1.
Hastings, Nebraska
–
Hastings is a city and county seat of Adams County, Nebraska, United States. The population was 24,907 at the 2010 census and it is known as the town where Kool-Aid was invented by Edwin Perkins in 1927, and celebrates that event with the Kool-Aid Days festival every August. Hastings is also known for Fisher Fountain, and during World War II operated the largest Naval Ammunition Depot in the United States, Hastings was founded in 1872 at the intersection of the Burlington and Missouri River Railroad and the St. Joseph and Denver City Railroad. It was named for Colonel D. T. Hastings of the St. Joseph and Grand Island Railroad, never have I seen so varied a country so suitable to cultivation. In the 1870s, railroads lured European immigrants to the new state of Nebraska with advertisements, Hastings first settlers were English, from Liverpool, and were quickly joined by other English, Irish, Germans, Danes, and Germans from Russia. Between 1872 and 1880, when the population had grown to 2,800, settlers first built sod houses, dugouts, and shanties, then houses and stores. The city was incorporated in April 1874, and in September 1878, after a five-year Great County Seat War, however, a fire in 1879 destroyed 33 buildings downtown. The city was rebuilt between 1880 and 1890 in fireproof materials and in a planned fashion, with characteristically ornate Victorian buildings. Rittenhouse, the first practicing architect in Adams County and also mayor for ten years, thanks to the railroads, the city enjoyed great prosperity during the Gilded Age. This period of expansion ended with the drought and agricultural depression of the 1890s, Hastings saw renewed growth from 1900 to 1930, which is reflected by buildings in the Craftsman, Prairie, Colonial Revival, and American Foursquare styles. The leading Arts and Crafts architect was Claude W. Way, Hastings had four brickyards and in 1911 was producing more bricks than any other city in Nebraska, and all the paving bricks. During this period, the city became known as the cigar-making capital of Nebraska. The largest cigar factory, the Kipp Cigar Company, was by 1921 hand-rolling one-fifth of all produced in Nebraska, in 1925 it produced half. Cigars lost their popularity to cigarettes between the two World Wars, and in the 1930s the Great Depression again brought the expansion to a halt. Once World War II ended, staff was reduced at the depot, bringing Hastings last growth period to an end in 1950. Today, Heartwell Park and Central Hastings, two of the oldest neighborhoods, are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the city has adapted several of its historic buildings to new uses. Central Community College is housed in buildings of the former Naval Ammunition Depot, St. Michaels Elementary School, built in 1912, is now the police headquarters. The Clarke Hotel, built in 1914 and also on the National Register of Historic Places, is now the Kensington, spencer Park, an 840-unit village built to house workers in the 1940s, is now Good Samaritan Retirement Village
2.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
–
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, often cited as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. Researchers worked on computers, radar, and inertial guidance during World War II, post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian. The current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the bank of the Charles River basin. The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the sciences and engineering, and more recently in biology, economics, linguistics. Air Force and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT, the school has a strong entrepreneurial culture, and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world. In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a Conservatory of Art and Science, but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rogers, a professor from the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars, two days after the charter was issued, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MITs first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865, in 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay. MIT was informally called Boston Tech, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, the curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership, during these Boston Tech years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president Charles W. Eliots repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard Colleges Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard, in its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually the MIT Corporation approved an agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme, the neoclassical New Technology campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious Mr. Smith, starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of production and processing
3.
California Institute of Technology
–
The California Institute of Technology is a private doctorate-granting university located in Pasadena, California, United States. The vocational and preparatory schools were disbanded and spun off in 1910, the university is one among a small group of Institutes of Technology in the United States which is primarily devoted to the instruction of technical arts and applied sciences. Caltech has six divisions with strong emphasis on science and engineering, managing $332 million in 2011 in sponsored research. Its 124-acre primary campus is located approximately 11 mi northeast of downtown Los Angeles, first-year students are required to live on campus, and 95% of undergraduates remain in the on-campus House System at Caltech. Although Caltech has a tradition of practical jokes and pranks. The Caltech Beavers compete in 13 intercollegiate sports in the NCAA Division IIIs Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference, Caltech is frequently cited as one of the worlds best universities. There are 112 faculty members who have elected to the United States National Academies. In addition, numerous faculty members are associated with the Howard Hughes Medical Institute as well as NASA, according to a 2015 Pomona College study, Caltech ranked number one in the U. S. for the percentage of its graduates who go on to earn a PhD. Caltech started as a school founded in Pasadena in 1891 by local businessman and politician Amos G. Throop. The school was known successively as Throop University, Throop Polytechnic Institute, the vocational school was disbanded and the preparatory program was split off to form an independent Polytechnic School in 1907. At a time when research in the United States was still in its infancy, George Ellery Hale. He joined Throops board of trustees in 1907, and soon began developing it and he engineered the appointment of James A. B. Scherer, a literary scholar untutored in science but a capable administrator and fund raiser, scherer persuaded retired businessman and trustee Charles W. Gates to donate $25,000 in seed money to build Gates Laboratory, the first science building on campus. In 1910, Throop moved to its current site, arther Fleming donated the land for the permanent campus site. The promise of Throop attracted physical chemist Arthur Amos Noyes from MIT to develop the institution and assist in establishing it as a center for science, with the onset of World War I, Hale organized the National Research Council to coordinate and support scientific work on military problems. This institution, with its able investigators and excellent research laboratories, through the National Research Council, Hale simultaneously lobbied for science to play a larger role in national affairs, and for Throop to play a national role in science. During the course of the war, Hale, Noyes and Millikan worked together in Washington on the NRC, subsequently, they continued their partnership in developing Caltech. Under the leadership of Hale, Noyes and Millikan, Caltech grew to prominence in the 1920s
4.
Carnegie Mellon University
–
Carnegie Mellon University is a private research university in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Founded in 1900 by Andrew Carnegie as the Carnegie Technical Schools, in 1967, the Carnegie Institute of Technology merged with the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research to form Carnegie Mellon University. The universitys 140-acre main campus is 3 miles from Downtown Pittsburgh, john Heinz III College of Information Systems and Public Policy, and the School of Computer Science. The university also has campuses in Qatar and Silicon Valley, with degree-granting programs in six continents, Carnegie Mellon consistently ranks in the top 25 in the national U. S. News & World Report rankings. It is home to the world’s first degree-granting Robotics and Drama programs, the university spent $242 million on research in 2015. Carnegie Mellon counts 13,650 students from 114 countries, over 100,000 living alumni, Carnegies vision was to open a vocational training school for the sons and daughters of working-class Pittsburghers. Carnegie was inspired for the design of his school by the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn, in 1912 the institution changed its name to Carnegie Institute of Technology and began offering four-year degrees. The Mellon Institute of Industrial Research was founded in 1913 by banker and industrialist brothers Andrew, Mellon in honor of their father, Thomas Mellon, the patriarch of the Mellon family. The Institute began as an organization which performed work for government. In 1927, the Mellon Institute incorporated as an independent nonprofit, in 1938, the Mellon Institutes iconic building was completed and it moved to its new, and current, location on Fifth Avenue. In 1967, with support from Paul Mellon, Carnegie Tech merged with the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research to become Carnegie Mellon University, Carnegie Mellons coordinate womens college, the Margaret Morrison Carnegie College closed in 1973 and merged its academic programs with the rest of the university. The industrial research mission of the Mellon Institute survived the merger as the Carnegie Mellon Research Institute and continued doing work on contract to industry, CMRI closed in 2001 and its programs were subsumed by other parts of the university or spun off into independent entities. Carnegie Mellons 140-acre main campus is three miles from downtown Pittsburgh, between Schenley Park and the Squirrel Hill, Shadyside, and Oakland neighborhoods, Carnegie Mellon is bordered to the west by the campus of the University of Pittsburgh. Carnegie Mellon owns 81 buildings in the Oakland and Squirrel Hill neighborhoods of Pittsburgh, for decades the center of student life on campus was Skibo Hall, the Universitys student union. Built in the 1950s, Skibo Halls design was typical of Mid-Century Modern architecture, the original Skibo was razed in the summer of 1994 and replaced by a new student union that is fully wi-fi enabled. Known as University Center, the building was dedicated in 1996, in 2014, Carnegie Mellon re-dedicated the University Center as the Cohon University Center in recognition of the eighth president of the university, Jared Cohon. A large grassy area known as the Cut forms the backbone of the campus, the Cut was formed by filling in a ravine with soil from a nearby hill that was leveled to build the College of Fine Arts building. The northwestern part of the campus was acquired from the United States Bureau of Mines in the 1980s, the sculpture was controversial for its placement, the general lack of input that the campus community had, and its aesthetic appeal
5.
