1.
Dennis Hastert
–
He represented Illinoiss 14th congressional district in the House for twenty years,1987 to 2007. He is the longest-serving Republican Speaker of the House in history, Hastert grew up in rural Illinois. He graduated from Wheaton College with a degree in economics in 1964, from 1965 to 1981, Hastert was a high school teacher and coach. He lost a 1980 bid for the Illinois House of Representatives and he was first elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1986, and re-elected every subsequent election until he retired in 2007. Hastert rose through the Republican ranks in the House, becoming chief deputy whip, as Speaker of the House, Hastert supported the George W. Bush administrations foreign and domestic policies. In May 2015, Hastert was indicted on charges of structuring bank withdrawals to evade bank reporting requirements. Federal prosecutors said that the money was to compensate for and conceal deliberately-unspecified misconduct by Hastert against an unnamed individual years earlier, soon afterward, public accusations emerged that Hastert had sexually abused three male students when he was a teacher more than three decades earlier. In October 2015, Hastert entered into an agreement with prosecutors. Under the agreement, Hastert pleaded guilty to the charge. At the sentencing hearing later that month, Hastert admitted that he had sexually abused boys whom he coached. The judge in the referred to Hastert as a serial child molester and imposed a sentence of fifteen months in prison. He entered the Federal Medical Center prison in Rochester, Minnesota on June 22,2016, Hastert was born on January 2,1942, in Aurora, Illinois, the eldest of three sons of Naomi and Jack Hastert. Hastert is of Luxembourgeois and Norwegian descent on his fathers side, Hastert grew up in a rural Illinois farming community. His middle-class family owned a farm business and a family farm. As a young man, Hastert also worked shifts in the familys Plainfield restaurant, The Clock Tower, Hastert became a born-again Christian as a teenager, during his sophomore year of high school. Hastert attended Oswego High School, where he was a star wrestler, Hastert briefly attended North Central College, but later transferred to Wheaton College, a Christian liberal arts college. Jim Parnalee, Hasterts roommate at North Central who transferred him to Wheaton, was a Marine Corps Reserve member who in 1965 became the schools first student to be killed in Vietnam. Hastert continued to visit Parnalees family each year in Michigan, because of a wrestling injury, Hastert never served in the military
2.
Deborah Pryce
–
Born in Warren, Ohio, Pryce is a 1973 graduate of The Ohio State University where she was a member of Alpha Xi Delta. In 1976, she graduated from Capital University Law School, Pryce was an administrative law judge for the Ohio State Department of Insurance for 1976–1978. From 1978 to 1985 she worked for the city of Columbus, Ohio, first as an assistant city prosecutor, then as an assistant city attorney. Pryce was a judge in the Franklin County Municipal Court from 1985 to 1992, Pryce was first elected to the U. S. House in November 1992. Until the election of 2006, she was the Chair of the House Republican Conference and this position has been held by J. C. Watts, Dick Cheney and Jack Kemp, among others. She also served as a deputy Republican whip, Pryce was a member of the House Committee on Financial Services and was ranking minority member of the Capital Markets, Insurance, and Government-Sponsored Enterprises Subcommittee. She returned to the committee after spending ten years on the House Rules Committee, Pryce is a fiscally conservative, socially progressive Republican. She is a member of the Republican Main Street Partnership, Republicans For Environmental Protection, The Republican Majority For Choice, Republicans for Choice and she does not favor banning abortion, since the Government should not interfere in decisions a woman makes about her pregnancy. In 2005, Pryce, along with former Senator Rick Santorum, was one of two cosigners of the GOP plan to privatize Social Security, in November 2006, when asked about the war in Iraq, Pryce ended an interview with CNN by walking away. In a statement later issued to CNN, Pryce said, Whats happening in Iraq is not a reflection on me. Price has also drawn attention for accepting more than $90,000 from oil and gas companies and for voting in accordance with Energy Lobby interests. In her first election in 1992, Pryce won in a race in which an independent conservative, pro-life candidate, Linda Reidelbach, received almost 20% of the vote. Between 1994 and 2002, Pryce won with at least 2/3 of the vote each election, in the 2004 Republican party primary, Pryce defeated Charles R. Morrison II, 84%–16%. She won the election with 62% of the vote, defeating Democrat Mark P. Brown. She had previously defeated Brown in the November 2002 election, in the November 2006 general election, Pryce faced Democratic Franklin County Commissioner Mary Jo Kilroy. The race in Ohios 15th district gained significant national attention as one of a handful of seats that Democrats had an opportunity to gain from Republicans. In mid-October 2006, the race was considered to be a toss-up largely due to Pryces high-ranking post in the Republican leadership as well as the strong anti-Republican mood in Ohio. The 15th had long considered the more Republican of the two districts that divide Columbus, but had become slightly less Republican as a result of the 2000 round of redistricting
3.
Kay Granger
–
Norvell Kay Granger is a Republican politician from the U. S. state of Texas, representing its 12th congressional district in the U. S. House of Representatives. A former teacher and businesswoman, she is the first Republican woman to represent Texas in the U. S. House. After serving on the commission of Fort Worth, Texas, in 1991 she was elected as the citys first woman mayor. In 2016, Granger made headlines by joining a long list of Republicans who opposed the GOP nominee for President, Granger was born in Greenville, Texas, and grew up in Fort Worth. She attended local schools and Eastern Hills High School. She graduated from Texas Wesleyan University, Granger taught high school English and journalism for several years and became familiar with many issues in the community. In 1978 she decided to establish her own agency, which she operated for years. Deciding to become active in politics, Granger was elected to the Fort Worth Zoning Commission. She was elected to the city council in 1989 and she was elected Mayor in 1991 in a non-partisan election as the first woman mayor of the city. After Congressman Pete Geren announced he would retire in 1996, both the Democratic and Republican parties worked to recruit Granger to run for his seat, Republicans were bullish on their chances of winning Texas 12th congressional district. It had once represented by Democratic Speaker of the House Jim Wright. Granger decided to run as a Republican, much to the dismay of local GOP activists and she won handily, taking 56 percent of the vote over the Democrat Hugh Parmer, also a former Fort Worth mayor. She was reelected in 1998 and faced opposition only in 2000. In 2008, Granger defeated Democratic challenger Tracey Smith with 67 percent of the vote, in 2006 Granger published a book, Whats Right About America, Celebrating Our Nations Values, reflecting on lessons from prominent figures of United States history. That year, she was reelected to her term in Congress. She was elected as Conference Vice Chair, the position among House Republicans. She is Chairwoman of the House Appropriations Subcommitee on State-Foreign Operations and she also sits on the United States House Committee on Appropriationss Subcommittee on Defense, and the Labor, Health, Human Services, and Education Subcommittee. She has also served as a House Deputy Whip, on September 25,2007, she publicly endorsed former Massachusetts governor Mitt Romney in the primary race for the Republican Party presidential nomination
4.
United States House of Representatives
–
The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
5.
Georgia (U.S. state)
–
Georgia is a state in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1733, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies, named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2,1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 19,1861 and it was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15,1870. Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States, from 2007 to 2008,14 of Georgias counties ranked among the nations 100 fastest-growing, second only to Texas. Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South, Atlanta is the states capital, its most populous city and has been named a global city. Georgia is bordered to the south by Florida, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina, to the west by Alabama, the states northern part is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, part of the Appalachian Mountains system. Georgias highest point is Brasstown Bald at 4,784 feet above sea level, Georgia is the largest state entirely east of the Mississippi River in land area. Before settlement by Europeans, Georgia was inhabited by the mound building cultures, the British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12,1733. The colony was administered by the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America under a charter issued by King George II. The Trustees implemented a plan for the colonys settlement, known as the Oglethorpe Plan. In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins Ear, in 1752, after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony, the Trustees turned over control to the crown. Georgia became a colony, with a governor appointed by the king. The Province of Georgia was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution by signing the 1776 Declaration of Independence, the State of Georgias first constitution was ratified in February 1777. Georgia was the 10th state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24,1778, in 1829, gold was discovered in the North Georgia mountains, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush and an established federal mint in Dahlonega, which continued its operation until 1861. The subsequent influx of white settlers put pressure on the government to land from the Cherokee Nation. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, sending many eastern Native American nations to reservations in present-day Oklahoma, including all of Georgias tribes. Despite the Supreme Courts ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that ruled U. S. states were not permitted to redraw the Indian boundaries, President Jackson and the state of Georgia ignored the ruling. In 1838, his successor, Martin Van Buren, dispatched troops to gather the Cherokee
6.
Georgia's 1st congressional district
–
Georgias 1st congressional district is a congressional district in the U. S. state of Georgia. The first election using the new boundaries were the 2012 congressional elections. The district comprises the coastal area of Sea Islands and much of the southeastern part of the state. In addition to Savannah, the district includes the cities of Brunswick, Jesup, house of Representatives from Georgias 1st congressional district. Georgias congressional districts List of United States congressional districts Martis, Kenneth C, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts, Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present PDF map of Georgias 1st district at nationalatlas. gov Georgias 1st district at GovTrack. us
7.
Lindsay Thomas (politician)
–
Robert Lindsay Thomas is an American politician and businessman. Thomas was born in Patterson, Georgia, after graduating from Patterson High School in 1961, he attended the University of Georgia in Athens and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1966. After college, Thomas served in the Georgia National Guard from 1966 until 1972, in 2002, he was appointed Senior Vice President of Governmental Relations for AGL Resources in Atlanta, a position which he currently holds as of 2006. Thomas maintains residences in Atlanta and Screven, Georgia, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. AGL Resources Bio for R. Lindsay Thomas
8.
