1.
Rembrandt
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Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn was a Dutch draughtsman, painter, and printmaker. A prolific and versatile master across three media, he is considered one of the greatest visual artists in the history of art. Having achieved youthful success as a painter, Rembrandts later years were marked by personal tragedy. Yet his etchings and paintings were popular throughout his lifetime, his reputation as an artist remained high, Rembrandts portraits of his contemporaries, self-portraits and illustrations of scenes from the Bible are regarded as his greatest creative triumphs. His self-portraits form a unique and intimate biography, in which the artist surveyed himself without vanity and his reputation as the greatest etcher in the history of the medium was established in his lifetime, and never questioned since. Few of his paintings left the Dutch Republic whilst he lived, but his prints were circulated throughout Europe, because of his empathy for the human condition, he has been called one of the great prophets of civilization. Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn was born on 15 July 1606 in Leiden, in the Dutch Republic and he was the ninth child born to Harmen Gerritszoon van Rijn and Neeltgen Willemsdochter van Zuijtbrouck. His family was quite well-to-do, his father was a miller, religion is a central theme in Rembrandts paintings and the religiously fraught period in which he lived makes his faith a matter of interest. His mother was Roman Catholic, and his father belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church, unlike many of his contemporaries who traveled to Italy as part of their artistic training, Rembrandt never left the Dutch Republic during his lifetime. He opened a studio in Leiden in 1624 or 1625, which he shared with friend, in 1627, Rembrandt began to accept students, among them Gerrit Dou in 1628. In 1629, Rembrandt was discovered by the statesman Constantijn Huygens, as a result of this connection, Prince Frederik Hendrik continued to purchase paintings from Rembrandt until 1646. He initially stayed with an art dealer, Hendrick van Uylenburgh, Saskia came from a good family, her father had been a lawyer and the burgemeester of Leeuwarden. When Saskia, as the youngest daughter, became an orphan, Rembrandt and Saskia were married in the local church of St. Annaparochie without the presence of Rembrandts relatives. In the same year, Rembrandt became a burgess of Amsterdam and he also acquired a number of students, among them Ferdinand Bol and Govert Flinck. In 1635 Rembrandt and Saskia moved into their own house, renting in fashionable Nieuwe Doelenstraat, in 1639 they moved to a prominent newly built house in the upscale Breestraat, today known as Jodenbreestraat in what was becoming the Jewish quarter, then a young upcoming neighborhood. The mortgage to finance the 13,000 guilder purchase would be a cause for later financial difficulties. Rembrandt should easily have been able to pay the house off with his income, but it appears his spending always kept pace with his income. It was there that Rembrandt frequently sought his Jewish neighbors to model for his Old Testament scenes, in 1640, they had a second daughter, also named Cornelia, who died after living barely over a month
2.
Canaan
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Canaan was a Semitic-speaking region in the Ancient Near East during the late 2nd millennium BC. The name Canaan occurs commonly in the Hebrew Bible, in particular, the references in Genesis 10 and Numbers 34 define the Land of Canaan as extending from Lebanon southward to the Brook of Egypt and eastward to the Jordan River Valley. References to Canaan in the Bible are usually backward-looking, referring to a region that had something else. The term Canaanites serves as an ethnic catch-all term covering various indigenous populations—both settled, the Amarna Letters and other cuneiform documents use Kinaḫḫu, while other sources of the Egyptian New Kingdom mention numerous military campaigns conducted in Ka-na-na. Canaan had significant geopolitical importance in the Late Bronze Age Amarna period as the area where the spheres of interest of the Egyptian, Hittite, Mitanni and Assyrian Empires converged. Much of the knowledge about Canaan stems from archaeological excavation in this area at sites such as Tel Hazor, Tel Megiddo. The English term Canaan comes from the Hebrew כנען, via Greek Χαναάν Khanaan and it appears as KUR ki-na-ah-na in the Amarna letters, and knʿn is found on coins from Phoenicia in the last half of the 1st millennium. It first occurs in Greek in the writings of Hecataeus as Khna, scholars connect the name Canaan with knʿn, Kanaan, the general Northwest Semitic name for this region. An early explanation derives the term from the Semitic root knʿ to be low, humble, purple cloth became a renowned Canaanite export commodity which is mentioned in Exodus. The dyes may have named after their place of origin. The purple cloth of Tyre in Phoenicia was well known far, however, according to Robert Drews, Speisers proposal has generally been abandoned. The Late Bronze Age state of Ugarit is considered quintessentially Canaanite archaeologically, Jonathan Tubb states that the term ga-na-na may provide a third millennium reference to Canaanite while at the same time stating that the first certain reference is in the 18th century BC. See Ebla-Biblical controversy for further details, Mari letters A letter from Mutu-bisir to Shamshi-Adad I of the Old Assyrian Empire has been translated, It is in Rahisum that the brigands and the Canaanites are situated. It was found in 1973 in the ruins of Mari, an Assyrian outpost at that time in Syria, additional unpublished references to Kinahnum in the Mari letters refer to the same episode. Alalakh texts A reference to Ammiya being in the land of Canaan is found on the Statue of Idrimi from Alalakh in modern Syria. After a popular uprising against his rule, Idrimi was forced into exile with his mothers relatives to seek refuge in the land of Canaan, the other references in the Alalakh texts are, AT154 AT181, A list of Apiru people with their origins. All are towns, except for Canaan AT188, A list of Muskenu people with their origins, the letters are written in the official and diplomatic East Semitic Akkadian language of Assyria and Babylonia, though Canaanitish words and idioms are also in evidence. May the king ask Yanhamu about these matters, may the king ask his commissioner, who is familiar with Canaan EA151, Letter from Abimilku to the Pharaoh, The king, my lord wrote to me, write to me what you have heard from Canaan
3.
New Kingdom of Egypt
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Radiocarbon dating places the exact beginning of the New Kingdom between 1570–1544 BC. The New Kingdom followed the Second Intermediate Period and was succeeded by the Third Intermediate Period and it was Egypt’s most prosperous time and marked the peak of its power. The later part of period, under the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties is also known as the Ramesside period. It is named after the pharaohs that took the name of Ramesses I. Egyptian armies fought Hittite armies for control of modern-day Syria, the Eighteenth Dynasty contained some of Egypts most famous Pharaohs, including Ahmose I, Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Amenhotep III, Akhenaten and Tutankhamun. Queen Hatshepsut concentrated on expanding Egypts external trade by sending an expedition to the land of Punt. Thutmose III expanded Egypts army and wielded it with success to consolidate the empire created by his predecessors. This resulted in a peak in Egypts power and wealth during the reign of Amenhotep III, during the reign of Thutmose III, Pharaoh, originally referring to the kings palace, became a form of address for the person who was king. Akhenatens religious fervor is cited as the reason why he was written out of Egyptian history. Under his reign, in the 14th century BC, Egyptian art flourished and attained a level of realism. Towards the end of the 18th Dynasty, the situation had changed radically, Ramesses II sought to recover territories in the Levant that had been held by the 18th Dynasty. His campaigns of reconquest culminated in the Battle of Kadesh, where he led Egyptian armies against those of the Hittite king Muwatalli II. Ramesses was caught in historys first recorded military ambush, although he was able to rally his troops, the outcome of the battle was undecided with both sides claiming victory at their home front, ultimately resulting in a peace treaty between the two nations. The last great pharaoh from the New Kingdom is widely considered to be Ramesses III, in the eighth year of his reign the Sea Peoples invaded Egypt by land and sea. Ramesses III defeated them in two great land and sea battles and he incorporated them as subject peoples and settled them in Southern Canaan although there is evidence that they forced their way into Canaan. Their presence in Canaan may have contributed to the formation of new states, such as Philistia and he was also compelled to fight invading Libyan tribesmen in two major campaigns in Egypts Western Delta in his sixth year and eleventh year respectively. The heavy cost of this warfare slowly drained Egypts treasury and contributed to the decline of the Egyptian Empire in Asia. Something in the air prevented much sunlight from reaching the ground, one proposed cause is the Hekla 3 eruption of the Hekla volcano in Iceland but the dating of this remains disputed
4.
Twelve Tribes of Israel
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The Twelve Tribes of Israel or Tribes of Israel were the tribes said by the Hebrew Bible to have descended from the patriarch Jacob. Jacob had 12 sons and at least one daughter by two wives and two concubines, according to the biblical tradition, the twelve sons fathered the twelve tribes of Israel. Before his death, Jacob blessed or foretold the destiny of each of his sons and this is what their father said to them as he blessed them, blessing each with the blessing suitable to him. The confederation of tribes lived in the midst of the nationalities who continued to occupy Canaan. Modern scholarship has called into question the beginning, middle, the account of the conquest under Joshua has largely been abandoned. The Bibles depiction of the period of the Judges is widely considered doubtful, the extent to which a united Kingdom of Israel ever existed is also a matter of ongoing dispute. Living in exile in the sixth century BC, the prophet Ezekiel has a vision for the restoration of Israel which will include the ideal reallotment of the land to the tribes of Israel. In the Christian New Testament, the tribes of Israel are referred to twice in the gospels. In Matthew, paralled by Luke, Jesus anticipates that in the Kingdom of God, His followers will sit on thrones, israelites Leaders of the tribes of Israel Ten Lost Tribes The Twelve Tribes at the Jewish Encyclopedia The Twelve Tribes of Israel at the Jewish Virtual Library
5.
Dinah
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In the Book of Genesis, Dinah was the daughter of Jacob, one of the patriarchs of the Israelites, and Leah, his first wife. Dinah, the daughter of Leah and Jacob, went out to visit the women of Shechem, where her people had made camp, Shechem took her and lay with her and humbled her. And his soul was drawn to Dinah and he loved the maiden and spoke tenderly to her, and Shechem asked his father to obtain Dinah for him, to be his wife. Hamor came to Jacob and asked for Dinah for his son, Make marriages with us, give your daughters to us and you shall dwell with us, and the land shall be open to you. Shechem offered Jacob and his sons any bride-price they named and they slew Hamor and his son Shechem with the sword, and took Dinah out of Shechems house, and went away. And the sons of Jacob plundered whatever was in the city and in the field, all their wealth, all their little ones and their wives, but they said, Should he treat our sister as a harlot. This portion of the Book of Genesis deals primarily with the family of Abraham and his descendants, including Dinah, her father Jacob and it foreshadows later happenings and prophecies further along in Genesis and the Torah dealing with the two violent brothers. Source-critical scholars speculate that Genesis combines separate literary strands, with different values and concerns, and does not pre-date the 1st millennium BC as a unified account. Within Genesis 34 itself, they suggest two layers of narrative, an older account ascribing the killing of Shechem to Simeon and Levi alone, kirsch argues that the narrative combines a Yahwist narrator describing a rape, and an Elohist speaker describing a seduction. He instead says that such a description reflected a late, post-exilic notion that the idolatrous gentiles are impure the prohibition of intermarriage, in Rofés analysis, the defilement refers to interracial sex rather than rape. Midrashic literature contains a series of proposed explanations of the Bible by rabbis and it provides further hypotheses of the story of Dinah, suggesting answers to questions such as her offspring, Osnat a daughter, from Shechem and links to later incidents and characters. One midrash states that Dinah was conceived as a male in Leahs womb but miraculously changed to a female, lest Leah be associated with more of the Israelite tribes than Rachel. Her brother Simeon promised to find a husband for her, but she did not wish to leave Shechem, fearing that, after her disgrace, however, she was later married to Job. When she died, Simeon buried her in the land of Canaan and she is therefore referred to as the Canaanitish woman. Shaul/Asenath was her son/daughter by Shechem, early Christian commentators such as Jerome likewise assign some of the responsibility to Dinah, in venturing out to visit the women of Shechem. This story was used to demonstrate the danger to women in the sphere as contrasted with the relative security of remaining in private. On his deathbed, their father Jacob curses Simeon and Levis anger and their tribal portions in the land of Israel are dispersed so that they would not be able to regroup and fight arbitrarily. According to the Midrash, Simeon and Levi were only 14 and 13 years old, respectively and they possessed great moral zealousness, but their anger was misdirected here
6.
