1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Moscow
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Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
3.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
4.
Christian denomination
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A Christian denomination is a distinct religious body within Christianity, identified by traits such as a name, organisation, leadership and doctrine. Individual bodies, however, may use alternative terms to describe themselves, groups of denominations—often sharing broadly similar beliefs, practices, and historical ties—are sometimes known as branches of Christianity or denominational families. Individual Christian groups vary widely in the degree to which they recognize one another, several groups claim to be the direct and sole authentic successor of the church founded by Jesus Christ in the 1st century AD. Others, however, believe in denominationalism, where some or all Christian groups are legitimate churches of the same regardless of their distinguishing labels, beliefs. Because of this concept, some Christian bodies reject the term denomination to describe themselves, however, the Catholic Church does not view itself as a denomination, but as the original pre-denominational church. This view is rejected by other Christian denominations, Protestant denominations account for approximately 37 percent of Christians worldwide. Together, Catholicism and Protestantism comprise Western Christianity, Western Christian denominations prevail in Western, Northern, Central and Southern Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas and Oceania. The Eastern Orthodox Church, with an estimated 225–300 million adherents, is the second-largest Christian organization in the world, unlike the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church is itself a communion of fully independent autocephalous churches that mutually recognize each other to the exclusion of others. The Eastern Orthodox Church, together with Oriental Orthodoxy and the Assyrian Church of the East, Eastern Christian denominations are represented mostly in Eastern Europe, North Asia, the Middle East and Northeast Africa. Christians have various doctrines about the Church and about how the church corresponds to Christian denominations. Both Catholics and Eastern Orthodox hold that their own organizations faithfully represent the One Holy catholic and Apostolic Church to the exclusion of the other, sixteenth-century Protestants separated from the Catholic Church because of theologies and practices that they considered to be in violation of their own interpretation. But some non-denominational Christians do not follow any particular branch, though regarded as Protestants. Each group uses different terminology to discuss their beliefs and this section will discuss the definitions of several terms used throughout the article, before discussing the beliefs themselves in detail in following sections. A denomination within Christianity can be defined as an autonomous branch of the Christian Church, major synonyms include religious group, sect, Church. Some traditional and evangelical Protestants draw a distinction between membership in the church and fellowship within the local church. Becoming a believer in Christ makes one a member of the universal church, a related concept is denominationalism, the belief that some or all Christian groups are legitimate churches of the same religion regardless of their distinguishing labels, beliefs, and practices. Protestant leaders differ greatly from the views of the leaders of the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, each church makes mutually exclusive claims for itself to be the direct continuation of the Church founded by Jesus Christ, from whom other denominations later broke away. These churches, and a few others, reject denominationalism, Christianity can be taxonomically divided into five main groups, the Church of the East, Oriental Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, and Protestantism
5.
Russian Orthodox Church
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The Russian Orthodox Church, alternatively legally known as the Moscow Patriarchate, is one of the autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches, in full communion with other Eastern Orthodox patriarchates. The Primate of the ROC is the Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus and it also exercises ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the autonomous Church of Japan and the Orthodox Christians resident in the Peoples Republic of China. The ROC branches in Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Moldova and Ukraine since the 1990s enjoy various degrees of self-government, in Ukraine, ROC has tensions with schismatic groups supported by the current government, while it enjoys the position of numerically dominant religious organisation. The ROC should also not be confused with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia, headquartered in New York, New York, the two Churches reconciled on May 17,2007, the ROCOR is now a self-governing part of the Russian Orthodox Church. According to one of the legends, Andrew reached the location of Kiev. The spot where he erected a cross is now marked by St. Andrews Cathedral. By the end of the first millennium AD, eastern Slavic lands started to come under the influence of the Eastern Roman Empire. There is evidence that the first Christian bishop was sent to Novgorod from Constantinople either by Patriarch Photius or Patriarch Ignatios, by the mid-10th century, there was already a Christian community among Kievan nobility, under the leadership of Byzantine Greek priests, although paganism remained the dominant religion. Princess Olga of Kiev was the first ruler of Kievan Rus′ to convert to Christianity and her grandson, Vladimir of Kiev, made Rus officially a Christian state. The Kievan church was a metropolitanate of the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Ecumenical patriarch appointed the metropolitan, who usually was a Greek. The Metropolitans residence was located in Kiev itself, the capital of the medieval Rus state. Following the tribulations of the Mongol invasion, the Russian Church was pivotal in the survival, despite the politically motivated murders of Mikhail of Chernigov and Mikhail of Tver, the Mongols were generally tolerant and even granted tax exemption to the Church. Such holy figures as Sergius of Radonezh and Metropolitan Alexis helped the country to withstand years of Tatar oppression, the Trinity monastery founded by Sergius of Radonezh became the setting for the flourishing of spiritual art, exemplified by the work of Andrey Rublev, among others. The followers of Sergius founded four hundred monasteries, thus extending the geographical extent of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. However, the Moscow Prince Vasili II rejected the act of the Council of Florence brought to Moscow by Isidore in March 1441, Isidore was in the same year removed from his position as an apostate and expelled from Moscow. The Russian metropolitanate remained effectively vacant for the few years due largely to the dominance of Uniates in Constantinople then. In December 1448, Jonas, a Russian bishop, was installed by the Council of Russian bishops in Moscow as Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia without the consent from Constantinople. Subsequently, there developed a theory in Moscow that saw Moscow as the Third Rome, the successor to Constantinople
6.
Sacred architecture
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Many cultures devoted considerable resources to their sacred architecture and places of worship. Religious and sacred spaces are amongst the most impressive and permanent monolithic buildings created by humanity, conversely, sacred architecture as a locale for meta-intimacy may also be non-monolithic, ephemeral and intensely private, personal and non-public. Sacred, religious and holy structures often evolved over centuries and were the largest buildings in the world, while the various styles employed in sacred architecture sometimes reflected trends in other structures, these styles also remained unique from the contemporary architecture used in other structures. With the rise of Abrahamic monotheisms, religious buildings increasingly became centres of worship, prayer, the Western scholarly discipline of the history of architecture itself closely follows the history of religious architecture from ancient times until the Baroque period, at least. Sacred geometry, iconography, and the use of sophisticated semiotics such as signs, symbols, Sacred and/or religious architecture is sometimes called sacred space. Architect Norman L. Koonce has suggested that the goal of sacred architecture is to make transparent the boundary between matter and mind, flesh and the spirit, meanwhile, Richard Kieckhefer suggests that entering into a religious building is a metaphor for entering into spiritual relationship. Sacred architecture spans a number of ancient architectural styles including Neolithic architecture, ancient Egyptian architecture, ancient religious buildings, particularly temples, were often viewed as the dwelling place, the temenos, of the gods and were used as the site of various kinds of sacrifice. Ancient tombs and burial structures are examples of architectural structures reflecting religious beliefs of their various societies. The Temple of Karnak at Thebes, Egypt was constructed across a period of 1300 years, ancient Egyptian religious architecture has fascinated archaeologists and captured the public imagination for millennia. Around 600 BCE the wooden columns of the Temple of Hera at Olympia were replaced by stone columns, with the spread of this process to other sanctuary structures a few stone buildings have survived through the ages. Greek architecture preceded Hellenistic and Roman periods, since temples are the only buildings which survive in numbers, most of our concept of classical architecture is based on religious structures. The Parthenon which served as a building as well as a place for veneration of deity, is widely regarded as the greatest example of classical architecture. Indian architecture is related to the history and religions of the time periods as well as to the geography, the diversity of Indian culture is represented in its architecture. Indian architecture comprises a blend of ancient and varied native traditions, with building types, forms and technologies from West, Central Asia, buddhist architecture developed in South Asia beginning in the third century BCE. Two types of structures are associated with early Buddhism, viharas and stupas, an existing example is at Nalanda. The initial function of the stupa was the veneration and safe-guarding of the relics of the Buddha, the earliest existing example of a stupa is in Sanchi. In accordance with changes in practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into chaitya-grihas. These reached their highpoint in the first century BCE, exemplified by the cave complexes of Ajanta, the pagoda is an evolution of the Indian stupa that is marked by a tiered tower with multiple eaves common in China, Japan, Korea, Nepal and other parts of Asia
7.
