1.
Peabody, Massachusetts
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Peabody /ˈpiːbədi/ is a city in Essex County, Massachusetts, United States. At the 2010 census, the population was 51,251, Peabody is located in the North Shore region of Massachusetts. First known as the Northfields, the Farms, and Brooksby, the area was settled about 1626 within Salem, in 1752, the area was set off from Salem and incorporated as part of Danvers. It was usually referred to as the South Parish, associated with the located in the center. In 1855, the community away from Danvers to become the town of South Danvers. The name was changed on April 30,1868, to Peabody after George Peabody and it would be incorporated as a city in 1916. The western, less densely populated portion of the town is often referred to as West Peabody. The town began as a community, but its streams attracted mills which operated by water power. In particular, Peabody was a center of New Englands leather industry. By 1915, a third of the population was foreign-born, one visitor even noted that signs in town were written in both English and Ottoman Turkish. On the morning of October 28,1915,21 young girls lost their lives in a fire at the St. Johns School on Chestnut Street in the downtown area. The 21 girls who were trapped were found after the fire subsided, huddled together, all the teachers escaped with their lives. The students deaths were privately mourned in Peabody and were rarely mentioned, because of this, Peabody became the first city to make a law that said all doors must push out. The tanneries that helped create Peabodys Ottoman Street remained a linchpin of the economy into the second half of the 20th century. The loss of the tanneries was a blow to Peabodys economy, early in the 20th century, it joined the automobile revolution, hosting the pioneer Brass Era company the Corwin Manufacturing Company. The Northshore Mall, originally the Northshore Shopping Center, is one of the regions largest malls and it opened in 1958 and is now the citys largest taxpayer. Centennial Park, a park in the center of the city, has attracted several medical. Meanwhile, West Peabody, which was mostly farmland as recently as the 1950s, has developed into a middle-to-upper class residential area
2.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
3.
University of Massachusetts Amherst
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The University of Massachusetts Amherst is a public research and land-grant university in Amherst, Massachusetts, United States, and the flagship of the University of Massachusetts system. The university offers degrees, masters degrees, and doctoral degrees in 111 undergraduate,75 masters and 47 doctoral programs in nine schools. The main campus is situated north of downtown Amherst, in a 2009 article for MSN. com, Amherst was ranked first in Best College Towns in the United States. In 2012, U. S. News and World Report ranked Amherst among the Top 10 Great College Towns in America and it is also a member of the Five College Consortium. The University of Massachusetts Amherst is categorized as a Research University with Highest research activity by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, in fiscal year 2014, UMass Amherst had research expenditures exceeding $200 million. UMass Amherst sports teams are called the Minutemen and Minutewomen, the colors being maroon, black, and white, all teams participate in NCAA Division I. The university is a member of the Atlantic 10 Conference, while playing ice hockey in Hockey East, accordingly, the university was initially named the Massachusetts Agricultural College, popularly referred to as Mass Aggie or M. A. C. In 1867, the college had yet to admit any students, had been through two Presidents, and still had not completed any college buildings, in that year, William S. Clark was appointed President of the college and Professor of Botany. He quickly appointed a faculty, completed the plan. Clark became the first functioning President and arguably the founding father of the college. The original buildings consisted of Old South College, North College, the Chemistry Laboratory, also known as College Hall, the Boarding House, the Botanic Museum, although enrollment was slow during the 1870s, the fledgling college built momentum under the leadership of President Henry Hill Goodell. In the 1880s, Goodell implemented a plan, adding the College Drill Hall in 1883, the Old Chapel Library in 1885. The Campus Pond, now the focus of the University Campus, was created in 1893 by damming a small brook. The early 20th century saw expansion in terms of enrollment. The first female student was admitted in 1875 on a part-time basis, in 1903, Draper Hall was constructed for the dual purpose of a dining hall and female housing. The first female students graduated with the class of 1905, the first dedicated female dormitory, the Abigail Adams House was built in 1920. By the start of the 20th century, the college was thriving, the Education curriculum was established in 1907. In recognition of the enrollment and broader curriculum, the college was renamed Massachusetts State College in 1931
4.
Bachelor of Science
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A Bachelor of Science is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years. Whether a student of a subject is awarded a Bachelor of Science degree or a Bachelor of Arts degree can vary between universities. For one example, a degree may be given as a Bachelor of Arts by one university but as a B. Sc. by another. Some liberal arts colleges in the United States offer only the BA, even in the natural sciences, in both instances, there are historical and traditional reasons. Northwestern Universitys School of Communication grants B. Sc. degrees in all of its programs of study, including theater, dance, the first university to admit a student to the degree of Bachelor of Science was the University of London in 1860. Prior to this, science subjects were included in the B. A. bracket, notably in the cases of mathematics, physics, physiology, in Argentina and Chile, most university degrees are given as a license in a field or discipline. For instance, besides the courses, biochemistry and biology require 1–2 years hands-on training either in a clinical laboratory plus a final exam or in a research laboratory plus a thesis defense. The degrees are term licenses in the field of study or profession i. e. biology, nutrition, physical therapy or kinesiology, etc. However, a masters degree requires 2-3 more years of specific training, engineering and medical degrees are also different and are six-year programs of specific classes and training starting immediately after high school. No intermediate degrees count towards the admission examination or even exist, medical degrees are complemented with a 3–4 years of hospital residence plus 1–2 years of specialization training. In Australia, the B. Sc. is generally a three-four year degree, an honours year or a Master of Science is required to progress on to the Doctor of Philosophy. In New Zealand, in cases, the honours degree comprises an additional postgraduate qualification. In South Africa, the B. Sc. is taken three years, while the postgraduate B. Sc. Entails an additional year of study, admission to the honours degree is on the basis of a sufficiently high average in the B. Sc. major, an honours degree is required for M. Sc. Level study, and admission to a doctorate is via the M. Sc, commonly in British Commonwealth countries and Ireland graduands are admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Science after having completed a programme in one or more of the sciences. These programmes may take different lengths of time to complete, note that in British English, no full stops are used in the title, hence BSc, not B. Sc. A Bachelor of Science receives the designation BSc or BS for a major/pass degree, in England, Wales and Northern Ireland an honours degree is typically completed over a three-year period, though there are a few intensified two-year courses. Bachelors degrees were typically completed in two years for most of the twentieth century, in Scotland, where access to university is possible after one less year of secondary education, degree courses have a foundation year making the total course length four years
5.
Doctor of Philosophy
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A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
6.
General Electric
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General Electric, often abbreviated as GE, is an American multinational conglomerate corporation incorporated in New York and headquartered in Boston, Massachusetts. In 2011, GE ranked among the Fortune 500 as the 68th-largest firm in the U. S. by gross revenue, as of 2012, the company was listed the fourth-largest in the world among the Forbes Global 2000, further metrics being taken into account. The Nobel Prize has twice been awarded to employees of General Electric, Irving Langmuir in 1932, on January 13,2016, it was announced that GE will be moving its corporate headquarters from Fairfield, Connecticut to the South Boston Waterfront neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. The first group of workers arrived in the summer of 2016, morgan and the Vanderbilt family for Edisons lighting experiments. The new company also acquired Sprague Electric Railway & Motor Company in the same year, both plants continue to operate under the GE banner to this day. The company was incorporated in New York, with the Schenectady plant used as headquarters for years thereafter. Around the same time, General Electrics Canadian counterpart, Canadian General Electric, was formed, in 1896, General Electric was one of the original 12 companies listed on the newly formed Dow Jones Industrial Average. After 120 years, it is the one of the original companies still listed on the Dow index. In 1911, General Electric absorbed the National Electric Lamp Association into its lighting business, GE established its lighting division headquarters at Nela Park in East Cleveland, Ohio. Nela Park is still the headquarters for GEs lighting business, owen D. Young, through GE, founded the Radio Corporation of America in 1919 to further international radio. GE used RCA as its retail arm for radio sales from 1919, in 1927, Ernst Alexanderson of GE made the first demonstration of his television broadcasts at his General Electric Realty Plot home at 1132 Adams Rd, Schenectady, NY. The sound was broadcast on GEs WGY, experimental television station W2XAD evolved into station WRGB which—along with WGY and WGFM —was owned and operated by General Electric until 1983. GEs history of working with turbines in the field gave them the engineering know-how to move into the new field of aircraft turbosuperchargers. Led by Sanford Alexander Moss, GE introduced the first superchargers during World War I, superchargers became indispensable in the years immediately prior to World War II, and GE was the world leader in exhaust-driven supercharging when the war started. This experience, in turn, made GE a natural selection to develop the Whittle W.1 jet engine that was demonstrated in the United States in 1941, GE ranked ninth among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. In 2002, GE acquired the assets of Enron during its bankruptcy proceedings. Some consumers boycotted GE light bulbs, refrigerators and other products in the 1980s and 1990s to protest GEs role in weapons production. With IBM, Burroughs, NCR, Control Data Corporation, Honeywell, RCA and UNIVAC, GE had a line of general purpose and special purpose computers
7.
