1.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
2.
Harpsichord
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A harpsichord is a musical instrument played by means of a keyboard. It produces sound by plucking a string when a key is pressed, Harpsichord designates the whole family of similar plucked keyboard instruments, including the smaller virginals, muselar, and spinet. The harpsichord was used in Renaissance and Baroque music. During the late 18th century, it disappeared from the musical scene with the rise of the piano. In the 20th century, it made a resurgence, being used in historically informed performances of music, in compositions. Harpsichords vary in size and shape, but all have the basic functional arrangement. The player depresses a key that rocks over a pivot in the middle of its length, the other end of the key lifts a jack that holds a small plectrum, which plucks the string. When the player releases the key, the far end returns to its rest position, the plectrum, mounted on a tongue that can swivel backwards away from the string, passes the string without plucking it again. As the key reaches its rest position, a felt damper atop the jack stops the strings vibrations and these basic principles are explained in detail below. The keylever is a pivot, which rocks on a balance pin that passes through a hole drilled through the keylever. The jack is a thin, rectangular piece of wood that sits upright on the end of the keylever, the jacks are held in place by the registers. These are two strips of wood, which run in the gap between pinblock and bellyrail. The registers have rectangular mortises through which the pass as they can move up. The registers hold the jacks in the location needed to pluck the string. In the jack, a plectrum juts out almost horizontally and passes just under the string, historically, plectra were made of bird quill or leather, many modern harpsichords have plastic plectra. When the front of the key is pressed, the back of the key rises, the jack is lifted, the vertical motion of the jack is then stopped by the jackrail, which is covered with soft felt to muffle the impact. When the key is released, the falls back down under its own weight. This is made possible by having the plectrum held in a tongue attached with a pivot and a spring to the body of the jack
3.
Dancer
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Dance is a performance art form consisting of purposefully selected sequences of human movement. This movement has aesthetic and symbolic value, and is acknowledged as dance by performers and observers within a particular culture, Dance can be categorized and described by its choreography, by its repertoire of movements, or by its historical period or place of origin. Other forms of movement are sometimes said to have a dance-like quality, including martial arts, gymnastics, figure skating, synchronized swimming. Theatrical dance, also called performance or concert dance, is intended primarily as a spectacle and it often tells a story, perhaps using mime, costume and scenery, or else it may simply interpret the musical accompaniment, which is often specially composed. Examples are western ballet and modern dance, Classical Indian dance and Chinese and Japanese song, most classical forms are centred upon dance alone, but performance dance may also appear in opera and other forms of musical theatre. Such dance seldom has any narrative, a group dance and a corps de ballet, a social partner dance and a pas de deux, differ profoundly. Even a solo dance may be solely for the satisfaction of the dancer. On the other hand, some cultures lay down strict rules as to the dances in which, for example. Archeological evidence for early dance includes 9, 000-year-old paintings in India at the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka and it has been proposed that before the invention of written languages, dance was an important part of the oral and performance methods of passing stories down from generation to generation. The use of dance in trance states and healing rituals is thought to have been another early factor in the social development of dance. References to dance can be found in very early recorded history, Greek dance is referred to by Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch, the Bible and Talmud refer to many events related to dance, and contain over 30 different dance terms. In Chinese pottery as early as the Neolithic period, groups of people are depicted dancing in a line holding hands, Dance is further described in the Lüshi Chunqiu. Primitive dance in ancient China was associated with sorcery and shamanic rituals, during the first millennium BCE in India, many texts were composed which attempted to codify aspects of daily life. Bharata Munis Natyashastra is one of the earlier texts and it mainly deals with drama, in which dance plays an important part in Indian culture. It categorizes dance into four types - secular, ritual, abstract, the text elaborates various hand-gestures and classifies movements of the various limbs, steps and so on. A strong continuous tradition of dance has since continued in India, through to modern times, where it continues to play a role in culture, ritual, and, notably, the Bollywood entertainment industry. Many other contemporary dance forms can likewise be traced back to historical, traditional, ceremonial, Dance is generally, though not exclusively, performed with the accompaniment of music and may or may not be performed in time to such music. Some dance may provide its own audible accompaniment in place of music, many early forms of music and dance were created for each other and are frequently performed together
4.
Composer
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A composer is a person who creates or writes music, which can be vocal music, instrumental music or music which combines both instruments and voices. The core meaning of the term refers to individuals who have contributed to the tradition of Western classical music through creation of works expressed in written musical notation, many composers are also skilled performers, either as singers, instrumentalists, and/or conductors. Examples of composers who are well known for their ability as performers include J. S. Bach, Mozart. In many popular genres, such as rock and country. For a singer or instrumental performer, the process of deciding how to perform music that has previously composed and notated is termed interpretation. Different performers interpretations of the work of music can vary widely, in terms of the tempos that are chosen. Composers and songwriters who present their own music are interpreting, just as much as those who perform the music of others, although a musical composition often has a single author, this is not always the case. A piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or, in the 20th and 21st century, a culture eventually developed whereby faithfulness to the composers written intention came to be highly valued. This musical culture is almost certainly related to the esteem in which the leading classical composers are often held by performers. The movement might be considered a way of creating greater faithfulness to the original in works composed at a time that expected performers to improvise. In Classical music, the composer typically orchestrates her own compositions, in some cases, a pop songwriter may not use notation at all, and instead compose the song in her mind and then play or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written scores play in classical music. The level of distinction between composers and other musicians varies, which issues such as copyright and the deference given to individual interpretations of a particular piece of music. In the development of European classical music, the function of composing music initially did not have greater importance than that of performing it. The preservation of individual compositions did not receive attention and musicians generally had no qualms about modifying compositions for performance. In as much as the role of the composer in western art music has seen continued solidification, for instance, in certain contexts the line between composer and performer, sound designer, arranger, producer, and other roles, can be quite blurred. The term composer is often used to refer to composers of music, such as those found in classical, jazz or other forms of art. In popular and folk music, the composer is usually called a songwriter and this is distinct from a 19th-century conception of instrumental composition, where the work was represented solely by a musical score to be interpreted by performers
5.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
6.
Thomas Campion
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Thomas Campion was an English composer, poet, and physician. He wrote over a hundred songs, masques for dancing. Campion was born in London, the son of John Campion, a clerk of the Court of Chancery, upon the death of Campions father in 1576, his mother married Augustine Steward, dying soon afterwards. His stepfather assumed charge of the boy and sent him, in 1581, to study at Peterhouse, Cambridge as a gentleman pensioner and he later entered Grays Inn to study law in 1586. However, he left in 1595 without having called to the bar. On 10 February 1605, he received his degree from the University of Caen. Campion is thought to have lived in London, practising as a physician and he was apparently unmarried and had no children. He was buried the day at St Dunstan-in-the-West in Fleet Street. He was implicated in the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury, but was eventually exonerated, in 1595, Poemata, a collection of Latin panegyrics, elegies and epigrams was published, winning him a considerable reputation. This was followed, in 1601, by a songbook, A Booke of Ayres, with words by himself and music composed by himself, Campions theories on poetry were criticized by Samuel Daniel in Defence of Rhyme. If, moreover, as appears quite likely, his Two Bookes of Ayres belongs also to this year and it was included, with annotations by Christopher Sympson, in Playfords Brief Introduction to the Skill of Musick, and two editions appear to have been published by 1660. Some time in or after 1617 appeared his Third and Fourth Booke of Ayres, in 1619, he published his Epigrammatum Libri II. Umbra Elegiarum liber unus, a reprint of his 1595 collection with considerable omissions, additions and corrections, while Campion had attained a considerable reputation in his own day, in the years that followed his death his works sank into complete oblivion. No doubt this was due to the nature of the media in which he worked, the masque. The masque was an amusement at any time too costly to be popular, and during the commonwealth period it was practically extinguished. The vogue of the song-books was even more ephemeral, and, as in the case of the masque, the Puritan ascendancy, with its distaste for all secular music, effectively put an end to the madrigal. His rhymeless experiments are certainly better conceived than many others, but they lack the grace and freshness of his other poetry, while the whole scheme was, of course. Rarely are his rhythms uniform, while they frequently shift from line to line, in some of his sacred pieces, he is particularly successful, combining real poetry with genuine religious fervour
7.
Marin Mersenne
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Marin Mersenne, Marin Mersennus or le Père Mersenne was a French theologian, philosopher, mathematician and music theorist, often referred to as the father of acoustics. Mersenne, an ordained priest, had contacts in the scientific world and has been called the center of the world of science. Marin Mersenne was born of peasant parents near Oizé, Maine and he was educated at Le Mans and at the Jesuit College of La Flèche. On 17 July 1611, he joined the Minim Friars, and, after studying theology, between 1614 and 1618, he taught theology and philosophy at Nevers, but he returned to Paris and settled at the convent of LAnnonciade in 1620. There he studied mathematics and music and met with other kindred spirits such as René Descartes, Étienne Pascal, Pierre Petit, Gilles de Roberval and he corresponded with Giovanni Doni, Constantijn Huygens, Galileo Galilei, and other scholars in Italy, England and the Dutch Republic. He was a defender of Galileo, assisting him in translations of some of his mechanical works. For four years, Mersenne devoted himself entirely to philosophic and theological writing and it is sometimes incorrectly stated that he was a Jesuit. He was educated by Jesuits, but he never joined the Society of Jesus and he taught theology and philosophy at Nevers and Paris. He was not afraid to cause disputes among his friends in order to compare their views. In 1635 Mersenne met with Tommaso Campanella, but concluded that he could teach nothing in the sciences but still he has a good memory, Mersenne asked if René Descartes wanted Campanella to come to Holland to meet him, but Descartes declined. He visited Italy fifteen times, in 1640,1641 and 1645, in 1643–1644 Mersenne also corresponded with the German Socinian Marcin Ruar concerning the Copernican ideas of Pierre Gassendi, finding Ruar already a supporter of Gassendis position. Among his correspondents were Descartes, Galilei, Roberval, Pascal, Beeckman and he died September 1 through complications arising from a lung abscess. Some history scientists suggest he died for having drunk a huge quantity of water, along with Descartes. It was written as a commentary on the Book of Genesis, at first sight the book appears to be a collection of treatises on various miscellaneous topics. However Robert Lenoble has shown that the principle of unity in the work is a polemic against magical and divinatory arts, cabalism and he mentions Martin Del Rios Investigations into Magic and criticises Marsilio Ficino for claiming power for images and characters. He condemns astral magic and astrology and the anima mundi, a popular amongst Renaissance neo-platonists. Whilst allowing for an interpretation of the Cabala, he wholeheartedly condemned its magical application—particularly to angelology. He also criticises Pico della Mirandola, Cornelius Agrippa and Francesco Giorgio with Robert Fludd as his main target, Fludd responded with Sophia cum moria certamen, wherein Fludd admits his involvement with the Rosicrucians
8.