Russian architecture
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Russian architecture follows a tradition whose roots were established in the Eastern Slavic state of Kievan Rus. After the fall of Kiev, Russian architectural history continued in the principalities of Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, the states of the Tsardom of Russia. The great churches of Kievan Rus, built after the adoption of Christianity in 988, were the first examples of architecture in the East Slavic region. The architectural style of the Kievan state, which established itself, was strongly influenced by Byzantine architecture. Early Eastern Orthodox churches were built from wood, with their simplest form known as a cell church. Major cathedrals often featured many small domes, which has led art historians to infer how the pagan Slavic temples may have appeared. Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, on the hand, expressed a new style which exerted a strong influence on Russian church architecture. Its austere thick walls, small, narrow windows, and helmeted cupolas have much in common with the Romanesque architecture of Western Europe, further departures from the Byzantine model are evident in succeeding Novgorod cathedrals, St Nicholas, St Anthonys, and St Georges. The secular architecture of Kievan Rus has barely survived, until the 20th century only the Golden Gates of Vladimir, despite much 18th-century restoration, could be regarded as an authentic monument of the pre-Mongol period. During the 1940s, archaeologist Nikolai Voronin discovered the remains of Andrei Bogolyubskys palace in Bogolyubovo. The city of Novgorod preserved its architecture during the Mongol invasion, the first churches were commissioned by the princes, however, after the 13th century merchants, guilds and communities began to commission cathedrals. The citizens of 13th-century Novgorod were noted for their shrewdness, diligence and prosperity, the architecture in Novgorod did not begin to flourish until the turn of the 12th century. The Novgorod Sophia cathedral was modeled after the original Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, it is similar in appearance but smaller, narrower, construction was supervised by workmen from Kiev, who also imported bricks. The primary building materials were fieldstone and undressed limestone blocks and it is said that the interiors were painted in frescoes, which have now vanished. The doors were made of bronze, the katholikon of Yuriev Monastery was commissioned in 1119 by Prince Vsevolod Mstislavovich. The architect was known as Master Peter, one of the few architects who have recorded at this time in Russia. The exterior is characterized by narrow windows and double-recessed niches, which proceed in a rhythm across the façade and its pillars are closely spaced, emphasizing the height of the vaulted ceilings. The interior was covered in frescoes from the workshops, including some of the rarest Russian paintings of the time
8.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
9.
Moscow Kremlin
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It is the best known of the kremlins and includes five palaces, four cathedrals, and the enclosing Kremlin Wall with Kremlin towers. Also within this complex is the Grand Kremlin Palace, the complex serves as the official residence of the President of the Russian Federation. It had previously used to refer to the government of the Soviet Union. Kremlinology refers to the study of Soviet and Russian politics, the site has been continuously inhabited by Finno-Ugric peoples since the 2nd century BC. Vyatichi built a structure on the hill where the Neglinnaya River flowed into the Moskva River. Up to the 14th century, the site was known as the grad of Moscow, the word Kremlin was first recorded in 1331. The grad was greatly extended by Prince Yuri Dolgorukiy in 1156, destroyed by the Mongols in 1237, dmitri Donskoi replaced the oak walls with a strong citadel of white limestone in 1366–1368 on the basic foundations of the current walls, this fortification withstood a siege by Khan Tokhtamysh. Dmitris son Vasily I resumed construction of churches and cloisters in the Kremlin, the newly built Annunciation Cathedral was painted by Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, and Prokhor in 1406. The Chudov Monastery was founded by Dmitris tutor, Metropolitan Alexis, while his widow, Eudoxia and it was during his reign that three extant cathedrals of the Kremlin, the Deposition Church, and the Palace of Facets were constructed. The highest building of the city and Muscovite Russia was the Ivan the Great Bell Tower, built in 1505–08, the Kremlin walls as they now appear were built between 1485 and 1495. Spasskie gates of the wall bear a dedication in Latin praising Petrus Antonius Solarius for the design. After construction of the new walls and churches was complete. The Kremlin was separated from the merchant town by a 30-meter-wide moat. The same tsar also renovated some of his grandfathers palaces, added a new palace and cathedral for his sons, and endowed the Trinity metochion inside the Kremlin. The metochion was administrated by the Trinity Monastery and boasted the graceful tower church of St. Sergius, during the Time of Troubles, the Kremlin was held by the Polish forces for two years, between 21 September 1610 and 26 October 1612. The Kremlins liberation by the army of prince Dmitry Pozharsky. During his reign and that of his son Alexis, the eleven-domed Upper Saviour Cathedral, Armorial Gate, Terem Palace, Amusement Palace, following the death of Alexis, the Kremlin witnessed the Moscow Uprising of 1682, from which czar Peter barely escaped. As a result, both of them disliked the Kremlin, three decades later, Peter abandoned the residence of his forefathers for his new capital, Saint Petersburg
10.
Cathedral Square, Moscow
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Cathedral Square or Sobornaya Square is the central square of the Moscow Kremlin where all of its streets used to converge in the 15th century. The square owes its name to the three cathedrals facing it - Cathedral of the Dormition, Cathedral of the Archangel, and Cathedral of the Annunciation. Apart from these, the Palace of Facets, the Church of the Deposition of the Robe, the tallest structure on the square is Ivan the Great Bell Tower, which also separates Sobornaya Square from Ivanovskaya Square. Cathedral Square is famous as the site of solemn coronation and funeral processions of all the Russian tsars, patriarchs, even today, the square is used in the inauguration ceremony of the President of Russia. The square is also the scene of the changing of the Horse Guards. Occasionally, operas are performed in the setting of the historic cathedrals as well
11.
Dormition Cathedral, Moscow
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The Cathedral of the Dormition, also known as the Assumption Cathedral or Cathedral of the Assumption is a Russian Orthodox church dedicated to the Dormition of the Theotokos. It is located on the side of Cathedral Square of the Moscow Kremlin in Russia. Southwest is Ivan the Great Bell Tower, separately in the southwest, also separated by a narrow passage from the church, is the Palace of Facets. The Cathedral is regarded as the church of Muscovite Russia. In its present form it was constructed between 1475–79 at the behest of the Moscow Grand Duke Ivan III by the Italian architect Aristotele Fioravanti, from 1547 to 1896 it is where the Coronation of the Russian monarch was held. In addition, it is the place for most of the Moscow Metropolitans. This was replaced by a structure built around 1326, which is mentioned in historical records. In the 14th century, Metropolitan Peter persuaded Ivan I that he should build a cathedral to the Theotokos in Moscow like the Cathedral of the Dormition in the capital city Vladimir. Construction of the cathedral began on August 4,1326, at that time Moscow became the capital of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. By the end of the 15th century the old cathedral had become dilapidated, two years later, in May 1474, the building was nearing completion when it suddenly collapsed as the drum of main cupola was being placed. The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir was once taken as a model for the building. He designed a light and spacious masterpiece that combined the spirit of the Renaissance with Russian traditions, the foundation for the new cathedral was laid in 1475, and in 1479 the new cathedral was consecrated by Metropolitan Geronty. The interior was painted with frescoes and adorned with icons, including the Theotokos of Vladimir. The design of the new church, with its five domes proved immensely popular, in 1547 the coronation of the first Russian Tsar, Ivan the Terrible, took place in this cathedral. From 1721 it was the scene of the coronation of the Russian emperors, the ritual installation of metropolitans and patriarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church also took place in this cathedral, and their tombs are to be found here. During the French occupation of Russia, it was looted and used as a horse stable and it was thoroughly restored in 1894-1895 and from 1910-1918. On November 21,1917 the cathedral was the setting for the installation of Tikhon, however, following the 1917 Russian Revolution, the new Bolshevik government closed all churches in the Moscow Kremlin, and converted the cathedral into a museum. By special permission from Vladimir Lenin, the last Pascha was held in 1918, the final moments of this Paschal service was the subject of an unfinished painting by Pavel Korin entitled Farewell to Rus
12.
