1.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
2.
University of Paris
–
The University of Paris, metonymically known as the Sorbonne, was a university in Paris, France. Emerging around 1150 as an associated with the cathedral school of Notre Dame de Paris. Vast numbers of popes, royalties, scientists and intellectuals were educated at the University of Paris, following the turbulence of the French Revolution, education was suspended in 1793 whereafter its faculties were partly reorganised by Napoleon as the University of France. In 1896, it was renamed again to the University of Paris, in 1970, following the May 1968 events, the university was divided into 13 autonomous universities. Others, like Panthéon-Sorbonne University, chose to be multidisciplinary, in 1150, the future University of Paris was a student-teacher corporation operating as an annex of the Notre-Dame cathedral school. The university had four faculties, Arts, Medicine, Law, the Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest, as students had to graduate there in order to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin, France, Normandy, Picardy, the last came to be known as the Alemannian nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply, the faculty and nation system of the University of Paris became the model for all later medieval universities. Under the governance of the Church, students wore robes and shaved the tops of their heads in tonsure, students followed the rules and laws of the Church and were not subject to the kings laws or courts. This presented problems for the city of Paris, as students ran wild, students were often very young, entering the school at age 13 or 14 and staying for 6 to 12 years. Three schools were especially famous in Paris, the palatine or palace school, the school of Notre-Dame, the decline of royalty brought about the decline of the first. The other two were ancient but did not have much visibility in the early centuries, the glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, until it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much frequented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning, the first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève was Hubold, who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège, he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the century include Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres, Drogo of Paris, Manegold of Germany. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux, Abélard, humanistic instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and it was completed by the study of Canon law. The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève and it was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor
University of Paris
University of Paris
–
University of Paris
University of Paris
University of Paris
–
The Sorbonne covered by snow.
3.
M.D.
–
The Doctor of Medicine is a terminal medical degree for practitioners of medicine. The meaning of the varies between different countries. In countries that follow the United States system, the M. D. denotes a first professional degree awarded upon initial graduation from medical school. In those countries, the title of the equivalent first professional degree is Bachelor of Medicine, in 1703, the University of Glasgows first medical graduate, Samuel Benion, was issued with the academic degree of Doctor of Medicine. North American medical schools switched to the tradition of the ancient universities of Scotland, the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York was the first American university to grant the MD degree instead of the MB. Early medical schools in North America that granted the Doctor of Medicine degrees were Columbia, Penn, Harvard, Maryland and these first few North American medical schools that were established were founded by physicians and surgeons who had been trained in England and Scotland. A feminine form, Doctress of Medicine or Medicinae Doctrix, has also used by the New England Female Medical College in Boston in the 1860s. The MD degree is earned in four years. Following the awarding of the MD, physicians who wish to practice in the United States are required to complete at least one internship year and those who wish to further specialize in areas such as cardiology or interventional radiology then complete a fellowship. Depending upon the chosen field, residencies and fellowships involve an additional three to eight years of training after obtaining the MD. This can be lengthened with additional research years, which can last one, the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine or DO degree allows similar practice in the United States and Canada to the M. D. degree and Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine are fully licensed physicians. The M. D. degree is awarded only by the 137 Medical Schools in the United States, similarly, M. D. s must attend M. D. rated residency and fellowship programs while D. O. s can attend either type of program. The American M. D. degree is recognized by most countries in the world. While the D. O. degree is getting more widely accepted in countries as fully licensed physicians. In Canada, the MD is the medical degree required to practice medicine. McGill University Faculty of Medicine is the medical school in Canada that continues to award the MD. MDCM is from the Latin Medicinae Doctorem et Chirurgiae Magistrum meaning doctor of medicine, upon graduation, students enter into a residency phase of training. Combined medical and research training is offered through programs granting MD-PhD, the National Institutes of Health through its Medical Scientist Training Program funds MD-PhD training programs at many universities
M.D.
–
The
University of Freiburg Faculty of Medicine
4.
20th-century philosophy
–
20th-century philosophy saw the development of a number of new philosophical schools— including logical positivism, analytic philosophy, phenomenology, existentialism, and poststructuralism. In terms of the eras of philosophy, it is labelled as contemporary philosophy. However, there have been disputes regarding both the terminology and the reasons behind the divide, as well as philosophers who see themselves as bridging the divide, in addition, philosophy in the twentieth century became increasingly technical and harder for lay people to read. Analytic philosophy is a term for a style of philosophy that came to dominate English-speaking countries in the 20th century. In the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Scandinavia, Australia, and New Zealand, epistemology in the Anglo-American tradition was radically shaken up by the publication of Edmund Gettiers 1963 paper Is Justified True Belief Knowledge. This paper provided counter-examples to the formulation of knowledge going back to Plato. Neopragmatism, sometimes called linguistic pragmatism is a recent philosophical term for philosophy that reintroduces many concepts from pragmatism. V. O and it repudiates the notion of universal truth, epistemological foundationalism, representationalism, and the notion of epistemic objectivity. It is a nominalist approach that denies that natural kinds and linguistic entities have substantive ontological implications and this approach typically involves eschewing philosophical theories in favour of close attention to the details of the use of everyday, ordinary language. The later Ludwig Wittgenstein is ordinary language philosophys most celebrated proponent outside the Oxford circle, second generation figures include Stanley Cavell and John Searle. Continental philosophy, in usage, refers to a set of traditions of 19th and 20th century philosophy from mainland Europe. This sense of the term originated among English-speaking philosophers in the half of the 20th century. Existentialism is generally considered a philosophical and cultural movement that holds that the point of philosophical thinking must be the individual. Common themes are the primacy of experience, Angst, the absurd, while György Lukácss History and Class Consciousness and Karl Korschs Marxism and Philosophy, first published in 1923, are often seen as the works that inaugurated this current. Maurice Merleau-Ponty coined the phrase Western Marxism much later, phenomenology is the study of the phenomena of experience. It is a philosophical movement founded in the early years of the 20th century by Edmund Husserl. Phenomenology, in Husserls conception, is concerned with the systematic reflection on, and study of, the structures of consciousness. This phenomenological ontology can be differentiated from the Cartesian method of analysis, which sees the world as objects, sets of objects. Post-structuralism is a label formulated by American academics to denote the heterogeneous works of a series of French intellectuals who came to prominence in the 1960s and 70s
20th-century philosophy
–
History of
Western philosophy
5.