Computer graphics
–
Computer graphics are pictures and films created using computers. Usually, the term refers to computer-generated image data created with help from specialized hardware and software. It is a vast and recent area in computer science, the phrase was coined in 1960, by computer graphics researchers Verne Hudson and William Fetter of Boeing. It is often abbreviated as CG, though sometimes referred to as CGI. The overall methodology depends heavily on the sciences of geometry, optics. Computer graphics is responsible for displaying art and image data effectively and meaningfully to the user and it is also used for processing image data received from the physical world. Computer graphic development has had a significant impact on many types of media and has revolutionized animation, movies, advertising, video games, the term computer graphics has been used a broad sense to describe almost everything on computers that is not text or sound. Such imagery is found in and on television, newspapers, weather reports, a well-constructed graph can present complex statistics in a form that is easier to understand and interpret. In the media such graphs are used to illustrate papers, reports, thesis, many tools have been developed to visualize data. Computer generated imagery can be categorized into different types, two dimensional, three dimensional, and animated graphics. As technology has improved, 3D computer graphics have become more common, Computer graphics has emerged as a sub-field of computer science which studies methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content. Screens could display art since the Lumiere brothers use of mattes to create effects for the earliest films dating from 1895. New kinds of displays were needed to process the wealth of information resulting from such projects, early projects like the Whirlwind and SAGE Projects introduced the CRT as a viable display and interaction interface and introduced the light pen as an input device. Douglas T. Ross of the Whirlwind SAGE system performed an experiment in 1954 in which a small program he wrote captured the movement of his finger. Electronics pioneer Hewlett-Packard went public in 1957 after incorporating the decade prior, and established ties with Stanford University through its founders. This began the transformation of the southern San Francisco Bay Area into the worlds leading computer technology hub - now known as Silicon Valley. The field of computer graphics developed with the emergence of computer graphics hardware, further advances in computing led to greater advancements in interactive computer graphics. In 1959, the TX-2 computer was developed at MITs Lincoln Laboratory, the TX-2 integrated a number of new man-machine interfaces
6.
Sketchpad
–
Sketchpad was a revolutionary computer program written by Ivan Sutherland in 1963 in the course of his PhD thesis, for which he received the Turing Award in 1988, and the Kyoto Prize in 2012. It pioneered the way for human–computer interaction, Sketchpad is considered to be the ancestor of modern computer-aided design programs as well as a major breakthrough in the development of computer graphics in general. For example, the user interface was derived from the Sketchpad as well as modern object oriented programming. Ivan Sutherland demonstrated with it that computer graphics could be used for artistic and technical purposes in addition to showing a novel method of human-computer interaction. Sutherland was inspired by the Memex from As We May Think by Vannevar Bush, Sketchpad inspired Douglas Engelbart to design and develop oN-Line System at the Augmentation Research Center at the Stanford Research Institute during the 1960s. Sketchpad was the first program ever to utilize a complete user interface, using an x-y point plotter display. The clever way the program organized its geometric data pioneered the use of objects and instances in computing, the main idea was to have master drawings which one could instantiate into many duplicates. If the user changed the drawing, all the instances would change as well. Another major invention in Sketchpad was that it let the user easily constrain geometric properties in the drawing—for instance, as a trade magazine said, clearly Sutherland broke new ground in 3D computer modeling and visual simulation, the basis for computer graphics and CAD/CAM. Very few programs can be called precedents for his achievements, Sketchpad ran on the Lincoln TX-2 computer at MIT, which had 64k of 36-bit words. In 1963 most computers ran jobs in batch job mode only, a considerable amount of work was required to make the TX-2 operate in interactive mode with a large CRT screen. When Sutherland had finished with it, it had to be reconverted to run in batch mode again, the Sketchpad program was part and parcel of Sutherlands Ph. D. thesis at MIT and peripherally related to the Computer-Aided Design project at that time. Sketchpad, A Man-Machine Graphical Communication System, comparison of CAD Software Coons, Steven, Computer Sketchpad, in Fitch, John, Science Reporter, explains the principles of Sketchpad. Kay, Alan, Pt 1, Doing with Images Makes Symbols, Archive, müller-Prove, Matthias, Graphical User Interface of Sketchpad, DE, MProve. Sutherland, Ivan Edward, Sketchpad, A Man-Machine Graphical Communication System, New York, Garland Publishers, ———, Sketchpad, A man-machine graphical communication system, UK, CAM. ———, Sketchpad, A Man-Machine Graphical Communication System, AFIPS conference proceedings, PL, ACI. ———, Sketchpad, A Man-Machine Graphical Communication System, Lincoln Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology via Defense Technical Information Center,296, Archived from the original on April 8,2013, retrieved 2007-11-03 CS1 maint, Unfit url
7.
Association for Computing Machinery
–
The Association for Computing Machinery is an international learned society for computing. It was founded in 1947 and is the worlds largest scientific and it is a not-for-profit professional membership group. Its membership is more than 100,000 as of 2011 and its headquarters are in New York City. The ACM is an organization for academic and scholarly interests in computer science. Its motto is Advancing Computing as a Science & Profession, ACM is organized into over 171 local chapters and 37 Special Interest Groups, through which it conducts most of its activities. Additionally, there are over 500 college and university chapters, the first student chapter was founded in 1961 at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. Many of the SIGs, such as SIGGRAPH, SIGPLAN, SIGCSE and SIGCOMM, sponsor regular conferences, the groups also publish a large number of specialized journals, magazines, and newsletters. ACM publishes over 50 journals including the prestigious Journal of the ACM, other publications of the ACM include, ACM XRDS, formerly Crossroads, was redesigned in 2010 and is the most popular student computing magazine in the US. ACM Interactions, an interdisciplinary HCI publication focused on the connections between experiences, people and technology, and the third largest ACM publication, ACM Computing Surveys ACM Computers in Entertainment A number of journals, specific to subfields of computer science, titled ACM Transactions. ACM has made almost all of its publications available to subscribers online at its Digital Library. Individual members additionally have access to Safari Books Online and Books24x7, ACM also offers insurance, online courses, and other services to its members. In 1997, ACM Press published Wizards and Their Wonders, Portraits in Computing, written by Christopher Morgan, the book is a collection of historic and current portrait photographs of figures from the computer industry. The ACM Portal is a service of the ACM. Its core are two sections, ACM Digital Library and the ACM Guide to Computing Literature. The ACM Digital Library is the collection of all articles published by the ACM in its articles, magazines. The Guide is a bibliography in computing with over one million entries, the ACM Digital Library contains a comprehensive archive starting in the 1950s of the organizations journals, magazines, newsletters and conference proceedings. Online services include a forum called Ubiquity and Tech News digest, there is an extensive underlying bibliographic database containing key works of all genres from all major publishers of computing literature. This secondary database is a rich discovery service known as The ACM Guide to Computing Literature, ACM adopted a hybrid Open Access publishing model in 2013
8.