Cathedral of the Archangel
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The Cathedral of the Archangel is a Russian Orthodox church dedicated to the Archangel Michael. It is located in Cathedral Square of the Moscow Kremlin in Russia between the Great Kremlin Palace and the Ivan the Great Bell Tower and it was the main necropolis of the Tsars of Russia until the relocation of the capital to St. Petersburg. It was constructed between 1505 and 1508 under the supervision of an Italian architect Aloisio the New on the spot of an older cathedral, an Italian, Lamberti Aloisio da Mantagnana was invited to Moscow, and ground was broken for a new cathedral on 21 May 1505. Ivan died in the autumn of the year, and was buried in the still unfinished building. Work on the cathedral was completed by the end of 1508, the new building incorporated many elements of the Italian Renaissance, and numerous of these details disappeared during later repairs and restorations. The interior walls were not painted with frescoes until the 1560s, victories of the Russian military were celebrated in the Cathedral of the Archangel. All Russian tsars and grand princes were buried within the cathedral until the time of Peter the Great, along with many empresses and princes of the blood, with the sole exception of Boris Godunov. After the royal necropolis was moved to Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg, only Tsar Peter II, there are 54 burials in the cathedral, with 46 ornamented whitestone tombstones and glazed cases made of bronze. Of note is the tomb of Tsarevich Demetrius, the son of Ivan the Terrible, was buried there in the early 17th century and was later canonized, during the 1917 Russian Revolution, the cathedral was damaged during the fighting. Afterwards, it was closed by the Bolshevik regime, during the 1950s, along with the other surviving churches in the Moscow Kremlin, was preserved as a museum. A large portion of the treasures were either transferred to the Kremlin Armory Museum. After 1992, the building was returned to the Russian Orthodox Church, compared with the other two major Kremlin cathedrals, the Archangel Cathedral is substantially different in style, despite maintaining a traditional layout. It echoes the layout of the Assumption Cathedral in its use of five domes (representing Jesus Christ, the interior of the cathedral, however, was largely constructed in a manner typical for Russian churches. The large iconostasis of the cathedral of the archangel,13 meters high, the icon of Archangel Michael, the oldest in the iconostasis, is believed to have been created for Princess Eudoxia, the wife of Dmitri Donskoi to the memory the victory in the Battle of Kulikovo. The wall frescoes date to the 16th and 17th centuries, some were painted by Yakov of Kazan, Stepan of Ryazan, Joseph Vladimirov and others between 1652 and 1666. The Moscow Kremlin, history of Russias unique monument, ASIN, B0010XM7BQ Home Page Satellite photo of the Cathedral of the Archangel
13.
Belfry (architecture)
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The belfry is a structure enclosing bells for ringing as part of a building, usually as part of a bell tower or steeple. It can also refer to the tower or building, particularly in continental Europe for such a tower attached to a city hall or other civic building. A belfry encloses the bell chamber, the room in which the bells are housed, the openings may be left uncovered but are commonly filled with louvers to prevent rain and snow from entering. There may be a room below the bell chamber to house the ringers. In larger towns, watchmen in these towers were also on the lookout for fires, todays Dutch belfort combines the term bell with the term stronghold. Bats in the belfry Belfries of Belgium and France
14.
John Climacus
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Saint John Climacus, also known as John of the Ladder, John Scholasticus and John Sinaites, was a 7th-century Christian monk at the monastery on Mount Sinai. He is revered as a saint by the Roman Catholic, Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Orthodox, there is almost no information about Johns life. There is in existence an ancient Vita of the saint by a monk named Daniel of Raithu monastery, the Vita is generally unhelpful for establishing dates of any kind. Formerly scholarship, on the basis of Johns entry in the Menologion, had placed him in the latter 6th Century and that view was challenged by J. C. Guy and others, and consensus has shifted to a 7th Century provenance. If Daniels Vita is trustworthy, then John came to the Vatos Monastery at Mount Sinai, now Saint Catherines Monastery and he was taught about the spiritual life by the elder monk Martyrius. After the death of Martyrius, John, wishing to practice greater asceticism, in this isolation he lived for some twenty years, constantly studying the lives of the saints and thus becoming one of the most learned Church Fathers. When he was about seventy-five years of age, the monks of Sinai persuaded him to become their Igumen and it is in the Ladder that we hear of the ascetic practice of carrying a small notebook to record the thoughts of the monk during contemplation. The Ladder describes how to raise ones soul and body to God through the acquisition of ascetic virtues, Climacus uses the analogy of Jacobs Ladder as the framework for his spiritual teaching. Each chapter is referred to as a step, and deals with a spiritual subject. There are thirty Steps of the ladder, which correspond to the age of Jesus at his baptism, within the general framework of a ladder, Climacus book falls into three sections. The first seven Steps concern general virtues necessary for the life, while the next nineteen give instruction on overcoming vices. The final four Steps concern the higher virtues toward which the ascetic life aims, the final rung of the ladder—beyond prayer, stillness, and even dispassion —is love. Originally written simply for the monks of a monastery, the Ladder swiftly became one of the most widely read. This book is one of the most widely read among Orthodox Christians and it is often read in the trapeza in Orthodox monasteries, and in some places it is read in church as part of the Daily Office on Lenten weekdays, being prescribed in the Triodion. Also shown are angels helping the climbers, and demons attempting to shoot arrows or drag down the climbers. Most versions of the show at least one person falling. Often, in the right corner St. John Climacus himself is shown, gesturing towards the ladder. St. Johns feast day is March 30 in both the East and West, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Byzantine Catholic Churches additionally commemorate him on the Fourth Sunday of Great Lent
15.
Ivan I of Moscow
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Ivan I Daniilovich Kalita was Grand Duke of Moscow from 1325 and Vladimir from 1332. Ivan was the son of the Prince of Moscow Daniil Aleksandrovich, after the death of his elder brother Yury, Ivan inherited the Principality of Moscow. Ivan participated in the struggle to get the title of Grand Duke of Vladimir which could be obtained with the approval of a khan of the Golden Horde, all of them were murdered in the Golden Horde. In 1328 Ivan Kalita received the approval of khan Muhammad Ozbeg to become the Grand Duke of Vladimir with the right to taxes from all Russian lands. According to the Russian historian Kluchevsky, the rise of Moscow under Ivan I Kalita was determined by three factors. The first one was that the Moscow principality was situated in the middle of other Russian principalities, thus, it was protected from any invasions from the East, compared to its neighbors, Ryazan principality and Tver principality, Moscow was less often devastated. The third factor was a route from Novgorod to the Volga river. He managed to eliminate all the thieves in his lands, thus insuring the safety of traveling merchants, internal peace and order together with the absence of Mongolian raids to the Moscow principality was mentioned in Russian chronicles as “great peace, silence, and relief of Russian land. Ivan made Moscow very wealthy by maintaining his loyalty to the Horde and he used this wealth to give loans to neighbouring Russian principalities. These cities gradually fell deeper and deeper into debt, a condition that would allow Ivans successors to annex them, the people called Ivan the ‘gatherer of the Russian lands’. He bought lands around Moscow, and very often the owners sold their lands willingly. Some of them kept the right to rule in their lands on behalf of Ivan Kalita, in one way or another a number of cities and villages joined the Moscow principality – Uglich in 1323, the principality of Belozero in 1328–1338, the principality of Galich in 1340. The Head of the Russian Church – Metropolitan Peter, whose authority was extremely high, following a Lithuanian raid on the town of Torzhok in 1335, Ivan retaliated by burning the towns of Osechen and Riasna. Ivan died in Moscow,31 March 1340 or 1341 and he was buried 1 April in the Church of the Archangel Michael. Erection of either wooden or white-stone constructions was started in the Kremlin, between 1339 and 1340, Ivan Kalita erected a new, bigger oaken fortress on the Borovitsky hill. In Ivan’s will “the golden cap” was mentioned for the first time, this cap is identified with the well-known Monomakh’s crown, rulers of Russia family tree V. O. Kluchevsky. Lecture #21 Janet Martin, Medieval Russia 980–1584 The Moscow Kremlin His listing in Medieval lands by Charles Cawley
16.