Isaac
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Isaac (/ˈaɪzək/ was the son of Abraham and Sarah and father of Jacob, his name means he laughs, reflecting Sarahs response when told that she will have a child. He was one of the three patriarchs of the Israelites, the one whose name was not changed, and the only one who did not move out of Canaan. He died when he was 180 years old, the longest-lived of the three, the anglicized name Isaac is a transliteration of the Hebrew term Yiṣḥāq which literally means He laughs/will laugh. Ugaritic texts dating from the 13th century BCE refer to the benevolent smile of the Canaanite deity El, Genesis, however, ascribes the laughter to Isaacs parents, Abraham and Sarah, rather than El. According to the narrative, Abraham fell on his face. He laughed because Sarah was past the age of childbearing, both she and Abraham were advanced in age, later, when Sarah overheard three messengers of the Lord renew the promise, she laughed inwardly for the same reason. Sarah denied laughing when God questioned Abraham about it and it was prophesied to the patriarch Abraham that he would have a son and that his name should be Isaac. When Abraham became one hundred years old, this son was born to him by his first wife Sarah, though this was Abrahams second son it was Sarahs first and only child. On the eighth day from his birth, Isaac was circumcised, as was necessary for all males of Abrahams household, in order to be in compliance with Yahwehs covenant. After Isaac had been weaned, Sarah saw Ishmael mocking, and urged her husband to cast out Hagar the bondservant and her son, Abraham was hesitant, but at Gods order he listened to his wifes request. At some point in Isaacs youth, his father Abraham brought him to Mount Moriah, at Gods command, Abraham was to build a sacrificial altar and sacrifice his son Isaac upon it. After he had bound his son to the altar and drawn his knife to kill him, rather, he was directed to sacrifice instead a nearby ram that was stuck in thickets. This event served as a test of Abrahams faith in God, when Isaac was 40, Abraham sent Eliezer, his steward, into Mesopotamia to find a wife for Isaac, from his nephew Bethuels family. Eliezer chose the Aramean Rebekah for Isaac, after many years of marriage to Isaac, Rebekah had still not given birth to a child and was believed to be barren. Isaac prayed for her and she conceived, Rebekah gave birth to twin boys, Esau and Jacob. Isaac was 60 years old when his two sons were born, Isaac favored Esau, and Rebekah favored Jacob. Isaac is unique among the patriarchs for remaining faithful to his wife, at the age of 75, Isaac moved to Beer-lahai-roi after his father died. When the land experienced famine, he removed to the Philistine land of Gerar where his father once lived and this land was still under the control of King Abimelech as it was in the days of Abraham
7.
Rebecca
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Rebecca appears in the Hebrew Bible as the wife of Isaac and the mother of Jacob and Esau. Rebecca and Isaac were one of the four couples believed to be buried in the Cave of the Patriarchs, the other three being Adam and Eve, Abraham and Sarah, and Jacob and Leah. The news of her birth was told to her uncle Abraham before Akeidat Yitzchak, many years after the Binding of Isaac, Sarah, Abrahams wife, died. After taking care of her burial, Abraham went about finding a wife for his son Isaac and he commanded his servant to journey to his birthplace of Aram Naharaim to select a bride from his own family, rather than engage Isaac to a local Canaanite girl. Abraham sent along expensive jewelry, clothing and dainties as gifts to the bride, if the girl had refused to follow him, Abraham stated that Eliezer would be absolved of his responsibility. The servant devised a test in order to find the wife for Isaac. To his surprise, a young girl came out and offered to draw water for him to drink. Rebecca continued to draw water until all the camels were sated, proving her kind and generous nature, the servant immediately gave her a golden nose ring and two golden bracelets, which Rebecca hurried to show her mother. Seeing the jewelry, her brother Laban ran out to greet the guest, the servant recounted the oath he made to Abraham and all the details of his trip to and meeting with Rebecca in fine detail, after which Laban and Bethuel agreed that she could return with him. After hosting the party overnight, however, the tried to keep Rebecca with them longer. The servant insisted that they ask the girl herself, and she agreed to go immediately. Her family sent her off with her nurse, Deborah, and blessed her, Our sister, may you come to be thousands of myriads, as Rebecca and her entourage approached Abrahams home, they spied Isaac from a distance in the fields of Beer-lahai-roi. The Talmud and the Midrash explain that Isaac was praying, as he instituted Mincha, seeing such a spiritually exalted man, Rebecca immediately dismounted from her camel and asked the accompanying servant who he was. When she heard that this was her husband, she modestly covered herself with a veil. Isaac brought her into the tent of his mother Sarah, married her, according to Rashi, the three miracles that characterized Sarahs tent while she was alive, and that disappeared with her death, reappeared when Rebecca entered the tent. Before the bride and bridegroom stand under the chuppah, they participate in a ceremony called badeken. The bridegroom is led to the bride by two escorts and, seeing her, covers her face with a veil, similar to the way Rebecca covered her face before marrying Isaac. News of Rebeccas birth reached Abraham when he was 85 years old,15 years before Isaac was born, Isaac was 40 years old when he married Rebecca,20 years elapsed before they had children
8.
Abraham
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Abraham, originally Abram, is the first of the three patriarchs of Judaism. His story features in the texts of all the Abrahamic religions and Abraham plays a prominent role as an example of faith in Judaism, Christianity. The biblical narrative revolves around the themes of posterity and land, Abraham is called by God to leave the house of his father Terah and settle in the land originally given to Canaan, but which God now promises to Abraham and his progeny. Various candidates are put forward who might inherit the land after Abraham, Abraham later marries Keturah and has six more sons, but on his death, when he is buried beside Sarah, it is Isaac who receives all Abrahams goods, while the other sons receive only gifts. Terah, the ninth in descent from Noah, was the father of three sons, Abram, Nahor, and Haran, Haran was the father of Lot, and died in his native city, Ur of the Chaldees. Abram married Sarah, who was barren, Terah, with Abram, Sarai, and Lot, then departed for Canaan, but settled in a place named Haran, where Terah died at the age of 205. Abram was 75 years old when he left Haran with his wife Sarai, his nephew Lot, and the substance and souls that they had acquired, and traveled to Shechem in Canaan. There was a famine in the land of Canaan, so that Abram and Lot and their households. On the way Abram told his wife Sarai to say that she was his sister, however, God afflicted Pharaoh and his household with great plagues, for which he tried to find the reason. Upon discovering that Sarai was a woman, Pharaoh demanded that they and their household leave immediately. When they came back to the Bethel and Hai area, Abrams and this became a problem for the herdsmen who were assigned to each familys cattle. But Lot chose to go east to the plain of Jordan where the land was well watered everywhere as far as Zoar, Abram went south to Hebron and settled in the plain of Mamre, where he built another altar to worship God. During the rebellion of the Jordan River cities against Elam, Abrams nephew, the Elamite army came to collect the spoils of war, after having just defeated the king of Sodoms armies. Lot and his family, at the time, were settled on the outskirts of the Kingdom of Sodom which made them a visible target, one person who escaped capture came and told Abram what happened. Once Abram received this news, he immediately assembled 318 trained servants, Abrams force headed north in pursuit of the Elamite army, who were already worn down from the Battle of Siddim. When they caught up with them at Dan, Abram devised a plan by splitting his group into more than one unit. Not only were able to free the captives, Abrams unit chased and slaughtered the Elamite King Chedorlaomer at Hobah. They freed Lot, as well as his household and possessions, upon Abrams return, Sodoms king came out to meet with him in the Valley of Shaveh, the kings dale
9.
Sarah
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Sarah or Sara was the wife and also the half–sister of Abraham and the mother of Isaac as described in the Hebrew Bible and the Quran. According to Genesis 17,15, God changed her name to Sarah as part of a covenant after Hagar bore Abraham his first son, the Hebrew name Sarah indicates a woman of high rank and is translated as princess or noblewoman. Sarah was the wife of Abraham, Sarah was approximately ten years younger than her husband. She was considered beautiful to the point that Abraham feared that when they were more powerful rulers she would be taken away. Twice he purposely identified her as being his sister so that he would be treated well for her sake, no reason is given why Sarah remained barren for a long period of time. She was originally called Sarai, which is translated my princess, later she was called Sarah, i. e. princess. Terah, with Abram, Sarai and Lot, departed for Canaan, but stopped in a place named Haran, following Gods command Abram took his wife Sarai, his nephew Lot, and the wealth and persons that they had acquired, and traveled to Shechem in Canaan. Abram was 75 at this time, there was a severe famine in the land of Canaan, so that Abram and Lot and their households, travelled south to Egypt. When the Egyptians see you, they say, this is his wife. Then they will kill me but will let you live, say you are my sister, so that I will be treated well for your sake and my life will be spared because of you. When brought before Pharaoh, Sarai said that Abram was her brother, and it is possible that Sarai acquired her Egyptian handmaid Hagar during this stay. However, God afflicted Pharaohs household with great plagues, Pharaoh then realized that Sarai was Abrams wife and demanded that they leave Egypt immediately. After having lived in Canaan for ten years and still childless, Sarai suggested that Abram have a child with her Egyptian handmaid Hagar and this resulted in tension between Sarai and Hagar, and Sarai complained to her husband that the handmaid no longer respected her. At one point, Hagar fled from her mistress but returned after angels met her and she gave birth to Abrams son Ishmael when Abram was eighty-six years old. In Genesis 17 when Abram was ninety-nine years old, God declared his new name, Abraham – a father of many nations, God gave Sarai the new name Sarah, and blessed her. Abraham was given assurance that Sarah would have a son, not long afterwards, Abraham and Sarah were visited by three men. One of the visitors told Abraham that upon his next year. While at the tent entrance, Sarah overheard what was said, the visitor inquired of Abraham why Sarah laughed at the idea of bearing a child, for her age was as nothing to God
10.