Salem, Massachusetts
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Salem is a coastal city in Essex County, Massachusetts, in the United States, located on Massachusetts North Shore. It is a New England bedrock of history and is considered one of the most significant seaports in Puritan American history, the citys reported population was 41,340 at the 2010 census. Salem and Lawrence are the county seats of Essex County, though the county government was abolished in 1999, much of the citys cultural identity reflects its role as the location of the Salem witch trials of 1692, as featured in Arthur Millers The Crucible. Tourists know Salem as a mix of important historical sites and a vibrant downtown that has more than 60 restaurants, cafes, in 2012, the Retailers Association of Massachusetts chose Salem for their inaugural Best Shopping District award. President Barack Obama signed executive order HR1339 on January 10,2013, more than one million tourists from all around the world visit Salem annually, bringing in at least $100 million in tourism spending each year. More than 250,000 visited Salem over Halloween weekend in 2016, Salem is located at the mouth of the Naumkeag river at the site of an ancient American Indian village and trading center. It was first settled by Europeans in 1626, when a company of fishermen arrived from Cape Ann, led by Roger Conant. Conants leadership provided the stability to survive the first two years, but he was replaced by John Endecott, one of the new arrivals, Conant graciously stepped aside and was granted 200 acres of land in compensation. These New Planters and the Old Planters agreed to cooperate, in part due to the diplomacy of Conant. In 1628, Endecott ordered that the Great House be moved from Cape Ann, when Higginson arrived in Salem, he wrote that we found a faire house newly built for the Governor which was remarkable for being two stories high. A year later, the Massachusetts Bay Charter was issued creating the Massachusetts Bay Colony with Matthew Craddock as its governor in London, John Winthrop was elected Governor in late 1629, and arrived with the Winthrop Fleet in 1630, beginning the Great Migration. In 1639, Endecotts was one of the signatures on the contract for enlarging the meeting house in Town House Square for the First Church in Salem. This document remains part of the records at City Hall. He was active in the affairs of the town throughout his life, Samuel Skelton was the first pastor of the First Church of Salem, which is the original Puritan church in North America. Endecott already had a relationship with Skelton, having been converted by him. Roger Conant died in 1679 at the age of 87, a statue commemorating him stands overlooking Salem Common. Salem originally included much of the North Shore, including Marblehead, most of the accused in the Salem witch trials lived in nearby Salem Village, now known as Danvers, although a few lived on the outskirts of Salem. Salem Village also included Peabody and parts of present-day Beverly, Middleton, Topsfield, Wenham, and Manchester-by-the-Sea were once parts of Salem
8.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
9.
Chemical engineer
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Others have suggested Johann Rudolf Glauber for his development of processes for the manufacture of the major industrial acids. The term appeared in print in 1839, though from the context it suggests a person with mechanical engineering knowledge working in the chemical industry and he proposed the name Society of Chemical Engineers, for what was in fact constituted as the Society of Chemical Industry. In 1905 a publication called The Chemical Engineer was founded in the US, the modern discipline of chemical engineering, however, encompasses much more than just process engineering. Chemical engineers are now engaged in the development and production of a range of products. These products include high-performance materials needed for aerospace, automotive, biomedical, electronic, environmental, additionally, chemical engineering is often intertwined with biology and biomedical engineering. Many chemical engineers work on projects such as understanding biopolymers. According to a 2015 salary survey by the AIChE, the annual salary for a chemical engineer was approximately $127,000. In the UK, the IChemE2016 Salary Survey reported a median salary of approximately £57,000, Chemical engineering in the USA is one of the engineering disciplines with the highest participation of women, with 35% of students compared with 20% in engineering. In the UK in 2014, students starting degrees were 25% female, US graduates who responded to a 2015 salary survey were 18. 8% female
10.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
11.
Boston and Maine Corporation
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The Boston and Maine Corporation, known as the Boston and Maine Railroad, was a U. S. Class I railroad in northern New England and it became part of what is now the Pan Am Railways network in 1983. At the end of 1970 B&M operated 1,515 route-miles on 2,481 miles of track and that year it reported 2744 million ton-miles of revenue freight and 92 million passenger-miles. The Andover and Wilmington Railroad was incorporated March 15,1833, to build a branch from the Boston and Lowell Railroad at Wilmington, Massachusetts, north to Andover, the line opened to Andover on August 8,1836. The railroad opened in 1840 to Exeter, New Hampshire, and on January 1,1842, on February 23,1843, the B&M opened to Agamenticus, on the line of the Portland, Saco and Portsmouth Railroad in South Berwick. On January 28 of that year the B&M and Eastern Railroad came to an agreement to lease the PS&P as a joint line to Portland. The Boston and Maine Railroad Extension was incorporated March 16,1844, due to a dispute with the Boston and that company was merged into the main B&M on March 19,1845, and opened July 1, leading to the abandonment of the old connection to the B&L. In 1848 another original section was abandoned, as a new alignment was built from Wilmington north to North Andover, Massachusetts, in order to better serve Lawrence, a new alignment to Portland opened in 1873, splitting from the old route at South Berwick, Maine. The old route was later abandoned and this completed the B&M main line which would become known as the Western Route to distinguish it from the Eastern Route which also connected Boston and Portland. As the B&M grew, it gained control of former rivals, including, The Eastern Railroad was leased by the B&M on December 23,1883, and on May 9,1890. This provided a route to Maine, ending competition along the immediate route between Boston and Portland. Along with the Eastern, the B&M also acquired many branch lines, including the Conway Branch, the Saugus Branch, the South Reading Branch, and branches to Marblehead and Rockport, Massachusetts. The Worcester and Nashua Railroad was organized in 1845 and the Nashua and Rochester Railroad in 1847, the W&N leased the N&R in 1874, and the two companies merged into the Worcester, Nashua and Rochester Railroad in 1883. The B&M leased the line on January 1,1886 and this acquisition also included the continuation from Rochester to Portland, Maine, incorporated in 1846 as the York and Cumberland Railroad. It opened partially in 1851 and 1853, was reorganized as the Portland and Rochester Railroad in 1867 and it was again reorganized in 1881 and then operated in conjunction with the line to Worcester. Johnsbury and Lake Champlain Railroad to northwestern Vermont, and the Connecticut, additionally, the St. Johnsbury and Lake Champlain Railroad, owned by the B&M through stock, was leased to the Maine Central Railroad by 1912. The Central Massachusetts Railroad stayed a part of the B&M, as did the Connecticut and Passumpsic Rivers Railroad. The Northern Railroad was leased to the Boston and Lowell in 1884, but that lease was cancelled and the Northern was on its own until 1890, the Northern owned a number of lines running west from Concord
12.
Irish Americans
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Irish Americans are an ethnic group comprising Americans who have full or partial ancestry from Ireland, especially those who identify with that ancestry, along with their cultural characteristics. About 33.3 million Americans—10. 5% of the total population—reported Irish ancestry in the 2013 American Community Survey conducted by the U. S. Census Bureau and this compares with a population of 6.4 million on the island of Ireland. Three million people identified as Scots-Irish, whose ancestors were Ulster Scots who emigrated from Ireland to the United States. An estimated 250,000 migrated to the United States during the colonial era, only 20,000 immigrants of these immigrants from Ireland were Catholics—English, Irish or a few Germans. Catholics numbered 40,000 or 1. 6% of the population of 2.5 million in 1775. The Scots-Irish settled mainly in the back country of the Appalachian Mountain region. Irish Americans signed the documents of the United States—the Declaration of Independence. The early Ulster immigrants and their descendants at first usually referred to simply as Irish. However, most descendants of the Scots-Irish continued to consider themselves Irish or American rather than Scots-Irish, however, beginning in the early 19th century, many Irish migrated individually to the interior for work on large-scale infrastructure projects such as canals and, later in the century, railroads. During the colonial period, Scots-Irish settled in the southern Appalachian backcountry, by the 19th century, through intermarriage with settlers of English and German ancestry, the descendants of the Scots-Irish lost their identification with Ireland. This generation of pioneers. was a generation of Americans, not of Englishmen or Germans or Scots-Irish, in 1820 Irish-born John England became the first Catholic bishop in the mainly Protestant city of Charleston, South Carolina. During the 1820s and 30s, Bishop England defended the Catholic minority against Protestant prejudices, in 1831 and 1835, he established free schools for free African American children. Inflamed by the propaganda of the American Anti-Slavery Society, a mob raided the Charleston post office in 1835, England led Charlestons Irish Volunteers to defend the school. Soon after this, however, all schools for blacks were closed in Charleston. The Irish Catholics concentrated in a few medium-sized cities, where they were visible, especially in Charleston, Savannah. After secession in 1861, the Irish Catholic community supported the Confederacy and 20,000 served in the Confederate Army, civilian leaders of the Irish and the South did embrace the Confederate national project and most became advocates of a hard-war policy. Although most began as unskilled laborers, Irish Catholics in the South achieved average or above average economic status by 1900, the large Erie Canal project was one such example where Irishmen were many of the laborers. Small but tight communities developed in growing such as Philadelphia, Boston, New York
13.
Roman Catholic
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
14.