Counterpoint
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In music, counterpoint is the relationship between voices that are harmonically interdependent yet independent in rhythm and contour. It has been most commonly identified in the European classical tradition, strongly developing during the Renaissance and in much of the common practice period, the term originates from the Latin punctus contra punctum meaning point against point. Counterpoint generally involves musical lines with strongly independent identities, Counterpoint has been used to designate a voice or even an entire composition. In each era, contrapuntally organized music writing has been subject to rules—sometimes strict ones, chords are the simultaneous soundings of notes, whereas harmonic, vertical features are considered secondary and almost incidental when counterpoint is the predominant textural element. Counterpoint focuses on melodic interaction—only secondarily on the produced by that interaction. In the words of John Rahn, It is hard to write a beautiful song and it is harder to write several individually beautiful songs that, when sung simultaneously, sound as a more beautiful polyphonic whole. The way that is accomplished in detail is, some examples of related compositional techniques include, the round, the canon, and perhaps the most complex contrapuntal convention, the fugue. All of these are examples of imitative counterpoint, Species counterpoint generally offers less freedom to the composer than other types of counterpoint and therefore is called a strict counterpoint. The student gradually attains the ability to free counterpoint according to the given rules at the time. The idea is at least as old as 1532, when Giovanni Maria Lanfranco described a concept in his Scintille di musica. Zacconi, unlike later theorists, included a few extra contrapuntal techniques, a succession of later theorists quite closely imitated Fuxs seminal work, often with some small and idiosyncratic modifications in the rules. The following rules apply to melodic writing in each species, for each part, if the final is approached from below, then the leading tone must be raised in a minor key, but not in Phrygian or Hypophrygian mode. Thus, in the Dorian mode on D, a C♯ is necessary at the cadence, permitted melodic intervals are the perfect fourth, fifth, and octave, as well as the major and minor second, major and minor third, and ascending minor sixth. The ascending minor sixth must be followed by motion downwards. The three notes should be from the triad, if this is impossible, they should not outline more than one octave. In general, do not write more than two skips in the same direction, if writing a skip in one direction, it is best to proceed after the skip with motion in the other direction. The interval of a tritone in three notes should be avoided as is the interval of a seventh in three notes, there must be a climax or high point in the line countering the cantus firmus. This usually occurs somewhere in the middle of exercise and must occur on a strong beat, an outlining of a seventh is avoided within a single line moving in the same direction
9.
John Bull (composer)
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John Bull was an English composer, musician and organ builder. He was a keyboard performer of the virginalist school and most of his compositions were written for this medium. Bulls place of birth is shrouded in uncertainty, in an article published in 1952, Thurston Dart presumed that Bulls family originated in Somerset, where it is possible the composer was born. Then, in the edition of his Calendar of the Life of John Bull. More recent research by Susi Jeans suggests that Bull was born in the Radnorshire parish of Old Radnor within the diocese of Hereford, although no birth records have yet been discovered. After being appointed to the Merchant Taylors Company in 1577–78, Bull received his first appointment as organist of Hereford Cathedral in 1582, in 1586 he received his degree from Oxford, and he became a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal that same year. On the death of Elizabeth, he entered into the service of King James, establishing a reputation as a skilled composer, however, in addition to his virtuosity as a keyboard performer and composer, Bull was also skilled at getting into trouble. The outcome of this case is not known, even though he filed a petition for a marriage licence two days after he lost his job, he never returned to the college. He married Elizabeth Walter in 1607, by whom he had a daughter. William Trumbull, the English envoy in the Low Countries, after first attempting to cover for him – but later fearing for his own position if he continued to do so – wrote to the King in early 1614. The Archbishop of Canterbury had said of him the previous year, Bull remained in Flanders, where it seems he stayed out of trouble. In 1615 Antwerp Cathedral appointed him as assistant organist, and as principal organist in 1617, Bull wrote a series of letters while in Flanders, including one to the mayor of Antwerp, claiming that the reason he left England was to escape religious persecution. Which is a capital offence there and he seems to have been believed, for he was never extradited back to England in spite of Trumbulls complaining to the Archduke. While in Antwerp he most probably met Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck, the most influential composer of the age. In the 1620s he continued his career as an organist, organ builder and he died in Antwerp on 15 March 1628 and was buried in the cemetery next to the cathedral. He left many compositions for keyboard, some of which were collected in the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, the other contributors to Parthenia were Bulls contemporaries William Byrd and Orlando Gibbons, among the most famous composers of the age. Bull also wrote an anthem, God the father, God the son, for the wedding in 1613 of the princess, in addition to his keyboard compositions, he wrote verse anthems, canons and other works. One of the most unusual collections of music from the period is his book of 120 canons, of the 120 canons,116 are based on the Miserere
10.
Commune
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In addition to the communal economy, consensus decision-making, non-hierarchical structures and ecological living have become important core principles for many communes. There are many contemporary intentional communities all over the world, a list of which can be found at the Fellowship for Intentional Community, for the usually larger-scale, political entities in communist political theory, see socialist communes, which are similar but distinct social organizations. Some communes, such as the ashrams of the Vedanta Society or the Theosophical commune Lomaland, formed around spiritual leaders, for others, the glue is simply the desire for a more shared, sociable lifestyle. Moreover, some find it is more economical to live communally. The central characteristics of communes, or core principles that define communes, have expressed in various forms over the years. At the start of the 1970s, The New Communes author Ron E. Roberts classified communes as a subclass of a category of Utopias. Roberts three listed items were, first, egalitarianism – that communes specifically rejected hierarchy or graduations of social status as being necessary to social order. Second, human scale – that members of some communes saw the scale of society as it was organised as being too industrialized. And third, that communes were consciously anti-bureaucratic, twenty five years later, Dr. Sharing everyday life and facilities, a commune is an idealized form of family, being a new sort of primary group. Commune members have emotional bonds to the group rather than to any sub-group. With the simple definition of a commune as a community with 100% income sharing. Some of these are institutions such as abbeys and monasteries. Many communes are part of the New Age movement, in Germany, a large number of the intentional communities define themselves as communes and there is a network of political communes called Kommuja with about 30 member groups. Germany has a tradition of intentional communities going back to the groups inspired by the principles of Lebensreform in the 19th century. Later, about 100 intentional communities were started in the Weimar Republic after World War I, in the 1960s, there was a resurgence of communities calling themselves communes, starting with the Kommune 1 in Berlin, followed by Kommune 2 and Kommune 3 in Wolfsburg. Today, there are dozens of urban communes growing in the cities of Israel, the urban kibbutzim are smaller and more anarchist. Most of the communes in Israel emphasize social change, education. Some of the communes have members who are graduates of zionist-socialist youth movements, like HaNoar HaOved VeHaLomed, HaMahanot HaOlim
11.
French livre
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The livre was the currency of France from 781 to 1794. Several different livres existed, some concurrently, the livre was the name of both units of account and coins. The livre was established by Charlemagne as a unit of account equal to one pound of silver and it was subdivided into 20 sous, each of 12 deniers. The word livre came from the Latin word libra, a Roman unit of weight and this system and the denier itself served as the model for many of Europes currencies, including the British pound, Italian lira, Spanish dinero and the Portuguese dinheiro. This first livre is known as the livre carolingienne, only deniers were initially minted, but debasement led to larger denominations being issued. Different mints in different regions used different weights for the denier, livre is a homonym of the French word for book, the distinction being that the two have a different gender. The monetary unit is feminine, la/une livre, while book is masculine, for much of the Middle Ages, different duchies of France were semi-autonomous if not practically independent from the weak Capetian kings, and thus each minted their own currency. Charters would need to specify which region or mint was being used, the first steps towards standardization came under the first strong Capetian monarch, Philip II Augustus. Philip II conquered much of the continental Angevin Empire from King John of England, including Normandy, Anjou and this was a slow process lasting many decades and not completed within Philip IIs lifetime. Until the thirteenth century and onwards, only deniers were actually minted as coin money, both livres and sous did not actually exist as coins but were used only for accounting purposes. Between 1360 and 1641, coins worth 1 livre tournois were minted known as francs and this name persisted in common parlance for 1 livre tournois but was not used on coins or paper money. The official use of the livre tournois accounting unit in all contracts in France was legislated in 1549, however, in 1577, the livre tournois accounting unit was officially abolished and replaced by the écu, which was at that time the major French gold coin in actual circulation. In 1602, the livre tournois accounting unit was brought back, Louis XIII of France stopped minting the franc in 1641, replacing it with coins based on the silver écu and gold Louis dor. The écu and louis dor fluctuated in value, with the écu varying between three and six livres tournois until 1726 when it was fixed at six livres, the louis was initially worth ten livres, and fluctuated too, until its value was fixed at twenty-four livres in 1726. In 1667, the livre parisis was officially abolished, however, the sole remaining livre was still frequently referred to as the livre tournois until its demise. The first French paper money was issued in 1701 and was denominated in livres tournois, however, the notes did not hold their value relative to silver due to massive over–production. The Banque Royale crashed in 1720, rendering the banknotes worthless, in 1726, under Louis XVs minister Cardinal Fleury, a system of monetary stability was put in place. Eight ounces of gold was worth 740 livres,9 sols,8 ounces of silver was worth 51 livres,2 sols,3 deniers
12.
