golden Horde. Generous and simple-minded but also temperamental, Ilya once went on a rampage and he was soon appeased when Vladimir sent for him. It is generally believed that Murometss prototype was Venerable Ilya Pechersky, according to hagiography, before taking his monastic vows Ilya was a warrior famous for his strength. His nickname was Chobotok, Old East Slavic for boot, given to him after an incident when Ilya, caught by surprise, in 1988, Soviet archeologists exhumed Ilya Chobotoks remains, stored in Kiev Pechersk Lavra, and studied them. He is the epic hero canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church. Thus, Ilya supposedly served Prince Vladimir of Kiev, he fought Batu Khan, the founder of Golden Horde, he saved Constantine the God-Loving, catterino Cavoss 1807 opera Ilya Bogatyr Viktor Vasnetsovs 1898 painting Bogatyrs. Nicholas Roerichs 1910 painting Ilya Muromets Reinhold Glières 1911 Symphony No.3 in B minor, Viktor Vasnetsovs 1914 painting Ilya Muromets. Aleksandr Ptushkos 1956 film Ilya Muromets, konstantin Vasilyevs 1974 and 1977 paintings. Liz Williams Nine Layers of Sky writes an account of Ilya
32.
Nightingale the Robber
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Nightingale the Robber or Solovei the Brigand, also known as Solovey Odikhmantievich, was an epic robber from bylinas poetry of Kievan Rus. The bylina concerning Nightingale the Robber is also called The First Journey of Ilya Muromets and this monster had partial human and bird like features, was able to fly, and lived in a nest, had a human family, and received drinks with his hands. He was said to live in a forest near Bryansk, and would sit in a tree by the road to Kiev, according to legend, he was defeated by Ilya Muromets, who survived even though Razboynik levelled half of the surrounding forest. Nightingale the Robber was shot down with arrows to the eye and temple by Ilya Muromets, who dragged the defeated monster to Vladimir. Vladimir the Great wished to hear Nightingale the Robber whistle, Nightingale the Robber requested wine to drink so that his wounds would disappear, then he would whistle for the prince. When he whistled all of Vladimirs palaces were destroyed and many lay dead, after this, Ilya Muromets took Nightingale the Robber into an open field and cut off his head. Vladimir Toropchins animated feature, Ilya Muromets and Nightingale the Robber, aleksandr Ptushkos 1956 film Ilya Muromets. An Anthology of Russian Folk Epics, Ilya Muromets and Nightingale the Robber, as included by A. H. Wratislaw in Sixty Folk-Tales from Exclusively Slavonic Sources Reinhold Gliere and his Third Symphony Ilya Murometz
33.
Dobrynya Nikitich
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Dobrynya Nikitich is one of the most popular bogatyrs from the Rus folklore. Albeit fictional, this character is based on a real warlord Dobrynya, many byliny center on Dobrynya completing tasks set him by prince Vladimir. Dobrynya is often portrayed as being close to the family, undertaking sensitive. As a courtier, Dobrynya seems to be a representative of the class of warriors. He is an archer, swimmer, and wrestler. He plays the gusli, plays tafl, and is known for his courtesy, the bylina starts with Dobrynyas mother telling Dobryana to avoid the Saracen Mountains, to not trample on baby dragons, to not rescue Russian captives, and to not bathe in the Puchai River. Dobrynya disobeyed his mother and did all four things, when he bathed in the Puchai River, he encountered a dragon. Dobrynya could not defend himself, thinking he would die, Dobrynya then discovered a hat of the Greek land and used it to defeat the dragon. The dragon pleaded for Dobrynya to not kill him, and the two made a nonaggression pact, the dragon then flew off and captured Zabava Putyatishna, the niece of Prince Vladimir. When Dobrynya arrived at Kiev, Prince Vladimir requested him to rescue his niece and he then went off to the Saracen Mountains to free his niece and fight the dragon. Dobrynya fought the dragon for three days, on the third day he wanted to give up and leave, but a voice from Heaven told to fight for three more hours. Dobrynya eventually killed the dragon in three hours, the dragons blood did not seep through the ground, and Dobrynya was stuck in it for three days. A voice from Heaven eventually told him to stick a spear in the ground, the blood was then swallowed by the earth, and Zabava was rescued. Since Dobrynya was a peasant, he could not marry Zabava, Dobrynya encountered a polyanitsa, Nastasia, and married her instead. Viktor Vasnetsovs famous painting Bogatyrs features Dobrynya Nikitich alongside fellow folk heroes, Ilya Muromets, in 1901, composer Alexander Grechaninov wrote an opera titled Dobrynya Nikitich. In 2006, a feature film, Dobrynya Nikitich and Zmey Gorynych featured the bogatyrs exploits. Dobrynya Nikitich is the uncle of the great prince Vladimir I in Victor Porotnikovs historical dilogie, Dobrynya Nikitich was also a member of Vladimir II Monomakhs armed force in the novel Bogatyrs Armed Force of Monomakh. An Anthology of Russian Folk Epics, armonk, New York, M. E. Sharpe, Inc
34.