Paperboy
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Paperboy was an iconic role of youngsters, often their first job, in Western nations during the heyday of printed newspapers. A paperboys task was to distribute printed newspapers to homes or offices of subscribers on a regular route and this has often been a before-school or after-school job for adolescents. The position of paperboy occupies a prominent place in countries, including the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland. This is because it has long been the first paying job available to young teenagers, despite that, the number of paperboys has declined greatly. m. Today, they are used by weekly community newspapers and free shopper papers. Alternatively, sometimes paperboys are only employed once a week to deliver the paper on Sunday, for paperboys, newspaper delivery is the selling or delivering of newspapers to consumers on a regular route with regular subscribers, called a paper route or newspaper route. Historically, newspaper delivery was generally done by adolescent boys using bicycles, newspaper delivery is increasingly done by adults using cars. Paper distribution is a simple job. It consists of mapping out ones territory and using it to advantage in distributing paper, knowledge of bicycle maintenance and basic customer service skills are developed. During the Holiday season in countries, a paperboy can make an extra bonus - similar to a postman or a milkman. This is typically done by writing a Christmas card to each of the customers on the round and, in many cases, customers may of course choose to leave tips and gifts out at any time of the year. On average they made about 10 cents per hour but, they did get tips and it is a low-standing job and therefore has relatively low-pay. As most papers are delivered early in the morning it requires the person to get up early, which can also mean braving cold, dark. Some delivery routes have also moved away from simple walking routes to larger driving routes, driving routes have become less profitable with the rising price of fuel, since fuel is not paid for by most newspapers/newsagents. The worst culprits in the UK are the Daily Telegraph on a Saturday, some routes can also be an optional pay meaning there will be customers who refuse to pay. In years past with some US newspaper companies, the paperboy was responsible for collecting the subscription fees, in recent years, the role of the traditional paper-deliverer is in many cases replaced by a mass distribution system. Where in the past three to four walking or cycling deliverers would cover different parts of one area, one person can now deliver the entire round quickly with the use of a car or a van. This has shifted the times of paper delivery to night-work, starting close to print time at around midnight, arnold Bennetts 1911 novel The Card features a newspaper take-over
15.
Chemical engineering
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A chemical engineer designs large-scale processes that convert chemicals, raw materials, living cells, microorganisms and energy into useful forms and products. A1996 British Journal for the History of Science article cites James F. Donnelly for mentioning an 1839 reference to chemical engineering in relation to the production of sulfuric acid. In the same however, George E. Davis, an English consultant, was credited for having coined the term. The History of Science in United States, An Encyclopedia puts this at around 1890, Chemical engineering, describing the use of mechanical equipment in the chemical industry, became common vocabulary in England after 1850. By 1910, the profession, chemical engineer, was already in use in Britain. Chemical engineering emerged upon the development of operations, a fundamental concept of the discipline of chemical engineering. Most authors agree that Davis invented the concept of operations if not substantially developed it. He gave a series of lectures on unit operations at the Manchester Technical School in 1887, three years before Davis lectures, Henry Edward Armstrong taught a degree course in chemical engineering at the City and Guilds of London Institute. Armstrongs course failed simply because its graduates, were not especially attractive to employers. Employers of the time would have rather hired chemists and mechanical engineers, starting from 1888, Lewis M. Norton taught at MIT the first chemical engineering course in the United States. Nortons course was contemporaneous and essentially similar with Armstrongs course, both courses, however, simply merged chemistry and engineering subjects. Its practitioners had difficulty convincing engineers that they were engineers and chemists that they were not simply chemists, unit operations was introduced into the course by William Hultz Walker in 1905. By the early 1920s, unit operations became an important aspect of engineering at MIT and other US universities. For instance, it defined chemical engineering to be a science of itself, unit operations in a 1922 report, and with which principle, it had published a list of academic institutions which offered satisfactory chemical engineering courses. Meanwhile, promoting chemical engineering as a science in Britain lead to the establishment of the Institution of Chemical Engineers in 1922. IChemE likewise helped make unit operations considered essential to the discipline, by the 1940s, it became clear that unit operations alone was insufficient in developing chemical reactors. While the predominance of unit operations in chemical engineering courses in Britain, along with other novel concepts, such process systems engineering, a second paradigm was defined. Transport phenomena gave an analytical approach to chemical engineering while PSE focused on its elements, such as control system
16.
Sunoco
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Sunoco is an American petroleum and petrochemical manufacturer headquartered in Newtown Square, Pennsylvania, United States, formerly known as Sun Company Inc. and Sun Oil Co. Since 2012, Sunoco has been a wholly owned subsidiary of Energy Transfer Partners, in 2011 it was ranked as the third largest company by revenue in Pennsylvania, after AmerisourceBergen and Comcast. In 2011, the decided to exit the oil refinery business. In Canada, the Sunoco brand was licensed for the Ontario retail gas station operations of Suncor Energy until 2010, following Suncors acquisition of Petro-Canada, all Canadian Sunoco outlets were converted to Petro-Canada branding. In 2017 it was announced that 1,110 Sunoco convenience store would be sold to Seven & I Holdings Co. parent company of 7-Eleven, for $3.3 billion. Also, as a part of the deal, Sunoco also said they would be supplying 2.2 billion gallons of fuel annually for 15 years to 7-Eleven convenience stores, the integrated oil company now known as Sunoco began as The Peoples Natural Gas Company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In 1886, its partners – Joseph Newton Pew, Philip Pisano and Edward O. Emerson – decided to expand their gas business with a stake in the new oil discoveries in Ohio, four years later, the growing enterprise became the Sun Oil Company of Ohio. Sun Oil diversified quickly, active in production and distribution of oil as well as processing and marketing refined products, by 1901, the company was incorporated in New Jersey as Sun Company and turned its interest to the new Spindletop field in Texas. Pews sons, J. Howard Pew and Joseph N. Pew, with a growing portfolio of oil fields and refineries in hand, Sun opened its first service station in Ardmore, Pennsylvania in 1920. The name changed back to Sun Oil Company in 1922 and, in 1925, Sunoco ranked 39th among United States corporations in the value of World War II production contracts. Sun expanded internationally following the war and its first Canadian refinery was built in 1953 in Sarnia, Ontario, home to a burgeoning new petrochemical industry. Sun established a facility at Venezuelas Lake Maracaibo in 1957, which produced over a billion barrels before the operation was nationalized in 1975. In 1967, Sun established its Great Canadian Oil Sands Limited facility in northern Alberta, Canada and this move expanded Suns marketing area into the mid-continent region. With increased diversification, Sun Oil Company was renamed Sun Company in 1976, through the 1980s, Sun developed oil interests in the North Sea and offshore China and expanded its holdings in both oil and coal with additional U. S. business acquisitions. In 1983, consumers saw the arrival of Sunoco ULTRA94, then in 1988, Sun undertook a major restructuring to segregate its domestic oil and gas exploration and production business and the focus the company on its refining and marketing business. By the 1990s, Sun had departed the international business and was fully dedicated to its branded products. In 1994 Sunoco acquired the Philadelphia Chevron Oil refinery consolidating operations with its own adjacent which it had acquired with Atlantic. Sun sold its remaining interest in Canadas Suncor Energy in 1995, in 1998, Sun Company, Inc. became Sunoco, Inc
17.
PPG Industries
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PPG Industries, Inc. is an American Fortune 500 company and global supplier of paints, coatings, specialty materials, and fiberglass. With headquarters in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, PPG operates in more than 70 countries around the globe, by revenue it is the largest coatings company in the world. It is headquartered in PPG Place, an office and retail complex in downtown Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company was founded in 1883 by Captain John Baptiste Ford and John Pitcairn, Jr. at Creighton, Pennsylvania. Based in Creighton, Pennsylvania, PPG soon became the United States first commercially successful producer of high-quality, PPG was also the worlds first plate glass plant to power its furnaces with locally produced natural gas, an innovation which rapidly stimulated widespread industrial use of the cleaner-burning fuel. By 1900, known as the Glass Trust, it included 10 plants, had a 65 percent share of the U. S. plate glass market, and had become the nations second largest producer of paint. Today, known as PPG Industries, the company is a multibillion-dollar and it now produces coatings, glass, fiberglass, and chemicals. Pitcairn served as a director of PPG from its start, its president from 1897 to 1905, on 19 December 1968 the company changed its name to PPG Industries, Inc. to show its diverse offerings. Ditzler Color Company, established in 1902 in Detroit as an automotive color concern, was purchased by Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company in 1928, in the mid-1980s, Cipisa, a Spanish paint company was acquired and renamed PPG Ibérica. The CEO of Cipisa, Pere Nadal Carres became CEO of PPG Ibérica, in 1990 PPG founded Transitions Optical as a joint venture with Essilor. In October 2000, PPG Industries announced it had agreed to buy Courtaulds Aerospace for $512.5 million, based in Glendale, California, the aerospace business has annual sales of approximately $US240 million, employs 1,200 people. The business also operates 14 application-support centres in North America, Europe, Africa, in 2007, the company was involved in a lawsuit on failing to disclose a purchase reduction of its two major auto glass customers. On 2 January 2008, PPG acquired the SigmaKalon Group of companies for $3.2 billion from private investment firm Bain Capital, strongly increasing its paint, in 2008, PPG renamed their automotive glass division PGW and sold a majority of it to Kohlberg & Company. 2013 revenue was US$15.1 billion, while assets were US$15.9 billion, chuck Bunch remains Executive Chairman, while Michael McGarry serves as President & CEO. In July 2016, PPG announced its sale of the glass business to Vitro. In October 2016, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette announced the acquisition of the rights to Consol Energy Center by PPG. Stringent standards were agreed to in a court settlement. PPG has been involved in sports for years, including being the primary. On October 4th,2016, it was announced that The Consol Energy Center would be giving up its naming rights, columbia-Southern Chemical Corporation Dimetcote Self-cleaning glass Transitions Lenses, a joint venture since 1990
18.