Western Philosophy
–
Western philosophy is the philosophical thought and work of the Western world. The word philosophy itself originated from the Hellenic, philosophia, literally, the scope of philosophy in the ancient understanding, and the writings of the ancient philosophers, were all intellectual endeavors. Western Philosophy is generally said to begin in the Greek cities of western Asia Minor with Thales of Miletus and his most noted students were respectively Anaximander and Anaximenes of Miletus. Pythagoras, from the island of Samos off the coast of Ionia, pythagoreans hold that all is number, giving formal accounts in contrast to the previous material of the Ionians. They also believe in metempsychosis, the transmigration of souls, or reincarnation, Socrates The key figure in Greek philosophy is Socrates. Socrates studied under several Sophists but transformed Greek philosophy into a unified, Socrates used a critical approach called the elenchus or Socratic method to examine peoples views. He aimed to study human things, the life, justice, beauty. Although Socrates wrote nothing himself, some of his many disciples wrote down his conversations and he was tried for corrupting the youth and impiety by the Greek democracy. He was found guilty and sentenced to death, although his friends offered to help him escape from prison, he chose to remain in Athens and abide by his principles. His execution consisting in drinking the poison hemlock and he died in 399 B. C, Plato Socrates most important student was Plato. Plato founded the Academy of Athens and wrote a number of dialogues, some central ideas of Platos dialogues are the immortality of the soul, the benefits of being just, that evil is ignorance, and the Theory of Forms. Forms are universal properties that constitute reality and contrast with the changeable material things he called becoming. Aristotle Platos most outstanding student was Aristotle, Aristotle was perhaps the first truly systematic philosopher and scientist. He wrote books on physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, politics, Aristotelian logic was the first type of logic to attempt to categorize every valid syllogism. Aristotelian philosophy exercised considerable influence on almost all western philosophers, including Greek, Roman, Christian, Jewish, the Neoplatonic and Christian philosophers of Late Antiquity. Early medieval philosophy was influenced by the likes of Stoicism, neo-Platonism, but, above all, the prominent figure of this period was St. Augustinianism was the preferred starting point for most philosophers up until the 13th century. The foundations of many northern European universities were built in the Middle Ages by waves of Irish, Scottish & English monks from the Celtic Church begun by Columba, see Celtic Christianity. Erigena is said to have been stabbed to death by his students with their pens and his theology would today be called pantheistic, in keeping with Celtic resolutions of pagan and Christian philosophy
Western Philosophy
–
History of
Western philosophy
6.
Structuralism
–
It works to uncover the structures that underlie all the things that humans do, think, perceive, and feel. Alternatively, as summarized by philosopher Simon Blackburn, structuralism is the belief that phenomena of life are not intelligible except through their interrelations. These relations constitute a structure, and behind local variations in the surface there are constant laws of abstract culture. Structuralism in Europe developed in the early 1900s, in the linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure. French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss was arguably the first such scholar, sparking a widespread interest in structuralism, the structuralist mode of reasoning has been applied in a diverse range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, psychology, literary criticism, economics and architecture. The most prominent thinkers associated with structuralism include Claude Lévi-Strauss, linguist Roman Jakobson, as an intellectual movement, structuralism was initially presumed to be the heir apparent to existentialism. Though elements of their work necessarily relate to structuralism and are informed by it, in the 1970s, structuralism was criticized for its rigidity and ahistoricism. The term structuralism is a term that describes a particular philosophical/literary movement or moment. The origins of structuralism connect with the work of Ferdinand de Saussure on linguistics, along with the linguistics of the Prague, in brief, de Saussures structural linguistics propounded three related concepts. De Saussure argued for a distinction between langue and parole and he argued that the sign was composed of both a signified, an abstract concept or idea, and a signifier, the perceived sound/visual image. Because different languages have different words to describe the objects or concepts. Signs thus gain their meaning from their relationships and contrasts with other signs, as he wrote, in language, there are only differences without positive terms. Blending Freud and de Saussure, the French structuralist Jacques Lacan applied structuralism to psychoanalysis and, in a different way, in this foreword Althusser states the following, Despite the precautions we took to distinguish ourselves from the structuralist ideology. Despite the decisive intervention of categories foreign to structuralism, the terminology we employed was too close in many respects to the structuralist terminology not to give rise to an ambiguity. Our interpretation of Marx has generally been recognized and judged, in homage to the current fashion and we believe that despite the terminological ambiguity, the profound tendency of our texts was not attached to the structuralist ideology. In a later development, feminist theorist Alison Assiter enumerated four ideas that she says are common to the forms of structuralism. First, that a structure determines the position of each element of a whole, second, that every system has a structure. Third, structural laws deal with co-existence rather than change, fourth, structures are the real things that lie beneath the surface or the appearance of meaning
Structuralism
–
Sub-fields
Structuralism
–
Sociology
7.