National Academy of Sciences
–
The National Academy of Sciences is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering, as a national academy, new members of the organization are elected annually by current members, based on their distinguished and continuing achievements in original research. Election to the National Academies is one of the highest honors in the scientific field, members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code, … to provide scientific advice to the government whenever called upon by any government department. The Academy receives no compensation from the government for its services, as of 2016, the National Academy of Sciences includes about 2,350 members and 450 foreign associates. It employed about 1,100 staff in 2005, the current members annually elect new members for life. Approximately 200 members have won a Nobel Prize, the National Academy of Sciences is a member of the International Council for Science. Although there is no relationship with state and local academies of science. The National Academies is governed by a 17-member Council, made up of five officers and 12 Councilors, the National Academy of Sciences meets annually in Washington, D. C. which is documented in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, its scholarly journal. The National Academies Press is the publisher for the National Academies, since 2004, the National Academy of Sciences has administered the Marian Koshland Science Museum to provide public exhibits and programming related to its policy work. The museums current exhibits focus on change and infectious disease. The National Academy of Sciences maintains multiple buildings around the United States, the building has a neoclassical architectural style and was built by architect Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue. The building was dedicated in 1924 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the building is used for lectures, symposia, exhibitions, and concerts, in addition to annual meetings of the NAS, NAE, and NAM. The 2012 Presidential Award for Math and Science Teaching ceremony was held here on March 5,2014, approximately 150 staff members work at the NAS Building. More than 1,000 National Academies staff members work at The Keck Center of the National Academies at 500 Fifth Street in northwest Washington, the Keck Center provides meeting space and houses the National Academies Press Bookstore. The NAS also maintains conference centers in California and Massachusetts, the J. Erik Jonsson Conference Center located at 314 Quissett Avenue in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, is another conference facility. The Act of Incorporation, signed by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3,1863, created the National Academy of Sciences, many of the original NAS members came from the so-called Scientific Lazzaroni, an informal network of mostly physical scientists working in the vicinity of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts was to name Agassiz to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Agassiz was to come to Washington at the governments expense to plan the organization with the others
9.
Kyoto Prize
–
The Kyoto Prize is Japan’s highest private award for global achievement. The Prize is given not only to those that are top representatives of their own respective field, the Kyoto Prizes are regarded by many as the most prestigious award available in fields that are traditionally not honored with a Nobel Prize. The Prize has been awarded annually since 1985 by the Inamori Foundation, the honorary president of the Foundation is Princess Takamado. The Kyoto Prize has been awarded annually to those who have contributed significantly to the scientific, cultural, the Prizes are given in the fields of Advanced Technology, Basic Sciences, and Arts and Philosophy. The Prizes are regarded by many as the most prestigious award available in fields that are not honored with a Nobel Prize. The laureates are announced each June, the presentation ceremony and related events are held in Kyoto, Japan. The Prizes were endowed with 50 million yen, with the 2015 Kyoto laureates, the three-category prizes have honored 99 individuals and one foundation. Individual laureates range from scientists, engineers, and researchers to philosophers, painters, architects, sculptors, musicians, the United States has produced the most recipients, followed by Japan, the United Kingdom, and France. The Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences was awarded to Michel Mayor for his Outstanding Contributions in Evolving a New Vision of the Universe through the Discovery of Extrasolar Planet. The Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy was awarded to John Neumeier for being A Choreographer Who Developed 20th Century Ballet to New Levels, Kyoto Prize in Advanced Technology Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy List of Kyoto Prize winners Official website Inamori Foundation
10.
Computer History Museum
–
The Computer History Museum is a museum established in 1996 in Mountain View, California, US. The Museum is dedicated to preserving and presenting the stories and artifacts of the information age, the museums origins date to 1968 when Gordon Bell began a quest for a historical collection and, at that same time, others were looking to preserve the Whirlwind computer. The resulting Museum Project had its first exhibit in 1975, located in a coat closet in a DEC lobby. In 1978, the museum, now The Digital Computer Museum, moved to a larger DEC lobby in Marlborough, maurice Wilkes presented the first lecture at TDCM in 1979 – the presentation of such lectures has continued to the present time. TDCM incorporated as The Computer Museum in 1982, in 1984, TCM moved to Boston, locating on Museum Wharf. In 1996/1997, The TCM History Center in Silicon Valley was established, a site at Moffett Field was provided by NASA, in 1999, TCMHC incorporated and TCM ceased operation, shipping its remaining artifacts to TCMHC in 2000. The name TCM had been retained by the Boston Museum of Science so, in 2000, in 2003, CHM opened its new building, at 1401 N. Shoreline Blvd in Mountain View, California, to the public. The facility was heavily renovated and underwent a two-year $19 million makeover before reopening on January 2011. The Computer History Museum claims to house the largest and most significant collection of computing artifacts in the world, the collection comprises nearly 90,000 objects, photographs and films, as well as 4,000 feet of cataloged documentation and several hundred gigabytes of software. The CHM oral history program conducts video interviews around the history of computing and networking, the museums 25, 000-square-foot exhibit Revolution, The First 2000 Years of Computing, opened to the public on January 13,2011. It covers the history of computing in 20 galleries, from the abacus to the Internet, the entire exhibition is also available online. The museum features a Liquid Galaxy in the “Going Places, A History of Silicon Valley” exhibit, the exhibit features 20 preselected locations that visitors can fly to on the Liquid Galaxy. An operating Difference Engine designed by Charles Babbage in the 1840s and it had been on loan since 2008 from its owner, Nathan Myhrvold, a former Microsoft executive. Former media executive John Hollar was appointed CEO of The Computer History Museum in July 2008, in 2012 the APL programming language followed. In February 2013 Adobe Systems, Inc. donated the Photoshop 1.0.1 source code to the collection, on October 21,2014, Xerox Altos source code and other resources followed. The CHM Fellows are exceptional men and women whose ideas have changed the world, the first fellow was Rear Admiral Grace Hopper in 1987. The fellows program has grown to 70 members as of 2015, vintage Computer Festival held annually at The Computer History Museum Computer museums History of computing History of computer science Bell, Gordon. Out of a Closet, The Early Years of the Computer * Museum, official website Computer History Museums channel on YouTube The Computer Museum Archive
11.
Computer science
–
Computer science is the study of the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. An alternate, more succinct definition of science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems and its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as computational complexity theory, are highly abstract, other fields still focus on challenges in implementing computation. Human–computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, the earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, further, algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment. Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623, in 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner. He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons and he started developing this machine in 1834, and in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a card system derived from the Jacquard loom making it infinitely programmable. Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical information, when the machine was finished, some hailed it as Babbages dream come true. During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing machines were developed, as it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as an academic discipline in the 1950s. The worlds first computer science program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science. The first computer science program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights and it is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM released the IBM704 and later the IBM709 computers, still, working with the IBM was frustrating if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again. During the late 1950s, the science discipline was very much in its developmental stages. Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology, modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base
12.
Harvard University
–
Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
13.
University of Utah
–
The University of Utah is a public coeducational space-grant research university in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States. As the states flagship university, the university more than 100 undergraduate majors. The university is classified in the highest ranking, R-1, Doctoral Universities – Highest Research Activity by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, the Carnegie Classification also considers the university as selective, which is its second most selective admissions category. Quinney College of Law and the School of Medicine, Utahs only medical school, as of Fall 2015, there are 23,909 undergraduate students and 7,764 graduate students, for an enrollment total of 31,673. The university was established in 1850 as the University of Deseret by the General Assembly of the provisional State of Deseret and it received its current name in 1892, four years before Utah attained statehood, and moved to its current location in 1900. The university ranks among the top 50 U. S. universities by total research expenditures with over $486 million spent in 2014, in addition, the universitys Honors College has been reviewed among 50 leading national Honors Colleges in the U. S. The university has also ranked the 12th most ideologically diverse university in the country. The universitys athletic teams, the Utes, participate in NCAA Division I athletics as a member of the Pac-12 Conference and its football team has received national attention for winning the 2005 Fiesta Bowl and the 2009 Sugar Bowl. A Board of Regents was organized by Brigham Young to establish a university in the Salt Lake Valley, early classes were held in private homes or wherever space could be found. The university closed in 1853 due to lack of funds and lack of feeder schools, the university moved out of the council house into the Union Academy building in 1876 and into Union Square in 1884. Additional Fort Douglas land has granted to the university over the years. Upon his death in 1900, Dr. John R. Park bequeathed his fortune to the university. One third of the faculty resigned in protest of these dismissals, the controversy was largely resolved when Kingsbury resigned in 1916, but university operations were again interrupted by World War I, and later The Great Depression and World War II. Student enrollment dropped to a low of 3,418 during the last year of World War II, ray Olpin made substantial additions to campus following the war, and enrollment reached 12,000 by the time he retired in 1964. Growth continued in the decades as the university developed into a research center for fields such as computer science. During the 2002 Winter Olympics, the university hosted the Olympic Village, the University of Utah Asia Campus opened as an international branch campus in the Incheon Global Campus in Songdo, Incheon, South Korea in 2014. Three other European and American universities are also participating, the Asia Campus was funded by the South Korean government. Campus takes up 1,534 acres, including the Health Sciences complex, Research Park and it is located on the east bench of the Salt Lake Valley, close to the Wasatch Range and approximately 2 miles east of downtown Salt Lake City
14.