Phi Sigma Kappa
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Phi Sigma Kappa, colloquially known as Phi Sig or PSK, is a mens social and academic fraternity with approximately 90 active chapters and colonies in North America. It later expanded to the South and West, Phi Sigma Kappa began on March 15,1873 at Massachusetts Agricultural College in Amherst by six sophomores. Phi Sigma Kappa merged with Phi Sigma Epsilon in 1985, which was the largest merger of Greek-letter fraternities, Massachusetts Agricultural College in Amherst, now the University of Massachusetts Amherst, was the setting for the founding of Phi Sigma Kappa. Among its other students in the early 1870s, it had attracted six men of varied backgrounds, ages, abilities, and goals in life who saw the need for a new and different kind of society on campus. Early members recalled that it was Henry Hague who suggested that, the six sophomores, meeting in Old North Hall, banded together during the summer of 1873 to form a society to promote morality, learning and social culture. Three were military lieutenants and Brooks was a captain, Hague and Brooks even ran the college store. Academic leaders as well, it cannot be too stressed that these men were the best students in college. On March 15,1873, the Founders met in secret, Brooks already had prepared a constitution and symbolism, and Hague had designed a ritual. The first meeting seemed destined to succeed, for the individuals all had done their work well, the ritual has been changed only six times since, and never drastically. The symbolism and esoteric structure have never been altered, clay was elected president of the group—which for its first five years had no name. Its cryptic characters could not be pronounced, either, though Brooks recalled that outsiders referred to them as T, the Grand Chapter of Phi Sigma Kappa was organized in 1878, five years after the founding of Alpha Chapter, to tie alumni and undergraduates in a continuing relationship. Charles Sumner Howe, an 1876 initiate, was elected its first Grand President, Phi Sigma Kappa was adopted as the groups official name that same year after four years of debate and the work of seven committees. Originally, only one chapter was contemplated by the founders, and although the germ of expansion arrived early, its period of gestation consumed 13 years. He later attended Albany Medical College and established a group, which became Beta Chapter, cutter was also instrumental in the establishment of Gamma at Cornell. The transition to an order was accomplished. Bigness was never one of our ideas, Big Chief Barrett said in later years, and the principle has held, though Phi Sigma Kappa stands high among national orders, size alone has never been a major consideration or goal. Phi Sigs value to other campuses was as an organization offering something special, Massachusetts Agricultural − Aggie − was more egalitarian, open to men of average means but high potential, and not filled with the class-conscious scions of Boston and New York society. In many ways it has kept this ethic throughout its expansion and it never was simply another fraternity to be invited
19.
Master's degree
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A masters degree normally requires previous study at the bachelors level, either as a separate degree or as part of an integrated course. The original meaning of the degree was thus that someone who had been admitted to the rank of master in one university should be admitted to the same rank in other universities. This gradually became formalised as the licentia docendi, initially, the Bachelor of Arts was awarded for the study of the trivium and the Master of Arts for the study of the quadrivium. The nineteenth century saw an expansion in the variety of masters degrees offered. By 1861 this had been adopted throughout Scotland as well as by Cambridge and Durham in England, when the Philadelphia College of Surgeons was established in 1870, it too conferred the Master of Surgery, the same as that in Europe. In the United States, the first masters degrees were awarded at Harvard University soon after its foundation, at Harvard the 1700 regulations required that candidates for the masters degree had to pass a public examination, but by 1835 this was awarded Oxbridge-style 3 years after the BA. In Scotland, Edinburgh maintained separate BA and MA degrees until the mid nineteenth century, in Scotland all the statutes of the Universities which enforced conditions on the grant of degrees were a dead letter. Probably the most important masters degree introduced in the 19th century was the Master of Science, at the University of Michigan this was introduced in two forms in 1858, in course, first awarded in 1859, and on examination, first awarded in 1862. The in course MS was last awarded in 1876, in Britain, however, the degree took a while longer to arrive. The same two degrees, again omitting the masters, were awarded at Edinburgh, despite the MA being the undergraduate degree for Arts in Scotland. In 1862, a Royal Commission suggested that Durham should award masters degrees in theology and science and this scheme would appear to have then been quietly dropped, with Oxford going on to award BAs and MAs in science. The Master of Science degree was introduced in Britain in 1878 at Durham. At the Victoria University both the MA and MSc followed the lead of Durhams MA in requiring an examination for those with an ordinary bachelors degree. The Bologna declaration in 1999 started the Bologna Process, leading to the creation of the European Higher Education Area, as the process continued, descriptors were introduced for all three levels in 2004, and ECTS credit guidelines were developed. This led to questions as to the status of the masters degrees. In 1903, the London Daily News criticised the practice of Oxford and Cambridge, calling their MAs the most stupendous of academic frauds, in 1900, Dartmouth College introduced the Master of Commercial Science, first awarded in 1902. This was the first masters degree in business, the forerunner of the modern MBA, the idea quickly crossed the Atlantic, with Manchester establishing a Faculty of Commerce, awarding Bachelor and Master of Commerce degrees, in 1903. Over the first half of the century the masters degrees for honours graduates vanished as honours degrees became the standard undergraduate qualification in the UK
20.
Pittsfield, Massachusetts
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Pittsfield is the largest city and the county seat of Berkshire County, Massachusetts, United States. It is the city of the Pittsfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area which encompasses all of Berkshire County. The population was 44,737 at the 2010 census, although the population has declined in recent decades, Pittsfield remains the third largest municipality in western Massachusetts, behind only Springfield and Chicopee. In 2005, Farmers Insurance ranked Pittsfield 20th in the United States as Most Secure Place To Live among small towns with fewer than 150,000 residents, in 2006, Forbes ranked Pittsfield as number 61 in its list of Best Small Places for Business. In 2008, Country Home magazine ranked Pittsfield as #24 in a listing of cities east of the Mississippi. In 2009, the City of Pittsfield was chosen to receive a 2009 Commonwealth Award, Massachusetts highest award in the arts, humanities, in 2010, the Financial Times proclaimed Pittsfield the Brooklyn of the Berkshires, in an article covering its recent renaissance. In 1738, a wealthy Bostonian named Col. Jacob Wendell bought 24,000 acres of lands known originally as Pontoosuck and he planned to subdivide and resell to others who would settle there. He formed a partnership with Philip Livingston, a kinsman from Albany, New York, and Col. John Stoddard of Northampton. Mrs. Deming was the first and the last of the original settlers, solomon Deming died in 1815 at the age of 96. Royal Governor Sir Francis Bernard named Pittsfield after British nobleman and politician William Pitt, by 1761 there were 200 residents, and the plantation became the Township of Pittsfield. Brown wrote in his winter 1776-77 handbill, Money is this mans God, Pittsfield was primarily an agricultural area, because of the many brooks that flowed into the Housatonic River, the landscape was dotted with mills that produced lumber, grist, paper, and textiles. The town was a metropolis by the late 19th century. Stanleys enterprise was the forerunner of the internationally known corporate giant, thanks to the success of GE, Pittsfields population in 1930 had grown to more than 50,000. On October 8,2015, SABIC announced it would relocate its headquarters from Pittsfield to Houston, General Dynamics occupies many of the old GE buildings, and its workforce is expanding. Much of General Dynamics local success is based on the awarding of government contracts related to its information systems. Roosevelt, Massachusetts Governor Winthrop Murray Crane, secretary to the president George Bruce Cortelyou, Craig was killed, he was the first Secret Service agent killed while on a presidential protection detail. Roosevelt, whose face and left shin were badly bruised, nearly came to blows with the trolley motorman, Madden was later charged with manslaughter, to which he pleaded guilty. He was sentenced to six months in jail and a heavy fine, in 2004, historian John Thorn discovered a reference to a 1791 by-law prohibiting anyone from playing baseball within 80 yards of the new meeting house in Pittsfield
21.
Metallurgy
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The production of metals involves the processing of ores to extract the metal they contain, and the mixture of metals, sometimes with other elements, to produce alloys. Metallurgy is distinguished from the craft of metalworking, although metalworking relies on metallurgy, as medicine relies on medical science, Metallurgy is subdivided into ferrous metallurgy and non-ferrous metallurgy or colored metallurgy. Ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on iron while non-ferrous metallurgy involves processes, the production of ferrous metals accounts for 95 percent of world metal production. The roots of metallurgy derive from Ancient Greek, μεταλλουργός, metallourgós, worker in metal, from μέταλλον, métallon, metal + ἔργον, érgon, in the late 19th century it was extended to the more general scientific study of metals, alloys, and related processes. In English, the pronunciation is the more common one in the UK. The /ˈmetələrdʒi/ pronunciation is the common one in the USA. The earliest recorded metal employed by humans appears to be gold, small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late Paleolithic period, c.40,000 BC. Silver, copper, tin and meteoric iron can also be found in native form, egyptian weapons made from meteoric iron in about 3000 BC were highly prized as daggers from heaven. Certain metals, notably tin, lead and copper, can be recovered from their ores by simply heating the rocks in a fire or blast furnace, a process known as smelting. The first evidence of this extractive metallurgy dates from the 5th and 6th millennia BC and was found in the sites of Majdanpek, Yarmovac and Plocnik. To date, the earliest evidence of copper smelting is found at the Belovode site, other signs of early metals are found from the third millennium BC in places like Palmela, Los Millares, and Stonehenge. However, the ultimate beginnings cannot be ascertained and new discoveries are both continuous and ongoing. These first metals were single ones or as found, about 3500 BC, it was discovered that by combining copper and tin, a superior metal could be made, an alloy called bronze, representing a major technological shift known as the Bronze Age. The extraction of iron from its ore into a metal is much more difficult than for copper or tin. The process appears to have been invented by the Hittites in about 1200 BC, the secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in the success of the Philistines. Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a variety of past cultures. A 16th century book by Georg Agricola called De re metallica describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction, Agricola has been described as the father of metallurgy. Extractive metallurgy is the practice of removing valuable metals from an ore, in order to convert a metal oxide or sulphide to a purer metal, the ore must be reduced physically, chemically, or electrolytically
22.