Johann Jakob Froberger
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Johann Jakob Froberger was a German Baroque composer, keyboard virtuoso, and organist. Among the most famous composers of the era, he was influential in developing the form of the suite of dances in his keyboard works. His harpsichord pieces are highly idiomatic and programmatic, only two of Frobergers many compositions were published during his lifetime. Froberger forbade publication of his manuscripts, restricting access to his patrons and friends. After his death the manuscripts went to his patroness Sibylla, Duchess of Württtemberg, Johann Jakob Froberger was baptized on 19 May 1616 in Stuttgart. The exact date of his birth is unknown and his family came from Halle, where his grandfather Simon lived and his father Basilius was born. In 1599 Basilius moved to Stuttgart and became a tenor in the Württemberg court chapel, at some point before 1605 he married Anna Schmid, who came from a Schwabian family living in Stuttgart. By the time Johann Jakob was born, his fathers career was already flourishing, of his eleven children with Anna, four became musicians, and so it is likely that Johann Jakob received his first music lessons from his father. Little is known about his education, though. Basilius Frobergers music library probably also helped in Johann Jakobs education, the Hofkapelle Stuttgart was disbanded in 1634 in the wake of the Protestants defeat in the Battle of Nördlingen. In 1637 Basilius Froberger, his wife and one of his daughters died of plague, Johann Jakob and his brother Isaac sold their fathers music library to the Württemberg court, the same year Johann Jakob became court organist in Vienna, assisting Wolfgang Ebner. In June he was granted a leave and a stipend to go to Rome to study under Frescobaldi, Froberger spent the next three years in Italy and, like many other musicians who went to study there, apparently converted to Catholicism. He returned to Vienna in 1641 and served as organist and chamber musician until the fall of 1645 and it was previously thought that Froberger went to study under Giacomo Carissimi, but recent research shows that he most probably studied with Athanasius Kircher in Rome. If so, Frobergers intention must have been acquiring mastery of composition of the prima pratica. Sometime during 1648–49 Froberger might have met Johann Kaspar Kerll, in 1649 Froberger travelled back to Austria. On his way back he stopped in Florence and Mantua to show the arca musurgica, in September he arrived in Vienna and demonstrated the arca musurgica to the Emperor, an avid amateur musician, he also presented him with Libro Secondo, a collection of his own compositions. Also in September, Froberger played before William Swann, an English diplomat, following the Empress Maria Leopoldines death in August the courts musical activities were suspended. Froberger left the city and travelled widely for the four years, likely entrusted by the Emperor with some extra-musical duties in the fields of diplomacy
13.
Jean-Henri d'Anglebert
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Jean-Henri dAnglebert was a French composer, harpsichordist and organist. He was one of the foremost keyboard composers of his day, DAngleberts father Claude Henry known as Anglebert was an affluent shoemaker in Bar-le-Duc. Nothing is known about the early years and musical education. Since he at one time composed a tombeau for Jacques Champion de Chambonnières, the earliest surviving manuscript with DAngleberts music dates from 1650–1659. The earliest reference to DAnglebert survives in his contract from 11 October 1659. DAnglebert married Magdelaine Champagne, sister-in-law of the organist François Roberday, in the contract, he is described as bourgeois de Paris, suggesting that by 1659 he was already well established in Paris. How he left Bar-le-Duc and settled in Paris remains unknown, DAngleberts career in Paris must have begun at the Jacobins church in Rue St. Honoré, where he was still organist in January 1660. In August 1660 he succeeded Henri Dumont as harpsichordist to Philippe I, Duke of Orléans and he served as royal harpsichordist until his son Jean-Baptiste-Henry became his reversioner in 1674. After 1679 DAnglebert served Dauphine Duchess Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria, DAnglebert died the following year, on 23 April. His only published work, Pièces de clavecin, appeared just two years before, in 1689, the rest of his music—mostly harpsichord works, but also five fugues and a quatuor for organ—survives in manuscripts. DAngleberts principal work is a collection of four harpsichord suites published in 1689 in Paris under the title Pièces de clavecin, the volume is dedicated to Marie Anne de Bourbon, a talented amateur harpsichordist who later studied under François Couperin. Apart from its contents, which some of the finest achievements of the French harpsichord school. The collection was beautifully engraved with utmost care, which set a new standard for music engraving, furthermore, DAngleberts table of ornaments is the most sophisticated before Couperins. It formed the basis of J. S, bachs own table of ornaments, and provided a model for other composers, including Rameau. Finally, DAngleberts original pieces are presented together with his arrangements of Lullys orchestral works, DAngleberts arrangements are, once again, some of the finest pieces in that genre, and show him experimenting with texture to achieve an orchestral sonority. They are unique pieces, for no such arrangements by other major French harpsichord composers are known, the second manuscript contains even more experimental pieces by DAnglebert, in which he tried to invent a tablature-like notation for keyboard music to simplify the notation of style brisé textures. DAngleberts only surviving works are five fugues and a quatuor. The fugues all elaborate on variations of the subject, thus forming an extended ricercare
14.
Couperin
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The Couperin family was a musical dynasty of professional composers and performers. They were the most prolific family in French musical history, active during the Baroque era, Louis Couperin and his nephew, François Couperin le grand, are the best known members of the family. The earliest mention of the name Couperin is from 1366, a Beauvoir trader involved in legal and financial matters, Mathurin was also an amateur musician. No compositions by him survive, and he stopped performing in 1619. Charles settled in Chaumes-en-Brie, a town about 30 miles east of Paris. He became a farmer and, eventually, part-time organist at the Benedictine abbey of St. Pierre, at least three of Charles many children became professional musicians, Louis, François, and Charles. The familys breakthrough came around 1650, when Jacques Champion de Chambonnières, the royal harpsichordist was so impressed with their skills that he took Louis to Paris with him, and by 1651 the young composer was already living there. His brothers joined him soon afterwards, in 1653 Louis became the organist of Church Saint-Gervais, when he died, he was succeeded by Charles, Charles was succeeded by his son, and so on, the Couperins occupied the position for 173 years. Louis was evidently a very successful and influential composer, but he died young, in 1661, some years after his death, the second of the two most important Couperins was born, François Couperin, nicknamed le Grand—the Great. Although suffering from poor health throughout his life, François was a prolific composer. Organists of the Church Saint-Gervais are given in bold, the number in parentheses indicates the order of succession, i. e. Louis was the first organist of the church, succeeded by Charles, who was succeeded by François, etc. Couperin, Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy, grovemusic. com
15.
Louis Couperin
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Louis Couperin was a French Baroque composer and performer. He was born in Chaumes-en-Brie and moved to Paris in 1650–1651 with the help of Jacques Champion de Chambonnières, Couperin worked as organist of the Church of St. Gervais in Paris and as musician at the court. None of Couperins music was published during his lifetime, but manuscript copies of some 200 pieces survive, the first historically important member of the Couperin family, Couperin made seminal contributions to the development of both the French organ school and French harpsichord school. His innovations included composing organ pieces for specific registrations and inventing the genre of the prelude for harpsichord. Most of the information about Couperins life comes from two sources, Couperin was born around 1626 in Chaumes-en-Brie, a town 40 km south-east of Paris. His father, Charles Couperin, sieur de Crouilly, was a small landowner, Louis was reportedly an accomplished harpsichordist and violinist by 1650, but had no connections whatsoever with any important musicians of the era. His sudden rise to fame, which happened during 1650–1651, is explained in Le Parnasse François, the Couperins offered the host and his guests a short concert, playing several pieces composed by Louis. Chambonnières was impressed by Louis Couperins talents, became his teacher and he almost certainly met Johann Jakob Froberger in 1651–1652, Frobergers style becoming a major influence on Couperins music. On 9 April 1653 he became organist of the Parisian church of St. Gervais, the position at this ancient church was one of the most important in France at the time. At some point — most probably after he became organist at St. Gervais — Couperin entered the service as a treble viol player. He traveled to Toulouse with the court in 1659, during his last years, Couperin lived in the organists lodgings at St. Gervais with his two brothers, and died on 29 August 1661, aged thirty-five according to Le Parnasse François. His brothers both played an important role in the development of French Baroque music, no compositions by François are known to survive, but his line of the family carried the name of Couperin into the 19th century. Because his career spanned only some 10 years, none of Couperins works were published during his lifetime, the so-called Oldham manuscript, recovered only in 1957, contains 70 organ works by Couperin, of which 68 are unique. Also included are a suite, four five-part chamber fantaisies. This manuscript may have been compiled at least partly during Couperins lifetime, in addition to these, the Parville manuscript contains 55 harpsichord pieces by Couperin, although only five of these are unique. Couperins harpsichord works are referred to by numbers used in the princeps Éditions de lOiseau-Lyre edition of 1936. The edition was based entirely on the Bauyn manuscript, the source known at that time. The authors of the manuscript did not arrange the pieces in suites, so, for example, numbers 16–19 are courantes in C major, numbers 20–25 are sarabandes in C major, etc
16.