Gorynych
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In Slavic mythology, the word “zmey” and its cognates zmiy and zmaj, are used to describe a dragon. These words are masculine forms of the Slavic word for snake, in Romania, there is a similar figure, derived from the Slavic dragon and named zmeu. In Polish and Belarusian folklore, as well as in the other Slavic folklore, although quite similar to other European dragons, Slavic dragons have their peculiarities. In Russia and Ukraine, a particular dragon-like creature, Zmey Gorynych, has three heads, is green, walks on two paws, has small front paws, and spits fire. According to one bylina, Zmey Gorynych was the dragon killed by Dobrynya Nikitich, some Russian dragons symbolize the Mongols and other steppe peoples. Accordingly, St George killing the Dragon is represented on the coat of arms of Moscow, some prehistoric structures, notably the Serpents Wall near Kiev, have been associated with dragons as symbols of foreign peoples. Some Russian dragons have heads that grow back if every single head isnt cut off or the headless neck isnt covered immediately in ash or burnt. In Bulgaria, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Slovenia and Montenegro, in Bulgaria, as well as Macedonia, there is a third type of a dragon-like creature called lamya. For instance, a Bulgarian legend tells how a hero called Mavrud cut off the heads of a monster called Lamya. The story seems to symbolise the pruning of grape vines, chuvash dragon Smok Wawelski – dragon of Kraków Zahhak – Iranian dragon Zilant – dragon of Kazan Zirnitra – Wendish dragon and god of sorcery Dobrynya Nikitich and Zmey Gorynych
35.
The Tale of Igor's Campaign
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The Tale of Igors Campaign is an anonymous epic poem written in the Old East Slavic language. The title is translated as The Tale of the Campaign of Igor, The Song of Igors Campaign, The Lay of Igors Campaign, The Lay of the Host of Igor. The poem gives an account of a raid of Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsians of the Don River region. While some have disputed the authenticity of the poem, the current scholarly consensus is that the poem is authentic, the Tale of Igors Campaign was adapted by Alexander Borodin as an opera and became one of the great classics of Russian theatre. Entitled Prince Igor, it was first performed in 1890, the story describes a failed raid made in year 1185 by Kniaz Igor Svyatoslavich, Prince of Novgorod-Seversk on the Polovtsians tribe living in the southern part of the Don region. Other Rus historical figures are mentioned, including skald Boyan, the princes Vseslav of Polotsk, Yaroslav Osmomysl of Halych, the author appeals to the warring Rus princes and pleads for unity in the face of the constant threat from the Turkic East. The descriptions show coexistence between Christianity and ancient Slavic religion, Igors wife Yaroslavna invokes natural forces from the walls of Putyvl. Christian motifs are presented along with depersonalised pagan gods as among the artistic images, the Tale has been compared to other national epics, including The Song of Roland and The Song of the Nibelungs. The book however differs from contemporary Western epics on account of its numerous and vivid descriptions of nature, monastery superior Joel sold the manuscript to a local landowner, Aleksei Musin-Pushkin, as a part of a collection of ten texts. Aleksei realised the value of the book and made a transcription for the empress Catherine the Great in 1795 or 1796 and he published it in 1800 with the help of Alexei Malinovsky and Nikolai Bantysh-Kamensky, leading Russian paleographers of the time. The original manuscript was claimed to have burned in the great Moscow fire of 1812, the Russian-American author Vladimir Nabokov translated the work into English in 1960. Other notable editions include the standard Soviet edition, prepared with an extended commentary, according to the majority view, the poem is a composition of the late 12th century, perhaps composed orally and fixed in written