Emerging markets
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An emerging market is a country that has some characteristics of a developed market, but does not meet standards to be a developed market. This includes countries that may become developed markets in the future or were in the past, the term frontier market is used for developing countries with slower economies than emerging. The economies of China and India are considered to be the largest, according to The Economist, many people find the term outdated, but no new term has gained traction. Emerging market hedge fund capital reached a new level in the first quarter of 2011 of $121 billion. The four largest emerging and developing economies by either nominal or PPP-adjusted GDP are the BRIC countries, the next five largest markets are South Korea, Mexico, Indonesia, Turkey, and Saudi Arabia. Iran is also considered an emerging market, in the 1970s, less developed countries was the common term for markets that were less developed than the developed countries such as the United States, Western Europe, and Japan. These markets were supposed to provide potential for profit. This term was thought by some to be politically incorrect so the emerging market label was created, emphasizing the fluid nature of the category, political scientist Ian Bremmer defines an emerging market as a country where politics matters at least as much as economics to the markets. The research on emerging markets is diffused within management literature, more critical scholars have also studied key emerging markets like Mexico and Turkey. Julien Vercueil recently proposed a definition of the emerging economies. Catching-up growth, during at least the last decade, it has experienced an economic growth that has narrowed the income gap with advanced economies. Hence, emerging economies appears to be a by-product of the current globalization, at the beginning of the 2010s, more than 50 countries, representing 60% of the worlds population and 45% of its GDP, matched these criteria. The term rapidly developing economies is being used to denote emerging markets such as The United Arab Emirates, Chile and these countries do not share any common agenda, but some experts believe that they are enjoying an increasing role in the world economy and on political platforms. It is difficult to make an exact list of emerging markets, the best guides tend to be investment information sources like EMIS and these sources are well-informed, but the nature of investment information sources leads to two potential problems. One is an element of historicity, markets may be maintained in an index for continuity, possible examples of this are South Korea and Taiwan. In an Opalesque. TV video, hedge fund manager Jonathan Binder discusses the current, Binder says that in the future investors will not necessarily think of the traditional classifications of G10 versus emerging markets. Instead, people should look at the world as countries that are fiscally responsible, whether that country is in Europe or in South America should make no difference, making the traditional blocs of categorization irrelevant. Guégan et al. also discuss the relevance of the emerging country comparing the credit worthiness of so-called emerging countries to so-called developed countries
23.
Neutron bomb
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The neutron release generated by a nuclear fusion reaction is intentionally allowed to escape the weapon, rather than being absorbed by its other components. The concept was developed by the US in the late 1950s. It was seen as a bomb for use against massed Soviet armored divisions. As these would be used over allied nations, notably West Germany, development for the Lance missile was underway in the early 1960s, but abandoned in favor of a conventional design. ERWs were first operationally deployed for anti-ballistic missiles, in this role the burst of neutrons would cause nearby warheads to undergo partial fission, preventing them from exploding properly. For this to work, the ABM would have to explode within a few hundred feet of its target, the first example of such a system was the W66, used on the Sprint missile used in the USs Nike-X system. It is believed the Soviet equivalent, the A-135s 53T6 missile, the weapon was once again proposed for tactical use by the US in the 1970s and 80s, and production of the W70 began for the Lance in 1981. This time it experienced a firestorm of protest as the growing anti-nuclear movement gained strength through this period, opposition was so intense that European leaders refused to accept it on their territory. President Reagan bowed to pressure and the examples of the W70-3 remained stockpiled in the US until they were retired in 1992. The last W70 was dismantled in 2011, in a standard thermonuclear design, a small fission bomb is placed close to a larger mass of thermonuclear fuel. The two components are placed within a thick radiation case, usually made from uranium, lead or steel. The case traps the energy from the bomb for a brief period, allowing it to heat. These can add considerable energy to the reaction, in a design as much as 50% of the total energy comes from fission events in the casing. For this reason, these weapons are known as fission-fusion-fission designs. In a neutron bomb, the material is selected to be either transparent to neutrons. The burst of neutrons created in the reaction is then free to escape the bomb. By designing the stage of the weapon carefully, the neutron burst can be maximized while minimizing the blast itself. This makes the lethal radius of the neutron burst greater than that of the explosion itself, since the neutrons disappear from the environment rapidly, such a burst over an enemy column would kill the crews and leave the area able to be quickly reoccupied
24.
Financial capital
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Financial capital generally refers to saved-up financial wealth, especially that used to start or maintain a business. A financial concept of capital is adopted by most entities in preparing their financial reports, under a financial concept of capital, such as invested money or invested purchasing power, capital is synonymous with the net assets or equity of the entity. Under a physical concept of capital, such as operating capability, capital is regarded as the capacity of the entity based on, for example. Financial capital maintenance can be measured in nominal monetary units or units of constant purchasing power. Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements, Financial capital is provided by lenders for a price, also see time value of money for a more detailed description of how financial capital may be analyzed. Furthermore, financial capital, is any medium or mechanism that represents wealth. It is, however, usually purchasing power in the form of available for the production or purchasing of goods. Capital can also be obtained by producing more than what is immediately required, Financial capital can also be in the form of purchasable items such as computers or books that can contribute directly or indirectly to obtaining various other types of capital. Shareholders may vote at AGMs and be elected as directors, debenture-holders may not vote at AGMs or be elected as directors, shareholders receive profit in the form of dividends, debenture-holders receive a fixed rate of interest. If there is no profit, the shareholder does not receive a dividend, in case of dissolution the firms debenture holders are paid first, before shareholders. Fixed capital is money firms use to purchase assets that will remain permanently in the business, nature of business Size of business Stage of development Capital invested by the owners location of that area Firms use working capital to run their business. For example, money that they use to buy stock, pay expenses, most indigenous forms of money and the modern fiat money are only a symbolic storage of value and not a real storage of value like commodity money. The ratio between debt and equity is named leverage and it has to be optimized as a high leverage can bring a higher profit but create solvency risk. This means the payments made to the shareholders are first paid to the preference shareholder, like money, financial instruments may be backed by state military fiat, credit, or commodity resources. Governments generally closely control the supply of it and usually require some reserve be held by institutions granting credit, trading between various national currency instruments is conducted on a money market. Such trading reveals differences in probability of debt collection or store of value function of that currency, when payment is deferred on any such instrument, typically an interest rate is higher than the standard interest rates paid by banks, or charged by the central bank on its money. Often such instruments are called fixed-income instruments if they have reliable payment schedules associated with the rate of interest. A variable-rate instrument, such as consumer mortgages, will reflect the standard rate for deferred payment set by the central bank prime rate
25.
RCA
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RCA Corporation, founded as the Radio Corporation of America, was an American electronics company in existence from 1919 to 1986. General Electric took over the company in late 1985 and split it up the following year, after World War I began in August 1914, radio traffic across the Atlantic Ocean increased dramatically after the western Allies cut the German transatlantic telegraph cables. In 1917 the government of the United States took charge of the owned by the major companies involved in radio manufacture in the United States to devote radio technology to the war effort. All production of equipment was allocated to the U. S. Army, U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps. The War Department and the Navy Department sought to maintain a monopoly of all uses of radio technology. The wartime takeover of all radio systems ended late in 1918, the war ended in November of that year. The ending of the governments monopoly in radio communications did not prevent the War. On 8 April 1919, naval Admiral W. H. G. Bullard, the proposal presented by the government was that if GE created an American-owned radio company, then the Army and Navy would effect a monopoly of long-distance radio communications via this company. This marked the beginning of a series of negotiations through which GE would buy the American Marconi company, the Army and the Navy granted RCA the former American Marconi radio terminals that had been confiscated during the War. Admiral Bullard received a seat on the Board of Directors of RCA for his efforts in establishing RCA, the result was federally-created monopolies in radio for GE and the Westinghouse Corporation and in telephone systems for the American Telephone & Telegraph Company. The first chief officer of RCA was Owen D. Young. RCAs incorporation papers required that a majority of its stock be held by American citizens, as the years went on, RCA either took over, or produced for itself, a large number of patents, including that of the superheterodyne receiver invented by Edwin Armstrong. Over the years, RCA continued to operate international services, under its subsidiary RCA Communications, Inc. GE used RCA as its retail arm for radio sales from 1919, Westinghouse also marketed home radios through RCA until 1930. In 1929, RCA purchased the Victor Talking Machine Company, then the worlds largest manufacturer of phonographs and this included a majority ownership of the Victor Company of Japan. The new subsidiary then became RCA Victor, with Victor, RCA acquired New World rights to the Nipper His Masters Voice trademark. This trademark is used by the British music & entertainment company HMV. RCA began selling the first electronic turntable in 1930, in 1931, RCA Victor began selling 33⅓ rpm records
26.