Ishmael
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Ishmael is a figure in the Tanakh and the Quran and was Abrahams first son according to Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Ishmael was born to Abrahams and Sarahs handmaiden Hagar, according to the Genesis account, he died at the age of 137. The Book of Genesis and Islamic traditions consider Ishmael to be the ancestor of the Ishmaelites, according to Muslim tradition, Ishmael the Patriarch and his mother Hagar are said to be buried next to the Kaaba in Mecca. Cognates of Hebrew Yishmael existed in various ancient Semitic cultures, including early Babylonian and Minæan and it is a theophoric name translated literally as God has hearkened, suggesting that a child so named was regarded as the fulfillment of a divine promise. This is the account of Ishmael from Genesis Chapters 16,17,21,25 In Genesis 16, the birth of Ishmael was planned by the Patriarch Abrahams first wife, who at that time was known as Sarai. She and her husband Abram sought a way to have children in order to fulfill the Abrahamic covenant that was established in Genesis 15. Sarai was 75 years old and had yet to bear Abraham a child, her idea was to offer her Egyptian handmaiden Hagar to Abraham, so that they could have a child by her. So Sarai, Abrahams wife, took her Egyptian maidservant Hagar, customs of that time dictated that, although Hagar was the birth mother, any child conceived would belong to Sarai and Abram. Genesis 16, 7-16 describes the naming of Ishmael, and Gods promise to Hagar concerning Ishmael and this occurred at the well of Beer-lahai-roi, located in the desert region between Abraham’s settlement and Shur. Hagar fled here after Sarai dealt harshly with her for showing contempt for her mistress following her having become pregnant, here, Hagar encountered an angel of God who said to her Behold, you are pregnant and shall bear a son. You shall call his name Ishmael, because the LORD has listened to your affliction and he shall be a wild donkey of a man, his hand against everyone and everyone’s hand against him, and he shall dwell over against all his kinsmen. The blessing that this father was promised was that Abrahams descendants would be as numerous as the dust of the earth. However, the promise would be to a son of Sarai, yet God would make of this child a great nation, when Ishmael was born, Abraham was 86 years old. When he was 13 years old, Ishmael was circumcised at the time as all other males in Abrahams house becoming a part of the covenant in a mass circumcision. His father Abram, given the new name Abraham, was also at this time, at the age of 99, initiated into the covenant by having himself and the males of his entire household circumcised. At the time of the covenant, God informed Abraham that his wife Sarah would give birth to a son, which he was instructed to name Isaac. God also mentioned that He will be a wild donkey of a man, His hand will be against everyone, And everyones hand will be against him, And he will live to the east of all his brothers. A year later, Ishmaels half-brother Isaac was born to Abraham by his first wife Sarah when she was 90 years old and this proposition was grievous in Abrahams sight because of his son and the bondwoman, Hagar
11.
Esau
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Esau, in the Hebrew Bible, is the older son of Isaac. He is mentioned in the Book of Genesis, and by the prophets, Obadiah, the New Testament of the Christian Bible alludes to him in the Epistle to the Romans and in the Epistle to the Hebrews. According to the Hebrew Bible, Esau is the progenitor of the Edomites and the twin brother of Jacob. Esau and Jacob were the sons of Isaac and Rebekah, of the twins, Esau was the first to be born with Jacob following, holding his heel. Isaac was sixty years old and Rebekah is believed to have been younger when the boys were born, Esaus grandfather Abraham was still alive, being 160 years old at that time. Esau, a man of the field became a hunter who had rough qualities that distinguished him from his twin brother, among these distinguishing qualties were his red hair and noticeable hairiness. Jacob was a shy or simple man, depending on the translation of the Hebrew word Tam, throughout Genesis, Esau is frequently shown as being supplanted by his younger twin Jacob. Genesis 25,25 narrates Esaus birth, Now the first came forth, red all over like a hairy garment, the meaning of the word Esau is disputed, with some connecting it to the word ‘āsāh. The Targum Pseudo-Jonathan specifically connects the name Esau to this etymology, stating because he was fully completed, with hair of the head, beard, teeth. It could also be related to the Arabic root ġšw, meaning to cover, others have noted the similarity to Arabic ’a‘tay meaning stupid or šāv meaning worthless. In Hebrew, the word hairy is a wordplay on Seir, the name Edom is also attributed to Esau, meaning red, the same color describing Esaus skintone. Genesis parallels his redness to the red lentil pottage that he sold his birthright for, Esau became the progenitor of the Edomites in Seir. In Genesis, Esau returned to his twin brother Jacob, famished from the fields and he begs Jacob to give him some red pottage This, of course, refers to his red hair. Jacob offers Esau a bowl of stew in exchange for Esaus birthright. This is believed to be the origin of the English phrase for a mess of pottage, in Genesis 27, 1–40, Jacob uses deception, motivated by his mother Rebecca, to lay claim to his blind father Isaacs blessing that was inherently due to the firstborn, Esau. In Genesis 27, 5–7, Rebecca is listening while Isaac speaks to his son Esau, Jacob follows through with the plan to steal his brothers birthright by bringing the meal his father Isaac requested and pretending to be Esau. Jacob pulled off his disguise by covering himself in hairy lamb skin so that when his father went to touch him. Jacob successfully received his father Isaacs blessing, as a result, Jacob becomes the spiritual leader of the family after Isaacs death and the heir of the promises of Abraham
12.
Rachel
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Rachel was the favorite of Biblical patriarch Jacobs two wives as well as the mother of Joseph and Benjamin, two of the twelve progenitors of the tribes of Israel. Rachel was the daughter of Laban and the sister of Leah. Rachel was a niece of Rebekah, Laban being Rebekahs brother, Rachel is first mentioned in the Hebrew Bible in Genesis 29 when Jacob happens upon her as she is about to water her fathers flock. She was the daughter of Laban, Rebekah’s brother. Jacob had traveled a distance to find Laban. Rebekah had sent him there to be safe from his furious twin brother, during Jacobs stay, he fell in love with Rachel and agreed to work seven years for Laban in return for her hand in marriage. On the night of the wedding, the bride was veiled and Jacob did not notice that Leah, whereas Rachel was lovely in form and beautiful, Leah had tender eyes. Later Jacob confronted Laban, who excused his own deception by insisting that the older sister should marry first and he assured Jacob that after his wedding week was finished, he could take Rachel as a wife as well, and work another seven years as payment for her. When God “saw that Leah was unloved, he opened her womb”, Rachel, like Sarah and Rebecca, remained unable to conceive. Rachel became jealous of Leah and gave Jacob her maidservant, Bilhah, Bilhah gave birth to two sons that Rachel named and raised. Leah responds by offering her handmaid Zilpah to Jacob, and names and raises the two sons that Zilpah bears, according to some commentaries, Bilhah and Zilpah are actually half-sisters of Leah and Rachel. After Leah conceived again, Rachel was finally blessed with a son, Joseph, Rachels son, Joseph, was destined to be the leader of Israels tribes between exile and nationhood. After Josephs birth, Jacob decided to return to the land of Canaan with his family, fearing that Laban would deter him, he fled with his two wives, Leah and Rachel, and twelve children without informing his father-in-law. Laban pursued him and accused him of stealing his idols, indeed, Rachel had taken her fathers idols, hidden them inside her camels seat cushion, and sat upon them. Laban had neglected to give his daughters their inheritance, Rachel becomes a trickster like her father, her aunt, and her husband. Not knowing that the idols were in his wifes possession, Jacob pronounced a curse on whoever had them, With whoever you will find your gods, Laban left her alone, but the curse Jacob had pronounced came true shortly thereafter. Near Ephrath, Rachel went into a difficult labor with her second son, the midwife told her in the middle of the birth that her child was a boy. Before she died, Rachel named her son Ben Oni, Rachel was buried by Jacob on the road to Efrat, just outside Bethlehem, and not in the ancestral tomb at Machpelah
13.
Leah
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Leah, as described in the Hebrew Bible, was the daughter of Laban. She and her younger sister Rachel became the two concurrent wives of Hebrew patriarch Jacob and she had six sons, whose descendants became some of the Twelve Tribes of Israel. She also had a daughter, Dinah, the Torah introduces Leah by describing her with the phrase, Leah had tender eyes. It is argued as to whether the adjective tender should be taken to mean delicate, the commentary of Rashi cites a Rabbinic interpretation of how Leahs eyes became weak. According to this story, Leah was destined to marry Jacobs older twin brother, in the Rabbinic mind, the two brothers are polar opposites, Jacob being a God-fearing scholar and Esau being a hunter who also indulges in murder, idolatry, and adultery. But people were saying, Laban has two daughters and his sister, Rebekah, has two sons, the older daughter will marry the older son, and the younger daughter will marry the younger son. Hearing this, Leah spent most of her weeping and praying to God to change her destined mate. Thus the Torah describes her eyes as soft from weeping, God hearkens to Leahs tears and prayers and allows her to marry Jacob even before Rachel does. Leah becomes Jacobs wife through a deception on the part of her father, in the Biblical account, Jacob is dispatched to the hometown of Laban—the brother of his mother Rebekah—to avoid being killed by his brother Esau, and to find a wife. Out by the well, he encounters Labans younger daughter Rachel tending her fathers sheep, Laban is willing to give Rachels hand to Jacob as long as he works seven years for her. On the wedding night, however, Laban switches Leah for Rachel, later Laban claims that it is uncustomary to give the younger daughter away in marriage before the older one. Laban offers to give Rachel to Jacob in marriage in return for seven years of work. Jacob accepts the offer and marries Rachel after the celebration of his marriage to Leah. Leah is the mother of six of Jacobs sons, including his first four, according to the scriptures, God saw that Leah was unloved and opened her womb as consolation. Seeing that she is unable to conceive, Rachel offers her handmaid Bilhah to Jacob, Leah responds by offering her handmaid Zilpah to Jacob, and names and raises the two sons that Zilpah bears. According to some commentaries, Bilhah and Zilpah are actually half-sisters of Leah, one day, Leahs firstborn son Reuben returns from the field with mandrakes for his mother. Leah has not conceived for a while, and this plant, frustrated that she is not able to conceive at all, Rachel offers to trade her night with their husband in return for the mandrakes. Leah agrees, and that night she sleeps with Jacob and conceives Issachar, afterwards she gives birth to Zebulun and to a daughter, Dinah
14.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
15.