Calendar of saints
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The word feast in this context does not mean a large meal, typically a celebratory one, but instead an annual religious celebration, a day dedicated to a particular saint. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, a calendar of saints is called a Menologion, Menologion may also mean a set of icons on which saints are depicted in the order of the dates of their feasts, often made in two panels. As the number of recognized saints increased during Late Antiquity and the first half of the Middle Ages, eventually every day of the year had at least one saint who was commemorated on that date. To deal with this increase, some saints were moved to days in some traditions or completely removed. For example, St. Perpetua and Felicity died on 7 March, when the 1969 reform of the Catholic calendar moved him to 28 January, they were moved back to 7 March. Both days can thus be said to be their feast day, the Roman Catholic calendars of saints in their various forms, which list those saints celebrated in the entire church, contains only a selection of the saints for each of its days. A fuller list is found in the Roman Martyrology, and some of the saints there may be celebrated locally, Saint Martin of Tours is said to be the first or at least one of the first non-martyrs to be venerated as a saint. The title confessor was used for saints, who had confessed their faith in Christ by their lives rather than by their deaths. Martyrs are regarded as dying in the service of the Lord, a broader range of titles was used later, such as, Virgin, Pastor, Bishop, Monk, Priest, Founder, Abbot, Apostle, Doctor of the Church. Pope Pius XII added a common formula for Popes, the 1962 Roman Missal of Pope John XXIII omitted the common of Apostles, assigning a proper Mass to every feast day of an Apostle. The present Roman Missal has common formulas for the Dedication of Churches, the Blessed Virgin Mary, Martyrs, Pastors, Doctors of the Church, Virgins, some Christians continue the tradition of dating by saints days, their works may appear dated as The Feast of Saint Martin. Poets such as John Keats commemorate the importance of The Eve of Saint Agnes, as different Christian jurisdictions parted ways theologically, differing lists of saints began to develop. In the present ordinary form of the Roman Rite, feast days are ranked as solemnities and those who use even earlier forms of the Roman Rite rank feast days as Doubles, Semidoubles, and Simples. See Ranking of liturgical days in the Roman Rite, in the Eastern Orthodox Church the ranking of feasts varies from church to church. In the Russian Orthodox Church they are, Great Feasts, middle, each portion of such feasts may also be called feasts as follows, All-Night Vigils, Polyeleos, Great Doxology, Sextuple. There are also distinctions between Simple feasts and Double, in Double Feasts the order of hymns and readings for each feast are rigidly instructed in Typikon, the liturgy book. In the Church of England, there are Principal Feasts and Principal Holy Days, Festivals, Lesser Festivals, and Commemorations. com
17.
Fronde
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The Fronde was a series of civil wars in France between 1648 and 1653, occurring in the midst of the Franco-Spanish War, which had begun in 1635. The king confronted the opposition of the princes, the nobility, the law courts, and most of the French people. The Fronde was divided into two campaigns, the Fronde of the parlements and the Fronde of the nobles, the timing of the outbreak of the Fronde des parlements, directly after the Peace of Westphalia that ended the Thirty Years War, was significant. A. Lloyd Moote argues that Cardinal Mazarin blundered into the crisis, the Fronde represented the final attempt of the French nobility to do battle with the king, and they were humiliated. The long-term result was to strengthen Royal authority, but to weaken the economy, the Fronde facilitated the emergence of absolute monarchy. The French word fronde means sling, Parisian crowds used slings to smash the windows of supporters of Cardinal Mazarin, the Fronde in the end provided an incentive for the establishment of royalist absolutism, since the disorders eventually discredited the feudal concept of liberty. The pressure that saw the traditional liberties under threat came in the form of extended and increased taxes as the Crown needed to recover from its expenditures in the recent wars. The costs of the Thirty Years War constrained Mazarins government to raise funds by means, the impôts, the taille. The nobility refused to be so taxed, based on their old liberties, or privileges, and the brunt fell upon the bourgeoisie. When Louis XIV became king in 1643, he was only a child, most historians consider that Louiss later insistence on absolutist rule and depriving the nobility of actual power was a result of these events in his childhood. The military record of the first Fronde is almost blank, the noble faction demanded the calling of an assembly of the Estates General. The nobles believed that in the Estates-General they could continue to control the element as they had in the past. The royal faction, having no army at its disposal, had to release the prisoners. But Frances signing of the Peace of Westphalia allowed the French army to return from the frontiers, the two warring parties signed the Peace of Rueil after little blood had been shed. From then on the Fronde became a story of intrigues, half-hearted warfare in a scramble for power and control of patronage, the military operations fell into the hands of war-experienced mercenaries, led by two great, and many lesser, generals. The peace of Rueil lasted until the end of 1649, the princes, received at court once more, renewed their intrigues against Mazarin. On 14 January 1650, Cardinal Mazarin, having come to an understanding with Monsieur Gondi and Madame de Chevreuse, suddenly arrested Condé, Conti, the war which followed this coup is called the Princes Fronde. This time it was Turenne, before and afterwards the most loyal soldier of his day, listening to the promptings of Madame de Longueville, he resolved to rescue her brother Condé, his old comrade in the battles of Freiburg and Nördlingen
18.
Duchy of Brabant
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The Duchy of Brabant was a State of the Holy Roman Empire established in 1183. Today all the former territories, apart from exclaves are in Belgium except for the Dutch province of North Brabant. The Duchy of Brabant was historically divided into four parts, each with its own capital, the four capitals were Leuven, Brussels, Antwerp and s-Hertogenbosch. Before s-Hertogenbosch was founded, Tienen was the fourth capital and its most important cities were Brussels, Antwerp, Leuven, Breda, s-Hertogenbosch, Lier and Mechelen. The modern flag of Belgium takes its colors from Brabants coat of arms, probably first used by Count Lambert I of Louvain, the lion is documented in a 1306 towns seal of Kerpen, together with the red lion of Limburg. Up to the present, the Brabant lion features as the charge on the coats of arms of both Flemish and Walloon Brabant, and of the Dutch province of North Brabant. The regions name is first recorded as the Carolingian shire pagus Bracbatensis, upon the 843 Treaty of Verdun it was part of Lotharingia within short-lived Middle Francia, and was ceded to East Francia according to the 880 Treaty of Ribemont. In earlier Roman times, the Nervii, a Belgic tribe and they were incorporated into the Roman province of Belgica, and considered to have both Celtic and Germanic cultural links. At the end of the Roman period the region was conquered by the Germanic Franks, in 959 the East Frankish king Otto I of Germany elevated Count Godfrey of Jülich to the rank of duke of Lower Lorraine. In 962 the duchy became a part of the Holy Roman Empire. Here, the counts of Leuven rose to power, when about 1000 Count Lambert I the Bearded married Gerberga, the daughter of Duke Charles of Lower Lorraine, and acquired the County of Brussels. About 1024 southernmost Brabant fell to Count Reginar V of Mons, in 1190, after the death of Godfrey III, Henry I also became Duke of Lower Lotharingia. By that time the title had lost most of its territorial authority, according to protocol, all his successors were thereafter called Dukes of Brabant and Lower Lotharingia. After the Battle of Worringen in 1288, the dukes of Brabant also acquired the Duchy of Limburg, in 1354 Duke John III of Brabant granted a Joyous Entry to the citizens of Brabant. In 1430 the Duchies of Lower Lotharingia, Brabant and Limburg were inherited by Philip the Good of Burgundy, in 1477 the Duchy of Brabant became part of the House of Habsburg as part of the dowry of Mary of Burgundy. At that time the Duchy extended from Luttre, south of Nivelles to s Hertogenbosch, the subsequent history of Brabant is part of the history of the Habsburg Seventeen Provinces. The Eighty Years War brought the parts under military control of the northern insurgents. The southern part remained in Spanish Habsburg hands as a part of the Southern Netherlands and it was transferred to the Austrian branch of the Habsburg monarchy in 1714
19.
Christiaan Huygens
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Christiaan Huygens, FRS was a prominent Dutch mathematician and scientist. He is known particularly as an astronomer, physicist, probabilist and horologist, Huygens was a leading scientist of his time. His work included early telescopic studies of the rings of Saturn and the discovery of its moon Titan and he published major studies of mechanics and optics, and pioneered work on games of chance. Christiaan Huygens was born on 14 April 1629 in The Hague, into a rich and influential Dutch family, Christiaan was named after his paternal grandfather. His mother was Suzanna van Baerle and she died in 1637, shortly after the birth of Huygens sister. The couple had five children, Constantijn, Christiaan, Lodewijk, Philips, Constantijn Huygens was a diplomat and advisor to the House of Orange, and also a poet and musician. His friends included Galileo Galilei, Marin Mersenne and René Descartes, Huygens was educated at home until turning sixteen years old. He liked to play with miniatures of mills and other machines and his father gave him a liberal education, he studied languages and music, history and geography, mathematics, logic and rhetoric, but also dancing, fencing and horse riding. In 1644 Huygens had as his mathematical tutor Jan Jansz de Jonge Stampioen, Descartes was impressed by his skills in geometry. His father sent Huygens to study law and mathematics at the University of Leiden, Frans van Schooten was an academic at Leiden from 1646, and also a private tutor to Huygens and his elder brother, replacing Stampioen on the advice of Descartes. Van Schooten brought his mathematical education up to date, in introducing him to the work of Fermat on differential geometry. Constantijn Huygens was closely involved in the new College, which lasted only to 1669, Christiaan Huygens lived at the home of the jurist Johann Henryk Dauber, and had mathematics classes with the English lecturer John Pell. He completed his studies in August 1649 and he then had a stint as a diplomat on a mission with Henry, Duke of Nassau. It took him to Bentheim, then Flensburg and he took off for Denmark, visited Copenhagen and Helsingør, and hoped to cross the Øresund to visit Descartes in Stockholm. While his father Constantijn had wished his son Christiaan to be a diplomat, in political terms, the First Stadtholderless Period that began in 1650 meant that the House of Orange was not in power, removing Constantijns influence. Further, he realised that his son had no interest in such a career, Huygens generally wrote in French or Latin. While still a student at Leiden he began a correspondence with the intelligencer Mersenne. Mersenne wrote to Constantijn on his sons talent for mathematics, the letters show the early interests of Huygens in mathematics
20.
Louis XIV
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Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood
21.