Post-structuralism
–
Existential phenomenology is a significant influence, Colin Davis has argued that post-structuralists might just as accurately be called post-phenomenologists. Post-structuralist philosophers like Derrida and Foucault did not form a self-conscious group, Structuralism rejected the phenomenological idea that knowledge could be centred on the human knower, and sought what they considered a more secure foundation for knowledge. In phenomenology, this foundation is experience itself, in structuralism, knowledge is founded on the structures that make possible, concepts. By contrast, post-structuralism argues that founding knowledge either on experience or systematic structures is impossible. This impossibility was not meant as a failure or loss, a major theory associated with Structuralism was binary opposition. This theory proposed that there are theoretical and conceptual opposites, often arranged in a hierarchy. Such binary pairs could include Enlightenment/Romantic, male/female, speech/writing, rational/emotional, signifier/signified, the only way to properly understand these meanings is to deconstruct the assumptions and knowledge systems that produce multiplicity, the illusion of singular meaning. It emphasized the logical and scientific nature of its results, post-structuralism offers a way of studying how knowledge is produced and critiques structuralist premises. It argues that history and culture condition the study of underlying structures. A post-structuralist approach argues that to understand an object, it is necessary to both the object itself and the systems of knowledge that produced the object. Post-structuralists generally assert that post-structuralism is historical, and they classify structuralism as descriptive and this terminology relates to Ferdinand de Saussures distinction between the views of historical and descriptive reading. From this basic distinction, post-structuralist studies often emphasize history to analyze descriptive concepts, by studying how cultural concepts have changed over time, post-structuralists seek to understand how those same concepts are understood by readers in the present. For example, Michel Foucaults Madness and Civilization is both a history and an inspection of cultural attitudes about madness, the uncertain distance between structuralism and post-structuralism is further blurred by the fact that scholars rarely label themselves as post-structuralists. Some scholars associated with structuralism, such as Roland Barthes and Foucault, some observers from outside the post-structuralist camp have questioned the rigor and legitimacy of the field. American philosopher John Searle argued in 1990 that The spread of poststructuralist literary theory is perhaps the best known example of a silly, similarly, physicist Alan Sokal in 1997 criticized the postmodernist/poststructuralist gibberish that is now hegemonic in some sectors of the American academy. Has elicited wrong film and literary theory on a grand scale, one can find dozens of books of literary theory bogged down in signifiers and signifieds, but only a handful that refer to Chomsky. Post-structuralism emerged in France during the 1960s as a movement critiquing structuralism, merquior a love–hate relationship with structuralism developed among many leading French thinkers in the 1960s. In a 1966 lecture Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences, Jacques Derrida presented a thesis on an apparent rupture in intellectual life, Derrida interpreted this event as a decentering of the former intellectual cosmos
Post-structuralism
–
Sub-fields
Post-structuralism
–
Plato –
Kant –
Nietzsche
8.
University of Paris VIII
–
The University of Paris VIII or University of Vincennes in Saint-Denis is a public university in Paris. Once part of the federal University of Paris system, it is now a public institution and is part of the Université Paris Lumières. Most undergraduate degrees are taught in French and it is one of the thirteen inheritors of the worlds second oldest academic institution, the University of Paris, shortly before the latter officially ceased to exist on December 31,1970. It was founded as a response to events of May 1968. Founded in 1969, the new institution was named Centre Universitaire Expérimental de Vincennes in Vincennes. In 1971, it gained university status, thus allowing it to award its own degrees. Since moving to Saint-Denis in 1980, the university has become a major teaching, as soon as it opened, Vincennes became the venue for a continuation of 1968, being occupied almost immediately by student radicals, and being the scene of violent confrontations with the police. The department had its accreditation withdrawn after it was revealed that Miller had handed out course credit to someone she met on a bus. Since the turmoil in the late 1960s, the University has endorsed a far more mainstream academic life and has brought in new departments, new professors, in 1980, the University was relocated to the suburb of Saint-Denis. The university offers over a hundred undergraduate, graduate and diploma courses and it is particularly well known for its Political Sciences programme as it is the only public university in France to offer this subject at undergraduate level. The University of Paris VIII also offers some distance-learning opportunities for a number of subjects such as Law. Paris-VIII is exceptionally well-connected and enjoys over 250 partnerships with universities around the world, alternatively, students also have the possibility to teach French in a high school abroad or to complete an internship
University of Paris VIII
–
Paris 8 University
University of Paris VIII
–
Entrance of Paris 8 University
9.
Mirror stage
–
The mirror stage is a concept in the psychoanalytic theory of Jacques Lacan. The mirror stage is based on the belief that infants recognize themselves in a mirror or other symbolic contraption which induces apperception from the age of six months. Initially, Lacan proposed that the stage was part of an infants development from 6 to 18 months. This evolution in Lacans thinking becomes clear in his essay titled The Subversion of the Subject. Wallon noted that by the age of six months, human infants. In a 1931 paper, Wallon argued that mirrors helped children develop a sense of self-identity, holland to declare that there is no evidence whatsoever for Lacans notion of a mirror stage. There is no evidence whatsoever that this implausible consequence of the theory is borne out in practice, Wallons ideas about mirrors in infant development were distinctly non-Freudian and little-known until revived in modified form a few years later by Lacan. As Evans writes, Lacan used this observation as a springboard to develop an account of the development of human subjectivity that was inherently, though often implicitly, Lacan attempted to link Wallons ideas to Freudian psychoanalysis, but was met with indifference from the larger community of Freudian psychoanalysts. Richard Webster explains how the complex, and at times impenetrable paper appears to have little or no lasting impression on the psychoanalysts who first heard it. It was not mentioned in Ernest Jones’s brief account of the congress, in the 1930s, Lacan attended seminars by Alexandre Kojève, whose philosophy was heavily influenced by Hegel. The diachronic structure of the stage theory is influenced by Kojèves interpretation of the Master-slave dialectic. Lacan continued to refine and modify the mirror stage concept through the remainder of his career, the mirror stage is a phenomenon to which I assign a twofold value. In the first place, it has value as it marks a decisive turning-point in the mental development of the child. In the second place, it typifies an essential libidinal relationship with the body image, as Lacan further develops the mirror stage concept, the stress falls less on its historical value and ever more on its structural value. Historical value refers to the development of the child and structural value to the libidinal relationship with the body image. In Lacans fourth Seminar, La relation dobjet, he states that the stage is far from a mere phenomenon which occurs in the development of the child. It illustrates the nature of the dual relationship. The visual identity given from the mirror supplies imaginary wholeness to the experience of a fragmentary real, see Lacans paper, The Mirror Stage as formative of the function of the I as revealed in psychoanalytic experience, the first of his Écrits
Mirror stage
–
A toddler and a mirror
10.