Buddy Carter
–
Earl Leroy Buddy Carter is an American politician who is the U. S. Representative for Georgias 1st congressional district and he is a member of the Republican Party. Previously, he was a member of the Georgia State Senate, Carter was first elected as a State Senator in the 2009 general election. Carter graduated from Robert W. Groves High School in 1975 and he earned an associate degree from Young Harris College in 1977 and a Bachelor of Science in pharmacy from the University of Georgia in 1980. Carter served on the planning and zoning commission for the city of Pooler from 1989 to 1993, Carter served as Poolers mayor from 1996 to 2004 as well. Carter was first elected to the legislature in 2005—serving two terms in the House of Representatives from 2006 to 2010. Carter was elected to the Georgia Senate in 2009 and sworn into the house in 2010. He sat on the Senate Appropriations, Health and Human Services, Higher Education, in March 2014, a controversy emerged regarding S. B. 408, a bill authored by Carter that would increase reimbursement rates for pharmacies in Georgia, obviously, its borderline, he admitted when questioned afterwards. Carter supported President Donald Trumps 2017 executive order to curtail immigration from six countries until better screening methods are devised. ”Carter supports the repeal of the Affordable Care Act. He has stated there is no circumstance that would induce him to vote in favor of keeping the ACA. Carter is a co-sponsor of H. R.586, the Sanctity of Human Life Act, H. R.586 provides a constitutional right to life to embryos at the moment of fertilization, before a pregnancy occurs. H. R.586, which would ban abortion, contains no exceptions for the life or health of the mother or for cases of rape or incest. It successfully passed through the United States Senate Committee on Homeland Security and it was signed by President Donald Trump on January 31,2017. Committee on Energy and Commerce Subcommittee on Health Subcommittee on Environment Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations Congressman Buddy Carter official U. S
9.
Georgia House of Representatives
–
The Georgia House of Representatives is the lower house of the Georgia General Assembly of the U. S. state of Georgia. There are currently 180 elected members, the Georgia House of Representatives was created in 1777 during the American Revolution, making it older than the U. S. Congress. During its existence, its place has moved multiple times, from Savannah to Augusta, to Louisville, to Milledgeville. In 1867, the governor of Georgia called for an assembly in Atlanta to discuss a constitutional convention. Atlanta officials moved to make the city Georgias new state capital, the constitutional convention agreed and the people voted to ratify the decision on April 20,1868. The Georgia General Assembly first presided in Atlanta on July 4,1868, on October 26,1884, construction began on a new state capitol and was first occupied on June 15,1889. The state legislature cannot grant incorporation to private persons but may establish laws governing the incorporation process and it is also prohibited from authorizing contracts or agreements that may have the effect of or the intent of lessening competition or encouraging a monopoly. Members of the Georgia House of Representatives maintain two privileges during their time in office, first, no member can be arrested during session or during committee meetings except in cases of treason, felony, or breach of the peace. Second, members are not liable for anything they say in session or committee meetings. According to the constitution of 1983, this body is to comprise no fewer than 180 members elected for two-year terms. Current state law provides for 180 members, elections are held the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November in even-numbered years. It is the third-largest lower house of the 50 United States, as of 2011, attorneys account for about 16. 1% of the membership of the Georgia House of Representatives, a relatively low figure. The House of Representatives elects its own Speaker as well as a Speaker Pro Tempore, the current speaker of the Georgia House of Representatives is David Ralston. The current Speaker Pro Tempore is Jan Jones, the Speaker Pro Tempore becomes Speaker in case of the death, resignation, or permanent disability of the Speaker. The Speaker Pro Tempore serves until a new Speaker is elected, in addition there is a clerk of the House, who is charged with overseeing the flow of legislation through the body. The current clerk is William L. Reilly
10.
Bryan, Texas
–
Bryan is a city in Brazos County, Texas, United States. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 76,201 and it is the county seat of Brazos County and is located in the heart of the Brazos Valley. It borders the city of College Station, which lies to its south, together they are referred to as the Bryan–College Station metropolitan area, the sixteenth largest metropolitan area in Texas, containing around 190,000 people. The area around Bryan was part of a grant to Moses Austin by Spain. Austins son, Stephen F. Austin, helped bring settlers to the area, among the settlers was William Joel Bryan, the nephew of Stephen Austin. In 1866 the county seat of Brazos County was changed from Boonville to Bryan, in 1867, after many delays caused by the Civil War, the Houston and Texas Central Railroad, which had only previously gotten as far as Millican, finally reached Bryan. A short time later, in 1871, the city of Bryan became incorporated, just south of Bryan, Texas A&M College opened in 1876 in what later would be known as College Station. The following year,1877 saw the establishment of the Bryan Independent School District, keeping up with progress in the rest of the country, Bryan added electric lighting and a waterworks to its community in 1889. The fifth Brazos County courthouse was built in 1892, and by the turn of the century, in 1900, using a generous grant of $10,000 from Andrew Carnegie, the Carnegie Library of Bryan opened its doors in 1902. In 1910 the town built a railroad to College Station. By 1923 the line was abandoned, the first Jewish place of worship, the Temple Freda synagogue, was opened in 1913. During the 1930s the town of North Oakwood merged with Bryan, now Bryan and College Station are twin cities. In 1936 State Highway 6 was built, running right through town, in 2006 the Texas A&M University System announced that the new Texas A&M Health Science Center campus would be built in Bryan near the new Traditions Golf Course development. A fire at the El Dorado Chemical Co. in 2009 caused the evacuation of 70,000 residents due to the burning of ammonium nitrate, possibly causing minor respiratory problems. Less than 1,000 residents chose to evacuate, taking shelter at Texas A&M University, city fire officials chose to let the fire burn down before tackling it, since the chemicals were water reactive. The evacuation, which started at 2,30 pm CST ended at 7 pm, except for a small, defined area immediately around the fire, where approximately 100 Bryan residents lived. In the end, only 500 residents were under a mandatory evacuation, officials from El Dorado said there was never any danger from the smoke or fire. The warehouse, valued at just under $1 million, was destroyed, in 2010 the Brazos County District Attorneys Office started the enforcement of a Gang Safety Zone in response to an escalation in violence within Bryan
11.
Texas
–
Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
12.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
13.
Republican Party (United States)
–
The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
14.
Alma mater
–
Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
15.
University of Georgia
–
Its primary location is a 762-acre campus adjacent to the college town of Athens, Georgia, approximately an hours drive from the global city of Atlanta. The university has been labeled one of the Public Ivies, a publicly funded university considered to provide a quality of education comparable to those of the Ivy League. The university was founded in 1785 as the United States first state-chartered university and its historic North Campus is on the U. S. National Register of Historic Places as a designated historic district. The contiguous campus areas include rolling hills, gardens, and extensive green space including nature walks, fields, shrubbery, and large and varied arboreta. Close to the campus is the universitys 58-acre Health Sciences Campus that also has an extensive landscaped green space, more than 400 trees. The university offers over 140 degree programs in an array of disciplines. Consisting of thirteen separate libraries, the UGA Libraries rank among the nation’s largest and best research libraries containing 5.7 million volumes, the University of Georgia is one of 126 member institutions that comprise the Association of Research Libraries. The university is organized into seventeen schools and colleges, the university has three primary campuses. The largest one is the campus in Athens that has 460 buildings. The university has two campuses located in Atlanta and Lawrenceville, Georgia. The university operates several service and outreach stations spread across the state, the total acreage of the university in 30 Georgia counties is 41,539 acres. Varsity and intramural student athletics are a part of student life. UGA served as a member of the SEC in 1932. In their 121-year history, the varsity sports teams have won 39 national championships and 130 conference championships. The Georgia Redcoat Marching Band, the marching band of the university, plays at sports. The Senatus Academicus was composed of the Board of Visitors and the Board of Trustees with the Georgia Senate presiding over those two boards, the first meeting of the universitys board of trustees was held in Augusta, Georgia on February 13,1786. The meeting installed its first president, Abraham Baldwin, a native of Connecticut, Baldwin was a delegate to the 1787 Constitutional Convention, and one of two Georgia delegates to sign the final document. Many features on the University of Georgia campus resemble the campus of Yale, on July 2,1799, the Senatus Academicus met again in Louisville, Georgia and decided that the time was right to open the university
16.
Bachelor of Arts
–
A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
17.
United States Senate
–
The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
18.
Saxby Chambliss
–
Clarence Saxby Chambliss is an American politician who was a United States Senator from Georgia from 2003 to 2015. A member of the Republican Party, he served as a U. S. During his 2002 bid for the U. S. Senate, Chambliss focused on the issue of national defense and he won with 53% of the vote. For several years he was the ranking Republican on the Senate Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry, in the 112th Congress he was the ranking Republican on the Select Committee on Intelligence. Chambliss has a voting record in the Senate, but he has participated in some bipartisan legislation. In December 2011 the Washington Post named Chambliss and the Gang of Six as one of the Best Leaders of 2011 for attempts to craft a bipartisan deficit reduction package, on January 24,2013, Chambliss announced that he would not be running for a third term. Chambliss was born in Warrenton, North Carolina, the son of Emma Baker and Alfred Parker Chambliss and he graduated from C. E. Byrd High School in Shreveport, Louisiana, in 1961. He received his Juris Doctor from the University of Tennessee College of Law in 1968 and he is a member of the Sigma Chi Fraternity. During the Vietnam War, Chambliss received student deferments and was given a medical deferment for bad knees due to a football injury. Chambliss is a member of St, marks Anglican Church in Moultrie, Georgia. He married Julianne Frohbert in 1966 and they have two children and six grandchildren, the Senators office enacted a policy that prevented Bo from lobbying the Senator or his staff. Chambliss was elected to the U. S. House of Representatives in 1994 as one of the new conservative Republican congressmen whose elections caused the party to gain a majority in both houses of Congress. A long-time Congressman and fellow Georgian, Newt Gingrich, was the leader of the movement, and Chambliss, Chambliss was elected from the Macon-based 8th District, after six-term incumbent J. Roy Rowland retired. He was elected with 63% of the unexpectedly large margin since the 8th had never elected a Republican. He faced a tough fight in 1996 against Macon attorney Jim Wiggins. The committees investigation resulted in the first comprehensive report detailing critical shortfalls within the United States intelligence communitys performance, in 2006, Chambliss was among several congressional Republicans and Democrats who returned campaign donations from Jack Abramoff. As a Representative, Chambliss sponsored 21 bills, including, H. R.2335,4296, a bill to adjust monetary penalties for hunting migratory birds, introduced April 13,2000 H. R. R. 5612, in the 108th Congress as S.1204, in the 109th Congress as S.1522, in the 110th Congress as S.408, and in the 111th Congress as S.1348
19.