Sun Microsystems
–
Sun contributed significantly to the evolution of several key computing technologies, among them Unix, RISC processors, thin client computing, and virtualized computing. Sun was founded on February 24,1982, at its height, the Sun headquarters were in Santa Clara, California, on the former west campus of the Agnews Developmental Center. On January 27,2010, Oracle Corporation acquired Sun by for US$7.4 billion, other technologies include the Java platform, MySQL, and NFS. Sun was a proponent of open systems in general and Unix in particular, the initial design for what became Suns first Unix workstation, the Sun-1, was conceived by Andy Bechtolsheim when he was a graduate student at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California. Bechtolsheim originally designed the SUN workstation for the Stanford University Network communications project as a personal CAD workstation and it was designed around the Motorola 68000 processor with an advanced memory management unit to support the Unix operating system with virtual memory support. He built the first ones from spare parts obtained from Stanfords Department of Computer Science, on February 24,1982, Vinod Khosla, Andy Bechtolsheim, and Scott McNealy, all Stanford graduate students, founded Sun Microsystems. Bill Joy of Berkeley, a developer of the Berkeley Software Distribution. The Sun name is derived from the initials of the Stanford University Network, Sun was profitable from its first quarter in July 1982. By 1983 Sun was known for producing 68000-based systems with high-quality graphics that were the only computers other than DECs VAX to run 4. 2BSD and it licensed the computer design to other manufacturers, which typically used it to build Multibus-based systems running Unix from UniSoft. Suns initial public offering was in 1986 under the stock symbol SUNW, the symbol was changed in 2007 to JAVA, Sun stated that the brand awareness associated with its Java platform better represented the companys current strategy. Suns logo, which features four interleaved copies of the sun in the form of a rotationally symmetric ambigram, was designed by professor Vaughan Pratt. The initial version of the logo was orange and had the sides oriented horizontally and vertically, but it was rotated to stand on one corner and re-colored purple. In the dot-com bubble, Sun began making more money. It also began spending more, hiring workers and building itself out. Some of this was because of demand, but much was from web start-up companies anticipating business that would never happen. Sales in Suns important hardware division went into free-fall as customers closed shop, several quarters of steep losses led to executive departures, rounds of layoffs, and other cost cutting. In December 2001, the fell to the 1998, pre-bubble level of about $100. But it kept falling, faster than many other tech companies, a year later it had dipped below $10 but bounced back to $20
15.
Portland State University
–
Portland State University is a public, nonprofit, coeducational research university located in the southwest University District of downtown Portland, Oregon, United States. It was founded in 1946 as an educational institution for World War II veterans. It evolved into a four-year college over the two decades, and was granted university status in 1969. It is the public urban university in the state of Oregon that is located in a major metropolitan city. Portland State is composed of seven constituent colleges, offering degrees in one hundred twenty-three fields. The athletic teams are known as the Portland State Vikings with school colors of green, teams compete at the NCAA Division I Level, primarily in the Big Sky Conference. S. News and World Report in 2016, Portland State has community partnerships with Intel, Oregon Health & Science University, the Portland Public School system, the City of Portland, and Portland General Electric. In 2016, the university was ranked by Niche as one of the most liberal universities in the United States, Portland State University was established as the Vanport Extension Center in June 1946, founded by Stephen Edward Epler, a native of Iowa. Epler graduated from Cotner College in Lincoln, Nebraska, and later Columbia University in New York City, after returning to the United States after serving, Epler became a veterans counselor in Oregons General Extension Division in Portland. The Vanport Extension Center was conceived by Epler in order to satisfy the demand for education in Portland for returning World War II veterans. Bill was passed in 1944 to provide college, high school or vocational education for returning World War II veterans, the first classes were held in the Vanport Junior High School. This first summer session had 221 students, and tuition and fees were $50, over 1,410 students registered for the 1946 fall term, which was delayed until October 7,1946 due to a lack of space. In addition to Vanport Junior High School, Lincoln and Jefferson high schools were used after hours, as well as the University of Oregons dental and medical schools. Following the May 30 Vanport Flood of 1948, the became known as the college that wouldnt die for refusing to close after the flood. The term was coined by Lois Hennessy, a student who wrote about the college, the school occupied Grant High School in the summer of 1948, then to hastily converted buildings at the Oregon Shipyard, known as the Oregon Ship. In 1953, the moved to downtown Portland and occupied the vacated buildings of Lincoln High School on SW Broadway Street, including Lincoln Hall. The school changed its name to the Portland State Extension Center between December 1951 and February 1952, and also earned a title, The U by the Slough. Epler, who had campaigned for a role at the college, was not elected by the State Board
16.
DARPA
–
The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is an agency of the U. S. Department of Defense responsible for the development of emerging technologies for use by the military. DARPA was created in February 1958 as the Advanced Research Projects Agency by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and its purpose was to formulate and execute research and development projects to expand the frontiers of technology and science, with the aim to reach beyond immediate military requirements. DARPA was created in response to the Soviet launching of Sputnik 1 in 1957, the name of the organization changed several times from its founding name ARPA, DARPA, ARPA, and DARPA. DARPA is independent from other research and development and reports directly to senior Department of Defense management. DARPA has about 240 employees, of whom 13 are in management, dARPA-funded projects have provided significant technologies that influenced many non-military fields, such as computer networking and graphical user interfaces in information technology. S. The mission statement has evolved over time, today, DARPAs mission is still to prevent technological surprise to the U. S. but also to create technological surprise for U. S. enemies. The creation of the Advanced Research Projects Agency was authorized by President Dwight D.15 and its creation was directly attributed to the launching of Sputnik and to U. S. realization that the Soviet Union had developed the capacity to rapidly exploit military technology. Initial funding of ARPA was $520 million, ARPAs first director, Roy Johnson, left a $160,000 management job at General Electric for an $18,000 job at ARPA. Herbert York from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory was hired as his scientific assistant, Johnson and York were both keen on space projects, but when NASA was established later in 1958 all space projects and most of ARPAs funding were transferred to it. Johnson resigned and ARPA was repurposed to do high-risk, high-gain, far out basic research, ARPAs second director was Brigadier General Austin W. Betts, who resigned in early 1961. He was succeeded by Jack Ruina who served until 1963, Ruina, the first scientist to administer ARPA, managed to raise its budget to $250 million. In pursuit of this mission, DARPA has developed and transferred technology programs encompassing a range of scientific disciplines that address the full spectrum of national security needs. From 1958 to 1965, ARPAs emphasis centered on major issues, including space, ballistic missile defense. During 1960, all of its civilian space programs were transferred to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the military space programs to the individual Services. This allowed ARPA to concentrate its efforts on the Project Defender, Project Vela, and Project AGILE Programs, and to work on computer processing, behavioral sciences. The DEFENDER and AGILE Programs formed the foundation of DARPA sensor, surveillance, and directed energy R&D, particularly in the study of radar, infrared sensing, ARPA at this point played an early role in Transit a predecessor to the Global Positioning System. Fast-forward to 1959 when a joint effort between DARPA and the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory began to fine-tune the early explorers’ discoveries, TRANSIT, sponsored by the Navy and developed under the leadership of Dr. Richard Kirschner at Johns Hopkins, was the first satellite positioning system. The agency was renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency in 1972, and during the early 1970s, it emphasized direct energy programs, information processing, concerning information processing, DARPA made great progress, initially through its support of the development of time-sharing
17.