Sigmund Freud
–
Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg and he qualified as a doctor of medicine in 1881 at the University of Vienna. Upon completing his habilitation in 1885, he was appointed a docent in neuropathology, Freud lived and worked in Vienna, having set up his clinical practice there in 1886. In 1938 Freud left Austria to escape the Nazis and he died in exile in the United Kingdom in 1939. In creating psychoanalysis, Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association and discovered transference, Freuds redefinition of sexuality to include its infantile forms led him to formulate the Oedipus complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytical theory. His analysis of dreams as wish-fulfillments provided him with models for the analysis of symptom formation. On this basis Freud elaborated his theory of the unconscious and went on to develop a model of psychic structure comprising id, in his later work Freud developed a wide-ranging interpretation and critique of religion and culture. Though in overall decline as a diagnostic and clinical practice, psychoanalysis remains influential within psychology, psychiatry, and psychotherapy, nonetheless, Freuds work has suffused contemporary Western thought and popular culture. In the words of W. H. Audens 1940 poetic tribute, by the time of Freuds death, Freud was born to Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg, in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the first of eight children. Both of his parents were from Galicia, in modern-day Ukraine and his father, Jakob Freud, a wool merchant, had two sons, Emanuel and Philipp, by his first marriage. Jakobs family were Hasidic Jews, and although Jakob himself had moved away from the tradition and he and Freuds mother, Amalia Nathansohn, who was 20 years younger and his third wife, were married by Rabbi Isaac Noah Mannheimer on 29 July 1855. They were struggling financially and living in a room, in a locksmiths house at Schlossergasse 117 when their son Sigmund was born. He was born with a caul, which his mother saw as an omen for the boys future. In 1859, the Freud family left Freiberg, Freuds half brothers emigrated to Manchester, England, parting him from the inseparable playmate of his early childhood, Emanuels son, John. Jakob Freud took his wife and two children firstly to Leipzig and then in 1860 to Vienna where four sisters and a brother were born, Rosa, Marie, Adolfine, Paula, in 1865, the nine-year-old Freud entered the Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium, a prominent high school. He proved an outstanding pupil and graduated from the Matura in 1873 with honors and he loved literature and was proficient in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, Hebrew, Latin and Greek. Freud entered the University of Vienna at age 17, in 1876, Freud spent four weeks at Clauss zoological research station in Trieste, dissecting hundreds of eels in an inconclusive search for their male reproductive organs. He graduated with an MD in 1881, in 1882, Freud began his medical career at the Vienna General Hospital
Sigmund Freud
–
Freud by Max Halberstadt, 1921
Sigmund Freud
–
Freud's birthplace, a rented room in a locksmith's house,
Příbor,
Austro-Hungarian Empire
Sigmund Freud
–
Freud (aged 16) and his beloved mother,
Amalia, in 1872
Sigmund Freud
–
Freud's home at
Berggasse 19, Vienna
11.
Theodor Reik
–
Theodor Reik was a psychoanalyst who trained as one of Freuds first students in Vienna, Austria, and was a pioneer of lay analysis in the United States. Reik received a Ph. D. degree in psychology from the University of Vienna in 1912 and his dissertation, a study of Flauberts Temptation of Saint Anthony, was only the second psychoanalytic dissertation ever written, coming one year after Otto Ranks. After receiving his doctorate, Reik devoted several years to studying with Freud, Freud financially supported Reik and his family during his psychoanalytic training. During this time, Reik was analyzed by Karl Abraham, Reik, who was Jewish, emigrated from Germany to the Netherlands in 1934 and to the United States in 1938 in flight from Nazism. In 1944, he became a citizen of the United States. During the First World War, Reik was mobilized and had to face up to the experience of unbearable helplessness found in trench-warfare, in 1935, a book is published in which Reik speaks about the dread when confronting thoughts, from the point of view of the psychoanalyst. When peace was restored, a Committee directed by Julius Tandler was organized in Vienna to investigate committed felonies. At that time, the practice of medicine in places directed by Wagner von Jauregg and Arnold Durig had been discredited by a former patient, sigmund Freud was appointed as an expert on the medical care to be provided to war neurotics. In February 1920, he gave its opinion and, in October 1920, another matter shook up the Austrian capital. In November 1924, Durig asked Freud to write an evaluation about the question of lay analysis, it is to say. In December 1924, during a session of the Vienna Health State Board and they take place during the same period and in the same city, Vienna, they each concerned the practice of caregivers, and they implicated the same individuals who were in authority. Among those treated by Reik in his Viennese period was the philosopher Frank P. Ramsey, once in the United States, Reik found himself rejected from the dominant community of medical psychoanalysts because he did not possess an M. D. Degree. As part of Reiks conflict with the medical community, he participated in the first lawsuit which helped define. Reik is best known for studies of psychotherapeutic listening, masochism, criminology, literature. Reik further explored this theme in The Unknown Murderer, in which he examined the process of psychologically profiling unknown criminals and he argued out that because of unconscious guilt, criminals often leave clues that can lead to their identification and arrest. In Ritual, Four Psychoanalytic Studies, he uses psychoanalysis to shed light on the meaning of couvade, puberty rites, according to Reik, analysts come to understand patients most deeply by examining their own unconscious intuitions about their patients. The Secret Self comprises a number of essays of literary criticism. In this book, Reik continued to develop his interest in the relationship between his own personality and his work, exploring how his internal conflicts shaped his interpretations of literary works
Theodor Reik
–
Thedor Reik.
Theodor Reik
–
Memorial plaque, Berlin.