Ivan III of Russia
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Ivan III Vasilyevich, also known as Ivan the Great, was a Grand Prince of Moscow and Grand Prince of all Rus. He was one of the longest-reigning Russian rulers in history, Ivans rule is marked by what subsequent Russophile historians called the Gathering of the Russian Lands. Ivan brought the independent duchies of different Rurikid princes under the control of Moscow, leaving the princes. His first enterprise was a war with the Republic of Novgorod and these wars were waged over Moscows religious and political sovereignty, and over Moscows efforts to seize land in the Northern Dvina region. Ivan visited Novgorod Central several times in the several years, persecuting a number of pro-Lithuanian boyars. In 1477, two Novgorodian envoys, claiming to have been sent by the archbishops and the entire city, Ivan dispossessed Novgorod of more than four-fifths of its land, keeping half for himself and giving the other half to his allies. Subsequent revolts were punished by the en masse of the richest and most ancient families of Novgorod to Moscow, Vyatka. Archbishop Feofil was also removed to Moscow for plotting against the Grand Prince, the rival republic of Pskov owed the continuance of its own political existence to the readiness with which it assisted Ivan against its ancient enemy. The other principalities were eventually absorbed by conquest, purchase, or marriage contract, The Principality of Yaroslavl in 1463, Rostov in 1474, Tver in 1485, the eldest, Iurii, died childless on 12 September 1472. He only had a draft of a will that said nothing about his land, Ivan seized the land, much to the fury of the surviving brothers, who he placated with some land. Boris and Andrei the Elder signed treaties with Vasily in February and they agreed to protect each others land and not to have secret dealings with foreign states, they broke this clause in 1480, fleeing to Lithuania. It is unknown whether Andrei the Younger signed a treaty and he died in 1481, leaving his lands to Ivan. In 1491 Andrei the Elder was arrested by Ivan for refusing to aid the Crimean Tatars against the Golden Horde and he died in prison in 1493, and Ivan seized his land. In 1494 Boris, the only brother able to pass his land to his sons, however, their land reverted to the Tsar upon their deaths in 1503 and 1515 respectively. There was one semi-autonomous prince in Muscovy when Ivan acceded, Prince Mikhail Andreevich of Vereia, in 1478 he was pressured into giving Belozersk to Ivan, who got all of Mikhails land on his death in 1486. The character of the government of Moscow changed significantly under Ivan III and this was a natural consequence of the hegemony of Moscow over the other north-eastern Rus lands, but also to new imperial pretensions. Ivan himself appeared to welcome the idea, and he began to style himself tsar in foreign correspondence, fennell emphasizes Ivans success in centralizing control over local rulers, he adds, however, that his reign was also a period of cultural depression and spiritual barrenness. Freedom was stamped out within the Muscovite lands, by his bigoted anti-Catholicism Ivan brought down the curtain between Muscovy and the west
17.
Vasily III
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Vasili III Ivanovich was the Grand Prince of Moscow from 1505 to 1533. He was the son of Ivan III Vasiliyevich and Sophia Paleologue and was christened with the name Gavriil. He had three brothers, Yuri, born in 1480, Simeon, born in 1487 and Andrei, born in 1490, as well as five sisters, Elena, Feodosiya, another Elena, another Feodosiya and Eudoxia. Vasili III continued the policies of his father Ivan III and spent most of his reign consolidating Ivans gains, Vasili annexed the last surviving autonomous provinces, Pskov in 1510, appanage of Volokolamsk in 1513, principalities of Ryazan in 1521 and Novgorod-Seversky in 1522. Vasili was equally successful against the Crimean Khanate, although in 1519 he was obliged to buy off the Crimean khan, Mehmed I Giray, under the very walls of Moscow, towards the end of his reign he established Russian influence on the Volga. In 1531–32 he placed the pretender Cangali khan on the throne of Khanate of Kazan, regarding internal policy, Vasili III enjoyed the support of the Church in his struggle with the feudal opposition. In 1521, metropolitan Varlaam was banished for refusing to participate in Vasilis fight against an appanage prince, rurikid princes Vasili Shuisky and Ivan Vorotynsky were also sent into exile. The diplomat and statesman, Ivan Bersen-Beklemishev, was executed in 1525 for criticizing Vasilis policies, maximus the Greek, Vassian Patrikeyev and others were sentenced for the same reason in 1525 and 1531. During the reign of Vasili III, the landownership of the increased, while authorities actively tried to limit immunities and privileges of boyars. By 1526 when he was 47 years old, Vasili had been married to Solomonia Saburova for over 20 years with no heir to his throne being produced, conscious of her husbands disappointment, Solomonia tried to remedy this by consulting sorcerers and going on pilgrimages. When this proved unsuccessful, Vasili consulted the boyars, announcing that he did not trust his two brothers to handle Russias affairs, not many of the boyars approved of his choice, as Elena was of Catholic upringing. Vasili was so smitten that he defied Russian social norms and trimmed his beard to appear younger, after three days of matrimonial festivity, the couple consummated their marriage, though initially it appeared that Elena was as sterile as Solomonia. The Russian populace began to suspect this was a sign of Gods disapproval of the marriage, however, to the great joy of Vasili and the populace, the new tsaritsa gave birth to a son, who would succeed him as Ivan IV. Three years later, a son, Yuri, was born. According to a story, Solomonia Saburova also bore a son in the convent where she had been confined, whilst out hunting on horseback near Volokolamsk, Vasili felt a great pain in his right hip, the result of an abscess. He was transported to the village of Kolp, where he was visited by two German doctors who were unable to stop the infection with conventional remedies. Believing that his time was short, Vasili requested to be returned to Moscow, by 25 November 1533, Vasili reached Moscow and asked to be made a monk before dying. Taking on the name Varlaam, Vasili died at midnight,4 December 1533, rulers of Russia family tree Bain, Robert Nisbet
18.
Boris Godunov
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Boris Fyodorovich Godunov ruled the Tsardom of Russia as de facto regent from c.1585 to 1598 and then as the first non-Rurikid tsar from 1598 to 1605. The end of his reign saw Russia descend into the Time of Troubles, Boris Godunov was the most noted member of an ancient, now extinct, Russian family of Tatar origin, which came from the Horde to Kostroma in the early 14th century. This legend is written in the annals dating from early 17th century and he was descended from the Tatar Prince Chet, who went from the Golden Horde to Russia and founded the Ipatiev Monastery in Kostroma. Boris was the son of Feodor Ivanovich Godunov Krivoy and his wife Stepanida Ivanovna and his older brother Vasily died young and without issue. Godunovs career began at the court of Ivan the Terrible and he is mentioned in 1570 for taking part in the Serpeisk campaign being an archer of the guard. The following year, he became an oprichnik – a member of Ivans personal guard, in 1570/1571, Godunov strengthened his position at court by his marriage to Maria Grigorievna Skuratova-Belskaya, the daughter of oprichniks head Malyuta Skuratov-Belskiy. In 1580, the Tsar chose Boris Godunovs sister Irina Godunova to be the wife of his son and eventual heir. On this occasion, Godunov was promoted to the rank of Boyar, on 15 November 1581, he was present at the scene of the Tsars murder of his own eldest son, the crown prince Ivan. Godunov tried to intervene, but received blows from the Tsars sceptre, the elder Ivan immediately repented and Godunov rushed to get help for the Tsarevich, who died four days later. Upon his death, Ivan also left the three-year-old Dmitry Ivanovich, from his seventh, since the Orthodox Church recognized legitimate only his first three marriages, and any offspring thereof, Dmitri had no claim to the throne. Still, taking no chances, shortly after Ivans death the Council had both Dmitri and his mother Maria Nagaya moved to Uglich, some 120 miles north of Moscow and it was there in 1591 that Dmitri died at the age of ten. An official commission headed by Vasili Shuiski was sent to determine the cause of death, the official verdict was that the boy had cut his throat during an epileptic seizure. Ivans widow claimed that her son had been murdered by Godunovs agents, Godunovs guilt was never established and shortly thereafter Dmitris mother was forced to take the veil. Dmitry Ivanovich was laid to rest and promptly, though temporarily, when Nikita died in 1586, Boris had no serious rival for the regency. A conspiracy of other boyars and of Dionysius II, Metropolitan of Moscow, the attempt proved unsuccessful, and the conspirators were banished or sent to monasteries. After that, Godunov remained supreme in Russia and he corresponded with foreign princes as their equal and his policy was generally pacific and always prudent. In 1595, he recovered from Sweden some towns lost during the former reign, five years previously he had defeated a Tatar raid upon Moscow, for which he received the title of Konyushy, an obsolete dignity even higher than that of Boyar. He supported a faction in the Crimea and gave the emperor subsidies in his war against the sultan
19.