David Perdue
–
Perdue won the Republican primary and defeated Democratic nominee Michelle Nunn on November 4,2014, taking office on January 3,2015. He is a first cousin of Sonny Perdue, former governor of Georgia, Perdue, Jr. started his business career with more than a decade as a management consultant. In 1992 he became a VP at Sara Lee Corporation, during the next decade, he worked with Haggar Clothing, and Reebok. He was unable to correct problems at Pillowtex, which he joined in 2002, Perdue next worked for Dollar General, where he did achieve a turnaround, and later for the Gujarat Heavy Chemicals Ltd. which interests in India included textile mills. Before entering politics, Perdue set up a trading firm in Atlanta. David Perdue was born in Macon, Georgia, the son of David Alfred Perdue, Sr. and he was raised in Warner Robins, Georgia. Perdue has a degree in industrial engineering and a masters degree in operations research. At Georgia Tech, Perdue was a brother of the Delta Sigma Phi Fraternity, the couple now lives in the resort town of Sea Island. The couple have two sons, David A. Perdue III and Blake Perdue, and three grandchildren, David Perdue, Jr. is the first cousin of former Georgia governor Sonny Perdue. Perdue began his career at Kurt Salmon Associates, a consulting firm. His first major job was as senior vice president of Asia operations for Sara Lee Corporation. His time at Sara Lee was followed by a stint at Haggar Clothing, in 1998, Perdue joined Reebok as a senior vice president, eventually rising to president and CEO. Perdue is credited with reducing the companys debt and reviving its sneaker line. Perdue negotiated a contract with the National Football League that a former Reebok executive referred to as revolutionary for repositioning the companys shoe brand, in 2002, Perdue left Reebok for Pillowtex, a North Carolina textile company. The company had emerged from bankruptcy with a heavy debt load. Perdue was unable to obtain funding from the companys investors. He left the company in 2003 after nine months on the job, Pillowtex closed several months later, leaving 7,650 workers out of work nationwide. With more than 4,000 jobs lost statewide, the closing of Pillowtex resulted in the largest single-day job loss in North Carolina history at the time, after leaving Pillowtex, Perdue became CEO of Dollar General
20.
Squire Patton Boggs
–
Squire Patton Boggs is an international law firm with 46 offices in 21 countries. It was formed in 2014 by the merger of law firm Squire Sanders with Washington. It is one of the 30 largest law firms in the world by total headcount and gross revenue, twelfth largest firm in the UK by revenue and it is also one of the largest US-headquartered law firms in Asia. Its largest offices are in Washington, London and Cleveland, each having more than 100 lawyers, Squire Patton Boggs is currently the third-largest lobbying firm in the U. S. after Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld and Brownstein Hyatt Farber Schreck. The lobbying arm, long managed by Thomas Hale Boggs, Jr. is currently managed by former United States Senators John Breaux, the firm was founded in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1890 as Squire, Sanders & Dempsey. Until the 1990s, it was primarily an Ohio law firm, with small offices in several other US cities. It subsequently absorbed a number of legal practices including several Pacific Rim offices of Graham & James. The firm also made overtures toward mergers with Denton Wilde Sapte, Seyfarth Shaw, hammonds was an international law firm headquartered in Leeds, United Kingdom, with offices in Beijing, Berlin, Birmingham, Brussels, Hong Kong, Leeds, Madrid, Manchester, Munich and Paris. Hammonds origins dated back to the founding of a practice in Yorkshire in 1887. Although it was a firm in Yorkshire and the West Midlands region. In 2000 Hammond Suddards and Edge Ellison merged, forming Hammond Suddards Edge, the firms rapid expansion left it £30 million in debt in the early 2000s and led to a downsizing through 2005. The firm was ranked 20th in the UK by turnover in The Lawyer UK1002006, throughout 2005-2009, the firm underwent significant restructuring under the stewardship of Managing Partner Peter Crossley. As of 2009, the partnership consisted of approximately 180 partners, hammonds converted to a Limited Liability Partnership in May 2008. Hammonds and Squire, Sanders & Dempsey announced that they were in talks in August 2010. The partnerships of both firms voted in favor of a merger in November 2010, and it was completed on January 1,2011, London overtook Cleveland as the largest office of the combined firm. The American Lawyer estimated Squire Sanders to be the 24th largest law firm in the world by number of lawyers, the firm of Patton Boggs was founded in 1962 by James R. Patton, Jr. and joined soon after by George Blow and Thomas Hale Boggs, Jr. It has participated in the formation of major multilateral trade agreement considered by Congress. Boggs joined the firm in 1966 after serving as an economist for the Joint Economic Committee and in the executive office of President Lyndon B. Johnson
21.
Ted Cruz
–
Rafael Edward Ted Cruz /ˈkruːz/ is an American politician and attorney, who has served as the junior United States Senator from Texas since 2013. He was a candidate for the Republican nomination for President of the United States in the 2016 election, Cruz graduated from Princeton University, New Jersey, in 1992, and from Harvard Law School, Massachusetts, in 1995. Bush on the 2000 George W. Bush Presidential campaign, Cruz served as Solicitor General of Texas, from 2003 to 2008, appointed by Texas Attorney General, Greg Abbott. He was the first Hispanic, and the longest-serving, Solicitor General in Texas history, from 2004 to 2009, Cruz was an Adjunct Professor at the University of Texas School of Law in Austin, Texas, where he taught U. S. Supreme Court litigation. Cruz ran for the Senate seat vacated by fellow Republican Kay Bailey Hutchison and, in July 2012, defeated Lieutenant Governor David Dewhurst during the Republican primary runoff and he defeated former State Representative Paul Sadler in the November 2012 general election, winning 56–41%. He is the first Hispanic American to serve as a U. S, Senator representing Texas, and is one of three senators of Cuban descent. He chairs the Senate Judiciary Subcommittee on Oversight, Federal Rights and Agency Activities, in November 2012, he was appointed Vice-Chairman of the National Republican Senatorial Committee. Cruz began campaigning for the Republican presidential nomination in March 2015, Cruzs victory in the February 2016 Iowa caucuses marked the first time a Hispanic person won a U. S. presidential caucus or primary. He eventually emerged as the challenger to frontrunner Donald Trump. He suspended his campaign for president on May 3,2016, Rafael Edward Cruz was born on December 22,1970, at Foothills General Hospital in Calgary, Alberta, to parents Eleanor Elizabeth Wilson and Rafael Bienvenido Cruz y Díaz. Cruzs mother was born in Wilmington, Delaware and she is of three-quarters Irish and one-quarter Italian descent. She earned a degree in mathematics from Rice University in the 1950s. Cruz paternal grandfather, Rafael, immigrated to Cuba as an infant with his parents from the Canary Islands of Spain. Cruzs father is a Cuban American, he was born in Cuba and grew up in the middle class and he obtained political asylum in the U. S. after his four-year student visa expired, as the Cuban Revolution had changed the government. He earned Canadian citizenship in 1973 and he became a naturalized U. S. citizen in 2005. Eleanor and Rafael Cruz divorced in 1997, at the time of his birth, Cruzs parents had lived in Calgary for three years and were working in the oil business as owners of a seismic-data processing firm for oil drilling. Cruz has said, Im the son of two mathematicians/computer programmers, in 1974, his father left the family and moved to Texas. Later that year, his parents reconciled and relocated to Houston, Cruz has two older half-sisters, Miriam Ceferina Cruz and Roxana Lourdes Cruz, from his fathers first marriage
22.
Donald Trump presidential campaign, 2016
–
The 2016 presidential campaign of Donald Trump, an American businessman, television personality, and author, was formally launched on June 16,2015, at Trump Tower in New York City. Trump was the Republican nominee for President of the United States in the 2016 election, having won the most state primaries, caucuses and he chose Mike Pence, the sitting Governor of Indiana, as his vice presidential running mate. On November 8,2016, Trump and Pence were elected president, some of his remarks were controversial and helped his campaign garner extensive coverage by the mainstream media, trending topics, and social media. Trumps campaign rallies attracted large crowds, as well as public controversy, Trump was accused of inciting violence at his rallies. Trumps disdain for political correctness was a theme of his campaign. Many, including some mainstream commentators and some prominent Republicans, viewed him as appealing to racism, since the 1988 presidential election, Trump was discussed as a potential candidate for President in nearly every election. In October 1999, Trump declared himself a candidate for the Reform Partys presidential nomination. In 2004, Trump said that he identified as a Democrat, Trump rejoined the Republican Party in September 2009, chose no party affiliation in December 2011, and again rejoined the GOP in April 2012. In early 2011, presidential speculation reached its highest point and Trump began to take a lead in polls among Republican candidates in the 2012 election, at the 2011 Conservative Political Action Conference, Trump said he is pro-life and against gun control. He also spoke before Tea Party supporters, early polls for the 2012 election had Trump among the leading candidates. In December 2011, Trump placed sixth in the ten most admired men and women living of 2011 USA Today/Gallup telephone survey, however, Trump announced in May 2011 that he would not be a candidate for the office. In 2013, Trump researched a possible run for President of the United States in 2016, in February 2015, Trump did not renew his television contract for The Apprentice, which raised speculation of his candidacy for President of the United States in 2016. Later that year, Trump was a speaker at the Conservative Political Action Conference. Trump formally announced his candidacy on June 16,2015, with a campaign rally, in his speech, Trump drew attention to domestic issues such as illegal immigration, offshoring of American jobs, the U. S. national debt, and Islamic terrorism. The campaign slogan was announced as Make America Great Again, Trump declared that he would self-fund his presidential campaign, and would refuse any money from donors and lobbyists. Ladbrokes offered 150/1 odds of Trump winning the presidency, following the announcement, most of the medias attention focused on Trumps comment on illegal immigration, When Mexico sends its people, theyre not sending their best. Theyre sending people that have lots of problems, and theyre bringing those problems with, and some, I assume, are good people. Trumps statement was controversial and led several businesses and organizations—including NBC, Macys, Univision, after the public backlash, Trump stood by his comments, citing news articles to back his claims
23.