Thesis
–
A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. In some contexts, the thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelors or masters course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts. The term graduate thesis is used to refer to both masters theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, the word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek θέσις, meaning something put forth, Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning path. A thesis may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, an ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the different areas of study. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory, Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used. Degree-awarding institutions often define their own style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. Other applicable international standards include ISO2145 on section numbers, ISO690 on bibliographic references, some older house styles specify that front matter uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter, however, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the size and the page formatting. A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a students dissertation, the committee members are doctors in their field and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student, all the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers, a longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelors degree is sometimes called a major paper. High-quality research papers presented as the study of a postgraduate consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis
18.
Claude Shannon
–
Claude Elwood Shannon was an American mathematician, electrical engineer, and cryptographer known as the father of information theory. Shannon is noted for having founded information theory with a paper, A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Shannon contributed to the field of cryptanalysis for national defense during World War II, including his work on codebreaking. Shannon was born in Petoskey, Michigan and grew up in Gaylord and his father, Claude, Sr. a descendant of early settlers of New Jersey, was a self-made businessman, and for a while, a Judge of Probate. Shannons mother, Mabel Wolf Shannon, was a language teacher, most of the first 16 years of Shannons life were spent in Gaylord, where he attended public school, graduating from Gaylord High School in 1932. Shannon showed an inclination towards mechanical and electrical things and his best subjects were science and mathematics. At home he constructed such devices as models of planes, a model boat. While growing up, he worked under Andrew Coltrey as a messenger for the Western Union company. His childhood hero was Thomas Edison, who he learned was a distant cousin. Both were descendants of John Ogden, a leader and an ancestor of many distinguished people. Shannon was apolitical and an atheist, in 1932, Shannon entered the University of Michigan, where he was introduced to the work of George Boole. He graduated in 1936 with two degrees, one in electrical engineering and the other in mathematics. In 1936, Shannon began his studies in electrical engineering at MIT, where he worked on Vannevar Bushs differential analyzer. While studying the complicated ad hoc circuits of this analyzer, Shannon designed switching circuits based on Booles concepts, in 1937, he wrote his masters degree thesis, A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits, A paper from this thesis was published in 1938. In this work, Shannon proved that his switching circuits could be used to simplify the arrangement of the electromechanical relays that were used then in telephone call routing switches, next, he expanded this concept, proving that these circuits could solve all problems that Boolean algebra could solve. In the last chapter, he presents diagrams of several circuits, using this property of electrical switches to implement logic is the fundamental concept that underlies all electronic digital computers. Shannons work became the foundation of digital design, as it became widely known in the electrical engineering community during. The theoretical rigor of Shannons work superseded the ad hoc methods that had prevailed previously, howard Gardner called Shannons thesis possibly the most important, and also the most noted, masters thesis of the century
19.
James H. Clark
–
James Henry Clark is an American entrepreneur and computer scientist. He founded several notable Silicon Valley technology companies, including Silicon Graphics, Netscape Communications Corporation, myCFO, and Healtheon. His research work in computer graphics led to the development of systems for the fast rendering of computer images. Clark was born in Plainview, Texas and endured a difficult childhood and he dropped out of high school after being suspended, and spent four years in the Navy where he was introduced to electronics. There, Clark earned his Bachelors and a masters degrees in physics, clarks research work concerned geometry pipelines, specialized software or hardware that accelerates the display of three dimensional images. In 1982, James Clark along with several Stanford graduate students founded Silicon Graphics, the earliest Silicon Graphics graphical workstations were mainly terminals, but they were soon followed by stand-alone graphical Unix workstations with very fast graphics rendering hardware. In the mid-1980s, Silicon Graphics began to use the MIPS CPU as the foundation of their newest workstations, soon, Silicon Graphics became the world leader in the production of Hollywood movie visual effects and 3-D imaging. Silicon Graphics focused on the market where they could charge a premium for their special hardware. In the early 1990s, Clark fell out with Silicon Graphics management, the next year Clark and Andreessen founded Netscape. The founding of Netscape and its IPO in 1996 launched the Internet boom on Wall Street during the mid-to-late 1990s, Clark reaped the financial benefits of that boom—with an investment of US$5 million, he earned US$2 billion. Just as the Internet boom came to an end, Clark moved on again, in 1995, Clark became interested in streamlining the paperwork associated with the health-care industry. The resulting start-up, Healtheon, was founded in early 1996 with backing from Kleiner Perkins, however, an Atlanta, Georgia startup company, WebMD originally focused on medical content was also making similar in-roads. Knowing WebMD had financial backing from Microsoft, Clark decided to merge Healtheon with the original WebMD to form the WebMD Corporation, WebMD is a leader in health information on the Internet. In 1999, Jim Clark launched myCFO, a company formed to help wealthy Silicon Valley individuals manage their fortunes, in late 2002, while Clark served on the board of directors, most of myCFOs operations were sold to Harris Bank and now operate as Harris myCFO. Clark was chairman and financial backer of network-security startup Neoteris, founded in 2000, which was acquired by NetScreen in 2003 and subsequently by Juniper Networks. In 2003, the company was acquired by Genaissance Pharmaceuticals Inc. Clark was the subject of the 1999 bestseller The New New Thing, ISBN 0-340-76699-9 Clark was a notable investor in Kibu. com, an Internet website for teens, which received approximately $22 million in funding. The website shut down in 2000, returning its remaining capital to investors, Clark co-produced the 2009 movie The Cove. His funding made possible the purchase and covert installation of some high-tech camera, the film addresses the problem of whale and dolphin killing in Taiji, Wakayama, Japan
20.
John Warnock
–
John Edward Warnock is an American computer scientist and businessman best known as the co-founder with Charles Geschke of Adobe Systems Inc. the graphics and publishing software company. Warnock was President of Adobe for his first two years and Chairman and CEO for his sixteen years at the company. Although retired as CEO in 2000, he still co-chairs the board with Geschke, Warnock has pioneered the development of graphics, publishing, Web and electronic document technologies that have revolutionized the field of publishing and visual communications. Warnock was born and raised in Salt Lake City, Utah and he failed mathematics in ninth grade but graduated from Olympus High School in 1958. He currently lives in the San Francisco Bay Area and he is married and has three children. At the University of Utah he was a member of the Gamma Beta Chapter of the Beta Theta Pi Fraternity and he also has an honorary degree from the American Film Institute. In 1976, while Warnock worked at Evans & Sutherland, a Salt Lake City-based computer graphics company, prior to co-founding Adobe, with Geschke and Putman, Warnock worked with Geschke at Xeroxs Palo Alto Research Center, where he had started in 1978. At their new company, they developed an equivalent technology, PostScript, from scratch, in his 1969 doctoral thesis, Warnock invented the Warnock algorithm for hidden surface determination in computer graphics. It works by recursive subdivision of a scene until areas are obtained that are trivial to compute and it solves the problem of rendering a complicated image by avoiding the problem. If the scene is enough to compute then it is rendered, otherwise it is divided into smaller parts. Warnock notes that for this work he received the distinction of having written the shortest doctoral thesis in University of Utah history. In the Spring of 1991, Warnock outlined a system called Camelot, the goal of Camelot was to effectively capture documents from any application, send electronic versions of these documents anywhere, and view and print these documents on any machines. Warnocks document contemplated, Imagine if the IPS viewer is also equipped with text searching capabilities, in this case the user could find all documents that contain a certain word or phrase, and then view that word or phrase in context within the document. Entire libraries could be archived in electronic form, one of Adobes popular typefaces, Warnock, is named after him. Adobes PostScript technology made it easier to print text and images from a computer, revolutionizing media and publishing in the 1980s. In 2003 Warnock and his wife donated 200,000 shares of Adobe Systems valued at over 5.7 million dollars to the University of Utah as the gift for a new engineering building. The John E. and Marva M. Warnock Engineering Building was completed in 2007 and houses the Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute and the Dean of the University of Utah College of Engineering. In addition to Adobe Systems, he serves or has served on the board of directors at ebrary, Knight-Ridder, MongoNet, Netscape Communications, Warnock is a past Chairman of the Tech Museum of Innovation in San Jose
21.