12.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
–
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was a German philosopher and an important figure of German idealism. He achieved wide renown in his day and, while primarily influential within the tradition of philosophy, has become increasingly influential in the analytic tradition as well. Although he remains a figure, his canonical stature within Western philosophy is universally recognized. His philosophy of spirit conceptually integrates psychology, the state, history, art, religion and his account of the master–slave dialectic has been highly influential, especially in 20th-century France. Hegel has been seen in the 20th century as the originator of the thesis, antithesis, synthesis triad, however, as an explicit phrase, Hegel has influenced many thinkers and writers whose own positions vary widely. Hegel was born on August 27,1770 in Stuttgart, in the Duchy of Württemberg in southwestern Germany, christened Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, he was known as Wilhelm to his close family. His father, Georg Ludwig, was Rentkammersekretär at the court of Karl Eugen, Hegels mother, Maria Magdalena Louisa, was the daughter of a lawyer at the High Court of Justice at the Württemberg court. She died of a fever when Hegel was thirteen. Hegel and his father caught the disease but narrowly survived. Hegel had a sister, Christiane Luise, and a brother, Georg Ludwig, at the age of three Hegel went to the German School. When he entered the Latin School two years later, he knew the first declension, having been taught it by his mother. In 1776, Hegel entered Stuttgarts gymnasium illustre, during his adolescence Hegel read voraciously, copying lengthy extracts in his diary. Authors he read include the poet Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock and writers associated with the Enlightenment, such as Christian Garve, Hegels studies at the Gymnasium were concluded with his Abiturrede entitled The abortive state of art and scholarship in Turkey. At the age of eighteen Hegel entered the Tübinger Stift, where he had as roommates the poet Friedrich Hölderlin, sharing a dislike for what they regarded as the restrictive environment of the Seminary, the three became close friends and mutually influenced each others ideas. All greatly admired Hellenic civilization, and Hegel additionally steeped himself in Jean-Jacques Rousseau and they watched the unfolding of the French Revolution with shared enthusiasm. Schelling and Hölderlin immersed themselves in theoretical debates on Kantian philosophy, Hegel at this time envisaged his future as that of a Popularphilosoph, i. e. Having received his certificate from the Tübingen Seminary, Hegel became Hofmeister to an aristocratic family in Bern. During this period he composed the text which has known as the Life of Jesus
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
–
Portrait by
Jakob Schlesinger dated 1831, the year of Hegel's death.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
–
The birthplace of Hegel in
Stuttgart, which now houses the Hegel Museum
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
–
Hegel sees the "world soul on horseback," Napoleon.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
–
Hegel with his Berlin students Sketch by Franz Kugler
13.
Martin Heidegger
–
Martin Heidegger was a German philosopher and a seminal thinker in the Continental tradition and philosophical hermeneutics. According to the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, he is acknowledged to be one of the most original. His first and best known book, Being and Time, though unfinished, is one of the philosophical works of the 20th century. Heidegger approached the question through an inquiry into the being that has an understanding of Being, and asks the question about it, namely, Human being, for Heidegger thinking is thinking about things originally discovered in our everyday practical engagements. The consequence of this is that our capacity to think cannot be the most central quality of our being because thinking is a reflecting upon this more original way of discovering the world. Heideggers later work includes criticisms of technologys instrumentalist understanding in the Western tradition as enframing, treating all of Nature as a reserve on call for human purposes. Heidegger was born in rural Meßkirch, Germany, the son of Johanna, raised a Roman Catholic, he was the son of the sexton of the village church that adhered to the First Vatican Council of 1870, which was observed mainly by the poorer class of Meßkirch. Heidegger was short and sinewy, with piercing eyes. He enjoyed outdoor pursuits, being proficient at skiing. In the two following, he worked first as an unsalaried Privatdozent. He served as a soldier during the year of World War I, working behind a desk. During the 1930s, critics of Heideggers espousal of a Nazi-style rhetoric of martial manliness noted the unheroic nature of his service in WWI, in 1923, Heidegger was elected to an extraordinary Professorship in Philosophy at the University of Marburg. His colleagues there included Rudolf Bultmann, Nicolai Hartmann, and Paul Natorp, Heideggers students at Marburg included Hans-Georg Gadamer, Hannah Arendt, Karl Löwith, Gerhard Krüger, Leo Strauss, Jacob Klein, Gunther Anders, and Hans Jonas. Following on from Aristotle, he began to develop in his lectures the main theme of his philosophy, the question of the sense of being. He extended the concept of subject to the dimension of history and concrete existence, which he found prefigured in such Christian thinkers as Saint Paul, Augustine of Hippo, Luther and he also read the works of Dilthey, Husserl, and Max Scheler. In 1927, Heidegger published his main work Sein und Zeit, when Husserl retired as Professor of Philosophy in 1928, Heidegger accepted Freiburgs election to be his successor, in spite of a counter-offer by Marburg. Heidegger remained at Freiburg im Breisgau for the rest of his life, declining a number of later offers and his students at Freiburg included Arendt, Günther Anders, Hans Jonas, Karl Löwith, Charles Malik, Herbert Marcuse and Ernst Nolte. Emmanuel Levinas attended his lecture courses during his stay in Freiburg in 1928, Heidegger was elected rector of the University on 21 April 1933, and joined the National Socialist German Workers Party on 1 May
Martin Heidegger
–
Martin Heidegger
Martin Heidegger
–
The Mesnerhaus in
Meßkirch, where Heidegger grew up
Martin Heidegger
–
Heidegger's stone-and-tile chalet clustered among others at Todtnauberg
Martin Heidegger
–
Heidegger's grave in Meßkirch
14.