Cathedral of Christ the Saviour
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The Cathedral of Christ the Saviour is a cathedral in Moscow, Russia, on the northern bank of the Moskva River, a few blocks southwest of the Kremlin. With an overall height of 103 metres, it is the tallest Orthodox Christian church in the world, the current church is the second to stand on this site. The original church, built during the 19th century, took more than 40 years to build and it was destroyed in 1931 on the order of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. The demolition was supposed to make way for a colossal Palace of the Soviets to house the countrys legislature, construction started in 1937 but was halted in 1941 when Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union during World War II. Its steel frame was disassembled the year, and the Palace was never built. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the current church was rebuilt on the site during 1995–2000, the original church was the scene of the 1882 world premiere of the 1812 Overture composed by Tchaikovsky, which became internationally famous. It took some time for work on the cathedral to get started. The first finished architectural project, by Aleksandr Lavrentyevich Vitberg, was endorsed by the Tsar in 1817 and it was a flamboyant Neoclassical design full of Freemasonic symbolism. Construction work was begun on the Sparrow Hills, the highest point in Moscow, in the meantime Alexander I was succeeded by his brother Nicholas I. Profoundly Orthodox and patriotic, the new Tsar disliked the Neoclassicism and he commissioned his favorite architect Konstantin Thon to create a new design, taking as his model Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, Turkey. Thons Russian Revival design was approved in 1832, a new site closer to the Moscow Kremlin was chosen by the Tsar in 1837. A convent and church on the site had to be relocated, the cathedral took many decades to build, the scaffolding was not taken down until 1860. Its painting was overseen by Evgraf Sorokin, and thereafter some of the best Russian painters continued to embellish the interior for another twenty years, the cathedral was consecrated on 26 May 1883, the day before Alexander III was crowned. Although Tchaikovskys 1812 Overture was written with the completion in mind. The inner sanctum of the church was ringed by a gallery, its walls inlaid with rare sorts of marble, granite. The ground floor of the gallery was a dedicated to the Russian victory over Napoleon. The walls displayed more than 1,000 square metres of Carrara bianca marble plaques listing major commanders, regiments, the second floor of the gallery was occupied by church choirs. The giant dome of the cathedral was gilded using the new technique of electroplating, replacing the older
20.
Napoleon
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Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, one of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. Napoleons political and cultural legacy has ensured his status as one of the most celebrated and he was born Napoleone di Buonaparte in Corsica to a relatively modest family from the minor nobility. When the Revolution broke out in 1789, Napoleon was serving as an officer in the French army. Seizing the new opportunities presented by the Revolution, he rose through the ranks of the military. The Directory eventually gave him command of the Army of Italy after he suppressed a revolt against the government from royalist insurgents, in 1798, he led a military expedition to Egypt that served as a springboard to political power. He engineered a coup in November 1799 and became First Consul of the Republic and his ambition and public approval inspired him to go further, and in 1804 he became the first Emperor of the French. Intractable differences with the British meant that the French were facing a Third Coalition by 1805, in 1806, the Fourth Coalition took up arms against him because Prussia became worried about growing French influence on the continent. Napoleon quickly defeated Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt, then marched the Grand Army deep into Eastern Europe, France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire, hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon invaded Iberia and declared his brother Joseph the King of Spain in 1808. The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support, the Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, and ended in victory for the Allies. The Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia, unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely violated the Continental System and enticed Napoleon into another war. The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse of the Grand Army, the destruction of Russian cities, in 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France. A lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, the Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April. He was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power, however, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again. The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June, the British exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died six years later at the age of 51
21.
Battle of Borodino
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The Battle of Borodino was a battle fought on 7 September 1812 in the Napoleonic Wars during the French invasion of Russia. The fighting involved around 250,000 troops and left at least 70,000 casualties, Napoleons Grande Armée launched an attack against the Russian army, driving it back from its initial positions but failing to gain a decisive victory. Both armies were exhausted after the battle and the Russians withdrew from the field the following day, Borodino represented the last Russian effort at stopping the French advance on Moscow, which fell a week later. After a series of Russian retreats at the beginning of the campaign, Mikhail Kutuzov was appointed as his replacement. In a final attempt to save Moscow, the Russians made a stand near the village of Borodino and they fortified their positions and waited for the French to attack. The Russian right wing occupied ideal defensive terrain, so the French tried to press the Russian left for much of the battle, the highlight of the fighting became the bloody struggle for the large Raevsky redoubt near the village of Borodino. The French managed to capture this redoubt late into the day, the Russians suffered terrible casualties during the fighting, losing over a third of their army. French losses were heavy, exacerbating the logistical difficulties that Napoleon encountered in the campaign. Napoleons Imperial Guard, the unit on the battlefield that saw no fighting, was available to swing into action at a moments notice. In refusing to commit the Guard, some believe, he lost his one chance to destroy the Russian army. The capture of Moscow proved a pyrrhic victory since the Russians had no intention of negotiating with Napoleon for peace. The French evacuated Russias spiritual capital in October and conducted a retreat that only ended in December. Historical reports of the battle differed significantly depending on whether they originated from supporters of the French or Russian side, factional fighting among senior officers within each army also led to conflicting accounts and disagreements over the roles of particular officers. The French Grande Armée began its invasion of Russia on 16 June 1812, in response, Emperor Alexander I proclaimed a Patriotic War and prepared to face the French. However, Phulls plan soon proved to be a mistake, as the enormous Grande Armée was more than enough to separate. Furthermore, the participation of Tsar Alexander I as commander caused more chaos in the Russian army, the Russian forces which were massed along the Polish frontier were obliged to fall back in the face of the swift French advance. Napoleon advanced from Vitebsk, hoping to catch the Russian Army in the open where he could annihilate it, the French army was not positioned well for an extended overland campaign, it was 925 km from its nearest supply base at Kovno. French supply lines were vulnerable and Cossacks, light cavalry, guerrilla forces and even French deserters attacked and seriously depleted French supply columns
22.
Gilding
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The term gilding covers a number of decorative techniques for applying fine gold leaf or powder to solid surfaces such as wood, stone, or metal to give a thin coating of gold. A gilded object is described as gilt. Where metal is gilded, it was silver in the West, to make silver-gilt objects, but gilt-bronze is commonly used in China. Methods of gilding include hand application and glueing, chemical gilding, and electroplating, parcel-gilt objects are only gilded over part of their surfaces. This may mean that all of the inside, and none of the outside, of a chalice or similar vessel is gilded, herodotus mentions that the Egyptians gilded wood and metals, and many such objects have been excavated. Certain Ancient Greek statues of great prestige were chryselephantine, i. e. made of gold and ivory, extensive ornamental gilding was also used in the ceiling coffers of the Propylaea. But he adds that luxury advanced on them so rapidly that in very little time you see all, even private and poor people, gild the walls, vaults. Owing to the thickness of the gold leaf used in ancient gilding. Fire-gilding of metal goes back at least to the 4th century BC, in Europe, silver-gilt has always been more common than gilt-bronze, but in China the opposite has been the case. The ancient Chinese also developed the gilding of porcelain, which was taken up by the French. Modern gilding is applied to numerous and diverse surfaces and by various processes, mechanical gilding includes all the operations in which gold leaf is prepared, and the processes to mechanically attach the gold onto surfaces. The process is completed by cold burnishing, overlaying or folding or hammering on gold foil or gold leaf is the simplest and most ancient method, and is mentioned in Homers Odyssey and the Old Testament. The Ram in a Thicket of about 2600–2400 BCE from Ur uses this technique on wood, the next advances involved two simple processes. The first involves gold leaf, which is gold that is hammered or cut very thin sheets. If gilding on canvas or on wood, the surface was often first coated with gesso, gesso is a substance made of finely ground gypsum or chalk mixed with glue. Other gilding processes involved using the gold as pigment in paint, then the gold was applied in the same way as with any paint. Sometimes, after either gold-leafing or gold-painting, the artist would heat the piece enough to melt the gold slightly and these techniques remained the only alternatives for materials like wood, leather, and the vellum pages of illuminated manuscripts. Chemical gilding embraces those processes in which the gold is at some stage of chemical combination and these include, In this process the gold is obtained in a state of extremely fine division, and applied by mechanical means
23.