CNN
–
The Cable News Network is an American basic cable and satellite television news channel owned by the Turner Broadcasting System division of Time Warner. It was founded in 1980 by American media proprietor Ted Turner as a 24-hour cable news channel, upon its launch, CNN was the first television channel to provide 24-hour news coverage, and was the first all-news television channel in the United States. While the news channel has numerous affiliates, CNN primarily broadcasts from the Time Warner Center in New York City and its headquarters at the CNN Center in Atlanta is only used for weekend programming. CNN is sometimes referred to as CNN/U. S. to distinguish the American channel from its sister network. As of August 2010, CNN is available in over 100 million U. S. households, broadcast coverage of the U. S. channel extends to over 890,000 American hotel rooms, as well as carriage on cable and satellite providers throughout Canada. Globally, CNN programming airs through CNN International, which can be seen by viewers in over 212 countries and territories, as of February 2015, CNN is available to about 96,289,000 cable, satellite, and telco television households in the United States. The Cable News Network was launched at 5,00 p. m. Eastern Time on June 1,1980, after an introduction by Ted Turner, the husband and wife team of David Walker and Lois Hart anchored the channels first newscast. Burt Reinhardt, the vice president of CNN at its launch, hired most of the channels first 200 employees, including the networks first news anchor. Since its debut, CNN has expanded its reach to a number of cable and satellite providers, several websites. The company has 36 bureaus, more than 900 affiliated local stations, the channels success made a bona-fide mogul of founder Ted Turner and set the stage for conglomerate Time Warners eventual acquisition of the Turner Broadcasting System in 1996. A companion channel, CNN2, was launched on January 1,1982, on January 28,1986, CNN carried the only live television coverage of the launch and subsequent break-up of Space Shuttle Challenger, which killed all seven crew members on board. On October 14,1987, Jessica McClure, an 18-month-old toddler, fell down a well in Midland, CNN quickly reported on the story, and the event helped make its name. This was before correspondents reported live from the capital while American bombs were falling. Before Saddam Hussein held a press conference with a few of the hundreds of Americans he was holding hostage. Before the nation watched, riveted but powerless, as Los Angeles was looted and burned, before O. J. Simpson took a slow ride in a white Bronco, and before everyone close to his case had an agent and a book contract. This was uncharted territory just a time ago. The moment when bombing began was announced on CNN by Bernard Shaw on January 16,1991, as follows, lets describe to our viewers what were seeing. The skies over Baghdad have been illuminated, were seeing bright flashes going off all over the sky
24.
Ethiopia
–
Ethiopia, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the north and northeast, Djibouti and Somalia to the east, Sudan and South Sudan to the west, and Kenya to the south. With nearly 100 million inhabitants, Ethiopia is the most populous landlocked country in the world and it occupies a total area of 1,100,000 square kilometres, and its capital and largest city is Addis Ababa. Some of the oldest evidence for modern humans has been found in Ethiopia. It is widely considered as the region from modern humans first set out for the Middle East. According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations settled in the Horn region during the ensuing Neolithic era, tracing its roots to the 2nd millennium BC, Ethiopia was a monarchy for most of its history. During the first centuries AD, the Kingdom of Aksum maintained a unified civilization in the region, subsequently, many African nations adopted the colors of Ethiopias flag following their independence. It was the first independent African member of the 20th-century League of Nations, Ethiopias ancient Geez script, also known as Ethiopic, is one of the oldest alphabets still in use in the world. The Ethiopian calendar, which is seven years and three months behind the Gregorian calendar, co-exists alongside the Borana calendar. A slight majority of the population adheres to Christianity, while around a third follows Islam, the country is the site of the Migration to Abyssinia and the oldest Muslim settlement in Africa at Negash. A substantial population of Ethiopian Jews, known as Bete Israel, resided in Ethiopia until the 1980s, Ethiopia is a multilingual nation with around 80 ethnolinguistic groups, the four largest of which are the Oromiffa, Amhara, Somali, and Tigrayans. Most people in the country speak Afroasiatic languages of the Cushitic or Semitic branches, additionally, Omotic languages are spoken by ethnic minority groups inhabiting the southern regions. Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken by the nations Nilotic ethnic minorities. Ethiopia is the place of origin for the coffee bean which originated from the place called Kefa and it is a land of natural contrasts, with its vast fertile West, jungles, and numerous rivers, and the worlds hottest settlement of Dallol in its north. The Ethiopian Highlands are Africas largest continuous mountain ranges, and Sof Omar Caves contain Africas largest cave, Ethiopia has the most UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Africa. Ethiopia is one of the members of the UN, the Group of 24, the Non-Aligned Movement, G-77. In the 1970s and 1980s, Ethiopia suffered from civil wars, the country has begun to recover recently however, and now has the largest economy in East Africa and Central Africa. According to Global Fire Power, Ethiopia has the 42nd most powerful military in the world, the origin of the word Ethiopia is uncertain
25.
Athens, Georgia
–
Athens is a consolidated city–county in the U. S. state of Georgia, in the northeastern part of the state, comprising the former city of Athens proper and Clarke County. The University of Georgia, the flagship public research university, is located in this college town. In 1991, after a vote the preceding year, the city abandoned its charter to form a unified government with Clarke County. As of the 2010 census, the consolidated city-county had a population of 115,452. Athens is the sixth-largest city in Georgia, and the city of the Athens-Clarke County, Georgia Metropolitan Statistical Area. Athens-Clarke County has the smallest geographical area of a county in Georgia, in the late 18th century, a trading settlement on the banks of the Oconee River called Cedar Shoals stood where Athens is located today. On January 27,1785, the Georgia General Assembly granted a charter by Abraham Baldwin for the University of Georgia as the first state-supported university. Sixteen years later, in 1801, a committee from the board of trustees selected a site for the university on a hill above Cedar Shoals in what was then Jackson County. On July 25, John Milledge, one of the trustees and later governor of Georgia, bought 633 acres from Daniel Easley, Milledge named the surrounding area Athens after the city that was home to the academy of Plato and Aristotle in Greece. The first buildings on the University of Georgia campus were made from logs, the town grew as lots adjacent to the college were sold to raise money for the additional construction of the school. By the time the first class graduated from the university in 1804, completed in 1806 and named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, Franklin College was the University of Georgias and the City of Athens first permanent structure. This brick building is now known as Old College, Athens officially became a town in December 1806 with a government made up of a three-member commission. The university continued to grow, as did the town, with cotton mills fueling the industrial and commercial development, Athens became known as the Manchester of the South after the city in England known for its mills. The university essentially created a reaction of growth in the community which developed on its doorstep. During the American Civil War, Athens became a significant supply center when the New Orleans armory was relocated to what is now called the Chicopee building, fortifications can still be found along parts of the North Oconee River between College and Oconee St. In addition, Athens played a part in the ill-fated Stoneman Raid when a skirmish was fought on a site overlooking the Middle Oconee River near what is now the old Macon Highway. As in many towns, there is a Confederate memorial. It is located on Broad Street, near the University of Georgia Arch, during Reconstruction, Athens continued to grow
26.
Economics
–
Economics is a social science concerned chiefly with description and analysis of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work, consistent with this focus, textbooks often distinguish between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines the behaviour of elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets, their interactions. Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy and issues affecting it, including unemployment of resources, inflation, economic growth, and the public policies that address these issues. Economic analysis can be applied throughout society, as in business, finance, health care, Economic analyses may also be applied to such diverse subjects as crime, education, the family, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, science, and the environment. At the turn of the 21st century, the domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. The ultimate goal of economics is to improve the conditions of people in their everyday life. There are a variety of definitions of economics. Some of the differences may reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists, to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue for the publick services. Say, distinguishing the subject from its uses, defines it as the science of production, distribution. On the satirical side, Thomas Carlyle coined the dismal science as an epithet for classical economics, in this context and it enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. Thus, it is on the one side, the study of wealth and on the other and more important side, a part of the study of man. He affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth, how wealth is created, distributed, and consumed, but he said that economics can be used to study other things, such as war, that are outside its usual focus. This is because war has as the goal winning it, generates both cost and benefits, and, resources are used to attain the goal. If the war is not winnable or if the costs outweigh the benefits. Some subsequent comments criticized the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets, there are other criticisms as well, such as in scarcity not accounting for the macroeconomics of high unemployment. The same source reviews a range of included in principles of economics textbooks. Among economists more generally, it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving, microeconomics examines how entities, forming a market structure, interact within a market to create a market system
27.