Rockefeller Center
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Rockefeller Center is a large complex consisting of 19 high-rise commercial buildings covering 22 acres between 48th and 51st Streets in New York City. Commissioned by the Rockefeller family, it is located in the center of Midtown Manhattan and it was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1987. It is famous for its annual Christmas tree lighting, Rockefeller Center was named after John D. Rockefeller, Jr. who leased the space from Columbia University in 1928 and developed it beginning in 1930. Rockefeller stated, It was clear there were only two courses open to me. One was to abandon the entire development, the other to go forward with it in the definite knowledge that I myself would have to build it and finance it alone. The initial cost of acquiring the space, razing some of the existing buildings and it was the largest private building project ever undertaken in modern times. Construction of the 14 buildings in the Art Deco style began on May 17,1930, principal builder and managing agent for the massive project was John R. Todd. The construction of the project employed over 40,000 people and it was the public relations pioneer Ivy Lee, the prominent adviser to the family, who first suggested the name Rockefeller Center for the complex, in 1931. Rockefeller, Jr. initially did not want the Rockefeller family name associated with the commercial project, what could have become a major controversy in the mid-1930s concerned the last of the four European buildings that remained unnamed. Ivy Lee and others attempts to rent the space to German commercial concerns. Rockefeller ruled this out after being advised of Hitlers Nazi march toward World War II and this subsequently became the primary location of the U. S. In 1985, Columbia University sold the land beneath Rockefeller Center to the Rockefeller Group for $400 million, in 1989, Mitsubishi Estate, a real estate company of the Mitsubishi Group, purchased the entire Rockefeller Center complex, and its owner, Rockefeller Group. In 1996, the complex was purchased by a consortium of owners that included Goldman Sachs, Gianni Agnelli, Stavros Niarchos, and David Rockefeller. Tishman Speyer, led by Jerry Speyer, a friend of David Rockefeller. The landmark buildings comprise over 8,000,000 square feet on 22 acres in Midtown, bounded by Fifth and Sixth avenues and these are co-owned by Tishman-Speyer, and open to the public. 1 Rockefeller Plaza – The original Time–Life Building, a tenant was General Dynamics. 10 Rockefeller Plaza – Originally the Holland House, then the Eastern Air Lines Building, currently home of Today Show studios. 30 Rockefeller Plaza – Originally the RCA Building, in 1988 it was renamed the GE Building, headquarters of NBC, the Rainbow Room restaurant is located on the 65th floor
27.
30 Rockefeller Plaza
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30 Rockefeller Plaza is an American Art Deco skyscraper that forms the centerpiece of Rockefeller Center in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. Its name is shortened to 30 Rock. The building is most famous for housing the NBC television network headquarters, at 850 feet high, the 70-story building is the 14th tallest in New York City and the 39th tallest in the United States. It stands 400 feet shorter than the Empire State Building, the building underwent a US$170 million floor-by-floor interior renovation in 2014. The building was completed in 1933 as part of the Rockefeller Center complex, the noted Art Deco architect Raymond Hood led a team of Rockefeller architects. It was named the RCA Building for its tenant, the Radio Corporation of America. It was the first building constructed with the elevators grouped in the central core, during construction, a photographer took the famous photograph Lunch atop a Skyscraper on the 69th floor. The National Broadcasting Company, had the red and blue networks housed in the new building, NBC was the first national radio network in the country and was started by R. C. A. in 1926. The office of the Rockefeller family occupied Room 5600 on the 56th floor and this space is now occupied by Rockefeller Family and Associates, whose offices span the 54th to 56th floors. John D. Rockefeller had a vault in the basement of the building. In 1985, the building acquired official landmark status, the RCA Building was renamed as the GE Building in 1988, two years after General Electric re-acquired the RCA Corporation. Some still refer to the building using its old names, out of habit or fondness, the buildings address became the title of the NBC sitcom 30 Rock, which follows the cast and crew of a fictional television show filmed inside the building. KWO35, the NOAA Weather Radio station serving the majority of the Tri-State area, originally transmitted from atop the building, due to interference with a U. S. Coast Guard radio channel, the transmitter was eventually relocated atop the MetLife Building. A weather radar station was located atop the building. In June 2014, Comcast was granted permission from the Landmarks Preservation Commission to make modifications to the building to reflect its ownership of NBCUniversal, the GE Building would be officially known as the Comcast Building. Comcast planned to replace the neon GE lettering from the top of the building with a 10-foot tall, LED-lit Comcast wordmark and NBC logo, and add a 17-foot NBC logo on the building westerns facade. Additionally, a new marquee was added to the Avenue of the Americas entrance, on July 1,2015, the name change and new signage were made official. The building is one of the most famous and recognized skyscrapers in New York
28.
Motorola
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Motorola was an American multinational telecommunications company founded on September 25,1928, based in Schaumburg, Illinois. After having lost $4.3 billion from 2007 to 2009, Motorola Solutions is generally considered to be the direct successor to Motorola, as the reorganization was structured with Motorola Mobility being spun off. Motorola Mobility was acquired by Lenovo in 2014, Motorola designed and sold wireless network equipment such as cellular transmission base stations and signal amplifiers. Its business and government customers consisted mainly of wireless voice and broadband systems and these businesses are now part of Motorola Solutions. Google sold Motorola Home to the Arris Group in December 2012 for US$2.35 billion, Motorolas wireless telephone handset division was a pioneer in cellular telephones. Also known as the Personal Communication Sector prior to 2004, it pioneered the mobile phone with DynaTAC and it had staged a resurgence by the mid-2000s with the RAZR, but lost market share in the second half of that decade. Later it focused on smartphones using Googles open-source Android mobile operating system, the first phone to use the newest version of Googles open source OS, Android 2.0, was released on November 2,2009 as the Motorola Droid. The handset division was spun off into the independent Motorola Mobility. On May 22,2012, Google CEO Larry Page announced that Google had closed on its deal to acquire Motorola Mobility. On January 29,2014, Page announced that pending closure of the deal, on October 30,2014, Lenovo finalized its purchase of Motorola Mobility from Google. Galvin Manufacturing Corporation set up shop in a section of a rented building. The company had $565 in working capital and five employees, the first weeks payroll was $63. The companys first products were battery-eliminators, devices that enabled battery-powered radios to operate on household electricity, due to advances in radio technology, battery-eliminators soon became obsolete. Paul Galvin learned that some radio technicians were installing sets in cars and his team was successful, and Galvin was able to demonstrate a working model of the radio at the June 1930 Radio Manufacturers Association convention in Atlantic City, New Jersey. He brought home enough orders to keep the company in business. g, the company sold its first Motorola branded radio on June 23,1930, to H. C. Wall of Fort Wayne, Indiana, for $30, the Motorola brand name became so well-known that Galvin Manufacturing Corporation later changed its name to Motorola, Inc. Galvin Manufacturing Corporation began selling Motorola car-radio receivers to police departments, the companys first public safety customers included the Village of River Forest, Village of Bellwood Police Department, City of Evanston Police, Illinois State Highway Police, and Cook County Police. In the same year, the company built its research and development program with Dan Noble, a pioneer in FM radio and semiconductor technologies, the company produced the hand-held AM SCR-536 radio during World War II, which was vital to Allied communication
29.
Six Sigma
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Six Sigma is a set of techniques and tools for process improvement. It was introduced by engineer Bill Smith while working at Motorola in 1986, Jack Welch made it central to his business strategy at General Electric in 1995. Today, it is used in industrial sectors. It seeks to improve the quality of the output of a process by identifying and removing the causes of defects and minimizing variability in manufacturing and business processes. It uses a set of quality management methods, mainly empirical, statistical methods, the term Six Sigma originated from terminology associated with statistical modeling of manufacturing processes. The maturity of a process can be described by a sigma rating indicating its yield or the percentage of defect-free products it creates. A six sigma process is one in which 99. 99966% of all opportunities to some feature of a part are statistically expected to be free of defects. Motorola set a goal of six sigma for all of its operations. Six Sigma doctrine asserts, Continuous efforts to achieve stable and predictable results are of vital importance to business success. Manufacturing and business processes have characteristics that can be defined, measured, analyzed, improved, achieving sustained quality improvement requires commitment from the entire organization, particularly from top-level management. Features that set Six Sigma apart from previous quality-improvement initiatives include, an increased emphasis on strong and passionate management leadership and support. A clear commitment to making decisions on the basis of data and statistical methods, rather than assumptions. The term six sigma comes from statistics and is used in quality control. Originally, it referred to the ability of manufacturing processes to produce a high proportion of output within specification. Processes that operate with six sigma quality over the term are assumed to produce long-term defect levels below 3.4 defects per million opportunities. Six Sigmas implicit goal is to all processes, but not to the 3.4 DPMO level necessarily. Organizations need to determine an appropriate level for each of their most important processes. As a result of goal, it is incumbent on management of the organization to prioritize areas of improvement
30.