form at some point during the 13th century. Some scholars consider the possibility that the poem in its current form is a national Romanticist compilation and it was not until 1951 that scholars discovered ancient birch bark documents with content in this medieval language. There are almost identical passages in both texts where only the names are different. The traditional point of view considers Zadonschina to be a late imitation, the forgery version claims the reverse, that Igors Tale was written using Zadonschina as a source. This fact is taken as evidence of Slovo being the original with respect to Zadonschina, proponents of the forgery thesis give sometimes contradictory arguments, some authors see numerous Gallicisms in the text, while others see Germanisms, yet others Bohemisms. Zimin is certain that the author could only be Ioil Bykovsky, current dialectology upholds Pskov and Polotsk as the two cities where the Tale was most likely written. Numerous persons have been proposed as its authors, including Prince Igor, other authors consider the epic to have emerged in Southern Rus, with many elements corresponding to modern Ukrainian language
36.
Koschei the Deathless
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In Slavic folklore, Koschei is an archetypal male antagonist, described mainly as abducting the heros wife. In Vitali Vitalievs book Granny Yaga he is described as tall and although in excellent health, extremely, almost inhumanly, the author then explains that Koshchei—in the old Krivichi dialect—means skeleton. In book illustrations, cartoons and cinema he has been most frequently represented as a very old, Koschei is also known as Koschei the Deathless, as well as Tsar Koschei. As is usual in transliterations, there are numerous other spellings, such as Koshchei, Kashchej, the spelling in Russian and other Slavic languages suggests that his name may be derived from the word kost, meaning bone, implying a skeletal appearance. Koschei cannot be killed by conventional means targeting his body, as long as his soul is safe, he cannot die. If the chest is dug up and opened, the hare will bolt away, if it is killed, anyone possessing the egg has Koschei in their power. He begins to weaken, becomes sick, and immediately loses the use of his magic, if the egg is tossed about, he likewise is flung around against his will. If the needle is broken, Koschei will die, the Death of Koschei the Deathless is a Russian fairy tale collected by Alexander Afanasyev in Narodnye russkie skazki, which itself is included in The Red Fairy Book. Koschei also appears in Russian versions of the story The Frog Princess, in Vasilisa Prekrasnaya, a Russian cartoon based on the Russian fairy tale. A villain in Igor Stravinskys Firebird, in Alexander Veltmans Koshchei bessmertny, Bylina starogo vremeni, a parody of historical adventure novels, the hero, Iva Olelkovich, imagines that his bride has been captured by Koschei. Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov wrote an opera involving Koschei, titled Кащей бессмертный, in the Soviet animated film Beloved Beauty. Mercedes Lackeys novel of Stravinskys Firebird features Katschei as the main villain, also, in her 500 Kingdoms series, the Katschei is referenced in the novels The Fairy Godmother and Fortunes Fool. Koschei appears as a slave to Baba Yaga in the Hellboy comic book series, his hidden in an egg, inside a duck, inside a hare. First appearing in Hellboy, Darkness Calls, Baba Yaga sends Koschei to kill Hellboy in return for his freedom, Vasilisa Prekrasnaya also appears and helps Hellboy. Koscheis origin story is revealed in backup stories to single issues of Hellboy. The story is collected in Hellboy, Weird Tales. While Koshei doesnt appear in person in the tabletop RPG Pathfinder, he is the inspiration for the Demon Lord Kostchtchie, in The Sandman, Fables and Reflections, Koscheis emerald heart passes into the possession of a Romani trader, then a werewolf, then Baba Yaga. In Monday Begins on Saturday by Arkady and Boris Strugatsky, as one of the held in the NIIChaVo institute
37.