Eastern Orthodox Church
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The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission to the apostles. It practices what it understands to be the original Christian faith, the Eastern Orthodox Church is a communion of autocephalous churches, each typically governed by a Holy Synod. It teaches that all bishops are equal by virtue of their ordination, prior to the Council of Chalcedon in AD451, the Eastern Orthodox had also shared communion with the Oriental Orthodox churches, separating primarily over differences in Christology. Eastern Orthodoxy spread throughout the Roman and later Eastern Roman Empires and beyond, playing a prominent role in European, Near Eastern, Slavic, and some African cultures. As a result, the term Greek Orthodox has sometimes used to describe all of Eastern Orthodoxy in general. However, the appellation Greek was never in use and was gradually abandoned by the non-Greek-speaking Eastern Orthodox churches. Its most prominent episcopal see is Constantinople, there are also many in other parts of the world, formed through immigration, conversion and missionary activity. The official name of the Eastern Orthodox Church is the Orthodox Catholic Church and it is the name by which the church refers to itself in its liturgical or canonical texts, in official publications, and in official contexts or administrative documents. Orthodox teachers refer to the Church as Catholic and this name and longer variants containing Catholic are also recognized and referenced in other books and publications by secular or non-Orthodox writers. The common name of the Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, is a shortened practicality that helps to avoid confusions in casual use, for this reason, the eastern churches were sometimes identified as Greek, even before the great schism. After 1054, Greek Orthodox or Greek Catholic marked a church as being in communion with Constantinople and this identification with Greek, however, became increasingly confusing with time. Missionaries brought Orthodoxy to many regions without ethnic Greeks, where the Greek language was not spoken. Today, many of those same Roman churches remain, while a large number of Orthodox are not of Greek national origin. Eastern, then, indicates the element in the Churchs origin and development, while Orthodox indicates the faith. While the Church continues officially to call itself Catholic, for reasons of universality, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in a letter written about 110 AD from one Greek church to another. Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, thus, almost from the very beginning, Christians referred to the Church as the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. The Orthodox Church claims that it is today the continuation and preservation of that same Church, a number of other Christian churches also make a similar claim, the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Assyrian Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church, not directly from the Orthodox Church, the depth of this meaning in the Orthodox Church is registered first in its use of the word Orthodox itself, a union of Greek orthos and doxa
24.
Kokoshnik
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The kokoshnik is a traditional Russian headdress worn by women and girls to accompany the sarafan, primarily worn in the northern regions of Russia in the 16th to 19th centuries. Historically a kokoshnik is a worn by married women, though maidens wore a headdress very similar to a kokoshnik. The crest can be embroidered with pearls and goldwork or simple applique, usually using plant, the forehead area is frequently decorated with pearl netting. While wearing a kokoshnik the woman wears her hair in a plait. It resembles the French hood worn in Tudor England, but without the black veil, the word kokoshnik first appears in 16th-century documents, and comes from the Old Slavic kokosh, which means a hen or a cockerel. However, the earliest head-dress pieces of the type have been found in the 10th- to 12th-century burials in Veliky Novgorod. The kokoshnik gave its name to the decorative corbel arch that became an element of traditional Russian architecture from 16th century onwards. During the revival of Russian national culture in the early 19th century, diadem-shaped tiaras became part of the court dress for royalty. In this period both unmarried and married women wore the variety used traditionally by unmarried women, showing the front part of the hair, Russian peasant girls and women wore kokoshniks on special occasions until the Russian Revolution. After the Revolution Russian émigrés introduced the kokoshnik to the rest of European fashion, as of 2014 kokoshniks are worn chiefly by girls and women in Russian folk ensembles. A kokoshnik is also a part of the costume of Snegurochka. Queen Marie of Romania wore a Cartier tiara created to resemble the Russian kokoshnik for her 1924 portrait painted by Philip de László. The tiara was among the jewels on display in the “Cartier, Style, ochipok Fontange Media related to Kokoshnik at Wikimedia Commons Kokoshnik in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia
25.
Stairs
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A stairway, staircase, stairwell, flight of stairs, or simply stairs is a construction designed to bridge a large vertical distance by dividing it into smaller vertical distances, called steps. Stairs may be straight, round, or may consist of two or more straight pieces connected at angles, special types of stairs include escalators and ladders. Some alternatives to stairs are elevators, stairlifts and inclined moving walkways as well as stationary inclined sidewalks, a stair, or a stairstep is one step in a flight of stairs. In buildings, stairs is a term applied to a flight of steps between two floors. A stair flight is a run of stairs or steps between landings, a staircase or stairway is one or more flights of stairs leading from one floor to another, and includes landings, newel posts, handrails, balustrades and additional parts. A stairwell is a compartment extending vertically through a building in which stairs are placed. A stair hall is the stairs, landings, hallways, or other portions of the hall through which it is necessary to pass when going from the entrance floor to the other floors of a building. Box stairs are stairs built between walls, usually with no support except the wall strings, Stairs may be in a straight run, leading from one floor to another without a turn or change in direction. Stairs may change direction, commonly by two flights connected at a 90 degree angle landing. Stairs may also return onto themselves with 180 degree angle landings at each end of straight flights forming a vertical stairway commonly used in multistory, many variations of geometrical stairs may be formed of circular, elliptical and irregular constructions. Stairs may be a component of egress from structures and buildings. Stairs are also provided for convenience to access floors, roofs, levels, Stairs may also be a fanciful physical construct such as the stairs that go nowhere located at the Winchester Mystery House. Stairs are also a used in art to represent real or imaginary places built around impossible objects using geometric distortion. Stairway is also a metaphor for achievement or loss of a position in the society. Each step is composed of tread and riser, tread The part of the stairway that is stepped on. It is constructed to the specifications as any other flooring. The tread depth is measured from the edge of the step to the vertical riser between steps. The width is measured from one side to the other, riser The vertical portion between each tread on the stair
26.
Easter
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It is the culmination of the Passion of Jesus, preceded by Lent, a forty-day period of fasting, prayer, and penance. In Western Christianity, Eastertide, or the Easter Season, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts seven weeks, ending with the coming of the fiftieth day, Pentecost Sunday. In Eastern Christianity, the season of Pascha begins on Pascha and ends with the coming of the fortieth day, the Feast of the Ascension. The First Council of Nicaea established two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, which were the rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the council. No details for the computation were specified, these were worked out in practice and it has come to be the first Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon that occurs on or soonest after 21 March, but calculations vary. Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover by much of its symbolism, in many languages, the words for Easter and Passover are identical or very similar. Easter customs vary across the Christian world, and include services, exclaiming the Paschal greeting, clipping the church. The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection, traditionally decorates the area of churches on this day. Additional customs that have associated with Easter and are observed by both Christians and some non-Christians include egg hunting, the Easter Bunny, and Easter parades. There are also various traditional Easter foods that vary regionally, however, it is possible that Bede was only speculating about the origin of the term since there is no firm evidence that such a goddess actually existed. In Greek and Latin, the Christian celebration was, and still is, called Πάσχα, Pascha, the word originally denoted the Jewish festival known in English as Passover, commemorating the Jewish Exodus from slavery in Egypt. In most of the non-English speaking world, the feast is known by names derived from Greek, Pascha is also a name by which Jesus himself is remembered in the Orthodox Church, especially in connection with his resurrection and with the season of its celebration. The New Testament states that the resurrection of Jesus, which Easter celebrates, is a foundation of the Christian faith, the resurrection established Jesus as the powerful Son of God and is cited as proof that God will judge the world in righteousness. For those who trust in Jesus death and resurrection, death is swallowed up in victory, any person who chooses to follow Jesus receives a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead. Through faith in the working of God those who follow Jesus are spiritually resurrected with him so that they may walk in a new way of life and receive eternal salvation. Easter is linked to the Passover and Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper, sufferings and crucifixion of Jesus that preceded the resurrection. According to the New Testament, Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning, as in the room during the Last Supper he prepared himself. He identified the matzah and cup of wine as his soon to be sacrificed
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Tsar Cannon