Jean-Baptiste Lully
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Jean-Baptiste Lully was an Italian-born French composer, instrumentalist, and dancer who spent most of his life working in the court of Louis XIV of France. He is considered a master of the French baroque style, Lully disavowed any Italian influence in French music of the period. He became a French subject in 1661, Lully was born on November 28,1632 in Florence, Grand Duchy of Tuscany, to a family of millers. His general education and his training during his youth in Florence remain uncertain. He used to say that a Franciscan friar gave him his first music lessons and he also learned to play the violin. Guise took the boy to Paris, where the fourteen-year-old entered Mademoiselles service and he probably honed his musical skills by working with Mademoiselles household musicians and with composers Nicolas Métru, François Roberday and Nicolas Gigault. The teenagers talents as a guitarist, violinist, and dancer quickly won him the nicknames Baptiste, when Mademoiselle was exiled to the provinces in 1652 after the rebellion known as the Fronde, Lully begged his leave. Because he did not want to live in the country, by February 1653 Lully had attracted the attention of young Louis XIV, dancing with him in the Ballet royal de la nuit. By March 16,1653, Lully had been made royal composer for instrumental music and his vocal and instrumental music for court ballets gradually made him indispensable. In 1660 and 1662 he collaborated on performances of Francesco Cavallis Xerse. When Louis XIV took over the reins of government in 1661, in December 1661 the Florentine was granted letters of naturalization. The latter assertion was an untruth, from 1661 on, the trios and dances he wrote for the court were promptly published. When he became surintendant de la de la chambre du roi in 1661. He relied mainly on the Little Violins for court ballets and their collaboration began in earnest in 1664 with Le Mariage forcé. In 1672 Lully broke with Molière, who turned to Marc-Antoine Charpentier, having acquired Pierre Perrins opera privilege, Lully became the director of the Académie Royale de Musique, that is, the royal opera, which performed in the Palais-Royal. Between 1673 and 1687 he produced a new opera almost yearly and fiercely protected his monopoly over that new genre, after Queen Marie-Thérèses death in 1683 and the kings secret marriage to Mme de Maintenon, devotion came to the fore at court. The kings enthusiasm for opera dissipated, he was revolted by Lullys dissolute life, in 1686, to show his displeasure, Louis XIV made a point of not inviting Lully to perform Armide at Versailles. Lully died from gangrene, having struck his foot with his conducting staff during a performance of his Te Deum to celebrate Louis XIVs recovery from surgery
22.
Carlo Caproli
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Carlo Caproli or Caprioli, also called Carlo del Violino, was an Italian violinist, organist, and a leading composer of cantatas in mid-17th-century Italy. Carlo Caproli was born in Rome and his father was a seller of green vegetables. He was recorded as Carlo del Violino in 1636, when he was engaged by the Barberini family for performances of Santa Teodora. Caproli was considered to be a maestro di cappella beginning in 1638 and he was an organist under Giacomo Carissimi at the Collegio Germanico beginning in September 1643 and held the post until 1645. On 15 November 1644 he was appointed aiutante di camera under Cardinal Camillo Pamphili and he first appeared at San Luigi dei Francesi on 25 August 1652 as a violinist hired for the occasion. Caprolis wife was related to the Roman publisher Agostino Mascardi, the 15-year-old King Louis XIV appeared in no fewer than six roles. The production received nine performances, the two open to the public, and it was considered a great success, although this was primarily due to the French ballets in the intervals. For his efforts, Caproli was made maître de la musique du cabinet du Roy, Caproli returned to Rome in 1655. In 1665 he took up the post of guardiano of the instrumentalists at the Congregazione dei Musici di Roma and he composed numerous solo and ensemble cantatas, many with instruments, and several oratorios. 16272 Number of voices, accompaniment, and location of the score are given in parentheses after the title, according to Eleanor Caluori, many of these catatas are incorrectly attributed to Francesco Mannelli in the first edition of Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Baldini Par ch’il core melo dica Per l’Egeo di spuma grave Poiche fissato il guardo Purche lo sappi tu, text attributed to S. Castelli, bjurström, Per. Giacomo Torelli and Baroque Stage Design, 2nd revised edition, translated from the Swedish. The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd edition. Free scores by Carlo Caproli at the International Music Score Library Project Identificativo SBN
23.
Brie
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Brie is a soft cows-milk cheese named after Brie, the French region from which it originated. It is pale in color with a grayish tinge under a rind of white mold. The rind is typically eaten, with its flavor depending largely upon the ingredients used, Brie may be produced from whole or semi-skimmed milk. The curd is obtained by adding rennet to raw milk and warming it to a temperature of 37 °C. The cheese is then cast into molds, sometimes with a traditional perforated ladle called a pelle à brie, the 20 cm mold is filled with several thin layers of cheese and drained for approximately 18 hours. The cheese is taken out of the molds, salted, inoculated with cheese culture or Brevibacterium linens. Around the Île-de-France where brie is made, people enjoy soaking this in café au lait, overripe brie contains an unpleasant excessive amount of ammonia, produced by the same microorganisms required for ripening. Some versions of brie cheese are smoked, a thirty-gram serving of brie contains 101 calories and 8.4 grams of fat, of which 5.2 grams are saturated fat. Brie is a source of protein, a serving of brie can provide 5 to 6 grams of protein. Brie contains an amount of both vitamin B12 and vitamin B2. There are now many varieties of brie made all over the world, including brie, herbed varieties, double and triple brie. Indeed, although brie is a French cheese, it is possible to obtain Somerset, despite the variety of bries, the French government officially certifies only two types of cheese to be sold under that name, Brie de Meaux and Brie de Melun. Brie de Meaux is a brie, with an average weight of 2.8 kg for a diameter of 36 to 37 cm. It was granted the protection of Appellation dorigine contrôlée status in 1980 and this brie has an average weight of 1.5 kilograms and a diameter of 27 cm. It is therefore smaller than Brie de Meaux but is considered to have a stronger flavor and it is made with unpasteurized milk. Brie de Melun is also available in the form of Old Brie or black brie and it was granted the protection of AOC status in 1980. Australia King Island Dairy, on King Island between Victoria and Tasmania produce a range of cheeses sold as brie, as does Jindi Cheese in Victoria, UK Cornish Brie, Somerset Brie, Baron Bigod, Cenarth Brie. US The Marin French Cheese Company in California has made an unaged cheese since 1865 described as fresh brie, brazil Brazilian brie is made in the dairy region located in the Southern area of Minas Gerais state and Southeast Minas Gerais
24.
Marquis
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A marquess is a nobleman of hereditary rank in various European peerages and in those of some of their former colonies. The term is used to translate equivalent Asian styles, as in imperial China. In Great Britain and Ireland, the spelling of the aristocratic title of this rank is marquess. In Scotland the French spelling is sometimes used. In Great Britain and Ireland, the ranks below a duke. A woman with the rank of a marquess, or the wife of a marquess, is called a marchioness /ˌmɑːrʃəˈnɛs/ in Great Britain, the dignity, rank or position of the title is referred to as a marquisate or marquessate. The theoretical distinction between a marquess and other titles has, since the Middle Ages, faded into obscurity. In times past, the distinction between a count and a marquess was that the land of a marquess, called a march, was on the border of the country, while a land, called a county. As a result of this, a marquess was trusted to defend and fortify against potentially hostile neighbours and was more important. The title is ranked below that of a duke, which was restricted to the royal family. In the German lands, a Margrave was a ruler of an immediate Imperial territory, German rulers did not confer the title of marquis, holders of marquisates in Central Europe were largely associated with the Italian and Spanish crowns. The word entered the English language from the Old French marchis in the late 13th or early 14th century, the French word was derived from marche, itself descended from the Middle Latin marca, from which the modern English words march and mark also descend. In Great Britain and Ireland, the spelling for an English aristocrat of this rank is marquess. The word marquess is unusual in English, ending in -ess but referring to a male, a woman with the rank of a marquess, or the wife of a marquess, is called a marchioness in Great Britain and Ireland, or a marquise /mɑːrˈkiːz/ elsewhere in Europe. The dignity, rank or position of the title is referred to as a marquisate or marquessate, the honorific prefix The Most Honourable is a form of address that precedes the name of a marquess or marchioness in the United Kingdom. The rank of marquess was a late introduction to the British peerage, no marcher lords had the rank of marquess. The following list may still be incomplete, feminine forms follow after a slash, many languages have two words, one for the modern marquess and one for the original margrave. Even where neither title was used domestically, such duplication to describe foreign titles can exist
25.
Basso continuo
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Basso continuo parts, almost universal in the Baroque era, provided the harmonic structure of the music. The phrase is shortened to continuo, and the instrumentalists playing the continuo part are called the continuo group. The titles of many Baroque works make mention of the section, such as J. S. Bachs Concerto for Two Violins, Strings. The makeup of the group is often left to the discretion of the performers. At least one instrument capable of playing chords must be included, such as a harpsichord, organ, lute, theorbo, guitar, regal, or harp. In addition, any number of instruments play in the bass register may be included, such as cello, double bass, bass viol. The most common combination, at least in modern performances, is harpsichord and cello for instrumental works and secular works, such as operas. Harps, lutes, and other instruments are more typical of early 17th-century music. The keyboard player realizes a continuo part by playing, in addition to the bass line, notes above it to complete chords. The figured bass notation, described below, is a guide, but performers are expected to use their musical judgment. Experienced players sometimes incorporate motives found in the instrumental parts into their improvised chordal accompaniment. Modern editions of music usually supply a realized keyboard part, fully written out in staff notation for a player. With the rise in historically informed performance, however, the number of performers who are able to improvise their parts from the figures, as Baroque players would have done, has increased. Basso continuo, though a structural and identifying element of the Baroque period, continued to be used in many works, mostly sacred choral works. An example is C. P. E. Bachs Concerto in D minor for flute, strings and basso continuo. Examples of its use in the 19th century are rarer, but they do exist, masses by Anton Bruckner, Beethoven, the phrase tasto solo indicates that only the bass line is to be played for a short period, usually until the next figure is encountered. This instructs the chord-playing instrumentalist not to play any improvised chords for a period, composers were inconsistent in the usages described below. Especially in the 17th century, the numbers were omitted whenever the composer thought the chord was obvious, early composers such as Claudio Monteverdi often specified the octave by the use of compound intervals such as 10,11, and 15
26.