Lambda Chi Alpha
–
Lambda Chi Alpha is a college fraternity in North America, which was founded in 1909. It is one of the largest mens fraternities, having initiated more than 280,000 members with active chapters, Lambda Chi Alpha was founded by Warren A. Cole, while he was a student at Boston University. The youngest of the fifteen largest social fraternities, Lambda Chi Alpha has initiated the third highest number of men ever, Lambda Chis International Headquarters is located in Indianapolis, Indiana. Its members are referred to as Lambda Chis, LCAs, and it was a member of the North-American Interfraternity Conference until October,2015. Lambda Chi Alpha was formed on November 2,1909 when Warren A. Cole, morse, and Clyde K. Nichols formed a new fraternity by reorganization of the Cosmopolitan Law Club, a society of law students of Boston University, into a Greek letter society. The Greek letter name was not used in the Alpha Zeta minutes until April 27,1910, Cole approached many local groups at colleges and universities throughout the Northeast in hopes of finding others willing to join his new fraternity. Before the acquisition of Lambda Chi Alphas first functioning chapter, Cole had corresponded with or visited 117 institutions, Lambda Chi Alphas first established chapter was at Massachusetts Agricultural College in 1912. Additional chapters followed, and in 1927 Lambda Chi Alpha became a fraternity with the founding of Epsilon-Epsilon Zeta at the University of Toronto in Toronto, Ontario. The Theta Kappa Nu fraternity was formed by 11 local fraternities on June 9,1924 in Springfield, during the Great Depression both Theta Kappa Nu and Lambda Chi Alpha saw membership decrease and chapters shut down. In 1939 The two fraternities merged, the merger ceremony was held at the Howard College chapter of Theta Kappa Nu in Birmingham, Alabama. The merger increased the number of chapters from 77 to 105, at the time, this was the largest merger in fraternity history. All Theta Kappa Nu chapters became Lambda Chi Alpha chapters and were given chapter designations that began with either Theta, at schools where chapters of both fraternities previously existed, the two merged and retained Lambda Chis Zeta recognition. The fraternity was a member of the North American Interfraternity Conference since its founding in 1909, in October 2015 the fraternity left the NIC, citing in-fighting and dysfunctional governance. The fraternitys exit coincides with NIC lobbying for the Safe Campus Act, beginning in August 1969, the concept of fraternity education replaced pledge education. The fraternity education program was designed to integrate all new members into the chapter equally, in 1972, Lambda Chi Alpha officially abolished the pledge process and replaced it with Associate Membership. This status as an Associate Member allows new members to enter the fraternity with respect, Lambda Chi Alpha was the first fraternal organization to abolish pledging. Pledge implies a second-class membership, indentured servitude, hazing, class officers, the fraternitys constitution defines hazing as any action taken or situation created intentionally to produce physical discomfort or mental discomfort by embarrassment, harassment, or ridicule. The fraternity first condemned hazing at a 1928 North-American Interfraternity Conference meeting by Bruce McIntosh, in 1988, James Callahan, an associate at Rutgers University died of an alcohol overdose participating in a drinking hazing ritual
28.
Demosthenian Literary Society
–
The Demosthenian Literary Society is a literary society primarily involved in debating at the University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia. It was founded in February 1803 by the first graduating class of the Universitys Franklin College and it is named after the Greek orator Demosthenes. Augustin Clayton, James Jackson, and Williams Rutherford are recognized as the fathers of Demosthenian. Clayton became the first student to receive his diploma from Franklin College and went on to become a judge of wide respect, representative from Georgia, with Georgias Clayton County being named in his honor. Rutherford and Jackson went on to become professors at Franklin College, after 167 years of male-only membership, the first female members of the Society were inducted on March 4,1970. President Sherrill Watkins presided over the initiation of Kathy Conrad, a freshman from Atlanta, and Bebe Herring, by the late 1970s, female members were heavily active in the Society and held numerous offices—even President. In 2008, the Society put forward its first all female Inter-Society Debate team, the four women swept the debate on warrantless wiretapping and FISA reform, winning the votes of all three judges and the alternate. Today, the Society has slightly more female than male members, citing issues of student disenfranchisement within the UGA and U. S. political systems, the Society voted in 2012 to secede from the United States of America as the micronation Demosthenia. This resolution was acknowledged as a move to raise the Societys profile, Demosthenian Hall was constructed by Dr. James Tinsley of Columbia County in 1824 at a cost to the Society of $4,000. It is the fourth oldest building at the University of Georgia and was placed on the National Register for Historic Places in 1971 and it has become the physical expression of a living tradition which binds generations of students. The Society’s minutes show that by September 5,1829, the building’s $4,000 construction cost had been paid off. The construction was financed by the Society’s members, alumni, located on the University of Georgia’s historic north quadrangle, its facade in the formal Federal style forms a pleasing contrast to the later columned Greek revival structures which surround it. The front is graced with a Palladian window over a light doorway, the exterior walls are two feet thick and are of stucco over brick construction. In 1997, Demosthenian Hall received a $200,000 facelift, the original hard wood floors were uncovered and restored in the Lower Chamber. The Upper Chamber is the room of the Society. The speaker’s lectern has been dated to the 1820s and may have built for the Hall. It is a medallion of holly leaves surrounded by swags of smaller leaves which are framed by delicate filigree and this ceiling is one of the most architecturally significant structures at the University of Georgia and is one of the few remaining examples of this form of decorative artwork. The Lower Chamber is the space of the Society, members can often be found studying or enjoying a game of chess in between classes
29.
Savannah, Georgia
–
Savannah is the oldest city in the U. S. state of Georgia and is the county seat of Chatham County. Established in 1733 on the Savannah River, the city of Savannah became the British colonial capital of the Province of Georgia, a strategic port city in the American Revolution and during the American Civil War, Savannah is today an industrial center and an important Atlantic seaport. It is Georgias fifth-largest city and third-largest metropolitan area, Downtown Savannah largely retains the original town plan prescribed by founder James Oglethorpe. Savannah was the host city for the sailing competitions during the 1996 Summer Olympics held in Atlanta. On February 12,1733, General James Oglethorpe and settlers from the ship Anne landed at Yamacraw Bluff and were greeted by Tomochichi, the Yamacraws, Mary Musgrove often served as an interpreter. The city of Savannah was founded on that date, along with the colony of Georgia, in 1751, Savannah and the rest of Georgia became a Royal Colony and Savannah was made the colonial capital of Georgia. By the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, Savannah had become the southernmost commercial port of the Thirteen Colonies, British troops took the city in 1778, and the following year a combined force of American and French soldiers failed to rout the British at the Siege of Savannah. The British did not leave the city until July 1782, Savannah, a prosperous seaport throughout the nineteenth century, was the Confederacys sixth most populous city and the prime objective of General William T. Shermans March to the Sea. Early on December 21,1864, local authorities negotiated a surrender to save Savannah from destruction. Savannah was named for the Savannah River, which derives from variant names for the Shawnee. The Shawnee destroyed another Native people, the Westo, and occupied their lands at the head of the Savannah Rivers navigation on the fall line and these Shawnee, whose Native name was Ša·wano·ki, were known by several local variants, including Shawano, Savano, Savana and Savannah. Still other theories suggest that the name Savannah originates from Algonquian terms meaning not only southerners, Savannah lies on the Savannah River, approximately 20 mi upriver from the Atlantic Ocean. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 108.7 square miles. Savannah is the port on the Savannah River and the largest port in the state of Georgia. It is also located near the U. S. Intracoastal Waterway, Georgias Ogeechee River flows toward the Atlantic Ocean some 16 miles south of downtown Savannah. Savannahs climate is classified as humid subtropical, in the Deep South, this is characterized by long and almost tropical summers and short, mild winters. Savannah records few days of freezing temperatures each year, due to its proximity to the Atlantic coast, Savannah rarely experiences temperatures as extreme as those in Georgias interior. Nevertheless, the temperatures have officially ranged from 105 °F, on July 20,1986, down to 3 °F
30.
Democratic Party (United States)
–
The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
31.
United States Congress
–
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
32.
Jimmy Carter
–
James Earl Jimmy Carter Jr. is an American politician who served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981. In 2002, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work with the Carter Center, Carter was a Democrat who was raised in rural Georgia. He was a farmer who served two terms as a Georgia State Senator from 1963 to 1967, and one as the Governor of Georgia from 1971 to 1975. He was elected President in 1976, defeating incumbent President Gerald Ford in a close election. On his second day in office, Carter pardoned all evaders of the Vietnam War drafts, during Carters term as President, two new cabinet-level departments, the Department of Energy and the Department of Education, were established. He established an energy policy that included conservation, price control. In foreign affairs, Carter pursued the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, the round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. On the economic front he confronted persistent stagflation, a combination of inflation, high unemployment. The end of his tenure was marked by the 1979–1981 Iran hostage crisis, the 1979 energy crisis, the Three Mile Island nuclear accident. In response to the Soviet move he ended détente, escalated the Cold War, Carter won the 1980 primary with 51. 13% of the vote but lost the general election in an electoral landslide to Republican nominee Ronald Reagan, who won 44 of 50 states. His presidency has drawn medium-low responses from historians, with many considering him to have accomplished more with his post-presidency work and he set up the Carter Center in 1982 as his base for advancing human rights. He has also traveled extensively to conduct negotiations, observe elections. Additionally, Carter is a key figure in the Habitat for Humanity project, since surpassing Herbert Hoover in September 2012, he has been the longest-retired president in American history. He is also the first president to mark the 40th anniversary of his election and inauguration, in reference to current political views, he has criticized some of Israels actions and policies in regards to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and has advocated for a two-state solution. James Earl Carter, Jr. was born on October 1,1924, at the Wise Sanitarium in Plains and he is a descendant of English immigrant Thomas Carter, who settled in Virginia in 1635. Numerous generations of Carters lived as farmers in Georgia. Carter is also a descendant of Thomas Cornell, an ancestor of Cornell Universitys founder and of Richard Nixon, Plains was a boomtown of 600 people at the time of Carters birth. His father, James Earl Carter, Sr. was a local businessman who ran a general store and had begun to invest in farmland
33.