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The Tsar Cannon is a large medieval artillery piece on display on the grounds of the Moscow Kremlin. It is a monument of Russian artillery casting art, cast in bronze in 1586 in Moscow, mostly of symbolic impact, it was never used in a war. However the cannon bears traces of at least one firing, per the Guinness Book of Records it is the largest bombard by caliber in the world, and it is a major tourist attraction in the ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin. The Tsar Cannon is located just past the Kremlin Armory, facing towards the Kremlin Senate, the very low ratio of the length of its barrel to its caliber makes it technically not a cannon, but a stylized mortar. The Tsar Cannon is made of bronze, it weighs 39.312 tonnes and has a length of 5.34 m and its bronze-cast barrel has an internal diameter of 890 mm, and an external diameter of 1,200 mm. The barrel has eight cast rectangular brackets for use in transporting the gun, the barrel is decorated with relief images, including an equestrian image of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, with a crown and a scepter in his hand on horseback. Above the front right bracket the message The grace of God, Tsar and Great Duke Fyodor Ivanovich, the cannon-style gun carriage, added in 1835, is purely decorative. This weapon was never intended to be transported on or fired from this gun carriage, according to one version, the name of this cannon, Tsar, is associated with the image of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich. However, it is likely that this name owes to the massive size of this cannon. In old times the cannon is also called the Russian Shotgun, because the gun was meant to shoot 800 kg stone grapeshot rather than true. The cannon ought to be classified as only a mortar by its length in modern classification. The cannon was cast in bronze in 1586, during the reign of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, in the Cannon yard, by Russian master Andery Chokhov. The carriages and the cannon itself was decorated in 1835 at the St. Petersburg plant of Berd, with designs by architect A. P. Bryullov. The Tsar Cannon was placed at points around Moscow in its history. However, by 1706, it was moved to the Kremlin Arsenal and it was not used during the French invasion of Russia, although Napoleon Bonaparte considered removing it to France as a war trophy. The wooden gun carriage burnt in the fire that consumed Moscow in 1812, in 1860, the Tsar Cannon was moved to its current location on Ivanovskaya Square near the Tsar Bell, which is similarly massive and is the largest bell in the world. For a long time, there was a theory that the Tsar Cannon was created only to impress foreigners of Russias military powers. Thus, according to writer Albert Valentinov. Andrey Chokov knew from the very first moment that this would not be a cannon at all
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Andrey Chokhov
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Andrey Chokhov, also spelled Chekhov was a highly prominent Russian cannon and bell caster. He worked in Moscow at the Cannon yard for more than 40 years and his first documented works were dated to 1568, and the last in 1629. His traditions were continued by the Motorin family, Chokhov took the lead in casting cannons in Moscow in 1590. Chokhov had many disciples, some of whom later became famed cannon and bell casters themselves, such as Pronya Fedorov, Kondarty Mikhailov, Gregory Naumov, Alexey Nikiforov and he died as Master Andrey Chokhov in 1629. Andrey Chokhov began his career at the Cannon yard in Moscow during the reign of Ivan the Terrible in the 1550s as an apprentice to a German caster Kashpir Ganusov. In 1586, Andrey Chokhov founded his famous Tsar Cannon, a masterpiece of the art of the second half of the 16th century. In 1587, he cast a fire arquebus Егуп, in 1588 - a 100-barrel cannon, in 1590 - battering rams Троил, Аспид, Лев, Скоропея, chokhovs last major works were big battering arquebuses called Кречет and Волк, the production of which he supervised in 1627. Andrey Chokhov is also known as a bell founder, in 1594 and 1603, he cast two huge bells weighing 625 poods and 1,080 poods, correspondingly. These bells were donated by Boris Godunov to the Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra, in 1621, Andrey Chokhov and other masters cast four bells for the Ivan the Great Bell Tower. In 1622, Chokhov cast a 20-ton bell called Реут and his biggest bell weighing 40 tons didnt survive to this day, as well as the so-called Godunov Bell, which would be destroyed by fire in 1701
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Tsar Bell
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The Tsar Bell, also known as the Tsarsky Kolokol, Tsar Kolokol III, or Royal Bell, is a 6. 14-metre tall,6. 6-metre diameter bell on display on the grounds of the Moscow Kremlin. The bell was commissioned by Empress Anna Ivanovna, niece of Peter the Great and it has never been in working order, suspended, or rung. The present bell is sometimes referred to as Kolokol III, because it is the third generation, the Tsar Bell is located between the Ivan the Great Bell Tower and the Kremlin Wall. Made of bronze, the bell was broken during metal casting and has never been rung. The bell is currently the largest bell in the world, weighing 201,924 kilograms, with a height of 6.14 metres and diameter of 6.6 metres, the broken piece weighs 11,500 kilograms. One of the largest of the bells was the original Tsar Bell. Completed in 1600, it weighed 18,000 kilograms and required 24 men to ring its clapper, housed in the original wooden Ivan the Great Bell Tower in the Moscow Kremlin, it crashed to the ground in a fire in the mid-17th century and was broken to pieces. The second Tsar Bell was cast in 1655, using the remnants of the former bell and this bell weighed 100,000 kilograms, but was again destroyed by fire in 1701. However, a bell of such size was unprecedented, and Münnich was not taken seriously, in 1733, the job was assigned to local foundry masters, Ivan Motorin and his son Mikhail, based on their experience in casting a bronze cannon. A pit 10 metres deep was dug, with a clay form, obtaining the necessary metals proved a challenge, for in addition to the parts of the old bell, an additional 525 kilograms of silver and 72 kilograms of gold were added to the mixture. After months of preparation, casting work commenced at the end of November 1734, the first attempt was not successful, and the project was incomplete when Ivan Motorin died in August,1735. His son Mikhail carried on the work, and the attempt at casting succeeded on November 25,1735. Ornaments were added as the bell was cooling while raised above the pit through 1737. However, before the last ornamentation was completed, a fire broke out at the Kremlin in May 1737. The fire spread to the wooden support structure for the bell, and fearing damage, guards threw cold water on it, causing eleven cracks. The fire burned through the supports, and the damaged bell fell back into its casting pit. The Tsar Bell remained in its pit for almost a century, unsuccessful attempts to raise it were made in 1792 and 1819. Napoleon Bonaparte, during his occupation of Moscow in 1812, considered removing it as a trophy to France and it was finally successfully raised in the summer of 1836 by the French architect Auguste de Montferrand and placed on a stone pedestal
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
31.
Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg
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The Peter and Paul Cathedral is a Russian Orthodox cathedral located inside the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg, Russia. It is the first and oldest landmark in St. Petersburg, both the cathedral and the fortress were originally built under Peter the Great and designed by Domenico Trezzini. The cathedrals bell tower is the worlds tallest Orthodox bell tower, since the belfry is not standalone, but an integral part of the main building, the cathedral is sometimes considered the highest Orthodox Church in the world. There is another Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul Church in St. Petersburg, the current building, the first stone church in St. Petersburg, was designed by Trezzini and built between 1712 and 1733. Its gold-painted spire reaches a height of 123 metres and features at its top an angel holding a cross and this angel is one of the most important symbols of St. Petersburg. The cathedrals architecture also features a unique iconostasis, however, at St. Peter and Paul, the iconostasis rises to form a sort of tower over the sanctuary. The cathedral has a typical Flemish carillon, a gift of the Flemish city of Mechelen, the cathedral is dedicated to Saints Peter and Paul, the patron saints of the fortress. The current cathedral is the one on the site. The first, built soon after Peters founding of the city, was consecrated by Archbishop Iov of Novgorod the Great in April 1704, the cathedral was the cathedral church of the city until 1859 The current cathedral church of St. Petersburg is the Kazan Cathedral on Nevsky Prospect. The cathedral was closed in 1919 and turned into a museum in 1924 and it is still officially a museum, religious services, however, resumed in 2000. The cathedral houses the remains of almost all the Russian emperors and empresses from Peter the Great to Nicholas II and his family, among the emperors and empresses buried here was Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia for 34 years. Of the post-Petrine rulers, only Peter II and Ivan VI are not buried here, Peter II is buried in the Cathedral of Michael the Archangel in the Moscow Kremlin, Ivan VI was executed and buried in the fortress of Shlisselburg or Kholmogory. On September 28,2006,78 years after her death, Maria Feodorovna, Empress of Russia, was reinterred in the Cathedral of St Peter and Paul. Wife of Tsar Alexander III, and mother of Nicholas II, in 2005, the governments of Denmark and Russia agreed that the empresss remains should be returned to Saint Petersburg in accordance with her wish to be interred next to her husband. The bell tower is the dominant feature of cathedral and the fortress. It serves several functions as part of the structure, It is an architectural symbol and it is a part of the imperial tomb - the tombs are on the ground floor. It is a lightning rod protecting the cathedral and it is a viewing platform upon which excursions meet each hour from 12,00 till 18,00. It houses a carillon upon which concerts are periodically performed, when renovators were cleaning the angel on the spire in 1997, they found a note in a bottle left in one of the folds of the angels gown
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Troitskaya Tower
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The Troitskaya Tower is a tower with a through-passage in the center of the northwestern wall of the Moscow Kremlin, which overlooks the Alexander Garden. The Troitskaya Tower was built in 1495-1499 by an Italian architect Aloisio da Milano, the tower has borne several names, including Rizopolozhenskaya, Znamenskaya, and Karetnaya. It received its current name in 1658 from the Troitskaya Coaching Inn in the Kremlin, the two-story basement of the tower housed a prison in the 16th-17th centuries. There is the Troitsky Bridge, which is protected by the Kutafia Tower, there was also a clock on top of the tower between 1585 and 1812. In 1707, due to a threat of Swedish invasion, the gun slots of the Troitskaya Tower were enlarged to fit heavy cannons, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the Troitskaya Tower. Prior to Soviet rule the tower had an icon of the Holy Trinity atop its outward face, because this tower was the formal entrance for huge Communist Party Congresses the icon was totally removed rather than just plastered over as were those on the Spasskaya and Nikolskaya Towers. The Troitskaya Tower is the tallest tower of the Moscow Kremlin and its current height on the side of the Alexander Garden together with the star is 80 metres. Today, the gate of the tower is the visitors entrance into the Kremlin
33.