Spinet
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A spinet is a smaller type of harpsichord or other keyboard instrument, such as a piano or organ. When the term spinet is used to designate a harpsichord, typically what is meant is the bentside spinet, the bentside spinet shares most of its characteristics with the full-size instrument, including action, soundboard, and case construction. The case of a bentside spinet is approximately triangular, the side on the right is usually bent concavely, curving away from the player toward the right rear corner. The longest side is adjacent to and parallel with the bass strings, the front side of the spinet contains the keyboard. Typically, there are very short sides at the rear and on the left, connecting the bentside to the long side. The other major aspect of design is that the strings are arranged in pairs. The gap between the two strings of a pair is about four millimetres, and the gap between pairs is about ten. The jacks are arranged in pairs as well, placed in the wider gap and they face in opposite directions, plucking the adjacent string on either side of the wider gap. The fact that half of the gaps are four millimetres instead of ten makes it possible to crowd more strings together into a smaller case. The disadvantage of the design is that it generally limits the spinet to a single choir of strings, at eight-foot pitch. In a full-size harpsichord, the registers that guide the jacks can be shifted slightly to one side and this is impossible in a spinet, due to the alternating orientation of the jacks. For an exception to this point, see spinettone, below, the angling of the strings also had consequences for tone quality, generally, it was not possible to make the plucking points as close to the nut as in a regular harpsichord. Thus spinets normally had a different tone quality, with fewer higher harmonics. Spinets also had smaller soundboards than regular harpsichords, and normally had a weaker sound, for these reasons, the spinet was normally only a domestic instrument, purchased to save money and conserve domestic space. Harpsichord historian Frank Hubbard wrote in 1967, the earliest spinet known to me was made by Hieronymus de Zentis in 1631 and it is quite possible that Zentis was the inventor of the type so widely copied in other countries. He further notes that the spinet in France was sometimes called the épinette à litalienne, in England, builders included John Player, Thomas Barton, Charles Haward, Stephen Keene, Cawton Aston, and Thomas Hitchcock. The spinet was later developed into the spinettone by Bartolomeo Cristofori, the spinettone was a local success among the musicians of the Medici court, and Cristofori eventually built a total of four of them. Spinets are occasionally made today, sometimes from kits, and serve the purpose they always have, of saving money
27.
Regal (musical instrument)
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The regal was a small portable organ, furnished with beating reeds and having two bellows. The instrument enjoyed its greatest popularity during the Renaissance, the name was also sometimes given to the reed stops of a pipe organ, and more especially the vox humana stop. The sound of the regal was produced by brass reeds held in resonators, the length of the vibrating portion of the reed determined its pitch and was regulated by means of a wire passing through the socket, the other end pressing on the reed at the proper distance. A common compass was C/E--c′′′, though this was by no means standardized, most regals were placed on a table to be played, and required two people—one to play the instrument, and another to pump the bellows. These regals were used not only at banquets but often in place of positive organs in churches and he states that they were first made in Nuremberg and Augsburg. In England and France, the regal was sometimes applied to reed stops on the organ. According to Praetorius, the stops of pipe organs required constant tuning, he emphasized the fact that the pitch of the stop fell in summer. The pitch of the other stops rose in summer and fell in winter, because of civil wars and the ravages of time, very few antique regals survive. Claudio Monteverdi scored for the regals in his operas, and the instrument was described and illustrated by Sebastian Virdung in 1511, Martin Agricola in 1528, and Othmar Luscinius in 1536. In England, as late as the reign of George III, drawings of the reeds of regals and other reed pipes, as well as of the instrument itself, are given by Praetorius. The regal may be seen as the ancestor of the harmonium, the organ, and the various varieties of squeezebox such as the accordion, the concertina
28.
Lutenist
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The European lute and the modern Near-Eastern oud descend from a common ancestor via diverging evolutionary paths. The lute is used in a variety of instrumental music from the Medieval to the late Baroque eras and was the most important instrument for secular music in the Renaissance. It is also an instrument, especially in vocal works. The player of a lute is called a lutenist, lutanist or lutist, the words lute and oud possibly derive from Arabic al-ʿud. Recent research by Eckhard Neubauer suggests ʿud may in turn be an Arabized version of the Persian name rud and it has equally been suggested the wood in the name may have distinguished the instrument by its wooden soundboard from skin-faced predecessors. Gianfranco Lotti suggests the wood appellation originally carried derogatory connotations because of proscriptions of all music in early Islam. Lutes are made almost entirely of wood, the soundboard is a teardrop-shaped thin flat plate of resonant wood. In all lutes the soundboard has a single decorated sound hole under the strings called the rose. The sound hole is not open, but rather covered with a grille in the form of a vine or a decorative knot. Robert Lundberg, in his book Historical Lute Construction, suggests ancient builders placed bars according to ratios of the scale length. He further suggests the inward bend of the soundboard is an adaptation by ancient builders to afford the lutenists right hand more space between the strings and soundboard. Soundboard thickness varies, but generally hovers between 1.5 and 2 mm, some luthiers tune the belly as they build, removing mass and adapting bracing to produce desirable sonic results. The lute belly is almost never finished, but in cases the luthier may size the top with a very thin coat of shellac or glair to help keep it clean. After joining the top to the sides, a half-binding is usually installed around the edge of the soundboard, the half-binding is approximately half the thickness of the soundboard and is usually made of a contrasting color wood. The rebate for the half-binding must be precise to avoid compromising structural integrity. The back or the shell is assembled from strips of hardwood called ribs. There are braces inside on the soundboard to give it strength, the neck is made of light wood, with a veneer of hardwood to provide durability for the fretboard beneath the strings. Unlike most modern stringed instruments, the fretboard is mounted flush with the top
29.
Denis Gaultier
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Denis Gaultier was a French lutenist and composer. He was a cousin of Ennemond Gaultier, Gaultier was born in Paris, two conflicting sources point to either 1597 or 1603 as the year of birth. The former can be deduced from an account by Thorian, who claimed that Gaultier died in 1672 at the age of seventy-five, very little is known about Gaultiers career. He may have studied under Charles Racquet, since he commemorated the death with a tombeau. Both lutenists had connections with Blancrocher and Henri de LEnclos, in 1635 Denis married Françoise Daucourt. Their son Philippe Emmanuel would later become advisor to the king, Denis most probably gained fame and income through salon playing. Denis and Ennemond are confused in many manuscripts and prints. A number of pieces are signed simply with the surname, some are attributed to Denis in one collection and to Ennemond in another, Gaultiers output, as is to be expected from a 17th-century French lutenist, consists mainly of dance suites for the lute. Three published collections of Gaultiers music have come down to us, La Rhétorique des dieux contains twelve parts, each named after one of the Greek modes, but the actual harmonic procedures of the pieces are not connected to the modes. Many of the pieces reference Greek mythology, the collection, compiled under the patronage of Anne de Chambré, also contains engravings after Le Sueur, Abraham Bosse and Robert de Nanteuil. All three manuscripts consist principally of dances, the one other genre Gaultier made an important contribution to is the tombeau. An adequate assessment of Gaultiers music and influence is difficult, owing to attribution problems, according to recent research, La Rhétorique des dieux may consist of works not composed by Denis Gaultier, or original works by him changed by unknown scribes. The 1672 collection was completed after Gaultiers death by his pupil Montarcis, other pieces, found in various manuscripts, also pose numerous attribution problems. Nevertheless, Gaultier was an important exponent of the French style brisé, around 1680 a few of Gaultiers works were included in anthologies by Perrine, a French theorist who experimented with the writing of lute music in staff notation. La Rhétorique des Dieux, Appolon orateur David Joseph Buch, Denis Gaultier, La Rhétorique des dieux, ISBN 978-0-89579-238-9 Rollin, Monique
30.
Allemande
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An allemande is a renaissance and baroque dance, and one of the most popular instrumental dance styles in baroque music, with notable examples by Couperin, Purcell, Bach and Handel. It is often the first movement of a suite of dances, paired with a subsequent courante. It appears to have derived from a German dance but no identifiable dance, a livelier version, the allemande courante, used three springing steps and a hop. Elizabethan British composers wrote many Almans as separate pieces, French composers of the 17th century experimented with the allemande, shifting to quadruple meter and ranging more widely in tempo. This slower allemande, like the pavane, was adapted to the tombeau or memorial composition, the German composers Froberger and Bach followed suit in their allemandes for keyboard instruments, although ensemble allemandes kept a more traditional style. Italian and English composers were more free with the allemande, writing in counterpoint, in his Musikalisches Lexicon, Johann Gottfried Walther wrote that the allemande must be composed and likewise danced in a grave and ceremonious manner. Its music is characterised by absence of syncopation, combination of short motifs into larger units and contrasts of tone and motif. Late in the 18th century, allemande came to be used for type of dance in triple meter. Mozart and Beethoven both produced sets of German Dances in this style, some of the close embraces and turns of the allemande were carried over to squaredance and contra dance. In an allemande, couples hold one forearm and turn each other to the left or right. Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press, Video - Renaissance allemande danced in costume Video - Baroque allemande, one pair Video - Allemand - The Elegance of Baroque Social Dance Music Video - J. S. Bach - Allemande from the fourth French Suite
31.