Modern Hebrew
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Modern Hebrew or Israeli Hebrew, generally referred to by speakers simply as Hebrew, is the standard form of the Hebrew language spoken today. It was revived as a language in the 19th and 20th centuries and is one of the two official languages of Israel, along with Modern Standard Arabic. Modern Hebrew is spoken by about nine people, counting native, fluent. The organization that directs the development of the Modern Hebrew language. The most common term for the language is Modern Hebrew. Most people refer to it simply as Hebrew, the term Modern Hebrew has been described as somewhat problematic as it implies unambiguous periodization from Biblical Hebrew. Rosén supported the now widely used term Israeli Hebrew on the basis that it represented the nature of Hebrew. In 2006, Israeli linguist Ghilad Zuckermann proposed the term Israeli to represent the origins of the language. Jewish contemporary sources describe Hebrew flourishing as a language in the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew remained a spoken vernacular following the Babylonian captivity, Hebrew died out as a vernacular language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining after the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–136 CE, which devastated the population of Judea. After the exile Hebrew became restricted to liturgical use, the revival of the Hebrew language was led by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Modern Hebrew used Biblical Hebrew morphemes, Mishnaic spelling, and Sephardic pronunciation, idioms and calques were made from Yiddish. Ben-Yehuda used a stock of 8,000 words from the Bible and 20,000 words from rabbinical commentaries and codified and planned the new language, some words he invented, such as ḥatzilīm for eggplants and ḥashmal for electricity. Sometimes, old Hebrew words took on different meanings altogether, for example, the Hebrew word kǝvīš, which now denotes a street or a road, is actually an Aramaic adjective meaning trodden down, blazoned, rather than a common noun. It was originally used to describe a blazoned trail, for a simple comparison between the Sephardic version of Mishnaic Hebrew and the Yemenite version of the same, see Yemenite Hebrew. Modern Hebrew is classified as an Afroasiatic language of the Semitic family, although it has been influenced by non-Semitic languages, Modern Hebrew retains its Semitic character in its morphology and in much of its syntax. A minority of scholars argue that the language had been so influenced by various substrate languages that it is genealogically a hybrid with Indo-European. These theories have not been met with acceptance, and Modern Hebrew continues to be considered a Semitic language by most experts
16.
Tiberian vocalization
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The system soon became used to vocalize other Hebrew texts as well. The Tiberian vocalization marks vowels and stress, makes fine distinctions of consonant quality and length, the sin dot distinguishes between the two values of ש. A dagesh indicates a consonant is geminate or unspirantized, and a raphe indicates spirantization, the mappiq indicates that ה is consonantal, not silent, in syllable-coda position. Each of the vowel phonemes could be lengthened, occasionally. The ultrashort vowels are more complicated. There were two graphemes corresponding to the vowel /ă/, attested by alternations in manuscripts like ארֲריך~ארְריך, ואשמֳעָה~ואשמְעָה. . In addition, one of the graphemes could also be silent, Shva was used both to indicate lack of a vowel and as another symbol to represent the phoneme /ă/, the latter also represented by hataf patah. The phoneme /ă/ had a number of allophones, /ă/ had to be written with shva rather than hataf patah when it was not pronounced as, before a laryngeal-pharyngeal, mobile šwa was pronounced as an ultrashort copy of the following vowel and as preceding /j/. Using ḥataf vowels was mandatory under gutturals but optional under other letters, קָ֫מֶץ also denotes a slighter, as שׁוּרֶק and קִבּוּץ a firmer, compression or contraction of the mouth. Segôl takes its name from its form, so שָׁלֹשׁ נְקֻדּוֹת is another name for Qibbúṣ. Moreover the names were mostly so formed, that the sound of each vowel is heard in the first syllable, in order to carry this out consistently some even write Sägôl, Qomeṣ-ḥatûf, cantillation signs mark stress and punctuation. Metheg may mark secondary stress, and maqqaf conjoins words into one stress unit, babylonian vocalization Palestinian vocalization Niqqud Cardinal vowels Blau, Joshua. Phonology and Morphology of Biblical Hebrew, a History of the Hebrew Language
17.
Patriarchs (Bible)
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The Patriarchs of the Bible, when narrowly defined, are Abraham, his son Isaac, and Isaacs son Jacob, also named Israel, the ancestor of the Israelites. These three figures are referred to collectively as the patriarchs of Judaism, and the period in which they lived is known as the patriarchal age and they play significant roles in Hebrew scripture during and following their lifetimes. They are used as a significant marker by God in revelations and promises, more widely, the term Patriarchs can be used to refer to the twenty male ancestor-figures between Adam and Abraham. The first ten of these are called the Antediluvian patriarchs, because they came before the Flood. Only Rachel, Jacobs favorite wife, is said to be buried separately at what is known as Rachels Tomb, near Bethlehem, at the site where she is believed to have died in childbirth. The lifetimes given for the patriarchs in the Book of Genesis are, Adam 930 years, Seth 912, Enos 905, Kenan 910, Mahalalel 895, Jared 962, Enoch 365, Methuselah 969, Lamech 777, Noah 950. The lifespans given cause problems of chronology for Bible scholars, as the following quotation shows, the long lives ascribed to the patriarchs cause remarkable synchronisms and duplications. Adam lived to see the birth of Lamech, the member of the genealogy, Seth lived to see the translation of Enoch. Noah outlived Abrams grandfather, Nahor, and died in Abrams sixtieth year, Shem, Noahs son, even outlived Abram. He was still alive when Esau and Jacob were born and this list, taken from the Book of Genesis, gives the details of that genealogy. Noah, father of Shem, Ham, and Japheth Shem an hundred years old, Arphaxad lived five and thirty years, and begat Salah. Salah lived thirty years, and begat Eber, Eber lived four and thirty years, and begat Peleg. Peleg lived thirty years, and begat Reu, Reu lived two and thirty years, and begat Serug. Serug lived thirty years, and begat Nahor, Nahor lived nine and twenty years, and begat Terah. Terah lived seventy years, and begat Abram, Nahor, many major world religions trace their origin back to the patriarch Abraham. Israel was the given to the grandson of Abraham. All Jews consider themselves to be descendants of Abraham through his son Isaac, Abraham believed God, so in general all people with faith in God are considered sons of Abraham. Islam regards Abraham as the father of the prophets in Islam because all subsequent prophets descended from him
18.
Israelites
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The Israelites were a Semitic-speaking people of the ancient Near East, who inhabited a part of Canaan during the tribal and monarchic periods. The ancient Israelites are considered to be an outgrowth of the indigenous Canaanite populations that inhabited the Southern Levant, Syria, ancient Israel. In the period of the monarchy it was only used to refer to the inhabitants of the northern kingdom. The Israelites were also known as the Hebrews and the Twelve Tribes of Israel, the Jews are named after and also descended from the southern Israelite Kingdom of Judah, particularly the tribes of Judah, Benjamin and partially Levi. The word Jews is found in 2 Kings, Chronicles, and in passages in the Book of Jeremiah, the Book of Zechariah. The Kingdom of Israel, often called the Northern Kingdom of Israel, contained all the tribes except for the tribes of Judah, following its conquest by Assyria, these ten tribes were allegedly dispersed and lost to history, and they are henceforth known as the Ten Lost Tribes. Jewish tradition holds that Samaria was so named because the mountainous terrain was used to keep Guard for incoming enemy attacks. According to Samaritan tradition, however, the Samaritan ethnonym is not derived from the region of Samaria, thus, according to Samaritan tradition, the region was named Samaria after them, not vice versa. In Modern Hebrew, the Samaritans are called Shomronim, while in Samaritan Hebrew they call themselves Shamerim, in Judaism, an Israelite is, broadly speaking, a lay member of the Jewish ethnoreligious group, as opposed to the priestly orders of Kohanim and Levites. In texts of Jewish law such as the Mishnah and Gemara, the term יהודי, meaning Jew, is rarely used, Samaritans commonly refer to themselves and to Jews collectively as Israelites, and they describe themselves as the Israelite Samaritans. The name Israel first appears in the Hebrew Bible in Genesis 32,29, the Hebrew Bible etymologizes the name as from yisra to prevail over or to struggle/wrestle with, and el, God, the divine. The name Israel first appears in non-biblical sources c.1209 BCE, the inscription is very brief and says simply, Israel is laid waste and his seed is not. The inscription refers to a people, not to an individual or a nation-state, in modern Hebrew, bnei yisrael can denote the Jewish people at any time in history, it is typically used to emphasize Jewish religious identity. From the period of the Mishna the term Yisrael acquired a narrower meaning of Jews of legitimate birth other than Levites. In modern Hebrew this contrasts with the term Yisraeli, a citizen of the modern State of Israel, the term Hebrew has Eber as an eponymous ancestor. It is used synonymously with Israelites, or as a term for historical speakers of the Hebrew language in general. Today, Jews and Samaritans both recognize each other as communities with an authentic Israelite origin, the terms Jews and Samaritans largely replaced the title Children of Israel as the commonly used ethnonym for each respective community. The name Yahweh, the god of the later Israelites, may indicate connections with the region of Mount Seir in Edom, the Canaanites were also the first people, as far as is known, to have used an alphabet
19.
Book of Genesis
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The Book of Genesis is the first book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament. The basic narrative expresses the theme, God creates the world and appoints man as his regent. The new post-Flood world is also corrupt, God does not destroy it, instead calling one man, Abraham, to be the seed of its salvation. At Gods command Abraham descends from his home into the land of Canaan, given to him by God, Genesis ends with Israel in Egypt, ready for the coming of Moses and the Exodus. The narrative is punctuated by a series of covenants with God, the books author or authors appear to have structured it around ten toledot sections, but modern commentators see it in terms of a primeval history followed by the cycle of Patriarchal stories. In Judaism, the importance of Genesis centers on the covenants linking God to his chosen people. It is not clear, however, what this meant to the original authors, while the first is far shorter than the second, it sets out the basic themes and provides an interpretive key for understanding the entire book. The primeval history has a symmetrical structure hinging on chapters 6–9, God creates the world in six days and consecrates the seventh as a day of rest. God creates the first humans Adam and Eve and all the animals in the Garden of Eden but instructs them not to eat the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil. A talking serpent portrayed as a creature or trickster, entices Eve into eating it anyway. Eve bears two sons, Cain and Abel, Cain kills Abel after God accepts Abels offering but not Cains. Eve bears another son, Seth, to take Abels place, after many generations of Adam have passed from the lines of Cain and Seth, the world becomes corrupted by the sin of man and Nephilim, and God determines to wipe out mankind. First, he instructs the righteous Noah and his family to build a huge boat, then God sends a great flood to wipe out the rest of the world. When the waters recede, God promises that he not destroy the world a second time with water with the rainbow as the symbol of his promise. But upon seeing mankind cooperating to build a great tower city, God instructs Abram to travel from his home in Mesopotamia to the land of Canaan. Abrams name is changed to Abraham and that of his wife Sarai to Sarah, because Sarah is old, she tells Abraham to take her Egyptian handmaiden, Hagar, as a second wife. God resolves to destroy the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah for the sins of their people, Abraham protests and gets God to agree not to destroy the cities if 10 righteous men can be found. Angels save Abrahams nephew Lot and his family, but his wife back on the destruction against their command and is turned into a pillar of salt
20.