Russkaya Pravda
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Russkaya Pravda was the legal code of Kievan Rus and the subsequent Rus principalities during the times of feudal division. It was written at the beginning of the 12th century and remade during many centuries, the basis of the Russkaya Pravda, Pravda of Yaroslav was written at the beginning of the 11th century. Russkaya Pravda was a source of Old Russian Law. The absence of capital and corporal punishment rather reflects the Norse way of thought, three recensions of Russkaya Pravda are known, the Short Edition, the Extensive Edition, and the Abridged Edition. Over 110 extant copies dating from the 13th to the 18th centuries are preserved, included in manuscripts, chronicles. Of these, over 100 copies, including the oldest preserved, are of the Extensive Edition and this code was discovered by the historian Vasily Tatischev in the text of one of the Novgorod chronicles and brought to the attention of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1738. The first commented edition of the text was published by August Ludwig von Schlözer in 1767, the spellings Ruska Pravda or Ruska Pravda as well as Russkaia Pravda or Russkaya Pravda are used in English language literature. The spelling debate focuses on the interpretation of the word, while Russkaia with two Ss is easily understood and translated as Russian, the modern Ukrainian viewpoint implies that modern Russia and Rus were different identities. An often quoted example is Ivan the Terribles correspondence from the 16th century, other linguists claim that the spelling with two ss only became more common in the 17th century, and only became standard after Lomonosovs Grammar was published in 1755. The term is translated as Justice of the Rus, as in the Latin ius russicum, one may also encounter the translation Russian Truth, based on the modern meaning of the word правда. Pravda Russkaya’s legal regulations reflected the evolution of the relations in the Rus of the 11th-13th centuries. Common law, Knyaz legislation, and legal proceedings represented the basis of “RP”, some indicate other distinct components of the text, possibly added later. The Yaroslav’s Law comprised legal regulations of feudal law along with the regulations that could be traced back to the primitive communal system. According to a theory, it was promulgated in order to settle a conflict between Konstantin Dobrynich, a posadnik of Novgorod, and the Varangian population of the city. Subsequent development and improvement of the Pravda Russkaya took place in times of Yaroslav’s sons, new provisions are believed to have been added to Pravda Russkaya after the revolts in Kiev, Novgorod, and Rostov-Suzdal province in 1068–1071. In the arising Russian state, the Pravda Russkaya was replaced in 1497 by the Sudebnik, several centuries earlier, new legal codes were promulgated in Pskov and Novgorod. “Pravda Yaroslavichey” increased responsibility of a community for killing knyaz’es soldiers, tiuns, starostas, otroks. “Pravda Yaroslavichey” provided severe punishment for arson, deliberate cattle mutilation, after the 1113 Riot in Kiev, an exorbitant interest law was introduced that limited financial operations of moneylenders
38.