Ferdinand de Saussure
–
Ferdinand Mongin de Saussure was a Swiss linguist and semiotician. His ideas laid a foundation for significant developments in both linguistics and semiology in the 20th century. He is widely considered one of the founders of 20th-century linguistics, one of his translators, Roy Harris, summarized Saussures contribution to linguistics and the study of the whole range of human sciences. It is particularly marked in linguistics, philosophy, psychology, sociology and anthropology, although they have undergone extension and critique over time, the dimensions of organization introduced by Saussure continue to inform contemporary approaches to the phenomenon of language. Prague school linguist Jan Mukařovský writes that Saussures discovery of the structure of the linguistic sign differentiated the sign both from mere acoustic things. And from mental processes, and that in this development new roads were opened not only for linguistics. He was born in Geneva in 1857 and his father was Henri Louis Frédéric de Saussure, a chemist, entomologist, and taxonomist. Saussure showed signs of talent and intellectual ability as early as the age of fourteen. In the fall of 1970, he began attending the Institution Martine, there he lived with the family of fellow classmate, Elie David. Saussure was not pleased, as he complained, I entered the Collège de Genève, after a year of studying Latin, Ancient Greek and Sanskrit and taking a variety of courses at the University of Geneva, he commenced graduate work at the University of Leipzig in 1876. Two years later, at 21, Saussure published a book entitled Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européennes and he returned to Leipzig to defend his doctoral dissertation De lemploi du génitif absolu en Sanscrit, and was awarded his doctorate in February 1880. Soon, he relocated to the University of Paris, where he lectured on Sanskrit, Gothic and Old High German and he taught at the École pratique des hautes études for eleven years during which he was named Chevalier de la Légion dHonneur. When offered a professorship in Geneva in 1892, he returned to Switzerland, Saussure lectured on Sanskrit and Indo-European at the University of Geneva for the remainder of his life. It was not until 1907 that Saussure began teaching the Course of General Linguistics and he died in 1913 in Vufflens-le-Château, Vaud, Switzerland. His brother was the Esperantist René de Saussure, and his son was the psychoanalyst Raymond de Saussure, Saussure attempted, at various times in the 1880s and 1890s, to write a book on general linguistic matters. Saussure also had a impact on the development of linguistic theory in the first half of the 20th century. His two currents of thought emerged independently of other, one in Europe, the other in America. The results of each incorporated the basic notions of Saussures thought in forming the central tenets of structural linguistics, in Europe, the most important work in that period of influence was done by the Prague school
Ferdinand de Saussure
–
Ferdinand de Saussure
15.
Roman Jakobson
–
Roman Osipovich Jakobson was a Russian–American linguist and literary theorist. Influenced by the work of Ferdinand de Saussure, Jakobson developed, with Nikolai Trubetzkoy, techniques for the analysis of systems in languages. He went on to apply the techniques of analysis to syntax and morphology. He made numerous contributions to Slavic linguistics, most notably two studies of Russian case and an analysis of the categories of the Russian verb and he studied at the Lazarev Institute of Oriental Languages and then at the Historical-Philological Faculty of Moscow University. As a student he was a figure of the Moscow Linguistic Circle and took part in Moscows active world of avant-garde art. The linguistics of the time was overwhelmingly neogrammarian and insisted that the scientific study of language was to study the history. Jakobson was also known for his critique of the emergence of sound in film. Jakobson received a degree from Moscow University in 1918. 1920 was a year of conflict in Russia, and Jakobson relocated to Prague as a member of the Soviet diplomatic mission to continue his doctoral studies. He immersed himself both into the academic and cultural life of pre-World War II Czechoslovakia and established relationships with a number of Czech poets. Jakobson received his Ph. D. from Charles University in 1930 and he became a professor at Masaryk University in Brno in 1933. He also made an impression on Czech academics with his studies of Czech verse, in 1926, together with Vilém Mathesius and others he became one of the founders of the Prague school of linguistic theory. There his numerous works on phonetics helped continue to develop his concerns with the structure and this mode of analysis has been since applied to the plane of Saussurean sense by his protégé Michael Silverstein in a series of foundational articles in functionalist linguistic typology. Jakobson escaped from Prague in early March 1939 via Berlin for Denmark, where he was associated with the Copenhagen linguistic circle and he fled to Norway on 1 September 1939, and in 1940 walked across the border to Sweden, where he continued his work at the Karolinska Hospital. In New York, he began teaching at The New School, at the École libre des hautes études, a sort of Francophone university-in-exile, he met and collaborated with Claude Lévi-Strauss, who would also become a key exponent of structuralism. He also made the acquaintance of many American linguists and anthropologists, such as Franz Boas, Benjamin Whorf, when the American authorities considered repatriating him to Europe, it was Franz Boas who actually saved his life. After the war, he became a consultant to the International Auxiliary Language Association, in 1949 Jakobson moved to Harvard University, where he remained until his retirement in 1967. In his last decade he maintained an office at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in the early 1960s Jakobson shifted his emphasis to a more comprehensive view of language and began writing about communication sciences as a whole
Roman Jakobson
–
Roman Jakobson
16.
Karl Jaspers
–
Karl Theodor Jaspers was a German-Swiss psychiatrist and philosopher who had a strong influence on modern theology, psychiatry, and philosophy. After being trained in and practicing psychiatry, Jaspers turned to philosophical inquiry and he was often viewed as a major exponent of existentialism in Germany, though he did not accept this label. Jaspers was born in Oldenburg in 1883 to a mother from a farming community. He showed an early interest in philosophy, but his fathers experience with the legal system undoubtedly influenced his decision to study law at University of Heidelberg. It soon became clear that Jaspers did not particularly enjoy law, in 1910 he married Gertrud Mayer, the sister of his close friends Gustav Mayer and Ernst Mayer. Jaspers became dissatisfied with the way the community of the time approached the study of mental illness. In 1913 Jaspers habilitated at the faculty of the Heidelberg University. The post later became a permanent philosophical one, and Jaspers never returned to clinical practice, during this time Jaspers was a close friend of the Weber family. In 1921, at the age of 38, Jaspers turned from psychology to philosophy and he became a philosopher, in Germany and Europe. After the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, Jaspers was considered to have a Jewish taint due to his Jewish wife, in 1938 he fell under a publication ban as well. Many of his long-time friends stood by him, however, and he was able to continue his studies, but he and his wife were under constant threat of removal to a concentration camp until 30 March 1945, when Heidelberg was liberated by American troops. In 1948 Jaspers moved to the University of Basel in Switzerland and he remained prominent in the philosophical community and became a naturalized citizen of Switzerland living in Basel until his death on his wifes 90th birthday in 1969. Jaspers dissatisfaction with the understanding of mental illness led him to question both the diagnostic criteria and the methods of clinical psychiatry. He published a paper in 1910 in which he addressed the problem of whether paranoia was an aspect of personality or the result of biological changes. Although it did not broach new ideas, this introduced a rather unusual method of study. Not unlike Freud, Jaspers studied patients in detail, giving information about the patients as well as notes on how the patients themselves felt about their symptoms. This has become known as the method and now forms a mainstay of psychiatric. Jaspers set down his views on mental illness in a book which he published in 1913 and this work has become a classic in the psychiatric literature and many modern diagnostic criteria stem from ideas found within it
Karl Jaspers
–
Karl Jaspers in 1946
Karl Jaspers
–
Karl Jaspers: Allgemeine Psychopathologie, first print 1913.