United States presidential election, 1976
–
The United States presidential election of 1976 was the 48th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 2,1976. The winner was the relatively unknown Jimmy Carter, a former Governor from Georgia with his mate, Walter Mondale. Senator from Minnesota, the Democratic candidates, over the incumbent President Gerald Ford from Michigan and his mate, Bob Dole. Senator from Kansas, the Republican candidates, Ford was thus the only sitting President who had never been elected to national office. The race was so close that Ford was unable to secure the nomination until the Party Convention, Carter, who was less well known than other Democratic hopefuls, ran as a Washington outsider and reformer. He narrowly won the election, becoming the president to date ever elected from Georgia. It was an election as all four presidential and vice-presidential candidates would ultimately lose a presidential election. This would be the election in which the Democratic party would win in a 28 year period. Democratic candidates Jimmy Carter, former Governor of Georgia Morris Udall, representative from Arizona Jerry Brown, Governor of California George Wallace, Governor of Alabama Ellen McCormack, housewife from New York Frank Church, U. S. Senator from Idaho Henry M. Jackson, U. S, Senator from Washington Fred R. Harris, former U. S. Senator from Oklahoma Robert Byrd, U. S, Senator from West Virginia Milton Shapp, Governor of Pennsylvania Sargent Shriver, former U. S. Ambassador to France, from Maryland Birch Bayh, U. S. Senator from Indiana Lloyd Bentsen, U. S, Senator from Texas Terry Sanford, former Governor of North Carolina Walter Fauntroy, U. S. The surprise winner of the 1976 Democratic presidential nomination was Jimmy Carter, Carter also took advantage of the record number of state primaries and caucuses in 1976 to eliminate his better-known rivals one-by-one. Senator Jackson made a decision not to compete in the early Iowa caucus and New Hampshire primary. Though Jackson went on to win the Massachusetts and New York primaries, Carter then defeated Governor Wallace, his main conservative challenger, by a wide margin in the North Carolina primary, thus forcing Wallace to end his campaign. Representative Udall, a liberal, then became Carters main challenger, however, the fact that Udall finished second to Carter in most of these races meant that Carter steadily accumulated more delegates for the nomination than he did. However, their campaigns started too late to prevent Carter from gathering the remaining delegates he needed to capture the nomination, by June 1976, Carter had captured more than enough delegates to win the Democratic nomination. At the 1976 Democratic National Convention, Carter easily won the nomination on the first ballot, Carter then chose Minnesota Senator Walter Mondale, a liberal and political protégé of Hubert Humphrey, as his running mate
34.
Reconstruction Era
–
Johnson followed a lenient policy toward ex-Confederates. Lincolns last speeches show that he was leaning toward supporting the enfranchisement of all freedmen, whereas Johnson was opposed to this. A Republican coalition came to power in all the southern states and set out to transform the society by setting up a free labor economy, using the U. S. Army. The Bureau protected the rights of freedmen, negotiated labor contracts. Thousands of Northerners came South as missionaries, teachers, businessmen, rebuilding the rundown railroad system was a major strategy, but it collapsed when a nationwide depression struck the economy. The Radicals in the House of Representatives, frustrated by Johnsons opposition to Congressional Reconstruction, filed impeachment charges, in early 1866, Congress passed the Freedmens Bureau and Civil Rights Bills and sent them to Johnson for his signature. Meanwhile, self-styled Conservatives strongly opposed reconstruction and they alleged widespread corruption by the Carpetbaggers, excessive state spending and ruinous taxes. Southern democrats and conservatives violently counterattacked and had regained power in each redeemed Southern state by 1877, meanwhile, public support for Reconstruction policies, requiring continued supervision of the South, faded in the North, as voters decided that the Civil War and years of conflict should stop. Reconstruction was a significant chapter in the history of civil rights in the United States, in the different states Reconstruction began and ended at different times, federal Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877. In recent decades most historians follow Foner in dating the Reconstruction of the south as starting in 1863 rather than 1865, Reconstruction policies were debated in the North when the war began, and commenced in earnest after Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation, issued on January 1,1863. As Confederate states came back under control of the US Army, President Abraham Lincoln set up reconstructed governments in Tennessee, Arkansas and he experimented by giving land to blacks in South Carolina. By fall 1865, the new President Andrew Johnson declared the war goals of national unity, Republicans in Congress, refusing to accept Johnsons lenient terms, rejected new members of Congress, some of whom had been high-ranking Confederate officials a few months before. Johnson broke with the Republicans after vetoing two key bills that supported the Freedmens Bureau and provided federal civil rights to the freedmen and that same year, Congress removed civilian governments in the South, and placed the former Confederacy under the rule of the U. S. Army. In ten states, coalitions of freedmen, recent black and white arrivals from the North, Conservative opponents called the Republican regimes corrupt and instigated violence toward freedmen and whites who supported Reconstruction. Most of the violence was carried out by members of the Ku Klux Klan, Klan members attacked and intimidated blacks seeking to exercise their new civil rights, as well as Republican politicians in the south favoring those civil rights. One such politician murdered by the Klan on the eve of the 1868 presidential election was Republican Congressman James M. Hinds of Arkansas, widespread violence in the south led to federal intervention by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1871, which suppressed the Klan. Nevertheless, white Democrats, calling themselves Redeemers, regained control of the state by state, sometimes using fraud. The end of Reconstruction was a process, and the period of Republican control ended at different times in different states
35.
African Americans
–
African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
36.
Georgia's 11th congressional district
–
Georgias 11th congressional district is a congressional district in the U. S. state of Georgia. The district is represented by Republican Barry Loudermilk. The districts boundaries have been following the 2010 census, which granted an additional congressional seat to Georgia. The first election using the new boundaries were the 2012 congressional elections. Located in the portion of the Atlanta metropolitan area, the district includes Cartersville, Marietta. Bartow County Cherokee Cobb County Fulton |- | colspan=7 style=background-color, #F0F0F0, | District established following the 52nd Congress, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts, as of May 2015, there are three former members of the U. S. House of Representatives from Georgias 11th congressional district who are currently living at this time. PDF map of Georgias 11th district at nationalatlas. gov Georgias 11th district at GovTrack. us Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present
37.
House Republican Conference
–
The House Republican Conference is the party caucus for Republicans in the United States House of Representatives. It hosts meetings and is the forum for communicating the partys message to members. In addition to promoting fiscal responsibility and national security, it produces a publication of political analysis under the title Legislative Digest. The conference has a chairman who directs day-to-day operations and who is assisted by an elected vice-chairman, in the 112th Congress, the chair was Jeb Hensarling of Texas, Vice Chair was Cathy McMorris Rodgers of Washington, and Secretary was John Carter of Texas. For the 113th Congress, the party elected Cathy McMorris Rodgers as the Chair after a fight with conservative Tom Price of Georgia. They also elected Lynn Jenkins of Kansas to the position of Vice Chair, former chairs include John Boehner, Mike Pence, John B. Anderson, Dick Cheney, Jack Kemp, J. C, watts, Jr. Deborah D. Pryce, and Adam Putnam
38.
House Appropriations Committee
–
The United States House Committee on Appropriations is a committee of the United States House of Representatives. The committee is responsible for passing appropriation bills along with its Senate counterpart, the bills passed by the Appropriations Committee regulate expenditures of money by the government of the United States. As such, it is one of the most powerful of the committees and they make the key decisions about the work of their committees—when their committees meet, which bills they will consider, and for how long. The constitutional basis for the Appropriations Committee comes from Article one, Section nine and this clearly delegated the power of appropriating money to Congress, but was vague beyond that. The Committee was created on December 11,1865, when the House separated the tasks of the Committee on Ways, the passage of legislation affecting taxes remained with Ways and Means. The power to regulate banking was transferred to the Committee on Banking, the power to appropriate money—to control the federal pursestrings—was given to the newly created Appropriations Committee. At the time of creation the membership of the committee stood at nine, the power of the committee has only grown since its founding, many of its members and chairmen have gone on to even higher posts. For example, four of them--Samuel Randall, Joseph Cannon, Joseph Byrns and Nancy Pelosi --have gone on to become the Speaker of the House, and one, James Garfield, has gone on to become President. The root of the Committees power is its ability to disburse funds, and thus as the federal budget has risen, so has the power of the Appropriations Committee. The first budget of the U. S. in 1789, was for $639, 000—a hefty sum for the time, but a much smaller amount relative to the economy than the federal budget would later become. By the time the Appropriations committee was founded, the Civil War and inflation had raised expenditures to roughly $1.3 billion, expenditures continued to follow this pattern—rising sharply during wars before settling down—for over 100 years. Another important development for Appropriations occurred in the presidency of Warren G. Harding, Harding was the first President to deliver a budget proposal to Congress. About a month earlier Taber and Cannon had nearly come to blows over expenditure, but after visiting the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge Taber asked General Groves and Colonel Nichols Are you sure you’re asking for enough money. Cannon commented Well, I never expected to hear that from you, in the early 1970s, the Appropriations committee faced a crisis. President Richard Nixon began impounding funds, not allowing them to be spent and this was essentially a line-item veto. Numerous court cases were filed by outraged interest groups and members of Congress, the Appropriations committee is widely recognized by political scientists as one of the power committees, since it holds the power of the purse. Openings on the Appropriations committee are often hotly demanded, and are doled out as rewards and it is one of the exclusive committees of the House, meaning its members typically sit on no other committee. Under House Rules, an exception to this is that five Members of the Appropriations Committee must serve on the House Budget Committee—three for the Majority, much of the power of the committee comes from the inherent utility of controlling spending
39.