Teacher
–
A teacher is a person who helps others to acquire knowledge, competences or values. Informally the role of teacher may be taken on by anyone, in some countries, teaching young people of school age may be carried out in an informal setting, such as within the family, rather than in a formal setting such as a school or college. Some other professions may involve a significant amount of teaching, in most countries, formal teaching is usually carried out by paid professional teachers. This article focuses on those who are employed, as their role, to teach others in a formal education context. A teachers role may vary among cultures, Teachers may provide instruction in literacy and numeracy, craftsmanship or vocational training, the arts, religion, civics, community roles, or life skills. Formal teaching tasks include preparing lessons according to agreed curricula, giving lessons, a teachers professional duties may extend beyond formal teaching. In some education systems, teachers may have responsibility for student discipline, Teaching is a highly complex activity. This is in part because teaching is a practice, that takes place in a specific context. Factors that influence what is expected of teachers include history and tradition, social views about the purpose of education, so the competences required by a teacher are affected by the different ways in which the role is understood around the world. Broadly, there seem to be four models, the teacher as manager of instruction, the teacher as caring person, the teacher as expert learner, some evidence-based international discussions have tried to reach such a common understanding. Scholarly consensus is emerging that what is required of teachers can be grouped under three headings, knowledge craft skills and dispositions and it has been found that teachers who showed enthusiasm towards the course materials and students can create a positive learning experience. These teachers do not teach by rote but attempt to find new invigoration for the materials on a daily basis. One of the challenges facing teachers is that they may have covered a curriculum until they begin to feel bored with the subject. Students who had enthusiastic teachers tend to rate them higher than teachers who didnt show much enthusiasm for the course materials, Teachers that exhibit enthusiasm can lead to students who are more likely to be engaged, interested, energetic, and curious about learning the subject matter. Recent research has found a correlation between teacher enthusiasm and students intrinsic motivation to learn and vitality in the classroom, students who experienced a very enthusiastic teacher were more likely to read lecture material outside of the classroom. There are various mechanisms by which teacher enthusiasm may facilitate higher levels of intrinsic motivation, teacher enthusiasm may contribute to a classroom atmosphere of energy and enthusiasm which feeds student interest and excitement in learning the subject matter. Enthusiastic teachers may also lead to becoming more self-determined in their own learning process. The concept of mere exposure indicates that the teachers enthusiasm may contribute to the expectations about intrinsic motivation in the context of learning
22.
Graphical user interface
–
GUIs were introduced in reaction to the perceived steep learning curve of command-line interfaces, which require commands to be typed on a computer keyboard. The actions in a GUI are usually performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements, beyond computers, GUIs are used in many handheld mobile devices such as MP3 players, portable media players, gaming devices, smartphones and smaller household, office and industrial controls. Designing the visual composition and temporal behavior of a GUI is an important part of application programming in the area of human–computer interaction. Its goal is to enhance the efficiency and ease of use for the logical design of a stored program. Methods of user-centered design are used to ensure that the language introduced in the design is well-tailored to the tasks. The visible graphical interface features of an application are sometimes referred to as chrome or GUI, typically, users interact with information by manipulating visual widgets that allow for interactions appropriate to the kind of data they hold. The widgets of an interface are selected to support the actions necessary to achieve the goals of users. A model–view–controller allows a structure in which the interface is independent from and indirectly linked to application functions. This allows users to select or design a different skin at will, good user interface design relates to users more, and to system architecture less. Large widgets, such as windows, usually provide a frame or container for the main presentation content such as a web page, smaller ones usually act as a user-input tool. A GUI may be designed for the requirements of a market as application-specific graphical user interfaces. By the 1990s, cell phones and handheld game systems also employed application specific touchscreen GUIs, newer automobiles use GUIs in their navigation systems and multimedia centers, or navigation multimedia center combinations. Sample graphical desktop environments A GUI uses a combination of technologies and devices to provide a platform that users can interact with, a series of elements conforming a visual language have evolved to represent information stored in computers. This makes it easier for people with few computer skills to work with, the most common combination of such elements in GUIs is the windows, icons, menus, pointer paradigm, especially in personal computers. The WIMP style of interaction uses a virtual device to represent the position of a pointing device, most often a mouse. Available commands are compiled together in menus, and actions are performed making gestures with the pointing device, a window manager facilitates the interactions between windows, applications, and the windowing system. The windowing system handles hardware devices such as pointing devices, graphics hardware, window managers and other software combine to simulate the desktop environment with varying degrees of realism. Smaller mobile devices such as personal assistants and smartphones typically use the WIMP elements with different unifying metaphors, due to constraints in space
23.
Bachelor's degree
–
A bachelors degree or baccalaureate is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to seven years. In some institutions and educational systems, some bachelors degrees can only be taken as graduate or postgraduate degrees after a first degree has been completed. The term bachelor in the 12th century referred to a knight bachelor, by the end of the 13th century, it was also used by junior members of guilds or universities. By folk etymology or wordplay, the word came to be associated with bacca lauri in reference to laurels being awarded for academic success or honours. An honours degree generally requires an academic standard than a pass degree. In most African countries, the university systems follow the model of their former colonizing power, for example, the Nigerian university system is similar to the British system, while the Ivorian system is akin to the French. The degree is typically identical to the program of Frances universities, bachelors degree programs cover most of the fields in Algerian universities, except some fields, such as Medicine and Pharmaceutical Science. Bachelors degrees at the University of Botswana normally take four years, the system draws on both British and American models. Degrees are classified as First Class, Second Class Division One, Second Class Division Two and Third as in English degrees, but without being described as honours. The main degrees are named by British tradition, but in recent years there have been a numbers of degrees named after specific subjects, such as Bachelor of Library, in Morocco, a bachelors degree is referred to as al-ʾijāzah. The course of study takes three years, which are divided into two cycles. The first cycle comprises the first, or propaedeutic, year, after successfully completing their first two years, students can pursue either theoretical specialization or professional specialization. The second cycle is one long, after whose completion students receive the licence détudes fondamentales or the licence professionnelle. This academic degree system was introduced in September 2003, University admission is extremely competitive, with attendant advantages and disadvantages. Nonetheless, it takes four to five years to complete a bachelors degree, in cases of poor performance, the time limit is double the standard amount of time. For example, one may not study for more than 10 years for a five-year course, students are normally asked to leave if they must take longer. B. Arch. and other specialized undergraduate degrees, such as B. Eng, Science undergraduate degrees may require six months or a semester dedicated to SIWES but it is usually mandatory for all engineering degrees. A semester for project work/thesis is required, not excluding course work, the classifications of degrees, first-class, second-class, third-class and a pass
24.