Fortune (magazine)
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Fortune is a multinational business magazine, published and owned by Time Inc. and headquartered in New York City. The publication was founded by Henry Luce in 1929, the magazine competes with Forbes and Bloomberg Businessweek in the national business magazine category and distinguishes itself with long, in-depth feature articles. The magazine is best known for the Fortune 500, a ranking of companies by revenue that it has published annually since 1955, in late October 1929, the Wall Street Crash of 1929 occurred, marking the onset of the Great Depression. In a memo to the Time Inc. board in November 1929, Luce wrote and we will recognize that this business slump may last as long as an entire year. The publication made its debut in February 1930. Its editor was Luce, managing editor Parker Lloyd-Smith, and art director Thomas Maitland Cleland, single copies of the first issue costed US$1. In fact, there were 30,000 subscribers who had signed up to receive that initial 184-page issue. By 1937, the number of subscribers had grown to 460,000, Fortune was also noted for its photography, featuring the work of Margaret Bourke-White, Ansel Adams, and others. Walker Evans served as its editor from 1945 to 1965. The magazine became an important leg of Luces media empire, after the launch of Time in 1923 and Fortune in 1930, Luce went on to launch Life in 1936. From its launch in 1930 to 1978, Fortune was published monthly, in January 1978, it began publishing biweekly. In October 2009, citing declining advertising revenue and circulation, Fortune began publishing every three weeks, marshall Loeb was named managing editor in 1986. During the years when Time Warner owned Time Inc, Fortune articles were hosted at CNNMoney. com. In June 2014, after Time Inc. spun off from its corporate parent, in the human resources field, for example, it publishes a list of the Best Companies to Work For. Lists include companies ranked in order of gross revenue and business profile, following the elimination of the editor-in-chief role at Time Inc. in October 2013, the top editors title was changed from managing editor to editor in 2014. In JSTOR Official website Fortune India Fortune China Fortune Turkey List of 100 Best Companies to Work For Fortune Data Store, complete downloadable list of Fortune 500/1000 Companies – 1955–2008
31.
James McNerney
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Walter James Jim McNerney Jr. is a business executive who was chairman of The Boeing Company until March 1,2016. He previously served as President and CEO of the company until July 2015, McNerney graduated from New Trier High School in Winnetka, Illinois in 1967. He attended Yale University, receiving a B. A. degree in 1971, while at Yale, he was a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon Fraternity. At Yale, he excelled in baseball and hockey, after graduating from Yale, he worked for a year at both British United Provident and G. D. Searle, LLC, then attended Harvard Business School, receiving a Master of Business Administration in 1975. McNerney began his business career at Procter & Gamble in 1975 and he worked as a management consultant at McKinsey from 1978 to 1982. McNerney joined General Electric in 1982, McNerney competed with Bob Nardelli and Jeff Immelt to succeed the retiring Jack Welch as chairman and CEO of General Electric. When Immelt won the race, McNerney and Nardelli left GE. On June 30,2005 The Boeing Company hired McNerney as the Chairman, President, McNerney oversaw the strategic direction of the Chicago-based, $61.5 billion aerospace company. In 2008, his total compensation increased to $14,765,410, which included a salary of $1,915,288, a cash bonus of $6,089,625. In 2014, as Chairman and CEO of Boeing, McNerney made $29 million in total compensation, McNerney had been a member of the Boeing board of directors since 2001. He is also a member of the board of directors of Procter & Gamble and he served as Chairman of The Business Council in 2007 and 2008. Career path W. James McNerney, Jr. executive biography Appearances on C-SPAN
32.
Robert Nardelli
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Robert Louis Bob Nardelli is an American businessman. He was the chairman and chief officer of Chrysler. He had earlier served in a capacity at The Home Depot from December 2000 to January 2007. Prior to that, Nardelli had risen to one of the top four executives at General Electric. Condé Nast Portfolio named Nardelli as one of the Worst American CEOs of All Time, Nardelli also earned an MBA from the University of Louisville. He is married to Susan L. Schmulbach with four children and he joined General Electric in 1971 as an entry-level manufacturing engineer. From 1988 to 1991, Nardelli was an executive for a division of the construction equipment maker, J. I. Case Company, by 1995, he had risen to president and CEO of GE Power Systems, also having the title of GE senior vice president. Nardelli was often known as Little Jack, after his mentor Jack Welch, when Jack Welch retired as chairman and CEO of GE, a lengthy and well-publicized succession planning saga ensued. Nardelli competed with James McNerney and Jeffrey R. Immelt to succeed Welch, with Immelt winning the three-way race, Nardelli and McNerney left GE. About 10 minutes after Welch let him go, Nardelli received a job offer from Kenneth Langone, Nardelli became CEO of Home Depot in December 2000 despite having no retail experience. He changed the management structure by eliminating and consolidating division executives. He also installed processes and streamlined operations, most notably implementing a computerized automated inventory system, Nardelli was credited with doubling the sales of the chain and improving its competitive position. Revenue increased from $45.74 billion in 2000 to $81.51 billion in 2005, during Nardellis tenure, Home Depot stock was essentially steady while competitor Lowes stock doubled, which along with his $240 million compensation eventually earned the ire of investors. His blunt, critical and autocratic management style turned off employees, Nardelli was notably criticized for cutting back on knowledgeable full-time employees with experience in the trades and replacing them with part-time help with little relevant experience. This move reduced costs, but hurt customer service at a time when Lowes was making inroads nationwide, at that meeting, he only allowed shareholders to speak for one minute each. When the board ousted him in January 2007, Nardellis severance package was estimated at $210 million. He was succeeded by The Home Depot vice chairman and executive vice president, Blake had served as Nardellis deputy at both GE Power Systems and Home Depot. During his tenure at Home Depot, Nardelli met President George W. Bush at the White House in 2002 and was appointed to Bushs Council on Service, Nardelli also hosted a garden reception/fundraiser for Bush at his Atlanta home on May 20,2004
33.
Jeff Immelt
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Jeffrey Robert Jeff Immelt is an American business executive. He is currently the chairman of the board and chief officer of the U. S. -based conglomerate General Electric. He was selected as GEs CEO by their Board of Directors in 2000 to replace Jack Welch upon Welchs retirement from GE, previously, Immelt had headed up GEs Medical Systems division as its President and CEO. Immelt was born in Cincinnati, the son of Donna Rosemary, a teacher, and Joseph Francis Immelt. Immelt attended Finneytown High School, he played football in college and was an offensive tackle, during his years at Dartmouth he worked summers on a Ford assembly line in Cincinnati, after graduating he worked for Procter and Gamble before matriculating at Harvard for his MBA. Immelt earned his M. B. A. from Harvard Business School and he described business school as one of the most intense times of your life. Immelt has been with GE since 1982, when he graduated from Harvard with his MBA and he held a number of increasingly senior positions in GEs plastics, appliances, and healthcare businesses. He became a GE officer in 1989, joined the GE Capital board in 1997, Immelt has been thrust into three significant external crises since taking the lead at GE as Chairman on September 7,2001. Almost immediately he faced the 9/11 terrorist attacks and he then was pressed to defend GEs business model and the quality of its financial reports as the economy reeled from the Enron crisis. In 2008-09 he shepherded GE through the United States financial crisis, Immelt defended GEs reporting elections and the quality of its financial statements following heightened scrutiny after the Enron crisis. The experiment seemed to confirm that the format, which was shorter, was preferable. Immelts intuition and judgments about financial reporting transparency were validated in experiments in behavioral economics conducted at Princeton in 2004, GE could not escape the 2008 crisis that was fueled by the mortgage-backed securities debacle on Wall Street and the liquidity crisis that brought the derivatives market to its knees. GEs major financial business is known as GE Capital and it is operated largely through the General Electric Credit Corporation subsidiary. As part of its response to the crisis, GE joined Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley in forming a wholly owned banking affiliate that qualified as a Savings. This entitles the subsidiary to FDIC insurance over its deposit at the cost of bowing to regulation as a holding company. Aid received from the Federal Reserve by GE has also become an issue in the 2016 presidential campaign. Immelt has not been a passive inheritor of the house that Jack built, in fact at the outset of this time as GEs CEO, Immelt took pains to establish that he would act as his own man. Welch preferred internal, or organic growth and benefited from long-term US economic trends that buoyed his major business lines, in particular Welchs tenure benefited from the economic expansion during the Clinton Administration which ended immediately before Immelt became GEs CEO
34.