112th United States Congress
–
The One Hundred Twelfth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, from January 3,2011, until January 3,2013. It convened in Washington, D. C. on January 3,2011, senators elected to regular terms in 2006 completed those terms in this Congress. This Congress included the last House of Representatives elected from districts that were apportioned based on the 2000 census. In the 2010 midterm elections, the Republican Party won the majority in the House of Representatives, while the Democrats kept their Senate majority, it was reduced from the previous Congress. This was the first Congress in which the House and Senate were controlled by different parties since the 107th Congress, in this Congress, the House of Representatives had the largest number of Republican members,242, since the 80th Congress. January 6,2011, On the second day of the 112th Congress, the House of Representatives read a version of the U. S. Constitution. January 8,2011,2011 Tucson shooting, Representative Gabrielle Giffords and nineteen people were shot by a gunman in Tucson. Six of them, including a judge and a congressional aide. Votes on the House floor were suspended for one week, January 25,2011,2011 State of the Union Address March 19,2011, The United States initiated Operation Odyssey Dawn as part of the international military intervention in the Libyan Civil War. The intervention continued under the auspices of NATO as Operation Unified Protector until the end of operations in October 2011. May 2,2011, Navy Seals killed al-Qaeda leader Osama Bin Laden in Operation Neptune Spear, April 9,2011, A last-minute deal between both parties averts a partial shutdown of the federal government. August 2,2011, The 2011 debt-ceiling crisis ends with the Budget Control Act of 2011, December 18,2011, The United States completed its withdrawal of troops from Iraq, formally ending the Iraq War. January 1,2013, United States fiscal cliff avoided, a failure to pass a 2011 federal budget nearly led to a shutdown of non-essential government services on April 9,2011, with the furlough of 800,000 government employees appearing imminent. President Obama met Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid and House Speaker John Boehner in the preceding the deadline but was unable to come to an agreement to pass a budget. A one-week budget was proposed to avoid a government shutdown and allow time for negotiations, however. Obama said he would veto a proposed Republican budget over Republican social spending cuts and this was also backed by Senate Democrats who objected to such cuts as that of Planned Parenthood. However, an agreement was reached between the two parties for a budget to allow for more time to negotiate after Republicans dropped their stance on the Planned Parenthood issue. The two parties agreed on a 2011 federal budget the following week
40.
Americans for Tax Reform
–
Americans for Tax Reform is a politically conservative U. S. taxpayer advocacy group whose stated goal is a system in which taxes are simpler, flatter, more visible, and lower than they are today. According to ATR, The governments power to control ones life derives from its power to tax and we believe that power should be minimized. The organization is known for its Taxpayer Protection Pledge, which asks candidates for federal, the founder and president of ATR is Grover Norquist, a conservative tax activist. Americans for Tax Reform is a 501 organization with 14 employees, finances of $3,912,958, and it was founded by Grover Norquist in 1985. The associated educational wing is the Americans for Tax Reform Foundation, the purpose of both entities is to educate and/or lobby against all tax increases. Americans for Tax Reform is a member of the State Policy Network. Americans for Tax Reform is a grantee of the Donors Trust, since 1986, ATR has sponsored the Taxpayer Protection Pledge, a written promise by legislators and candidates for office that commits them to oppose tax increases. All candidates for state and federal office, and all incumbents are offered the Pledge, nearly 1,400 elected officials, from state representatives, to governors, to US Senators, have signed the Pledge. There are separate versions at the national and state level, in the version for the U. S. In the version for state legislators, the pledges that, I will oppose and vote against any. All except 13 sitting Republicans have signed the pledge, while three Democrats have signed it, aTRs president Grover Norquist has written about the importance of the Taxpayer Protection Pledge for many publications including Human Events in June 2010. In this article, Norquist writes, Raising taxes is what politicians do when they don’t have the strength to actually govern. The taxpayer protection pledge was created in 1986 by Americans for Tax Reform as part of the effort to protect the lower tax rates of Reagan’s Tax Reform Act of 1986. It has grown in importance as one of the few black-and-white, yes or no, the first appearance of the argument arose in the HI-01 special election. Americans for Tax Reform responded by calling the ad blatantly false. They pointed out that the Pledge does not prohibit any deduction or credit from being eliminated and it only prevents individuals and/or businesses from experiencing an overall increase in income taxes and allows for revenue-neutral tax reform. The non-partisan, nonprofit Factcheck. org reviewed the DCCCs ad, the director of Factcheck. org, Brooks Jackson, wrote, It was called blatantly false by Americans for Tax Reform, the Republican-leaning group that got Djou’s signature on its anti-tax pledge. ATR’s tax pledge does protect corporations in general – but only from an increase in taxes
41.
Americans for Prosperity
–
Americans for Prosperity, founded in 2004, is a conservative political advocacy group in the United States. Receiving funding from the businessmen and philanthropist brothers David H. Koch and Charles Koch, after the 2009 inauguration of President Barack Obama, AFP helped transform the Tea Party movement into a political force. It helped turn back cap and trade, the major environmental proposal of Obamas first term, AFP advocated for limits on the collective bargaining rights of public-sector trade unions and for right-to-work laws, and it opposed raising the federal minimum wage. AFP played a role in the achievement of the Republican majority in the House of Representatives in 2010. In the 2014 mid-term election cycle, AFP led all groups, other political action committees. AFPs scope of operations has drawn comparisons to political parties, AFP, an educational social welfare organization, and the associated Americans for Prosperity Foundation, a public charity, are tax-exempt nonprofits. As a tax-exempt nonprofit, AFP is not legally required to disclose its donors to the general public, the extent of AFPs political activities while operating as a tax-exempt entity has raised concerns among some campaign finance watchdogs regarding the transparency of its funding. AFPs founding was funded by businessmen and philanthropist brothers David H. Koch and Charles Koch, the Americans for Prosperity Foundation is the Koch brothers’ primary political advocacy group. According to a spokesperson from Koch Industries, the Koch companies do not direct the activities of AFP, AFPs original stated mission was educating citizens about economic policy and mobilizing citizens as advocates in the public policy process. It is focused on responsibility, and in particular on cutting taxes, reducing regulation of business. According to FactCheck. org, AFP seeks to free markets and entrepreneurship by advocating lower taxes and limited government spending. Its leaders view the organization as a counterbalance to the progressive movements unions, from 2004 to 2007, AFP was led by Nancy Pfotenhauer. In 2005, the Kochs hired political strategist Tim Phillips to work at AFP, AFP had a staff of 116 employees in September 2012, and the next year it had chapters in 34 states and reported a membership of 2.3 million. In June 2014, it had 240 employees in 32 states, AFP has been active in national, state, and local elections. AFP registered to lobby in 2014, according to FactCheck. org, by 2011, AFP had emerged as one of the most influential conservative issue advocacy groups on the national and state political scene. The Los Angeles Times said AFP performed roles typical of national, Tim Phillips is president of both AFP and the AFP Foundation. AFP has been called both the political and educational arm of the AFP Foundation, AFP and the AFP Foundation share offices and staff. As of 2014, New Jersey businesswoman Frayda Levin chaired the board of directors of AFP, other directors include Pfotenhauer, former U. S. government official and economist James C. Miller III, James E. Stephenson, and Mark Holden
42.
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
–
The Affordable Care Act was designed to increase health insurance quality and affordability, lower the uninsured rate by expanding insurance coverage and reduce the costs of healthcare. It introduced mechanisms including mandates, subsidies and insurance exchanges, the law requires insurers to accept all applicants, cover a specific list of conditions and charge the same rates regardless of pre-existing conditions or sex. The ACA has caused a significant reduction in the number and percentage of people without health insurance, increases in overall healthcare spending have slowed since the law was implemented, including premiums for employer-based insurance plans. The Congressional Budget Office reported in studies that the ACA would reduce the budget deficit. As implementation began, first opponents, then others, and finally the president himself adopted the term Obamacare to refer to the ACA. The law and its implementation faced challenges in Congress and federal courts, and from state governments, conservative advocacy groups, labor unions. The ACA includes provisions to take effect between 2010 and 2020, although most took effect on January 1,2014, few areas of the US health care system were left untouched, making it the most sweeping health care reform since the enactment of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965. However, some areas were more affected than others, most of the coverage gains were made through the expansion of Medicaid, and the biggest cost savings were made in Medicare. Some regulations applied to the market, and the law also made delivery system changes that affected most of the health care system. Not all provisions took full effect, some were made discretionary, some were deferred, and others were repealed before implementation. Guaranteed issue prohibits insurers from denying coverage to individuals due to pre-existing conditions, States were required to ensure the availability of insurance for individual children who did not have coverage via their families. The law provides a 5% income disregard, making the income eligibility limit for Medicaid 138% of the poverty level. The State Childrens Health Insurance Program enrollment process was simplified, among the groups who remained uninsured were, Illegal immigrants, estimated at around 8 million—or roughly a third of the 23 million projection—are ineligible for insurance subsidies and Medicaid. They remain eligible for emergency services, eligible citizens not enrolled in Medicaid. Citizens who pay the penalty instead of purchasing insurance, mostly younger. Citizens whose insurance coverage would cost more than 8% of household income and are exempt from the penalty, citizens who live in states that opt out of the Medicaid expansion and who qualify for neither existing Medicaid coverage nor subsidized coverage through the states new insurance exchanges. Households with incomes between 100% and 400% of the poverty level were eligible to receive federal subsidies for policies purchased via an exchange. Subsidies are provided as an advanceable, refundable tax credits, additionally, small businesses are eligible for a tax credit provided that they enroll in the SHOP Marketplace
43.