Marvin Minsky
–
Marvin Lee Minsky was born in New York City, to an eye surgeon father, Henry, and to a mother, Fannie, who was an activist of Zionist affairs. He attended the Ethical Culture Fieldston School and the Bronx High School of Science and he later attended Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts. He then served in the US Navy from 1944 to 1945 and he received a B. A. in mathematics from Harvard University and a Ph. D. in mathematics from Princeton University. He was on the MIT faculty from 1958 to his death, in 1959 he and John McCarthy initiated what is known now as the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. He was the Toshiba Professor of Media Arts and Sciences, and professor of electrical engineering, Minskys inventions include the first head-mounted graphical display and the confocal microscope. He developed, with Seymour Papert, the first Logo turtle, Minsky also built, in 1951, the first randomly wired neural network learning machine, SNARC. Minsky wrote the book Perceptrons, which became the work in the analysis of artificial neural networks. He also founded several other famous AI models and his book A framework for representing knowledge created a new paradigm in programming. While his Perceptrons is now more a historical than practical book, Minsky has also written on the possibility that extraterrestrial life may think like humans, permitting communication. Clarkes derivative novel of the name, Probably no one would ever know this. In the 1980s, Minsky and Good had shown how neural networks could be generated automatically—self replicated—in accordance with any arbitrary learning program, Artificial brains could be grown by a process strikingly analogous to the development of a human brain. In any given case, the details would never be known. In the early 1970s, at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab, Minsky, the theory attempts to explain how what we call intelligence could be a product of the interaction of non-intelligent parts. Minsky says that the biggest source of ideas about the theory came from his work in trying to create a machine that uses an arm, a video camera. In 1986, Minsky published The Society of Mind, a book on the theory which. Recent drafts of the book are available from his webpage. In 1952, Minsky married pediatrician Dr. Gloria Rudisch, together they had three children, Minsky was a talented improvisational pianist who published musings on the relations between music and psychology. Minsky was an atheist and a signatory to the Scientists Open Letter on Cryonics and he was a critic of the Loebner Prize for conversational robots
25.
TX-2
–
The MIT Lincoln Laboratory TX-2 computer was the successor to the Lincoln TX-0 and was known for its role in advancing both artificial intelligence and human-computer interaction. Wesley A. Clark was the architect of the TX-2. The TX-2 was a computer using the then-huge amount of 64K 36-bit words of core memory. The TX-2 became operational in 1958, because of its then powerful capabilities Ivan Sutherlands revolutionary Sketchpad program was developed for and ran on the TX-2. Digital Equipment Corporation was a spin-off of the TX-0 and TX-2 projects, a TX-1 was planned as the successor for the TX-0, but the project was deemed too ambitious and was scaled back to the TX-2. The TX-2 Tape System was a block addressable 1/2 tape developed for the TX-2 by Tom Stockebrand which evolved into LINCtape and DECtape
26.
Douglas Engelbart
–
Douglas Carl Engelbart was an American engineer and inventor, and an early computer and Internet pioneer. These were demonstrated at The Mother of All Demos in 1968, Engelbarts Law, the observation that the intrinsic rate of human performance is exponential, is named after him. In the early 1950s, he decided instead of having a steady job – such as his position at NASAs Ames Research Center – he would focus on making the world a better place. He believed that the computer, which was at the thought of only as a tool for automation. He was a committed, vocal proponent of the development and use of computers and computer networks to help cope with the increasingly urgent. Engelbart embedded a set of organizing principles in his lab, which he termed bootstrapping and his belief was that when human systems and tool systems were aligned, such that workers spent time improving their tools for improving their tools it would lead to an accelerating rate of progress. The lab was transferred from SRI to Tymshare in the late 1970s, which was acquired by McDonnell Douglas in 1984, at both Tymshare and McDonnell Douglas, Engelbart was limited by a lack of interest in his ideas and funding to pursue them, and retired in 1986. In December 2000, United States President Bill Clinton awarded Engelbart the National Medal of Technology, in December 2008, Engelbart was honored by SRI at the 40th Anniversary celebration of the 1968 Mother of All Demos. Engelbart was born in Portland, Oregon on January 30,1925, to Carl Louis Engelbart and his ancestors were of German, Swedish and Norwegian descent. He was the middle of three children, with a sister Dorianne, and a brother David, the family lived in Portland, Oregon, in his early years, and moved to the surrounding countryside along Johnson Creek when he was 8. His father died one year later and he graduated from Portlands Franklin High School in 1942. On a small island, in a hut on stilts, he read Vannevar Bushs article As We May Think. He returned to Oregon State College and completed his bachelors degree in engineering in 1948. While at Oregon State College, he was a member of Sigma Phi Epsilon social fraternity and he was hired by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics at the Ames Research Center, where he worked in wind tunnel maintenance. In his off hours he enjoyed hiking, camping, and folk dancing and it was there he met Ballard Fish who was just completing her training to become an occupational therapist. They were married on May 5,1951 in Portola State Park, soon after, Engelbart left NACA to pursue a PhD at UC Berkeley. Engelbarts career was inspired in December 1950 when he was engaged to be married and realized he had no goals other than a steady job, getting married. In 1945, Engelbart had read with interest Vannevar Bushs article As We May Think and he had also read something about the recent phenomenon of computers, and from his experience as a radar technician, he knew that information could be analyzed and displayed on a screen
27.
NLS (computer system)
–
NLS, or the oN-Line System, was a revolutionary computer collaboration system from the 1960s. It was funded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, NASA, Douglas Engelbart developed his concepts while supported by the US Air Force from 1959 to 1960, and published a framework in 1962. The strange acronym, NLS was an artifact of the evolution of the system and his first computers were not able to support more than one user at a time. First was the CDC 160A in 1963 which had very little programming power of its own, without interactive visualization, this could be awkward, since the user had to mentally simulate the cumulative effects of their commands on the document text. On the other hand, it matched the workflow of the 1960s office, since managers would give marked-up printouts of documents to secretaries, the design continued to support this off-line workflow, as well as an interactive on-line ability to edit the same documents. To avoid two acronyms starting with the letter, the Off-Line Text System was abbreviated FLTS, while the On-Line Text System was abbreviated NLTS. As the system evolved to more than just text, the T was dropped. Robert Taylor, who had a background in psychology, provided support from NASA, when Taylor moved to the Information Processing Techniques Office of the US Defense Departments Advanced Research Projects Agency, he was able to provide even more funding to the project. In 1965, NLS development moved to a CDC3100, jeff Rulifson joined SRI in 1966 and became the lead programmer for NLS until he left in 1973. NLS development moved to a Scientific Data Systems SDS940 computer running the Berkeley Timesharing System in 1968 and it had an approximately 96 MB storage disk. It could support up to 16 workstations, which were composed of a monitor, a three-button mouse. The input of typed text was sent from the keyboard to a subsystem that relayed the information along a bus to one of two Display Controllers and Display Generators. The TV camera information was sent to the closed-circuit Camera Control and Patch Panel. NLS was demonstrated by Engelbart on December 9,1968 to an audience at that years Fall Joint Computer Conference in San Francisco. This has since been dubbed The Mother of All Demos, as it not only demonstrated the features of NLS. One of NLSs most revolutionary features, the Journal, was developed in 1970 by Australian computer engineer David A. Evans as part of his doctoral thesis. The Journal was a primitive hypertext-based groupware program which can be seen as a predecessor of all contemporary server software that supports collaborative document creation and it was used by ARC members to discuss, debate, and refine concepts in the same way that wikis are being used today. The journal was used to store documents for the Network Information Center, the NLS was implemented using several domain-specific languages implemented with the Tree Meta compiler-compiler
28.