17.
Karl Marx
–
Karl Marx was a Prussian-born philosopher, economist, sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. Born in Trier to a family, he later studied political economy. His work has influenced subsequent intellectual, economic, and political history. These economic critiques were set out in works such as the three volumes, published between 1867 and 1894, that comprise Das Kapital. According to Marx, states are run in the interests of the class but are nonetheless represented as being in favor of the common interest of all. He predicted that, like previous socioeconomic systems, capitalism produced internal tensions which would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system, socialism. Marx actively fought for its implementation, arguing that the class should carry out organised revolutionary action to topple capitalism. Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history and his work in economics laid the basis for much of the current understanding of labour and its relation to capital, and subsequent economic thought. Many intellectuals, labour unions, artists and political parties worldwide have been influenced by Marxs work, Marx is typically cited as one of the principal architects of modern sociology and social science. Karl Marx was born on 5 May 1818 to Heinrich Marx and he was born at Brückengasse 664 in Trier, a town then part of the Kingdom of Prussias Province of the Lower Rhine. Marx was ancestrally Jewish, his grandfather was a Dutch rabbi, while his paternal line had supplied Triers rabbis since 1723. Marx was also a cousin once removed of German Romantic poet Heinrich Heine, also born to a German Jewish family in the Rhineland. Largely non-religious, Heinrich was a man of the Enlightenment, interested in the ideas of the philosophers Immanuel Kant, a classical liberal, he took part in agitation for a constitution and reforms in Prussia, then governed by an absolute monarchy. In 1815 Heinrich Marx began work as an attorney, in 1819 moving his family to a property near the Porta Nigra. Her sister Sophie Pressburg, was Marxs aunt and was married to Lion Philips Marxs uncle through this marriage, Lion Philips was a wealthy Dutch tobacco manufacturer and industrialist, upon whom Karl and Jenny Marx would later often come to rely for loans while they were exiled in London. Little is known of Karl Marxs childhood, the third of nine children, he became the oldest son when his brother Moritz died in 1819. Young Karl was baptised into the Lutheran Church in August 1824 along with his siblings, Sophie, Hermann, Henriette, Louise, Emilie. Young Karl was privately educated, by Heinrich Marx, until 1830, by employing many liberal humanists as teachers, Wyttenbach incurred the anger of the local conservative government
Karl Marx
–
Marx in 1875
Karl Marx
–
Marx's birthplace in Trier. It was purchased by the
Social Democratic Party of Germany in 1928 and now houses a museum devoted to him.
Karl Marx
–
Jenny von Westphalen in the 1830s
Karl Marx
–
Friedrich Engels, whom Marx met in 1844; they became lifelong friends and collaborators.
18.
Salvador Dali
–
Salvador Domingo Felipe Jacinto Dalí i Domènech, Marqués de Dalí de Púbol, known professionally as Salvador Dalí, was a prominent Spanish surrealist painter born in Figueres, Catalonia, Spain. Dalí was a draftsman, best known for the striking. His painterly skills are often attributed to the influence of Renaissance masters and his best-known work, The Persistence of Memory, was completed in August 1931. Dalís expansive artistic repertoire included film, sculpture, and photography, Dalí was highly imaginative, and also enjoyed indulging in unusual and grandiose behavior. In the Summer of 1912, the moved to the top floor of Carrer Monturiol 24. Dalís older brother, who had also been named Salvador, had died of gastroenteritis nine months earlier, on 1 August 1903. His father, Salvador Dalí i Cusí, was a lawyer and notary whose strict disciplinary approach was tempered by his wife, Felipa Domenech Ferrés. When he was five, Dalí was taken to his brothers grave and told by his parents that he was his brothers reincarnation, of his brother, Dalí said, resembled each other like two drops of water, but we had different reflections. He was probably a first version of myself but conceived too much in the absolute, images of his long-dead brother would reappear embedded in his later works, including Portrait of My Dead Brother. Dalí also had a sister, Anna Maria, who was three years younger, in 1949, she published a book about her brother, Dalí As Seen By His Sister. His childhood friends included future FC Barcelona footballers Sagibarba and Josep Samitier, during holidays at the Catalan resort of Cadaqués, the trio played football together. In 1916, he discovered modern painting on a summer vacation trip to Cadaqués with the family of Ramon Pichot. The next year, Dalís father organized an exhibition of his drawings in their family home. He had his first public exhibition at the Municipal Theatre in Figueres in 1919, in February 1921, Dalís mother died of breast cancer. Dalí was 16 years old, he said his mothers death was the greatest blow I had experienced in my life. I could not resign myself to the loss of a being on whom I counted to make invisible the unavoidable blemishes of my soul, after her death, Dalís father married his deceased wifes sister. Dalí did not resent this marriage, because he had a great love, in 1922, Dalí moved into the Residencia de Estudiantes in Madrid and studied at the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando. A lean 1.72 metres tall, Dalí already drew attention as an eccentric and he had long hair and sideburns, coat, stockings, and knee-breeches in the style of English aesthetes of the late 19th century
Salvador Dali
–
Salvador Dalí photographed by
Carl Van Vechten on 29 November 1939
Salvador Dali
–
The Dalí family in 1910: from the upper left, aunt Maria Teresa, mother, father, Salvador Dalí, aunt Caterina (later became second wife of father), sister Anna Maria and grandmother Anna
Salvador Dali
–
Wild-eyed antics of Dalí (left) and fellow
surrealist artist
Man Ray in Paris on June 16, 1934
Salvador Dali
–
The Persistence of Memory
19.