The Home Depot
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The Home Depot, Inc. is a home improvement supplies retailing company that sells tools, construction products, and services. It operates many big-box format stores across the United States, all 10 provinces of Canada, the company is headquartered at the Atlanta Store Support Center in Cobb County, Georgia, in Greater Atlanta. In terms of overall revenue reported to the U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission, the Home Depot is the largest home improvement retailer in the United States, ahead of rival Lowes. It operates out of large warehouse-style buildings averaging 105,000 ft2 with megastores operating in larger facilities, the Home Depot was founded in 1978 by Bernard Marcus, Arthur Blank, Ron Brill and Pat Farrah. The Home Depots proposition was to build home-improvement superstores, larger than any of their competitors facilities, investment banker Ken Langone helped Marcus and Blank to secure the necessary capital. In 1979, the first two stores, built in spaces leased from J. C. Penney that were originally Treasure Island hypermarket stores, two more opened not long after, and all four shared the space under the squiggly zig-zag roof with Zayre on its right side. The initial public offering occurred in approximately September 1981 and the became a New York Stock Exchange traded company on April 19,1984. The first headquarters was on Terrell Mill Road on the southeast side of Marietta, Georgia, the tallest building is approximately 85 metres high, the fourth-tallest in the Vinings area. The three buildings are marked B, C, and D—the missing building A is actually store #121 on Cumberland Parkway, in 2000, after the retirement of Marcus and Blank, Robert Nardelli was appointed chairman, president, and CEO. Nardelli had pushed hard to make the more efficient, instituting many metrics and centralizing operations, while cutting jobs, benefits. Its 2005 sales totaled US$91.8 billion, despite the 10% increase in revenue, it dropped three spots to No.17 on the 2007 FORTUNE magazines FORTUNE500 list. The Home Depot owned EXPO Design Center, a chain of home decorating and appliance stores, in 2001, it acquired distributor Your Other Warehouse, which still operates as its own division. In 2006, the Home Depot acquired Hughes Supply which was assimilated into HD Supply serving contractors, in September 2005, Home Depot Direct launched its online home-furnishings store,10 Crescent Lane, shortly followed by the launch of Paces Trading Company, its online lighting store. In mid 2006, the Home Depot acquired Home Decorators Collection, Home Depot Landscape Supply, with only a few stores each in metro Atlanta and Dallas/Fort Worth, was founded in 2002 and closed in late 2007. On January 2,2007, the Home Depot and Robert Nardelli mutually agreed on Nardellis resignation as CEO after a six-year tenure and his severance package of $210 million was criticized because when the stock went down, his pay went up. His successor, Frank Blake, previously served as the vice chairman of the board. Blake agreed to a more conservative compensation package than Nardelli. Although a longtime deputy to Nardelli at GE and Home Depot, Blake was said to lack Nardellis hard edge, indeed, Blake repudiated many of his predecessors strategies, and it has been reported that the two men have not spoken since Nardelli departed Home Depot
35.
Chrysler
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FCA US is one of the Big Three American automobile manufacturers. FCA US has its headquarters in Auburn Hills, Michigan and sells vehicles worldwide under its flagship Chrysler brand, as well as the Dodge, Jeep, other major divisions include Mopar, its automotive parts and accessories division, and SRT, its performance automobile division. The Chrysler Corporation was founded by Walter Chrysler in 1925, out of what remained of the Maxwell Motor Company, Chrysler greatly expanded in 1928, when Mr. The brand diversification efforts were inspired by Mr. Chryslers time working for General Motors, in the 1960s the company expanded into Europe, by taking control of French, British and Spanish auto companies, Chrysler Europe was sold in 1978 to PSA Peugeot Citroën for $1. Chrysler struggled through the 1970s to adapt to changing markets, increased US import competition, the company began an engineering partnership with Mitsubishi Motors, and began selling Mitsubishi vehicles branded as Dodge and Plymouth in North America. By the late 1970s, Chrysler was on the verge of bankruptcy, New CEO Lee Iacocca was credited with returning the company to profitability in the 1980s. In 1985, Diamond-Star Motors was created, further expanding the Chrysler-Mitsubishi relationship, in 1987, Chrysler acquired American Motors Corporation, which brought the profitable Jeep brand under the Chrysler umbrella. Like the other Big Three automobile manufacturers, Chrysler was hit hard by the industry crisis of 2008–2010. On June 10,2009, Chrysler emerged from the proceedings with the United Auto Workers pension fund, Fiat S. p. A. The bankruptcy resulted in Chrysler defaulting on over $4 billion in debts, by May 24,2011, Chrysler finished repaying its obligations to the U. S. government five years early, although the cost to the American taxpayer was $1.3 billion. Over the next few years Fiat gradually acquired the other parties shares while removing much of the weight of the loans in a short period. On January 1,2014, Fiat S. p. A announced a deal to purchase the rest of Chrysler from the United Auto Workers retiree health trust. The deal was completed on January 21,2014, making Chrysler Group a subsidiary of Fiat S. p. A, in May 2014, Fiat Chrysler Automobiles, NV was established by merging Fiat S. p. A. into the company. This was completed in August 2014, Chrysler Group LLC remained a subsidiary until December 15,2014, when it was renamed FCA US LLC, to reflect the Fiat-Chrysler merger. The Chrysler company was founded by Walter Chrysler on June 6,1925, Walter Chrysler arrived at the ailing Maxwell-Chalmers company in the early 1920s. He was hired to overhaul the companys troubled operations, in late 1923 production of the Chalmers automobile was ended. In January 1924, Walter Chrysler launched the well-received Chrysler automobile, the Chrysler was a 6-cylinder automobile, designed to provide customers with an advanced, well-engineered car, but at a more affordable price than they might expect. The original 1924 Chrysler included an air filter, high compression engine, full pressure lubrication
36.
3M
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The 3M Company, formerly known as the Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company, is an American multinational conglomerate corporation based in Maplewood, Minnesota, a suburb of St. Paul. 3M has operations in more than 65 countries including 29 international companies with manufacturing operations and 35 companies with laboratories, 3M products are available for purchase through distributors and retailers, and online directly from the company. Five businessmen founded 3M in Two Harbors, Minnesota, in 1902, originally a mining venture, the goal was to mine corundum, but this failed because the mines mineral holdings were anorthosite, which had no commercial value. Co-founder John Dwan solicited funds in exchange for stock and Edgar Ober, the company moved to Duluth and began research and producing sandpaper products. William L. McKnight, later a key executive, joined the company in 1907, 3M finally became financially stable in 1916 and was able to pay dividends. The company moved to St. Paul in 1910, where it remained for 52 years before outgrowing the campus and moving to its current headquarters at 3M Center in Maplewood, Minnesota in 1962. The new Maplewood campus is 475 acres and has over 50 buildings, the company began by mining stone from quarries for use in grinding wheels. Struggling with quality and marketing of its products, management supported its workers to innovate and develop new products, twelve years after its inception, 3M developed its first exclusive product, Three-M-ite cloth. Other innovations in this era included masking tape, waterproof sandpaper, by 1929, 3M had made its first moves toward international expansion by forming Durex to conduct business in Europe. The same year, the stock was first traded over the counter. The company is currently a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average, the founders original plan was to sell the mineral corundum to manufacturers in the East for making grinding wheels. In reality, however, Dwan and his associates were not selling what they thought, failing to make sandpaper with the anorthosite, the founders decided to import minerals like Spanish garnet, after which sale of sandpapers grew. In 1914, customers complained that the garnet was falling off the paper, the founders discovered that the stones had traveled across the Atlantic Ocean packed near olive oil, and the oil had penetrated the stones. Unable to take the loss of selling expensive inventory, they roasted the stones over fire to remove the olive oil, the companys late innovations include waterproof sandpaper and masking tape, as well as cellophane Scotch Tape and sound-deadening materials for cars. In 1947, 3M began producing PFOA by electrochemical fluorination, during the 1950s, the company expanded worldwide with operations in Canada, Mexico, France, Germany, Australia, and the United Kingdom in large part by Clarence Sampair. DuPont referred to PFOA as C8, in 1951, international sales were approximately $20 million. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, 3M published a line of board games and these games were marketed to adults and sold through department stores, with easily learned simple rules but complex game play and depth and with uniformly high-quality components. As such, they are the ancestors of the German Eurogames, the games covered a variety of topics, from business and sports simulations to word and abstract strategy games
37.
Boeing
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The Boeing Company is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, and satellites worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product support services, Boeing stock is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average. The Boeing Companys corporate headquarters are located in Chicago and the company is led by President, Boeing is organized into five primary divisions, Boeing Commercial Airplanes, Boeing Defense, Space & Security, Engineering, Operations & Technology, Boeing Capital, and Boeing Shared Services Group. Boeing bought Heaths shipyard in Seattle on the Duwamish River, which became his first airplane factory. Boeing was incorporated in Seattle by William Boeing, on July 15,1916, Boeing was later incorporated in Delaware, the original Certificate of Incorporation was filed with the Secretary of State of Delaware on July 19,1934. Boeing, who studied at Yale University, worked initially in the timber industry and this knowledge proved invaluable in his subsequent design and assembly of airplanes. The company stayed in Seattle to take advantage of the supply of spruce wood. William Boeing founded his company a few months after the June 15 maiden flight of one of the two B&W seaplanes built with the assistance of George Conrad Westervelt, a U. S. Navy engineer. Boeing and Westervelt decided to build the B&W seaplane after having flown in a Curtiss aircraft, Boeing bought a Glenn Martin Flying Birdcage seaplane and was taught to fly by Glenn Martin himself. Boeing soon crashed the Birdcage and when Martin informed Boeing that replacement parts would not become available for months, Westervelt agreed to build a better airplane and soon produced the B&W Seaplane. This first Boeing airplane was assembled in a hangar located on the northeast shore of Seattles Lake Union. Many of Boeings early planes were seaplanes, on April 6,1917, the U. S. declared War on Germany and later in the year entered World War I. On May 9,1917, the became the Boeing Airplane Company. With the U. S. entering the war, Boeing knew that the U. S. Navy needed seaplanes for training, so Boeing shipped two new Model Cs to Pensacola, Florida, where the planes were flown for the Navy. The Navy liked the Model C and ordered 50 more, the company moved its operations to a larger former shipbuilding facility known as Boeing Plant 1, located on the lower Duwamish River, Washington state. Others, including Boeing, started selling other products, Boeing built dressers, counters, and furniture, along with flat-bottom boats called Sea Sleds. In 1919 the Boeing B-1, flying boat made its first flight and it accommodated one pilot and two passengers and some mail. Over the course of eight years, it made international airmail flights from Seattle to Victoria, on May 24,1920, the Boeing Model 8 made its first flight