Vannevar Bush
–
He is also known in engineering for his work on analog computers, for founding Raytheon, and for the memex, a hypothetical adjustable microfilm viewer with a structure analogous to that of hypertext. The memex influenced generations of scientists, who drew inspiration from its vision of the future. He was chiefly responsible for the movement that led to the creation of the National Science Foundation, for his masters thesis, Bush invented and patented a profile tracer, a mapping device for assisting surveyors. It was the first of a string of inventions and he joined the Department of Electrical Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1919, and founded the company now known as Raytheon in 1922. Starting in 1927, Bush constructed a differential analyzer, a computer with some digital components that could solve differential equations with as many as 18 independent variables. An offshoot of the work at MIT by Bush and others was the beginning of digital circuit design theory, Bush became vice president of MIT and dean of the MIT School of Engineering in 1932, and president of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1938. Bush was appointed to the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics in 1938, Bush was a well-known policymaker and public intellectual during World War II, when he was in effect the first presidential science advisor. As head of NDRC and OSRD, he initiated the Manhattan Project, Vannevar Bush was born in Everett, Massachusetts, on March 11,1890, the third child and only son of Perry Bush, the local Universalist pastor, and his wife Emma Linwood née Paine. He had two sisters, Edith and Reba. He was named after John Vannevar, an old friend of the family who had attended Tufts College with Perry, the family moved to Chelsea, Massachusetts, in 1892, and Bush graduated from Chelsea High School in 1909. He then attended Tufts, like his father before him, a popular student, he was vice president of his sophomore class, and president of his junior class. During his senior year, he managed the football team and he became a member of the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity, and dated Phoebe Clara Davis, who also came from Chelsea. Tufts allowed students to gain a degree in four years simultaneously with a bachelors degree, so for his masters thesis. This was a device for assisting surveyors that looked like a lawn mower and it had two bicycle wheels, and a pen that plotted the terrain over which it traveled. It was the first of a string of inventions, on graduation in 1913 he received both bachelor of science and master of science degrees. After graduation, Bush worked at General Electric in Schenectady, New York, as a test man, his job was to assess equipment to ensure that it was safe. He transferred to GEs plant in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, to work on high voltage transformers, but after a fire out at the plant, Bush. He returned to Tufts in October 1914 to teach mathematics, and he was awarded a $1,500 scholarship to study at Clark University as a doctoral student of Arthur Gordon Webster, but Webster wanted Bush to study acoustics
29.
As We May Think
–
As We May Think is a 1945 essay by Vannevar Bush which has been described as visionary and influential, anticipating many aspects of information society. It was first published in The Atlantic in July 1945 and republished in a version in September 1945—before and after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima. Through this machine, Bush hoped to transform an information explosion into a knowledge explosion, the article was a reworked and expanded version of Bushs essay Mechanization and the Record. Here, he described a machine that would combine lower level technologies to achieve a level of organized knowledge. Shortly after the publication of this essay, Bush coined the term memex in a letter written to the editor of Fortune magazine and that letter became the body of As We May Think, which added only an introduction and conclusion. The memex, in essence, reflects a library of collective knowledge stored in a piece of machinery described in his essay as a piece of furniture. The Atlantic publication of Bushs article was followed, in the September 10,1945 issue of Life magazine, by a reprint that showed illustrations of the proposed memex desk and automatic typewriter. Bush also discussed other technologies such as dry photography and microphotography where he elaborates on the potentialities of their future use, Bush envisioned the ability to retrieve several articles or pictures on one screen, with the possibility of writing comments that could be stored and recalled together. He believed people would create links between related articles, thus mapping the thought process and path of each user and saving it for others to experience, Bushs article also laid the foundation for new media. Today, storage has greatly surpassed the level imagined by Vannevar Bush, a library of a million volumes could be compressed into one end of a desk. It can be in one place, unless duplicates are used. This description resembles popular file systems of modern operating systems. Bush urges that scientists should turn to the task of creating more efficient accessibility to our fluctuating store of knowledge. For years inventions have extended peoples physical powers rather than the powers of their mind and he argues that the instruments are at hand which, if properly developed, will give society access to and command over the inherited knowledge of the ages. The perfection of these instruments, he suggests, should be the first objective of our scientists. Through this process society would be able to focus and evolve past the existing knowledge rather than looping through infinite calculations and we should be able to pass the tedious work of numbers to machines and work on the intricate theory which puts them best of use. To exemplify the importance of this concept, consider the process involved in simple shopping, Every time a charge sale is made, there are a number of things to be done. The inventory needs to be revised, the needs to be given credit for the sale, the general accounts need an entry, and most important
30.
J. C. R. Licklider
–
He did much to actually initiate this by funding research which led to much of it, including todays canonical graphical user interface, and the ARPANET, the direct predecessor to the Internet. They were not really new visions of their own, so he was really the father of it all. For people who only know todays computerized, information-rich world, the change from what came before, yet, sitting in a nondescript office in McNamaras Pentagon, a quiet. civilian is already planning the revolution that will change forever the way computers are perceived. Somehow, the occupant of that office. has seen a future in which computers will empower individuals, Licklider was born on March 11,1915, in St. Louis, Missouri, United States. He was the child of Joseph Parron Licklider, a Baptist minister. Despite his fathers background, he was not religious in later life. He received a PhD in psychoacoustics from the University of Rochester in 1942, while at MIT Licklider was involved in the SAGE project, in the capacity of head of the team concerned with human factors. In 1957 he received the Franklin V. Taylor Award from the Society of Engineering Psychologists, in 1958 he was elected President of the Acoustical Society of America, and in 1990 he received the Commonwealth Award for Distinguished Service. In 1957 he became a Vice President at Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc. where he bought the first production PDP-1 computer, in 1963 he was named Director of Behavioral Sciences Command & Control Research at ARPA. In April of that year, he sent a memo to his colleagues in outlining the challenges presented in establishing a time-sharing network of computers with the software of the era. Ultimately, his vision led to ARPANet, the precursor of todays Internet, in 1968 J. C. R. Licklider became director of Project MAC at MIT, and a professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering. Project MAC had produced the first computer time-sharing system, CTSS, Multics provided inspiration for some elements of the Unix operating system developed at Bell Labs by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie in 1970. He retired and became Professor Emeritus in 1985 and he died in 1990 in Arlington, Massachusetts. While at MIT in the 1950s, Licklider worked on Semi-Automatic Ground Environment, the SAGE system included computers that collected and presented data to a human operator, who then chose the appropriate response. Licklider worked as a human factors expert, which helped convince him of the potential for human/computer interfaces. Licklider became interested in information technology early in his career and his ideas foretold of graphical computing, point-and-click interfaces, digital libraries, e-commerce, online banking, and software that would exist on a network and migrate wherever it was needed. Much like Vannevar Bushs, Lickliders contribution to the development of the Internet consists of ideas and he foresaw the need for networked computers with easy user interfaces. Licklider was instrumental in conceiving, funding and managing the research led to modern personal computers
31.
Bob Sproull
–
Robert Fletcher Bob Sproull is an American computer scientist, who worked for Oracle Corporation where he was director of Oracle Labs in Burlington, Massachusetts. He is currently a professor at the College of Information and Computer Sciences. While working towards his B. A. in physics at Harvard College in 1967, together, they worked on head-mounted displays, which led the way for 3-dimensional virtual reality. Sproull received his masters degree in Computer Science from Stanford University in 1970, Sproull worked as a researcher for Xerox Palo Alto Research Center from December 1973 to August 1977. While at Xerox PARC, He worked on the design of the Alto personal computer, the first laser printers, page description languages, in 1973, Sproull and William M. Newman wrote Principles of Interactive Computer Graphics, a second edition was published in 1979. This was the first comprehensive textbook on computer graphics, and was regarded as the bible, until it was succeeded by Foley. Sproull was an Associate Professor of Computer Science at Carnegie Mellon University, in 1980, Bob Sproull and Ivan Sutherland founded a consulting firm, Sutherland, Sproull and Associates. In 1990, Sun Microsystems bought out Sutherland, Sproull and Associates for its patents and this led to the creation of Sun Microsystems Laboratories, where Sproull worked on asynchronous processor design. In 2006 he became director of the laboratories, in 2010 after Sun was purchased by Oracle Corporation, it became Oracle Labs. Sproull is also a member of the National Academy of Engineering, a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and he currently chairs the United States National Research Councils Computer Science and Telecommunications Board. He has co-authored several books in addition to Principles of Interactive Computer Graphics, such as Logical Effort, Newman, W. Sproull, R. Principles of Interactive Computer Graphics, Mcgraw-Hill College, ISBN 0-07-046338-7. Counterflow Pipeline Processor Architecture, Sun Microsystems, Technical Report TR-94-25, origins of Spline-Based and Anti-Aliased Fonts Robert Fletcher Sproull at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