Covenant (biblical)
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A biblical covenant is a religious covenant that is described in the Bible. All Abrahamic religions consider biblical covenants important, in the Book of Jeremiah, verses 31, 30-33 predict a new covenant that God will establish with the house of Israel. In the ancient middle east, a covenant was an agreement that caused several things,1. First, a covenant defined a relationship and this relationship might be between a king and his vassal states, between a deity and his nation, between two humans, etc.2. Some covenants are conditional, just as with a present-day contract, but generally, ancient covenants are unconditional. Covenants often included the slaughter of animals as a symbol of their significance, unlike present-day contracts, covenants often carried no expiration date. Thus the parties were understood to be bound by the covenant until death, a contract is enforced by the civil government, a covenant is regulated by God. A contract involves the exchange of property or actions, a covenant binds two parties together personally, students of the Bible hold wildly differing opinions as to how many major covenants exist between God and humanity, with numbers ranging from one to at least twelve. The Noahic covenant applies to all of humanity and to all living creatures. The covenant found in Genesis 12-17 is known as the Brit bein HaBetarim, the Covenant Between the Parts in Hebrew, the covenant was for Abraham and his seed, or offspring, both of natural birth and adoption. In Genesis chapters 12–17 three covenants can be distinguished based on the differing Jahwist, Elohist and Priestly sources, in Genesis 12 and 15, God grants Abraham land and a multitude of descendants but does not place any stipulations on Abraham for the covenants fulfillment. By contrast, Genesis 17 contains the covenant of circumcision, to give Abrahams descendants all the land from the river of Egypt to the Euphrates. Later, this came to be referred to as the Promised Land or the Land of Israel. To make Abraham the father of many nations and of many descendants, circumcision is to be the permanent sign of this everlasting covenant with Abraham and his male descendants and is known as the brit milah. Covenants in biblical times were often sealed by severing an animal, in Hebrew, the verb meaning to seal a covenant translates literally as to cut. It is presumed by Jewish scholars that the removal of the foreskin symbolically represents such a sealing of the covenant, according to Weinfeld, the Abraham covenant represents a covenant of grant, which binds the suzerain. It is the obligation of the master to his servant and involves gifts given to individuals who were serving their masters. In the covenant with Abraham in Genesis 15, it is God who is the suzerain who commits himself, in the covenant there are procedures of taking the oath, which involve a smoking oven and a blazing torch
21.
Handmaiden
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A handmaiden, handmaid or maidservant is a personal maid or female servant, or someone whose primary role is to serve or assist. The term is not commonly used nowadays, the terms maid or domestic worker being more commonly used, in each of these cases, the mistress gave their handmaid to their husbands to wife, to bear his seed. The use in the Torah of the prefix to, as in gave to wife, the text repeats that these people remain handmaids of their mistress though they are also the mistresss husbands concubine. The Handmaids Tale The Handmaids Tale The Handmaiden, a 2016 South Korean film directed by Park Chan-wook
22.
Reuben (son of Jacob)
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According to the Book of Genesis, Reuben or Reuven was the eldest son of Jacob with Leah. He was the founder of the Israelite Tribe of Reuben, in the Torah, Reuben is briefly described as having had sexual activity with Bilhah, his step-mothers maid and fathers concubine. On his deathbed, Jacob declares that Reuben will no longer excel, for you went up onto your fathers bed, onto my couch and defiled it. The classical sources go on to state that in honour of this voluntary penance and confession, God gave the tribe of Reuben Hosea as a member, and Reuben was given a reward in the future world. The rabbinical sources argue that the first cities of refuge were located in the territory of the tribe of Reuben, classical rabbinical sources argue that Reuben was born on 14 Kislev, and died at the age of 125. The midrashic Book of Jasher argues that when he died, Reubens body was placed in a coffin, and was taken back to Israel. According to Genesis 46,9, Reuben had four sons, Hanoch, Pallu, Hezron, the name of his wife/wives are not given. According to Joshua 15,6, a stone of Bohan, according to the Book of Jasher, Chapter 45, Reubens wife was Eliuram the daughter of Avi the Canaanite
23.
Simeon (son of Jacob)
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According to the Book of Genesis, Simeon was, the second son of Jacob and Leah, and the founder of the Israelite Tribe of Simeon. However, some Biblical scholars view this as postdiction, an eponymous metaphor providing an etiology of the connectedness of the tribe to others in the Israelite confederation, in the Torahs account of the rape of Dinah, wherein Dinah was raped by a Canaanite named Shechem. Simeon and his brother Levi took violent revenge against the inhabitants of the city by tricking them into circumcising themselves, the account dramatizes the theme of tension between marriage within a group and marriage with outsiders. Jacob castigates Simeon for this as their actions have placed the family in danger of a strike by their neighbors. Later, in his blessing, he condemns Simeons descendants to become divided and scattered. The Jahwists account is viewed as a slight against the sanctuary. The midrashic book of Jasher, argues that it was Simeon who deceived Hamor by insisting that the men of Shechem would need to be circumcised. According to the sources, Simeon suffered divine punishment for this inhumanity, with his right hand withered, but this caused Simeon to repent. In the biblical Joseph narrative, when Joseph, having settled in Egypt, asks his brothers to bring Benjamin to him, he takes Simeon hostage to ensure that they return. Another theory was that Joseph singled out Simeon due to his taking a prominent role in Josephs betrayal, the text states that Simeon was eventually subdued by Manasseh, and imprisoned. The Testament of Simeon, on the hand, declares that Simeon acknowledged that it was just for him to be imprisoned, given his earlier mistreatment of Joseph. According to the Book of Jubilees, Simeon was born on 21 Tevet, jemuel Jamin Ohad Jachin Zohar Shaul Tribe of Simeon Simeon in rabbinic literature
24.
Levi
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Levi was, according to the Book of Genesis, the third son of Jacob and Leah, and the founder of the Israelite Tribe of Levi. Certain religious and political functions were reserved for the Levites and these scholars suspect that it may simply mean priest, either as a loan word from the Minaean lawiu, meaning priest, or by referring to those people who were joined to the ark of the covenant. In the Book of Jubilees 28, 14-15, it says that Levi was born in the new moon of the first month which means that he was born on 1 Nissan, in the narratives found in the Book of Genesis, Levi’s youth is marked by impetuosity. He and his brother, Simeon, exterminate the city of Shechem in revenge for the rape of Dinah, seizing the wealth of the city and killing the men. The brothers had earlier misled the inhabitants of Shechem by consenting to Dinahs rapist marrying her, in the Blessing of Jacob, Jacob is described as imposing a curse on the Levites, by which they would be scattered, in punishment for Levis actions in Shechem. Nevertheless, Isaac, Levis grandfather, give a special blessing about the lineage of priest of God, in the Book of Genesis, Levi is described as having fathered three sons—Gershon, Kohath, and Merari. The Masoretic Texts version of Levis genealogy thus implies that Levi also had a daughter, the names of Levis sons, and possible daughter, are interpreted in classical rabbinical literature as being reflections on their future destiny. In some apocryphal texts such as the Testament of Levi, and the Book of Jubilees, Levis wife, his childrens mother, is named as Milkah, a daughter of Aram. Some scholars attribute the genealogy to a hypothetical Book of Generations, some Biblical scholars suspect that the Elohist account offers both matrilinial and patrilinial descent from Levites in order to magnify the religious credentials of Moses. In accordance with his role as founder of the Levites, Levi is referred to as being particularly pious, in the Testament of Levi, Levi is described as having had two visions. The first vision covered eschatological issues, portraying the seven heavens, the Jewish Messiah, and Judgement Day. According to some scholars this is to be expected, since the Testament of Levi is believed to have been written during Maccabean rule. Levite Miscegenation Testament of Levi Tribe of Levi “The Tribe, The Cohen-Levi Family Heritage”
25.
Judah (son of Jacob)
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Judah was, according to the Book of Genesis, the fourth son of Jacob and Leah, the founder of the Israelite Tribe of Judah. By extension, he is indirectly eponymous of the Kingdom of Judah, the land of Judea, according to the narrative in Genesis, Judah with Tamar is the patrilinear ancestor of the Davidic line. The Hebrew name for Judah, Yehudah, literally thanksgiving or praise, is the form of the root Y-D-H. His birth is recorded at Gen.29,35, upon his birth, Leah exclaims, This time I will praise the LORD, with the Hebrew word for I will praise, odeh sharing the same root as Yehudah. Judah is the son of the patriarch Jacob and his first wife, Leah, his full brothers are Reuben, Simeon and Levi. It is Judah who spots a caravan of Ishmaelites coming towards them, on its way to Egypt, Judah marries the daughter of Shua, a Canaanite. Genesis chapter 38 Judah and his wife have three children, Er, Onan, and Shelah, Er marries Tamar, but God kills him because he was wicked in the sight of the Lord. Tamar becomes Onans wife in accordance with custom, but he too is killed after he refuses to father children for his older brothers childless widow, and spills his seed instead. Although Tamar should have married Shelah, the brother, Judah did not consent. When Judah discovers that Tamar is pregnant he prepares to have her killed, meanwhile, Joseph rises to a position of power in Egypt. Twenty years after being betrayed, he meets his brothers again without them recognizing him, the youngest brother, Benjamin, had remained in Canaan with Jacob, so Joseph takes Simeon hostage and insists that the brothers return with Benjamin. Judah offers himself to Jacob as surety for Benjamins safety, when the brothers return, Joseph tests them by demanding the enslavement of Benjamin. Judah pleads for Benjamins life, and Joseph reveals his true identity, literary critics have focused on the relationship between the Judah story in chapter 38, and the Joseph story in chapters 37 and 39. Victor Hamilton notes some “intentional literary parallels” between the chapters, such as the exhortation to “identify”. J. A. Similarly, J. P. Fokkelman notes that the attention for Judah in chapter 38. The eternal legacy of these events are foreshadowed in the blessing of Jacob. When Judah suddenly faced the world on its own, it needed a defining and motivating text. Emerton notes that it is “widely agreed” that the story of Judah and Tamar “reflects a period after the settlement of the Israelites in Canaan. ”He also suggests the possibility that it contains “aetiological motifs concerned with the ancestors of the clans of Judah. ”However
26.
Dan (son of Jacob)
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According to the Book of Genesis, Dan was the fifth son of Jacob with Bilhah. He was the founder of the Israelite Tribe of Dan, in the biblical account, Dans mother is described as Rachels handmaid, who becomes one of Jacobs wives. According to the Book of Jubilees, Dan was born on 9 of 1915 and he is also Reys stepson, Elul. He was the father of Hushim, according to Gen 46,23, samson was a descendant of Dan. The text of the Torah explains that the name of Dan derives from dananni, meaning he has judged me, john the apostle omits the tribe of Dan when mentioning the twelve tribes of the sons of Israel, in regard to the 144,000 sealed Israelites. Perhaps this is a testimony of the unworthiness of Dan, instead of Dan, the tribe of Joseph appears twice
27.