Shamakhi
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Şamaxı is a city in and the capital of the Shamakhi Rayon of Azerbaijan. The city has a heritage and has provided the backdrop to major political events throughout much of its two millennia of existence. The citys estimated population as of 2010 was 31,704 and it is famous for its traditional dancers, the Shamakhi Dancers, and also for perhaps giving its name to the Soumak rugs. The only building to have survived eight of the earthquakes is the landmark Juma Mosque of Shamakhi. Shamakhi was first mentioned as Kamachia by the ancient Greco-Roman Egyptian geographer Claudius Ptolemaeus in the 1st to 2nd century CE, Shamakhi was an important town during the Middle Ages and served as a capital of the Shirvanshah realm from the 8th to 15th centuries. The Catholic friar, missionary and explorer William of Ruysbroeck passed through it on his journey from the Mongol Great Khans court. In 1500-1501, it was taken by the Safavid Iranians, following the conquest of the area by the first Safavid ruler Ismail I, he allowed the descendants of Farrukh Yassar to rule Shamakhi and the rest of Shirvan under Safavid suzerainty. This lasted until 1538, when his son and successor, king Tahmasp I, turned the territory into a full Safavid province, from then on, Shamakhi functioned as the capital of the Shirvan province. They however soon retired from the city, leaving it to Ottomans who possessed it in 1723-35, the new Shamakhi was at different times a residence of the Shirvan Khanate, ruled by the from Iran semi-independent khans, but it was finally abandoned, and the old town rebuilt. In the mid-1700s, the population of Shamakhi was about 60,000, the British Penny Cyclopaedia stated in 1833 that The bulk of the population of Shirvan consists of the Tahtar, or, to speak more correctly, Turkish race, with some admixture of Arabs and Persians. Besides the Mohammedans, who form the mass of the population, there are many Armenians, some Jews, and a few Gipsies. According to the returns of 1831, the number of males belonging to the Mohammedan population was 62,934, Armenians,6,375, Jews,332. The prevalent language of Shirvan is what is there called Toorkee or Turkish, the Encyclopædia Britannica stated that in 1873 the city had 25,087 inhabitants, of which 18,680 were Tartars and Shachsevans,5,177 were Armenians, and 1,230 Russians. Silk production continued to be the output, with 130 silk-winding establishments, owned mostly by Armenians. Shamakhi was the capital of the Shamakhi Governorate of the Russian Empire until the earthquake of 1859. The importance of the city declined sharply afterwards, according to the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary, Shamakhi had 20,008 inhabitants, of which 3% were Russians, 18% were Armenians, and 79% Azerbaijani Tatars. With regard to religion, 79% of the population was Muslim, of which 22% was Sunni and the rest Shiite, the remaining 21% was Armeno-Gregorian and Pravoslav. The city is located in the most seismic area of the Caucasus and was hit by earthquakes in 1191 and 1859
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Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
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Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
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National Diet Library
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The National Diet Library is the only national library in Japan. It was established in 1948 for the purpose of assisting members of the National Diet of Japan in researching matters of public policy, the library is similar in purpose and scope to the United States Library of Congress. The National Diet Library consists of two facilities in Tokyo and Kyoto, and several other branch libraries throughout Japan. The Diets power in prewar Japan was limited, and its need for information was correspondingly small, the original Diet libraries never developed either the collections or the services which might have made them vital adjuncts of genuinely responsible legislative activity. Until Japans defeat, moreover, the executive had controlled all political documents, depriving the people and the Diet of access to vital information. The U. S. occupation forces under General Douglas MacArthur deemed reform of the Diet library system to be an important part of the democratization of Japan after its defeat in World War II. In 1946, each house of the Diet formed its own National Diet Library Standing Committee, hani Gorō, a Marxist historian who had been imprisoned during the war for thought crimes and had been elected to the House of Councillors after the war, spearheaded the reform efforts. Hani envisioned the new body as both a citadel of popular sovereignty, and the means of realizing a peaceful revolution, the National Diet Library opened in June 1948 in the present-day State Guest-House with an initial collection of 100,000 volumes. The first Librarian of the Diet Library was the politician Tokujirō Kanamori, the philosopher Masakazu Nakai served as the first Vice Librarian. In 1949, the NDL merged with the National Library and became the national library in Japan. At this time the collection gained a million volumes previously housed in the former National Library in Ueno. In 1961, the NDL opened at its present location in Nagatachō, in 1986, the NDLs Annex was completed to accommodate a combined total of 12 million books and periodicals. The Kansai-kan, which opened in October 2002 in the Kansai Science City, has a collection of 6 million items, in May 2002, the NDL opened a new branch, the International Library of Childrens Literature, in the former building of the Imperial Library in Ueno. This branch contains some 400,000 items of literature from around the world. Though the NDLs original mandate was to be a library for the National Diet. In the fiscal year ending March 2004, for example, the library reported more than 250,000 reference inquiries, in contrast, as Japans national library, the NDL collects copies of all publications published in Japan. The NDL has an extensive collection of some 30 million pages of documents relating to the Occupation of Japan after World War II. This collection include the documents prepared by General Headquarters and the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, the Far Eastern Commission, the NDL maintains a collection of some 530,000 books and booklets and 2 million microform titles relating to the sciences
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