Kotelnicheskaya Embankment Building
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Kotelnicheskaya Embankment Building is one of seven Stalinist skyscrapers laid down in September 1947 and completed in 1952, designed by Dmitry Chechulin and Andrei Rostkovsky. The main tower has 32 levels and is 176 metres tall, the building also incorporates a 9-story apartment block facing Moskva River, designed by the same architects in 1938 and completed in 1940. By the end of World War II, the wing was converted to multi-family kommunalka housing. The main tower, of a steel frame structural type, has a hexagonal cross-section with three side wings. While it is not exceptionally tall or massive, the surge of five stepped-up layers, from a flat 9-storey side wing to the spire. The structure hides behind itself a so-called Shvivaya Gorka, a hill with historical architecture, Chechulin was initially criticized for complete disregard of this area, but his bureaucratic influence brushed off any criticisms. com History of Moscow Skyscrapers video from top of building
34.
Red Square
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Red Square is a city square in Moscow, Russia. It separates the Kremlin, the royal citadel and currently the official residence of the President of Russia. Red Square is often considered the central square of Moscow since Moscows major streets, the name Red Square neither originates from the pigment of the surrounding bricks nor from the link between the colour red and communism. Rather, the name came about because the Russian word красная, several ancient Russian towns, such as Suzdal, Yelets, and Pereslavl-Zalessky, have their main square named Krasnaya ploshchad. The rich history of Red Square is reflected in paintings by Vasily Surikov, Konstantin Yuon. The square was meant to serve as Moscows main marketplace and it was also the site of various public ceremonies and proclamations, and occasionally a coronation for Russias Tsars would take place. The square has been built up since that point and has been used for official ceremonies by all Russian governments since it was established. The relevant decrees were issued in 1493 and 1495 and they called for the demolition of all buildings within 110 sazhens of the wall. Three square gates existed on this side of the wall, which in the 17th century, were known as, the last two are directly opposite Red Square, while the Konstantino-Elenensky gate was located behind Saint Basils Cathedral. In the early 19th century, the Arch of Konstantino-Elenensky gate was paved with bricks, from this gate, wooden and stone bridges stretched across the moat. Books were sold on this bridge and stone platforms were built nearby for guns – raskats, the Tsar Cannon was located on the platform of the Lobnoye mesto. The square was called Veliky Torg or simply Torg, then Troitskaya by the name of the small Troitskaya Church, after that, the square held the name Pozhar, which means burnt. It was not until 1661–62, when it was first mentioned by its contemporary Krasnaya – Red name, Red Square was the landing stage and trade centre for Moscow. Ivan the Great decreed that trade should only be conducted from person to person, but in time, after a fire in 1547, Ivan the Terrible reorganised the lines of wooden shops on the Eastern side into market lines. The streets Ilyinka and Varvarka were divided into the Upper lines, Middle lines and Bottom lines, after a few years, the Cathedral of Intercession of the Virgin, commonly known as Saint Basils Cathedral, was built on the moat under the rule of Ivan IV. This was the first building which gave the square its present-day characteristic silhouette, in 1595, the wooden market lines were replaced with stone. By that time, a platform for the proclamation of the tsars edicts. Red Square was considered a sacred place, during the expulsion of Poles from Moscow in 1612, Prince Dmitry Pozharsky entered the Kremlin through the square
35.
Moscow Kremlin Wall
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The Kremlin Wall is a defensive wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches and its Kremlin towers. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. One of the most symbolic constructions in Russias history can be traced back to the 12th century when Moscow was founded in 1147, the original outpost was surrounded by the first walls in 1156, which was most likely a simple wooden fence with guard towers. Destroyed in 1238 by the Mongol-Tartar invasion, the Moscow Kremlin was rebuilt by the Russian Knyaz Ivan Kalita, in 1339-1340 he erected a bigger fortress on the site of the original outpost which was defended by massive oak walls. Thought to be a defence from raids, it was proven to be useless against raids which burned Moscow in 1365. Nevertheless, the young knyaz Dmitry Donskoy in 1367 began a rebuilding of the fortress, all winter long from the Mukachyovo village 30 virsts from Moscow, limestone was hauled back on sledges, allowing the construction of the first stone walls to begin the following spring. The walls successfully withstood two sieges during the Lithuanian–Muscovite War, within a few years the city was adorned with beautiful white-stone walls. Whilst it was invaded by the Tatars again in 1382. Dmitry Donskoys walls stood for over a century, and it was during this period that Muscovy rose as the dominant power in Northeastern Rus. By the end of the 15th century, however, it was clear that the old constructions had long passed their time and Czar Ivan the Greats visions. Between 1485 and 1495 a whole brigade of Italian architects took part in the erection of a new defence perimeter including Antonio Fryazin, Marko Fryazin, Pyotr Fryazin, the new walls were erected by building on top of the older walls. The thickness and height was dramatically increased requiring many wooden houses which surrounded the Kremlin to be torn down, in the following centuries Moscow expanded rapidly outside the Kremlin walls and as Russias borders became more and more secure their defensive duty has all but passed. The cannons which were installed in the walls were removed after the turn of the 17th century, as was the second, during the reign of Czar Alexei Romanov, the towers were built up with decorative spires and the walls were restored. However their historical mightiness was dampened as the material became brick not stone, because of this the vertical profile is by no means uniform, and the height at some places ranges from no more than 5 metres quadrupling to 19 metres elsewhere. The thickness of the walls varies from 3.5 to 6.5 metres. The top of the walls, along their length, have outwardly-invisible battle platforms which also range from 2 to 4.5 metres in width. A total of 1045 double-horned notched teeth crown the top of the walls, with a height ranging from 2 to 2.5 metres, some of the interior corridors inside the walls have rooms with no exterior illumination where particularly dangerous criminals were contained. To date twenty towers survived, highlighting the walls, built at a different time, the oldest one, Tainitskaya dates to 1485 whilst the newest one-Tsarskaya to 1680
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Borovitskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
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Vodovzvodnaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
38.
Blagoveshenskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
39.
Tainitskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
40.
Pervaya Bezymyannaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
41.
Vtoraya Bezymyannaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
42.
Petrovskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
43.
Beklemishevskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
44.
Konstantino-Eleninskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
45.
Nabatnaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
46.
Tsarskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
47.
Spasskaya Tower
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The Spasskaya Tower is the main tower with a through-passage on the eastern wall of the Moscow Kremlin, which overlooks the Red Square. The Spasskaya Tower was built in 1491 by the Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari, initially, it was named the Frolovskaya Tower after the Church of Frol and Lavr in the Kremlin. The Spasskaya Tower was the first one to be crowned with the roof in 1624–1625 by architects Bazhen Ogurtsov. According to a number of accounts, the clock on the Spasskaya Tower appeared between 1491 and 1585. It is usually referred to as the Kremlin chimes and designates official Moscow Time, the tower gate was once the main entrance into the Kremlin. In tsarist times, anyone passing through the gates had to remove their headgear and this tradition was broken in the Soviet era. Cars approached the head on from the place of skulls. In order to pass through the gate, you had to be a head of state, top politburo member, all other traffic was routed through the borovistky gate. The Spassky Gate posed an issue following the collapse of communism, in 1999, the decision was made to finally close the gate to all traffic. The signal lights and guard platforms still remain, the gate is used occasionally when repairs must be made to the borovissky gate. However, in case, all traffic is routed from vasilievsky spusk. Nowadays, the gate opens to receive the presidential motorcades on inauguration day, for the victory parades, in 1935, the Soviet government installed a red star instead of a two-headed eagle on top of the Spasskaya Tower. The height of the tower with the star is 71 m, in August 2010 the icon of Smolensk Saviour was uncovered and restored above the gate. Moscow Kremlin Museum Website of President of Russia Spasskaya Tower on Rusarh. ru Clock of Spasskaya Tower
48.
Senatskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
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