Naphtali
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According to the Book of Genesis, Naphtali was the sixth son of Jacob and second son with Bilhah. He was the founder of the Israelite Tribe of Naphtali, however, some Biblical scholars view this as postdiction, an eponymous metaphor providing an aetiology of the connectedness of the tribe to others in the Israelite confederation. The biblical account shows Bilhahs status as a change to an actual wife of Jacob. According to the Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, Naphtali was a runner, though this appears to have been inferred from the Blessing of Jacob. Naphtali is listed in Deuteronomy 34.2 when God takes Moses up to the mountain of Nebo and shows him the extent of the land which he had promised to Abraham, Isaac, see article on Tribe of Simeon for a map of the twelve tribes of Israel. According to Genesis 46,24, Naphtali had four sons, Jahzeel, Guni, Jezer, the name of his wife/wives are not given. He and his family migrated to Egypt, with the rest of the clan, according to the apocryphal Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, he died at 137 and was buried in Egypt. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Easton
28.
Gad (son of Jacob)
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Gad was, according to the Book of Genesis, the first son of Jacob and Zilpah, the seventh of Jacob overall, and the founder of the Israelite Tribe of Gad. However some Biblical scholars view this as postdiction, an eponymous metaphor providing an aetiology of the connectedness of the tribe to others in the Israelite confederation, the text of the Book of Genesis implies that the name of Gad means luck/fortunate, in Hebrew. Classical rabbinical literature argues that the name was a reference to the manna. The Biblical account shows Zilpahs status as a change to an actual wife of Jacob. Gad by this theory is assumed to have originally been a nomadic tribe. According to classical literature, Gad was born on 10 Cheshvan. The Book of Jasher states that Gad married Uzith, Uzith was the daughter of Amuram, the granddaughter of Uz and the great-grandson of Nahor. Tribe of Gad Gad Testament of Gad
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Asher
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Asher, in the Book of Genesis, is the second son of Jacob and Zilpah, and the founder of the Tribe of Asher. Asher played a role in selling his brother Joseph into slavery, Asher and his four sons and daughter settled in Canaan. On his deathbed, Jacob blesses Asher by saying that his bread shall be fat, Asher was the eighth son of the patriarch Jacob and the traditional progenitor of the tribe Asher. However, some Biblical scholars view this as postdiction, an eponymous metaphor providing an aetiology of the connectedness of the tribe to others in the Israelite confederation, Asher is represented as the younger brother of Gad, these two being the sons of Zilpah, the handmaid of Leah. The Biblical account shows Zilpahs status as a change to an actual wife of Jacob. Ashers daughter, Serah, is the granddaughter of Jacob mentioned in the Torah. Ashers sons were, Jimnah, Ishuah, Isui, and Beriah and he was the very one whose endeavor it had always been to reconcile the brothers, especially when they disputed as to who among them was destined to be the ancestor of the priests. Asher,5, Asher is regarded as the example of a man who with singlemindedness strives only for the general good. Asher was born on 20 Shevat 2199, according to some accounts 2nd of Shevat is also the date of his death. His first wife was Adon, a great-granddaughter of Ishmael, his second, Hadurah, a granddaughter of Eber and a widow. By her first marriage Hadurah had a daughter Serah, whom Asher treated as affectionately as if she had been of his own flesh and blood, according to the Book of Jubilees, Ashers wife was named Iyon. Ashers descendants in more than one regard deserved their name, the tribe of Asher was the one most blessed with male children, and its women were so beautiful that priests and princes sought them in marriage. The Asherites were also renowned for wisdom
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Issachar
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Issachar/Yissachar was, according to the Book of Exodus, a son of Jacob and Leah, and the founder of the Israelite Tribe of Issachar. However, some Biblical scholars view this as an eponymous metaphor providing an aetiology of the connectedness of the tribe to others in the Israelite confederation. The first derives it from ish sakar, meaning man of hire, the second derives it from yesh sakar, meaning there is a reward, in reference to Leahs opinion that the birth of Issachar was a divine reward for giving her handmaid Zilpah to Jacob as a concubine. The second consonant of Yissachar was originally the shin of ish, the third consonant is the sin of sakar or sakir. The shin has merged into the sin, creating the pronunciation Yissachar, some customs pronounce both the second and third consonants as sin and read the name as Yissas’char, either on all or some occasions. In classical rabbinical literature, it is stated that Issachar was born on the fourth of Av, a minor Jewish character in Voltaires Candide goes by the name Don Issachar. A song by the Mighty Mighty Bosstones album Dont Know How to Party is called Issachar, Tribe of Issachar Sea Peoples Book of Chronicles Judaism 101, A Glossary of Basic Jewish Terms and Concepts, Yissachar Issachar at Chabad. org
31.
Zebulun
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Zebulun was, according to the Books of Genesis and Numbers, the sixth and last son of Jacob and Leah, and the founder of the Israelite Tribe of Zebulun. Some biblical scholars believe this to be an eponymous metaphor providing an aetiology of the connectedness of the tribe to others in the Israelite confederation. With Leah as a matriarch, biblical scholars believe the tribe to have been regarded by the authors as a part of the original Israelite confederation. The name is derived from the Northwest Semitic root zbl, common in 2nd millennium BC Ugaritic texts as an epithet of the god Baal, as well as in Phoenician and in Biblical Hebrew in personal names. The Torah states that Zebulun had three sons – Sered, Elon, and Jahleel – each the eponymous founder of a clan, beyond this, there is little other reference to Zebulun. The Tomb of Zebulun is located in Sidon, Lebanon, in the past, towards the end of Iyyar, Jews from the most distant parts of Palestine would make a pilgrimage to this tomb. Some believe the village of Sabalan in the District of Safad was named after Zebulun
32.
Joseph (Genesis)
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Joseph is an important figure in the Bibles Book of Genesis and also in the Quran as well as the Book of Mormon. In Rabbinic tradition Joseph is considered the ancestor of another Messiah called Mashiach ben Yosef and he will wage war against the evil forces alongside Mashiach ben David and die in combat with the enemies of God and Israel. Joseph, son of Jacob and Rachel, lived in the land of Canaan with ten half-brothers, one full brother and he was Rachels firstborn and Jacobs eleventh son. Of all the sons, Joseph was preferred by his father, when Joseph was seventeen years old he had two dreams that made his brothers plot his demise. In the first dream, Joseph and his brothers gathered bundles of grain, in the second dream, the sun, the moon, and eleven stars bowed to Joseph himself. These dreams, implying his supremacy, angered his brothers, unaware of this secondary intention, the others obeyed his first. Upon imprisoning Joseph, the brothers saw a caravan carrying spices and perfumes to Egypt. Thereafter the guilty brothers painted goats blood on Josephs coat and showed it to Jacob, ultimately, Joseph was sold to Potiphar, the captain of Pharaohs guard. Later, Joseph became Potiphars personal servant, and subsequently his households superintendent, here, Potiphars wife Zuleika tried to seduce Joseph, which he refused. Angered by his running away from her, she made an accusation of rape. Joseph requested the cup-bearer to mention him to Pharaoh and secure his release from prison, after two more years, the Pharaoh dreamt of seven lean cows which devoured seven fat cows, and of seven withered ears of grain which devoured seven fat ears. When the Pharaohs advisers failed to interpret dreams, the cup-bearer remembered Joseph. He interpreted the dream as seven years of abundance followed by seven years of famine, following the prediction, Joseph became Vizier, under the name of Zaphnath-Paaneah, and was given Asenath, the daughter of Potipherah, priest of On, to be his wife. During the seven years of abundance, Joseph ensured that the storehouses were full, in the sixth year, Asenath bore two children to Joseph, Manasseh and Ephraim. When the famine came, it was so severe that people from surrounding nations came to Egypt to buy bread, the narrative also indicates that they went straight to Joseph or were directed to him, even by the Pharaoh himself. This mandate lasted until the days of Moses, in the second year of famine, Josephs half brothers were sent to Egypt to buy goods. After questioning them, he accused them of being spies, after they mentioned a younger brother at home, the Vizier demanded that he be brought to Egypt as a demonstration of their veracity. This was Josephs full brother, Benjamin, Joseph placed his brothers in prison for three days
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Benjamin
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Benjamin was the last-born of Jacobs thirteen children, and the second and last son of Rachel in Jewish, Christian and Islamic tradition. He was the progenitor of the Israelite Tribe of Benjamin, in the Hebrew Bible unlike Rachels first son, Joseph, Benjamin was born in Canaan. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, Benjamins name appears as Binyaamem, in the Quran, Benjamin is referred to as righteous young child, who remained with Jacob when the older brothers plotted against Joseph. Later rabbinic traditions name him as one of four ancient Israelites who died without sin, textual scholars regard these two names as fragments of naming narratives coming from different sources - one being the Jahwist and the other being the Elohist. The etymology of the name interpreted as son of the right side, being associated with the right hand side was traditionally a reference to strength and virtue. This is, however, not the literal translation, as the root for right is identical to that for south. This meaning is advocated by several classical sources, which argue that it refers to the birth of Benjamin in Canaan. Inside the Samaritan Pentateuch, the name is written as בן ימים, with a terminal mem, making it Benjamim. Some classical rabbinical literature argues that this was the form of the name and was a reference to the advanced age of Jacob when Benjamin was born. According to classical sources, Benjamin was only born after Rachel had fasted for a long time. By then Jacob had become over 100 years old, Benjamin is treated as a young child in most of the Biblical narrative, but at one point is abruptly described as the father of ten sons. The narrative goes on to state that when Judah begged Joseph not to enslave Benjamin and instead enslave him and this caused Joseph to recant and reveal his identity. However, some classical rabbinical sources argue that Joseph identified himself for other reasons, the Quran, in the narrative of Joseph, refers to Benjamin as the righteous youngest son of Jacob. Biblical scholars regard it as obvious, from their geographic overlap and their treatment in older passages, that originally Ephraim and Manasseh were considered one tribe, that of Joseph. According to several scholars, Benjamin was also originally part of this single tribe. According to Genesis 46,21, Benjamin had ten sons, Bela, Becher, Ashbel, Gera, Naaman, Ehi, Rosh, Muppim, Huppim, the name of his wife/wives are not given. Material on the tribe, its territory, Rabbinical tradition and Islam
34.