Tybee Island, Georgia
–
Tybee Island is a barrier island in Chatham County, Georgia, near Savannah, United States. The name Tybee Island is also used for the city located on part of this island, the island is the easternmost point in Georgia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 2,990. The entire island is a part of the Savannah Metropolitan Statistical Area, officially renamed Savannah Beach in a publicity move at the end of the 1950s, the city of Tybee Island has since reverted to its original name. The small island, which has long been a getaway for the residents of Savannah, has become a popular vacation spot with tourists from outside the Savannah metropolitan area. Tybee Island is home to the first of what would become the Days Inn chain of hotels, the oft-photographed Tybee Island Light Station. It is one of the few locations where the U. S. Air Force dropped an atomic bomb—by accident, though the Tybee Bomb did not detonate, there has been ongoing concern, since the Mark 15 nuclear bomb lost during the mishap was never found. Native Americans, using canoes to navigate the waterways, hunted and camped in Georgias coastal islands for thousands of years. The Euchee tribe likely inhabited the island in the preceding the arrival of the first Spanish explorers in the area in the 16th century. Tybee is the Euchee word for salt, in 1520, the Spanish laid claim to what is now Tybee Island and named it Los Bajos. It was at the end of the Guale missionary province of Spanish Florida. During that time the island was frequented by pirates who used the island to hide from those who pursued them, pirates later used the islands inland waterways for a fresh water source. After the founding of South Carolina in 1670, warfare increased between the English and their allies and the Spanish and their Native American allies. In 1702, James Moore of South Carolina led an invasion of Spanish Florida with an Indian army, the invasion failed to take the capital of Florida, St. Augustine, but did destroy the Guale and Mocama missionary provinces. Tybee Islands strategic position near the mouth of the Savannah River has made the northern tip the ideal location for a lighthouse since Georgias early settlement period. First built in 1736, the lighthouse was made of brick and wood, the original lighthouse has been replaced several times. The second lighthouse was built in 1742 when beach erosion threatened the first, part of the third lighthouse at the site, built in 1773, still stands as the bottom 60 feet of the present lighthouse. The top 94 feet of the current lighthouse were added in 1867, today, the Tybee Lighthouse is a popular tourist destination, having all of its support buildings on the 5-acre site historically preserved
44.
Internal Revenue Service
–
The Internal Revenue Service is the revenue service of the United States federal government. The IRS is responsible for collecting taxes and administering the Internal Revenue Code and its duty to maximize tax revenue entails providing tax assistance to taxpayers, as well as pursuing and resolving instances of erroneous or fraudulent tax filings. The IRS has also overseen various benefits programs, and enforces portions of the Affordable Care Act. The IRS originated with the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, an office created in 1862 to assess the nations first income tax. The temporary measure provided over a fifth of the Unions war expenses and was allowed to expire a decade later, in 1913, the Sixteenth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution was ratified authorizing Congress to impose a tax on income, in the 1950s, the agency was renamed the Internal Revenue Service and significantly reorganized. The Tax Reform Act of 1986 modernized the IRS and restructured it along a private sector model, in the 2015 fiscal year, the IRS processed almost 240 million returns and collected approximately $3.3 trillion in revenue, spending 35¢ for every $100 it collected. The Revenue Act of 1862 was passed as an emergency and temporary war-time tax and it copied a relatively new British system of income taxation, instead of trade and property taxation. The first income tax was passed in 1862, The initial rate was 3% on income over $800, in 1862 the rate was 3% on income between $600 and $10,000, and 5% on income over $10,000. In 1864 the rate was 5% on income between $600 and $5,000,7. 5% on income $5, 000–10,000, and 10% on income $10,000 and above. By the end of the war, 10% of Union households had paid some form of tax. After the Civil War, Reconstruction, railroads, and transforming the North and South war machines towards peacetime required public funding, however, in 1872, seven years after the war, lawmakers allowed the temporary Civil War income tax to expire. Income taxes evolved, but in 1894 the Supreme Court declared the Income Tax of 1894 unconstitutional in Pollock v. Farmers Loan & Trust Co. a decision that contradicted Hylton v. United States, the federal government scrambled to raise money. In 1906, with the election of President Theodore Roosevelt, and later his successor William Howard Taft, by February 1913,36 states had ratified the change to the Constitution. It was further ratified by six states by March. Of the 48 states at the time,42 ratified it, connecticut, Rhode Island, and Utah rejected the amendment, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Florida did not take up the issue. A copy of the very first IRS1040 form, dated 1913, in the first year after ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment, no taxes were collected—instead, taxpayers simply completed the form and the IRS checked it for accuracy. The IRSs workload jumped by ten-fold, triggering a massive restructuring, professional tax collectors began to replace a system of patronage appointments
45.
Cumberland Island
–
Cumberland Island is one of the Sea Islands of the southeastern United States and is the largest in terms of continuously exposed land. It is located on the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of the U. S. state of Georgia and is part of Camden County, Cumberland Island constitutes the westernmost point of shoreline on the Atlantic Ocean in the United States. The island is 17.5 miles long, with an area of 36,415 acres, including 16,850 acres of marsh, mudflats, there is no bridge to the island, most visitors reach the island by the Cumberland Ferry from St. Marys. The island has three major ecosystem regions, along the western edge of the island there are large areas of salt marshes. One will also see gnarled live oak trees covered with Spanish moss, Cumberland Islands most famous ecosystem is its beach, which stretches over 17 miles. The island is home to many interesting animals, as well as non-native species. There are white-tailed deer, squirrels, raccoons, nine-banded armadillos, wild boars, American alligators and it is also famous for its feral horses roaming free on the island. The first inhabitants were indigenous peoples who settled there as early as 4,000 years ago, later inhabitants participated in the Savannah archaeological culture and spoke the Timucua language. Its inhabitants were part of the Mocama, a Timucua group who spoke the Mocama dialect, in the 17th century the island and the adjacent coast were controlled by the Tacatacuru chiefdom. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Cumberland Island was part of the Mocama missionary province of Spanish Florida, when the Spanish arrived in the 1550s, they named the island San Pedro. They built a garrison and mission, San Pedro de Mocama and it was one of the main mission centers, situated at a major Mocama site. Another Spanish mission on Cumberland was Puturiba, which operated from 1595–1597, an additional mission, San Phelipe, was relocated from the North Newport River to the northern end of Cumberland from 1670–1684. Historical records indicate that until 1681, there were approximately 300 natives, in 1683, French pirates attacked Cumberland Island, looting and burning many of the buildings. Many of the natives and the Spanish missionaries fled the island, an attack in 1684 by the Spanish pirate Thomas Jingle led to the final abandonment of the island. The Tacatacuru relocated closer to St. Augustine, and Cumberland Island was thereafter occupied by the Yamasee, most of the Mocama had converted to Christianity before the island was abandoned. During the colonial years, many died of introduced infectious diseases. Survivors retreated to St. Augustine to the south, English General James Oglethorpe arrived at the Georgia coast in 1733. Oglethorpe established a lodge called Dungeness, named after a headland in Kent
46.
United States Postal Service
–
The United States Postal Service, is an independent agency of the United States federal government responsible for providing postal service in the United States. It is one of the few government agencies explicitly authorized by the United States Constitution, Mail traces its roots to 1775 during the Second Continental Congress, where Benjamin Franklin was appointed the first postmaster general. The USPS as of February 2015 has 617,254 active employees, the USPS is the operator of the largest civilian vehicle fleet in the world. The USPS is legally obligated to serve all Americans, regardless of geography, at uniform price, the USPS has exclusive access to letter boxes marked U. S. The USPS lost $5.5 billion in fiscal year 2014 and $5.1 billion in 2015, in the early years of the North American colonies, many attempts were made to initiate a postal service. These early attempts were of small scale and usually involved a colony, Massachusetts Bay Colony for example, for example, informal independently-run postal routes operated in Boston as early as 1639, with a Boston to New York City service starting in 1672. A central postal organization came to the colonies in 1691, when Thomas Neale received a 21-year grant from the British Crown for a North American Postal Service, the patent included the exclusive right to establish and collect a formal postal tax on official documents of all kinds. The tax was repealed a year later, Neale appointed Andrew Hamilton, Governor of New Jersey, as his deputy postmaster. The first postal service in America commenced in February 1692, rates of postage were fixed and authorized, and measures were taken to establish a post office in each town in Virginia. Massachusetts and the other colonies soon passed laws, and a very imperfect post office system was established. Neales patent expired in 1710, when Parliament extended the English postal system to the colonies, the chief office was established in New York City, where letters were conveyed by regular packets across the Atlantic. Before the Revolution, there was only a trickle of business or governmental correspondence between the colonies, most of the mail went back and forth to counting houses and government offices in London. The Revolution made Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, News, new laws, political intelligence, and military orders circulated with a new urgency, and a postal system was necessary. Journalists took the lead, securing post office legislation that allowed them to reach their subscribers at very low cost, overthrowing the London-oriented imperial postal service in 1774-1775, printers enlisted merchants and the new political leadership, and created a new postal system. The United States Post Office was created on July 26,1775, the official post office was created in 1792 as the Post Office Department. It was based on the Constitutional authority empowering Congress To establish post offices, the 1792 law provided for a greatly expanded postal network, and served editors by charging newspapers an extremely low rate. The law guaranteed the sanctity of personal correspondence, and provided the country with low-cost access to information on public affairs. Rufus Easton was appointed by Thomas Jefferson first postmaster of St. Louis under the recommendation of Postmaster General Gideon Granger, Rufus Easton was the first postmaster and built the first post office west of the Mississippi
_deputy_commander,_speaks_to_Congressman_Jack_Kingston_(4411739600).jpg){kind=spacer}