Courante
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The courante, corrente, coranto and corant are some of the names given to a family of triple metre dances from the late Renaissance and the Baroque era. In a Baroque dance suite an Italian or French courante is typically paired with a preceding allemande, courante literally means running, and in the later Renaissance the courante was danced with fast running and jumping steps, as described by Thoinot Arbeau. But the courante commonly used in the period was described by Johann Mattheson in Der vollkommene Capellmeister as chiefly characterized by the passion or mood of sweet expectation. For there is something heartfelt, something longing and also gratifying, in this melody, Johann Gottfried Walther in the Musicalisches Lexicon, wrote that the rhythm of the courante is absolutely the most serious one can find. During the baroque era there were two types of courante, the French and the Italian, sometimes French and Italian spellings are used to distinguish types of courante, but original spellings were inconsistent. In Bachs unaccompanied Partita for Violin No.2 the first movement begins as if in 34 time in a one might initially perform. The second movement is titled corrente and is rather lively, an indication of faster tempo that appears to exist in Baroque composer Georg Muffats instructions on Lullian bowing is a confusion in translation. Renaissance dance Baroque dance Lenneberg, Hans, Johann Mattheson on Affect and Rhetoric in Music, A Translation of Selected Portions of Der vollkommene Capellmeister. Journal of Music Theory 2, no.1 and no, Der vollkommene Capellmeister, Das ist, Gründliche Anzeige aller derjenigen Sachen, die einer wissen, können, und vollkommen inne haben muß, der einer Capelle mit Ehren und Nutzen vorstehen will. Facsimile reprint, fifth edition, edited by Margarete Reimann, Johann Matthesons Der vollkommene Capellmeister, a revised translation with critical commentary by Ernest Charles Harriss. Facsimile reprint, edited by Richard Schaal, modern edition of the text and musical illustrations, edited by Friederike Ramm. Kassel, Bärenreiter-Verlag & Karl Vötterle GmbH & Co
32.
Sarabande
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The sarabande is a dance in triple metre. The dance may have been of Mexican origin evolved from a Spanish dance with Arab influences, a dance called zarabanda is first mentioned in 1539 in Central America in the poem Vida y tiempo de Maricastaña, written in Panama by Fernando de Guzmán Mejía. The dance seems to have been popular in the 16th and 17th centuries, initially in the Spanish colonies. A character in a Miguel de Cervantes farce alluded to the dances notoriety by saying that hell was its birthplace and it was banned in Spain in 1583 but still performed, even by clerics during the mass and frequently cited in literature of the period. It spread to Italy in the 17th century, and to France, baroque musicians of the 18th century wrote suites of dance music written in binary form that typically included a sarabande as the third of four movements. It was often paired with and followed by a jig or gigue, the anonymous harmonic sequence known as La Folia appears in pieces of various types, mainly dances, by dozens of composers from the time of Mudarra and Corelli through to the present day. The sarabande inspired the title of Ingmar Bergmans last film Saraband, the film uses the sarabande from Johann Sebastian Bachs Fifth Cello Suite, which Bergman also used in Cries and Whispers. La zarabanda, pluralidad y controversia de un género musical, universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas, Programa Integral de Fortalecimiento Institucional, México, D. F. The First Dated Mention of the Sarabande, journal of the American Musicological Society. Resisting Tonality, Tippett, Beethoven and the Sarabande, debussy, masques, lisle joyeuseand a lost sarabande. The sequence of sarabande and air in Bachs keyboard partitas
33.
Gigue
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The gigue or giga is a lively baroque dance originating from the British jig. It was imported into France in the century and usually appears at the end of a suite. The gigue was probably never a court dance, but it was danced by nobility on social occasions and it often has a contrapuntal texture. It often has accents on the beats in the bar. In early French theatre, it was customary to end a performance with a gigue, complete with music. A gigue, like other Baroque dances, consists of two sections. In Bachs gigues, each section begins as a fugue, in which the theme used in the first section is inverted in the second section. An early Italian dance called the giga probably derives its name from a small, historians, such as Charles Read Baskerville, claim that use of the word in relation to dancing took place in England prior to such usage on the Continent. Giga probably has a separate etymology, jonathan Littells novel The Kindly Ones is structured in different parts, each one of these named after a Baroque dance, the last part being called Gigue. Jig Loure Simone Voyer, La Gigue, Québec, GID,2003 ISBN 2-922668-31-2
34.
Chaconne
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In this it closely resembles the passacaglia. Alex Ross describes the origins of the chacona as actually having been a sexily swirling dance that appeared in South America at the end of the sixteenth century, the dance became popular both in the elite courts and in the general population. Un sarao de la chacona is one of the earliest known examples of a chacona, the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica claims the chaconne was a slow dance, introduced into Spain by the Moors. Outstanding examples of early baroque chaconnes are Monteverdis Zefiro torna and Es steh Gott auf by Heinrich Schütz, one of the best known and most masterful and expressive examples of the chaconne is the final movement from the Violin Partita in D minor by Johann Sebastian Bach. This 256-measure chaconne takes a plaintive four-bar phrase through a kaleidoscope of musical expression in both major and minor modes. After the Baroque period, the fell into decline during the 19th century. However, the form saw a substantial revival during the 20th century. Both are usually in triple meter, begin on the beat of the bar. Francesca Caccini, Ciaccona Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber, Ciacona in D major for violin and basso continuo, another in the Partita no. 12, from the Sonate da camera a tre, doi violini, e violone o cembalo Girolamo Frescobaldi, Four ciaccone for harpsichord from Toccate d’intavolatura di cimbalo et organo, partite di diverse arie. 2 in D minor for solo violin Luigi Boccherini, Chaconne that represents Hell. in imitation of the one by M. Gluck, finale to Symphony in D minor, op. 12, no.4 in E minor, Op.98, finale Heinrich Reimann, Ciacona in F minor,51, for organ Jean Françaix, Chaconne for harp and string orchestra Gunnar de Frumerie, Chaconne op. 8, for piano Philip Glass, Echorus for two violins and string orchestra Philip Glass, Symphony No,3, third movement Philip Glass, Violin Concerto No. 13, for piano György Ligeti, Hungarian Rock, Chaconne, for harpsichord Douglas Lilburn, Chaconne, for Piano Frank Martin, Chaconne, for cello and piano Carl Nielsen, Chaconne, op. 32, for piano Henri Pousseur, Chaconne for solo violin Knudåge Riisager, Chaconne,50, for orchestra Poul Ruders, Chaconne for solo guitar Franz Schmidt, Chaconne in C♯ minor, for organ. Act 4, Scene 2 Paulo Galvão, Chacoinas in A minor for baroque guitar, jennifer Higdon, Chaconni, second movement from her violin concerto Krzysztof Penderecki, Ciaccona in memoria Giovanni Paolo II per archi from Polish Requiem. Francesco Tristano Schlimé, Chaconne/Ground Bass for piano, roman Turovsky, Chaconnes in C major, C minor and D minor for baroque lute. Simon Andrews, Chaconne, 2nd movement of Symphony No.1 For the heart is an organ of fire Marc-André Dalbavie, Ciaccona for orchestra
35.
Unmeasured prelude
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Unmeasured or non-measured prelude is a prelude in which the duration of each note is left to the performer. The form resurfaced in the music of the 20th century. The first unmeasured preludes appeared during the Renaissance era and they were short improvised compositions for lute, usually performed as an introduction to another piece of music or to test the instrument. Later unmeasured lute preludes retained the character of the genre but became more complex. Unmeasured preludes flourished into full-fledged compositions by the middle of the 17th century, however the development of lute music had already stopped by that time and the last surviving unmeasured lute preludes date from the end of the same century. Important lute composers who contributed to the development of the unmeasured prelude include Pierre Gaultier, René Mesangeau, unmeasured preludes for harpsichord started appearing around 1650. Louis Couperin is usually credited as the first composer to embrace the genre, Couperin wrote unmeasured preludes using long groups of whole notes, and these groups were connected by long curves. This kind of notation is found in Couperins unmeasured preludes and was also done by Élisabeth Jacquet de la Guerre, another important contribution to the development of the genre was made by Nicolas Lebègue, who used diverse note values in his unmeasured preludes. The first ever published unmeasured preludes appeared in Lebègues Le pieces de clavessin in 1677, unmeasured harpsichord prelude became a typical French genre, used by many famous composers including Jean-Philippe Rameau, Jean-Henri dAnglebert, Louis Marchand and Élisabeth Jacquet de la Guerre. Unmeasured preludes were also present in the works of German composers who were influenced by French style, of these, Johann Caspar Ferdinand Fischer was one of the first to use unmeasured preludes in harpsichord suites. One instance of unmeasured prelude by Giovanni Battista Draghi is the known example to appear in English harpsichord music. François Couperins didactic Lart de toucher le clavecin contained eight preludes that, while unmeasured and these pieces, along with several preludes from Nicolas Sirets Second Livre de Pieces de Clavecin, were among the last unmeasured harpsichord preludes written
36.
Ornament (music)
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In music, ornaments or embellishments are musical flourishes that are not necessary to carry the overall line of the melody, but serve instead to decorate or ornament that line. Many ornaments are performed as fast notes around a central note, the amount of ornamentation in a piece of music can vary from quite extensive to relatively little or even none. The word agrément is used specifically to indicate the French Baroque style of ornamentation, in the baroque period, it was common for performers to improvise ornamentation on a given melodic line. A singer performing a da capo aria, for instance, would sing the melody relatively unornamented the first time, improvised ornamentation continues to be part of the Irish musical tradition, particularly in sean-nós singing but also throughout the wider tradition as performed by the best players. Ornamentation may also be indicated by the composer, a number of standard ornaments are indicated with standard symbols in music notation, while other ornamentations may be appended to the score in small notes, or simply written out normally. Frequently, a composer will have his or her own vocabulary of ornaments, which will be explained in a preface, much like a code. A grace note is a written in smaller type, with or without a slash through it. In Spain, melodies ornamented upon repetition were called diferencias, and can be traced back to 1538, a trill, also known as a shake, is a rapid alternation between an indicated note and the one above. Sometimes it is expected that the trill will end with a turn, such variations are often marked with a few grace notes following the note that bears the trill indication. The trill is indicated by either a tr or a tr~~, with the ~ representing the length of the trill, in Baroque music, the trill is sometimes indicated with a + sign above or below the note. Play There is also a single tone trill variously called trillo or tremolo in late Renaissance, the mordent is thought of as a rapid alternation between an indicated note, the note above or below, and the indicated note again. This article as a whole addresses an approximate nineteenth-century standard, in the Baroque period, a Mordant was what later came to be called an inverted mordent and what is now often called a lower mordent. In the 19th century, however, the name mordent was generally applied to what is now called the upper mordent. Mordents of all sorts might typically, in some periods, begin with an extra inessential note, the same applies to trills, which in Baroque and Classical times would standardly begin with the added, upper note. A lower inessential note may or may not be raised to make it just one semitone lower than the principal note. A turn is a figure consisting of the note above the one indicated, the note itself, the note below the one indicated. It is marked by a mirrored S-shape lying on its side above the staff, the details of its execution depend partly on the exact placement of the turn mark. The following turns, might be executed like this, Play The exact speed at which the notes of a turn are executed can vary, the question of how a turn is best executed is largely one of context, convention, and taste
37.