Abilene Christian University
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Abilene Christian University is a private, non-profit university in Abilene, Texas, affiliated with Churches of Christ. ACU was founded in 1906, as Childers Classical Institute, Abilene Christian Universitys fall 2014 enrollment was 4,427 students of which 777 were graduate students. Abilene Christian University grew from an idea held by A. B. Barret, the Churches of Christ in Abilene agreed to back the project. J. W. Childers sold Barret land and a house west of the town. Childers Classical Institute opened in the fall of 1906, with 25 students and it initially included a lower school starting in the seventh grade. When Jesse P. Sewell became president of the institute in 1912, in 1920, the school paid the Childers family $4,000 and formally changed the name. The Optimist, the universitys student-produced newspaper, was founded in 1912, the Prickly Pear, the school yearbook, was founded in 1916. The JMC Network, a student media operation, was created in 2008 to produce all student-led news media. The campus literary-arts magazine has been in production since 1933, in 1927, with the help of a $75,000 contribution from the city of Abilene, the board of trustees purchased 680 acres northeast of Abilene. In addition, residents donated 75 acres of adjoining land, the new campus opened in the fall of 1929. From the time of its founding to the present, the university has been governed by a board of trustees made up of members of the Churches of Christ. Abilene Christian University has historically been the largest organization in the United States that has set aside each class day for chapel. Chapel attendance is required, absent an approved exemption, and those failing to meet the requirement over a period of more than one semester may be subject to suspension. Abilene Christian College first received accreditation in 1971 when it became an accredited member of the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges. Amberton University, previously Amber University, was created as a campus of Abilene Christian University. It was launched in Mesquite, Texas in 1971, moving to Garland and it became a separate institution as Amber University in 1982, and was rechristened Amberton University in 2001. Like Abilene Christian University, Amberton remains affiliated with the Churches of Christ, on February 22,1976, the name was changed to Abilene Christian University. The university celebrated its centennial in the 2005–06 school year, in July 2015, the university signed a lease for an expansion campus located in Addison, Texas
35.
Nearer, My God, to Thee
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Nearer, My God, to Thee is a 19th-century Christian hymn by Sarah Flower Adams, which retells the story of Jacobs dream. Genesis 28, 11–12 can be translated as follows, So he came to a place and stayed there all night. And he took one of the stones of that place and put it at his head, and he lay down in that place to sleep. Then he dreamed, and behold, a ladder was set up on the earth, and its top reached to heaven, the hymn is well known, among other uses, as the alleged last song the band on RMS Titanic played before the ship sank. The lyrics to the hymn are as follows, Nearer, my God, to Thee, nearer to Thee. Een though it be a cross that raiseth me, Still all my song shall be nearer, my God, to Thee, Chorus, Nearer, my God, to Thee, nearer to Thee. Though like the wanderer, the sun gone down, Darkness be over me, my rest a stone, Yet in my dreams Id be nearer, my God, to Thee, Nearer, etc. There let the way appear steps unto heavn, All that Thou sendest me in mercy givn, Angels to beckon me nearer, my God, to Thee, Nearer, etc. Then with my waking thoughts bright with Thy praise, Out of my stony griefs Bethel Ill raise, So by my woes to be nearer, my God, to Thee, Nearer, etc. Or if on joyful wing, cleaving the sky, Sun, moon, the verse was written by the English poet and Unitarian hymn writer Sarah Flower Adams at her home in Sunnybank, Loughton, Essex, England, in 1841. It was first set to music by Adamss sister, the composer Eliza Flower, for William Johnson Foxs collection Hymns and Anthems. In the United Kingdom, the hymn is usually associated with the 1861 hymn tune Horbury by John Bacchus Dykes, named for a village near Wakefield, England, in the rest of the world, the hymn is usually sung to the 1856 tune Bethany by Lowell Mason. British Methodists prefer the tune Propior Deo, written by Arthur Sullivan in 1872, Sullivan wrote a second setting of the hymn to a tune referred to as St. Edmund. Masons tune has also penetrated the British repertoire, Hymns Ancient and Modern included Horbury and Communion, although later versions, including Common Praise, standardise on Horbury. In 1955, the English composer and musicologist Sir Jack Westrup composed a setting in the form of an anthem for four soloists with organ accompaniment. Nearer, My God, to Thee is associated with the sinking of the RMS Titanic, wallace Hartley, the ships band leader, who went down with the ship, liked the hymn and had wished to have it performed at his funeral. As a Methodist Briton, he was familiar with both the Horbury and Propior Deo versions but would not likely have used Bethany and his father, a Methodist choirmaster, used the Propior Deo version at church. His family were certain that he would have used the Propior Deo version, and it is this tunes opening notes that appear on Hartleys memorial and that were played at his funeral
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Spiritual (music)
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Spirituals are generally Christian songs that were created by African slaves in the United States. Spirituals were originally a tradition that imparted Christian values while also describing the hardships of slavery. Although spirituals were originally unaccompanied monophonic songs, they are best known today in harmonized choral arrangements and this historic group of uniquely American songs is now recognized as a distinct genre of music. Slave Songs of the United States, the first major collection of Negro spirituals, was published in 1867 and they are a result of the interaction of music and religion from Africa with music and religion of European origin. Further, this occurred only in the United States. Africans who converted to Christianity in other parts of the world, even in the Caribbean and Latin America, Negro spirituals were primarily expressions of religious faith. Some may also have served as socio-political protests veiled as assimilation to white American culture and they originated among enslaved Africans in the United States. Slavery was introduced to the British colonies in the early 17th century, in the United States, these people would remain in bondage for the entire 18th century and much of the 19th century. Most were not fully emancipated until the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution in 1865, Slaves were forbidden from speaking their native languages, and were generally converted to Christianity. With narrow vocabularies, slaves would use the words they did know to translate biblical information, while some slave owners believed that Christian slaves would be more docile, others came to feel that stories of Moses leading the Israelites out of bondage were counterproductive. Forced conversion only worked to a point since church attendance might be required, some slaves became Christians voluntarily, either because it helped them endure hardships or because membership may have offered other benefits. Many of the Slaves turned towards the Baptist or Methodist churches, in some places enslaved Africans were permitted, or even encouraged, to hold their own prayer meetings. During these meetings, worshipers would sing, chant, dance, along with spirituals, shouts also emerged in the Praise Houses. Shouts begin slowly with the shuffling of feet and clapping of hands, drums were used as they had been in Africa, for communication. When the connection between drumming, communication, and resistance was eventually made drums were forbidden. Slaves introduced a number of new instruments to America, the bones, body percussion, and an instrument variously called the bania, banju, or banjar and they drew on native rhythms and their African heritage. They brought with them from Africa long-standing religious traditions that highlighted the importance of storytelling, Music was an essential element in communicating identity, shared social mores, traditional customs, and ethnic history. The primary function of the spirituals was as communal songs sung in a religious gathering, Negro spirituals may also have served as socio-political protests veiled as assimilation to the white American culture
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Ancient Egypt
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Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. It is one of six civilizations to arise independently, Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh Narmer. In the aftermath of Alexander the Greats death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter and this Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province. The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture, the predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world and its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries. The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history, nomadic modern human hunter-gatherers began living in the Nile valley through the end of the Middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago. By the late Paleolithic period, the climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry. In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian climate was less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates, foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the Nile region supported large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first domesticated. The largest of these cultures in upper Egypt was the Badari, which probably originated in the Western Desert, it was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools. The Badari was followed by the Amratian and Gerzeh cultures, which brought a number of technological improvements, as early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes. In Naqada II times, early evidence exists of contact with the Near East, particularly Canaan, establishing a power center at Hierakonpolis, and later at Abydos, Naqada III leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile. They also traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the desert to the west. Royal Nubian burials at Qustul produced artifacts bearing the oldest-known examples of Egyptian dynastic symbols, such as the crown of Egypt. They also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language. The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian-Akkadian civilisation of Mesopotamia, the third-century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today
38.
Viceroy
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A viceroy /ˈvaɪs. rɔɪ/ is a regal official who runs a country, colony, city, province, or sub-national state, in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning in the place of, a viceroys territory may be called a viceroyalty, though this term is not always applied. The adjectival form is viceregal, less often viceroyal, the term vicereine is sometimes used to indicate a female viceroy suo jure, although viceroy can serve as a gender-neutral term. Vicereine is more used to indicate a viceroys wife. The title was used by the Crown of Aragon, where beginning in the 14th century, it referred to the Spanish governors of Sardinia. In Europe, until the 18th century, the Habsburg crown appointed viceroys of Aragon, Valencia, Catalonia, Navarre, Portugal, Sardinia, Sicily, with the ascension of the House of Bourbon to the Spanish throne, the historic Aragonese viceroyalties were replaced by new captaincies general. At the end of War of the Spanish Succession, the Spanish monarchy was shorn of its Italian possessions and these Italian territories, however, continued to have viceroys under their new rulers for some time, Sardinia would have a viceroy until 1848. These large administrative territories became known as Viceroyalties, New viceroyalties were created for New Granada in 1717 and the Río de la Plata in 1776. These units gathered the local provinces which could be governed by either a crown official, audiencias primarily functioned as superior judicial tribunals, but unlike their European counterparts, the New World audiencias were granted by law both administrative and legislative powers. The Bourbon Reforms introduced the new office of the intendant, which was appointed directly by the crown and had broad fiscal and administrative powers in political and military issues. The government started six years after the discovery of sea route to India by Vasco da Gama, in 1505, however the post was centered by governor Afonso de Albuquerque, who became plenipotentiary, and remained so. The duration in office was three years, possibly longer, given the power represented, of the thirty-four governors of India in the 16th century. After the end of the Iberian Union in 1640, the governors of Brazil that were members of the Portuguese high nobility started to use the title of Viceroy. Brazil became a permanent Viceroyalty in 1763, when the capital of the State of Brazil was transferred from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro, the designation Viceroy, although it was most frequently used in ordinary parlance, had no statutory authority, and was never employed by Parliament. The Governor-General continued to be the representative of the Crown. The viceroys reported directly to the Secretary of State for India in London and were advised by the Council of India, alongside the Commander-in-Chief, India, the viceroy was the public face of the British presence in India, attending to many ceremonial functions as well as political affairs. During the offices history, the Governors-General of India were based in two cities, Calcutta during the 19th century and New Delhi during the 20th century, additionally, whilst Calcutta was the capital of British India, the viceroys spent the summer months at Simla. The two historic residences of the viceroys still stand, the Viceroys House in New Delhi and Government House in Calcutta and they are used today as the official residences of the President of India and the Governor of West Bengal, respectively
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Cave of the Patriarchs
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According to tradition that has been associated with the Holy Books Torah, Bible and Quran, the cave and adjoining field were purchased by Abraham as a burial plot. The site of the Cave of the Patriarchs is located beneath a Saladin-era mosque, the only Jewish matriarch missing is Rachel, who is believed to be buried at Rachels Tomb near Bethlehem. The Arabic name of the complex reflects the prominence given to Abraham, revered by Muslims as a Quranic prophet, outside biblical and Quranic sources there are a number of legends and traditions associated with the cave. In Acts 7,16 of the Christian Bible the cave of the Patriarchs is located in Shechem, according to the Book of Genesis 23, 1–20, Sarah, the wife of Abraham, died in Kiryat-arba, the same is Hebron in the land of Canaan. Abraham the Hebrew was tending to business elsewhere when she died, at the age of 127 years, and he came to mourn for Sarah, and to weep for her. After a while, he stood up and spoke to the sons of Heth and requested they give him a possession as a burying place, and then in verse 7 he again stood up to speak to them. Abraham then requested that Ephron the Hittite, the son of Zohar, give him the cave of Machpelah, in the end of his field, for as much money as it is worth. After Ephron confirmed that he would give the cave, in verse 11, Abraham further requested that he give him the field for money, Ephron agreed and named a price. The burial of Sarah is the first account of a burial in the Bible, the title deed to the cave was part of the property of Abraham that passed to his son Isaac in Genesis 25, 5–6. Isaac was 180 years old when he died, and his sons Esau and Jacob buried him. As noted above, Isaac was 60 when they were born, so they were 120 years old here, Jacob died later at the age of 147 years. There they buried Abraham and Sarah his wife, there they buried Isaac and Rebekah his wife, the purchase of the field and of the cave that is therein was from the children of Heth. And when Jacob had made an end of commanding his sons, he gathered up his feet into the bed, and yielded up the ghost, and was gathered unto his people. In the final chapter of Genesis, Joseph had his physicians embalm his father, when Joseph died in the last verse, he was also embalmed. He was buried later in Shechem after the children of Israel came into the promised land. In Acts 7,16, Stephen claims that the cave of the Patriarchs is located in Shechem, herods building, with 6-foot-thick stone walls made from stones that were at least 3 feet tall and sometimes reach a length of 24 feet, did not have a roof. Archæologists are not certain where the entrance to the enclosure was located. Until the era of the Byzantine Empire, the interior of the enclosure remained exposed to the sky, under Byzantine rule, a simple basilica was constructed at the southeastern end and the enclosure was roofed everywhere except at the centre
40.
Hebrew Bible
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They are composed mainly in Biblical Hebrew, with some passages in Biblical Aramaic. The term does not comment upon the naming, numbering or ordering of books, the term Hebrew Bible is an attempt to provide specificity with respect to contents but avoid allusion to any particular interpretative tradition or theological school of thought. Hebrew Bible refers to the Jewish biblical canon, in its Latin form, Biblia Hebraica, it traditionally serves as a title for printed editions of the Masoretic Text. Many biblical studies scholars advocate use of the term Hebrew Bible as a substitute to terms with religious connotations. Hebrew Bible Old Testament without prescribing the use of either, however, he accepts that there is no reason why non-Christians should feel obliged to refer to these books as the Old Testament, apart from custom of use. Modern Christian formulations of this tension include Supersessionism, Covenant Theology, New Covenant Theology, Dispensationalism, in terms of canon, Christian usage of Old Testament does not refer to a universally agreed upon set of books but, rather, varies depending on denomination. The Hebrew Bible includes small portions in Aramaic, written and printed in Aramaic square-script, the books that constitute the Hebrew Bible developed over roughly a millennium. The oldest texts seem to come from the 11th or 10th centuries BCE and they are edited works, being collections of various sources intricately and carefully woven together. Since the 19th century, most biblical scholars have agreed that the Pentateuch consists of four sources which have been woven together and these four sources are J, D, E and P sources. They were combined to form the Pentateuch sometime in the 6th century BCE and this theory is now known as the documentary hypothesis, and has been the dominant theory for the past two hundred years. The Deuteronomist credited with the Pentateuchs book of Deuteronomy is also said to be the source of the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, several editions, all titled Biblia Hebraica, have been produced by various German publishers since 1906. Between 1906 and 1955, Rudolf Kittel published nine editions of it,1966, the Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft published the renamed Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia in six editions until 1997. Since 2004 the Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft has published the Biblia Hebraica Quinta, other projects include, Hebrew University Bible Project Hebrew Bible, A Critical Edition Biblical canon Books of the Bible Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible Torah Brueggemann, Walter. An introduction to the Old Testament, the canon and Christian imagination, the People of Ancient Israel, an introduction to Old Testament Literature, History, and Thought, Harper and Row,1974. Sinai and Zion, An Entry into the Jewish Bible, archived from the original on 14 March 2012. The Ancient Near East, Volume I, Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press. An abridgement of Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament Noth, how the Bible Became a Book. The Old Testament, A Literary History, hebrew-English Tanakh, the Jewish Bible Complete, fully vocalized, contilated, Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible, together with the classic English translation by the Jewish Publication Society
41.
Talmud
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The Talmud is a central text of Rabbinic Judaism. It is also referred to as Shas, a Hebrew abbreviation of shisha sedarim, the six orders. Talmud translates literally as instruction in Hebrew, and the term may refer to either the Gemara alone, or the Mishnah, the entire Talmud consists of 63 tractates, and in standard print is over 6,200 pages long. The Talmud is the basis for all codes of Jewish law, Rabbis expounded and debated the Torah and discussed the Tanakh without the benefit of written works, though some may have made private notes, for example of court decisions. It is during this period that rabbinic discourse began to be recorded in writing, the earliest recorded oral Torah may have been of the midrashic form, in which halakhic discussion is structured as exegetical commentary on the Pentateuch. But an alternative form, organized by subject matter instead of by biblical verse, became dominant about the year 200 CE, the Oral Torah was far from monolithic, rather, it varied among various schools. The most famous two were the School of Shammai and the School of Hillel, in general, all valid opinions, even the non-normative ones, were recorded in the Talmud. The oldest full manuscript of the Talmud, known as the Munich Talmud, each tractate is divided into chapters,517 in total, that are both numbered according to the Hebrew alphabet and given names, usually using the first one or two words in the first mishnah. A perek may continue over several pages, each perek will contain several mishnayot with their accompanying exchanges that form the building-blocks of the Gemara, the name for a passage of gemara is a sugya. A sugya, including baraita or tosefta, will comprise a detailed proof-based elaboration of a Mishnaic statement. A sugya may, and often does, range widely off the subject of the mishnah, in a given sugya, scriptural, Tannaic and Amoraic statements are cited to support the various opinions. In so doing, the Gemara will highlight semantic disagreements between Tannaim and Amoraim, and compare the Mishnaic views with passages from the Baraita. Rarely are debates formally closed, in instances, the final word determines the practical law. There is a literature on the procedural principles to be used in settling the practical law when disagreements exist, see under #Logic. The Mishnah is a compilation of legal opinions and debates, statements in the Mishnah are typically terse, recording brief opinions of the rabbis debating a subject, or recording only an unattributed ruling, apparently representing a consensus view. The rabbis recorded in the Mishnah are known as the Tannaim, the Mishnahs topical organization thus became the framework of the Talmud as a whole. But not every tractate in the Mishnah has a corresponding Gemara, also, the order of the tractates in the Talmud differs in some cases from that in the Mishnah. In addition to the Mishnah, other tannaitic teachings were current at about the time or shortly thereafter
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New Testament
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The New Testament is the second major part of the Christian biblical canon, the first part being the Old Testament, based on the Hebrew Bible. The New Testament discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christianity, Christians regard both the Old and New Testaments together as sacred scripture. The New Testament has frequently accompanied the spread of Christianity around the world and it reflects and serves as a source for Christian theology and morality. Both extended readings and phrases directly from the New Testament are also incorporated into the various Christian liturgies, the New Testament has influenced religious, philosophical, and political movements in Christendom and left an indelible mark on literature, art, and music. In almost all Christian traditions today, the New Testament consists of 27 books, John A. T. Robinson, Dan Wallace, and William F. Albright dated all the books of the New Testament before 70 AD. Others give a date of 80 AD, or at 96 AD. Over time, some disputed books, such as the Book of Revelation, other works earlier held to be Scripture, such as 1 Clement, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Diatessaron, were excluded from the New Testament. However, the canon of the New Testament, at least since Late Antiquity, has been almost universally recognized within Christianity. The term new testament, or new covenant first occurs in Jeremiah 31,31, the same Greek phrase for new covenant is found elsewhere in the New Testament. Modern English, like Latin, distinguishes testament and covenant as alternative translations, John Wycliffes 1395 version is a translation of the Latin Vulgate and so follows different terms in Jeremiah and Hebrews, Lo. Days shall come, saith the Lord, and I shall make a new covenant with the house of Israel, for he reproving him saith, Lo. Days come, saith the Lord, when I shall establish a new testament on the house of Israel, use of the term New Testament to describe a collection of first and second-century Christian Greek Scriptures can be traced back to Tertullian. In Against Marcion, written circa 208 AD, he writes of the Divine Word, by the 4th century, the existence—even if not the exact contents—of both an Old and New Testament had been established. Lactantius, a 3rd–4th century Christian author wrote in his early-4th-century Latin Institutiones Divinae and that which preceded the advent and passion of Christ—that is, the law and the prophets—is called the Old, but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The canon of the New Testament is the collection of books that most Christians regard as divinely inspired, several of these writings sought to extend, interpret, and apply apostolic teaching to meet the needs of Christians in a given locality. The book order is the same in the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, the Slavonic, Armenian and Ethiopian traditions have different New Testament book orders. Each of the four gospels in the New Testament narrates the life, death, the word gospel derives from the Old English gōd-spell, meaning good news or glad tidings. The gospel was considered the good news of the coming Kingdom of Messiah, and the redemption through the life and death of Jesus, Gospel is a calque of the Greek word εὐαγγέλιον, euangelion
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Quran
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The Quran is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God. It is widely regarded as the finest work in classical Arabic literature, the Quran is divided into chapters, which are then divided into verses. The word Quran occurs some 70 times in the text of the Quran, although different names, according to the traditional narrative, several companions of Muhammad served as scribes and were responsible for writing down the revelations. Shortly after Muhammads death, the Quran was compiled by his companions who wrote down and these codices had differences that motivated the Caliph Uthman to establish a standard version now known as Uthmans codex, which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, variant readings, with minor differences in meaning. The Quran assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Biblical scriptures and it summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events. The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance and it sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence. The Quran is used along with the hadith to interpret sharia law, during prayers, the Quran is recited only in Arabic. Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a hafiz, some Muslims read Quranic ayah with elocution, which is often called tajwid. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during tarawih prayers, in order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse, most Muslims rely on the tafsir. The word qurʼān appears about 70 times in the Quran itself and it is a verbal noun of the Arabic verb qaraʼa, meaning he read or he recited. The Syriac equivalent is qeryānā, which refers to reading or lesson. While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammads lifetime. An important meaning of the word is the act of reciting, as reflected in an early Quranic passage, It is for Us to collect it, in other verses, the word refers to an individual passage recited. Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example, So when al-qurʼān is recited, listen to it, the word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel. The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran, each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of qurʼān in certain contexts. Such terms include kitāb, āyah, and sūrah, the latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with an article, the word is referred to as the revelation
Ya‘aqōv (help·info), Tiberian Yā‘āqōḇ), later given the name Israel, is regarded as a Patriarch of the Israelites. According to the Book of Genesis, Jacob was the third Hebrew progenitor with whom God made a covenant, he is the son of Isaac and Rebecca, the grandson of Abraham, Sarah and Bethuel, the nephew of Ishmael, and the younger twin brother of Esau. Jacob had twelve sons and at least one daughter, by his two wives, Leah and Rachel, and by their handmaidens Bilhah and Zilpah.
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