Trill (music)
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The trill is a musical ornament consisting of a rapid alternation between two adjacent notes, usually a semitone or tone apart, which can be identified with the context of the trill. It is sometimes referred to by the German Triller, the Italian trillo, a cadential trill is a trill associated with a cadence. A trill provides rhythmic interest, melodic interest, and—through dissonance—harmonic interest, sometimes it is expected that the trill will end with a turn, or some other variation. Such variations are marked with a few appoggiaturas following the note that bears the trill indication. In most modern musical notation, a trill is indicated with the letters tr above the trilled note. This has sometimes been followed by a line, and sometimes, in the baroque and early classical periods. In those times the symbol was known as a chevron, the following two notations are equivalent, Both the tr and the wavy line are necessary for clarity when the trill is expected to be applied to more than one note. Also, when attached to a single notehead in one part that corresponds to smaller values in another part. The usual way of executing a trill, known as a trill, is to rapidly alternate between the note indicated and the note directly above it in the given scale. Listen to an example of a short passage ending on a trill, the first time, the passage ends in a trill, and the second, the passage does not. These examples are an approximation of how a trill might be executed, in many cases, the rate of the trill will not remain constant as indicated here, but will start slower and become more rapid. Whether a trill is played in this way or not is largely a matter of taste, the number of alternations between notes can vary according to the length of the note in question. Trills may also be played beginning on the note above the one indicated, additionally, a trill is often ended by playing the note below the one indicated followed by the note itself. In the baroque period, a number of signs indicating specific patterns with which a trill should be begun or ended were used, in the Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, Johann Sebastian Bach lists a number of these signs together with the correct way to interpret them. Unless one of these signs is indicated, the details of how to play the trill are up to the performer. Beyond the baroque era, specific signs for ornamentation are very rare, continuing through the time of Mozart, the default expectations for the interpretation of trills continued to be similar to those of the baroque. In music after the time of Mozart, the trill usually begins on the principal note, the trill is frequently found in classical music for all instruments, although it is more easily executed on some than others. For example, while it is easy to produce a trill on the flute
38.
Key (music)
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In music theory, the key of a piece is a group of pitches, or scale upon which a music composition is created in classical, Western art, and Western pop music. Notes and chords other than the tonic in a piece create varying degrees of tension, the key may be in the major or minor mode, although major is assumed in a phrase like this piece is in C. Popular songs are usually in a key, and so is classical music during the common practice period, longer pieces in the classical repertoire may have sections in contrasting keys. Methods that establish the key for a piece can be complicated to explain. The key signature is not always a reliable guide to the key of a written piece, occasionally, a piece in a mode such as Mixolydian or Dorian is written with a major or minor key signature appropriate to the tonic, and accidentals throughout the piece. Pieces in modes not corresponding to major or minor keys may sometimes be referred to as being in the key of the tonic. A piece using some type of harmony, resolving e. g. to A. An instrument may be said to be in a key, an unrelated usage referring to the pitches considered natural for that instrument. For example, modern trumpets are usually in the key of B♭, a key relationship is the relationship between keys, measured by common tones and nearness on the circle of fifths. The key usually identifies the tonic note and/or chord, the note and/or major or minor triad that represents the point of rest for a piece. For example, the key of G includes the following pitches, G, A, B, C, D, E, and F♯, and its corresponding tonic chord is G—B—D. Most often at the beginning and end of traditional pieces during the common practice period, a key may be major or minor. Music can be described as being in the Dorian mode, or Phrygian, languages other than English may use other key naming systems. Although many musicians confuse key with scale, a scale is a set of notes typically used in a key, while the key is the center of gravity. All of these notes and chords, however, are used in patterns that serve to establish the primacy of the tonic note. Cadences are particularly important in the establishment of key, even cadences that do not include the tonic note or triad, such as half cadences and deceptive cadences, serve to establish key because those chord sequences imply a unique diatonic context. Short pieces may stay in a single key throughout, more elaborate pieces may establish the main key, then modulate to another key, or a series of keys, then back to the original key. In the Baroque it was common to repeat a phrase of music, called a ritornello
39.
Canon (music)
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In music, a canon is a contrapuntal compositional technique or texture that employs a melody with one or more imitations of the melody played after a given duration. The initial melody is called the leader, while the imitative melody, the follower must imitate the leader, either as an exact replication of its rhythms and intervals or some transformation thereof. Repeating canons in which all voices are identical are called rounds—Row, Row, Row Your Boat. Why are some composers fascinated with canons, Canons are not unlike puzzles and other brainteasers, from just a few rules, you can achieve so much. Plus, canons have the appeal of any puzzle, there is the initial challenge, the mystery of solving it, and the feeling of satisfaction you get from completing it. Accompanied canon is a canon accompanied by one or more independent parts which do not take part in imitating the melody. Only in the 16th century did the word canon begin to be used to describe the strict, imitative texture created by such a procedure. The word is derived from the Greek κανών, Latinised as canon, which means law or norm and this rule was usually given verbally, but could also be supplemented by special signs in the score, sometimes themselves called canoni. Canons featured in the music of the Italian Trecento and the 14th century music of France, a famous example from Italy is “Tosto che l’Alba” by Gheraldo da Firenze. In both France and Italy, canons were often used to illustrate hunting songs. The Italian word for hunting is “caccia”, the French word “chace. ”A well-known French Chace is the anonymous “Se je chant”. ”Guillaume de Machaut also used the 3-voice “chace” form in movements from his masterpiece Le Lai de la Fontaine. Referring to the setting of the stanza of this work. Like the Trinity itself, a well-wrought chace can be far more than the sum of its parts, and this particular chace is possible Machaut’s greatest feat of subtilitas. In Dufay’s song “Resvelons nous, amoureux”, the two voices are in canon, but the upper part is what David Fallows describes as a “florid top line”. Bach and Handel featured canons in their works,2, Beethoven’s works feature a number of passages in canon. The following comes from his Symphony No,4, Antony Hopkins describes the above as “a delightfully naïve canon. ”An even subtler example comes from Beethoven’s Piano Sonata 29 Op.106. Wilfrid Mellers describes the section of the scherzo movement, as “mysterious”, with a metrical ambiguity that “makes the melodic phrases irregular. ”When the tune is repeated, it is “now in the left hand. In canon with the bass line. ”Mellers concludes, “Here contrapuntal oneness serves to control any airy floating in the asymmetry, it is not merely the wide-spread texture that sounds hollow
40.
Historically informed performance
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Historically informed performance is an approach to the performance of Western music and theatre. Within this approach, the performance adheres to state-of-the-art knowledge of the criteria of the period in which the music or theatre work was conceived. Whenever this knowledge conflicts with current aesthetic criteria, the option of re-training the listener/viewer, Music is usually played on instruments corresponding to the period of the piece being played, such as period instruments for early music. Historical treatises, as well as historical evidence, are used to gain insight into the performance practice of a historic era. Corresponding types of acting and scenery are deployed, historically informed performance has originated in the performance of Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque music, but has come to encompass music from the Classical and Romantic eras as well. Quite recently, the phenomenon has begun to affect the theatrical stage, historically informed performance needs to access musical instruments corresponding to the period of the music being played. This has led to the revival of musical instruments entirely gone out of practice, during the second half of the 18th century, the fortepiano gradually replaced the harpsichord. Many harpsichords were destroyed, indeed, the Paris Conservatory is notorious for having used harpsichords for firewood during the French Revolution, composers such as François Couperin, Domenico Scarlatti, Girolamo Frescobaldi, and Johann Sebastian Bach wrote for the harpsichord, clavichord, and organ. Among the foremost modern players of the harpsichord are Robert Hill, Igor Kipnis, Ton Koopman, Wanda Landowska, Gustav Leonhardt, Trevor Pinnock, Skip Sempé, Andreas Staier, Bach, Georg Philipp Telemann, Marin Marais, Antoine Forqueray, and Carl Frederick Abel. From largest to smallest, the family consists of, contrabass or violone bass viol tenor viol alto viol treble or descant viol. Among the foremost modern players of the viols are Paolo Pandolfo, Wieland Kuijken, Jordi Savall, John Hsu, there are many modern viol consorts. Recorders in multiple sizes are often played today in consorts of mixed size, handel and Telemann, among others, wrote solo works for the recorder. Arnold Dolmetsch did much to revive the recorder as a concert instrument, reconstructing a consort of recorders all at low pitch. A few of the singers who have contributed to the historically informed performance movement are Emma Kirkby, Max van Egmond, Julianne Baird, Nigel Rogers, historic pictures, layout sketches and sources give information about the layout of singers and instruments. Three main layouts are documented, Circle Choir in the front of the instruments Singers, Johann Mattheson, The singers must stand alltime in front. Some familiar difficult items are as follows, Early composers often wrote using the symbols as today, yet in a different meaning. For example, what is written as an appoggiatura is often meant to be longer or shorter than the notated length, E. g. the note durations may be omitted altogether, such as in unmeasured preludes, pieces written without rhythm or metre indications. The music may be written using alternative, non-modern notations, such as tablature, some tablature notations are only partially decoded, such as the notation in the harp manuscript by Robert ap Huw
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