Georges Bataille
–
Georges Albert Maurice Victor Bataille was a French intellectual and literary figure working in literature, philosophy, anthropology, economics, sociology and history of art. His writing, which included essays, novels, and poetry, explored such subjects as eroticism, mysticism, surrealism and his work would prove influential on subsequent schools of philosophy and social theory, including poststructuralism. Georges Bataille was the son of Joseph-Aristide Bataille, a tax collector, born in Billom in the region of Auvergne, his family moved to Reims in 1898, where he was baptized. He went to school in Reims and then Épernay, although brought up without religious observance, he converted to Catholicism in 1914, and became a devout Catholic for about nine years. He considered entering the priesthood and attended a Catholic seminary briefly, however, he quit, apparently in part in order to pursue an occupation where he could eventually support his mother. He eventually renounced Christianity in the early 1920s, Bataille attended the École Nationale des Chartes in Paris, graduating in February 1922. Though he is referred to as an archivist and a librarian because of his employment at the Bibliothèque Nationale. After graduating he moved to the School of Advanced Spanish Studies in Madrid, as a young man, he befriended, and was much influenced by, the Russian existentialist, Lev Shestov. Founder of several journals and literary groups, Bataille is the author of a large and diverse body of work, readings, poems and he sometimes published under pseudonyms, and some of his publications were banned. Initially attracted to Surrealism, Bataille quickly fell out with its founder André Breton, although Bataille, Bataille was a member of the extremely influential College of Sociology which included several other renegade surrealists. Fascinated by human sacrifice, he founded a society, Acéphale. According to legend, Bataille and the members of Acéphale each agreed to be the sacrificial victim as an inauguration. An indemnity was offered for an executioner, but none was found before the dissolution of Acéphale shortly before the war, the group also published an eponymous review of Nietzsches philosophy which attempted to postulate what Derrida has called an anti-sovereignty. Collaborators in these projects included André Masson, Pierre Klossowski, Roger Caillois, Jules Monnerot, Jean Rollin, Bataille drew from diverse influences and used various modes of discourse to create his work. The imagery of the novel is built upon a series of metaphors which in turn refer to philosophical constructs developed in his work, the eye, the egg, the sun, the earth, the testicle. During World War II Bataille produced Summa Atheologica which comprises his works Inner Experience, Guilty, after the war he composed The Accursed Share, which he said represented thirty years work. The singular conception of sovereignty expounded there would become an important topic of discussion for Derrida, Giorgio Agamben, Jean-Luc Nancy, Bataille also founded the influential journal Critique. Batailles first marriage was to actress Silvia Maklès, in 1928, they divorced in 1934, Bataille also had an affair with Colette Peignot, who died in 1938
Georges Bataille
–
Georges Bataille in the 1950s
20.
Henri Wallon (psychologist)
–
Henri Paul Hyacinthe Wallon was a French philosopher, psychologist, neuropsychiatrist, teacher, and politician. He was the grandson of Henri-Alexandre Wallon, Henri Wallon conducted two parallel careers. As a convinced Marxist, he took up political duties while carrying out work in the field of developmental psychology. In 1931, Wallon joined the French socialist political party SFIO, in 1944 he was named Secretary of National Education. He was elected Communist Deputy and chaired an education reform commission that durably marked the National Education system under the name The Langevin-Wallon Project, Henri Wallon is better known by his scientific work primarily devoted to child development. Following his education, he occupied the highest positions in the French university world where he fostered leading research activity, Wallon was admitted to the École Normale Supérieure in 1899, where he passed higher-level competitive examinations for teachers and professors in philosophy in 1902. In 1908 he became a doctor of medicine, and from 1908 to 1931 worked with mentally retarded children, during World War I, Wallon was mobilized as an army medical officer and became interested in neurology. In 1920 he became a lecturer at the Sorbonne. From 1937 to 1949 he was a professor with the Collège de France, in 1948, as director of the University of Pariss Institute of Psychology, he created the journal Enfance. He was a president of the Groupe français déducation nouvelle from 1946 until his death in 1962, Henri Wallon organized his observations by presenting the development of the childs personality as a succession of stages. Some of these stages are marked by the predominance of affectivity over intelligence whereas others appear characterized instead by the primacy of intelligence over affectivity, the childs personality is developed in this discontinuous and competitive succession between the prevalence of intelligence and affectivity. Thus, Wallon articulated at the core of a model of concepts such as emotion, attitudes. His conception of the stages implied the idea that regression was possible, dominating infantile life, they are the internal feelings and the affective factors fostered with the surroundings. On the motor plane this period is characterized by weak motor control, the quality responses from the infants surroundings will enable him to pass from the gestural disorder to differentiated emotions. What prevails then for the child is the influence of the external world, the integration of this external influence will support the awakening of two types of intelligence, one practical, the other the discursive through imitation and appropriation of language. The personalism stage is characterized by a predominance, once again, around 3 years of age the child tends to be opposed to the adult in a kind of negativist crisis, but this attitude is soon followed by a period of motor and social imitation. The child expresses thus the ambivalence binding him to the model that the adult represents for him. Here, intellectual faculties seem to take the lead over the affective one, during his schooling the child acquires capacities for voluntary memory and attention
Henri Wallon (psychologist)
–
Contents
21.
Marquis de Sade
–
Donatien Alphonse François, Marquis de Sade, was a French aristocrat, revolutionary politician, philosopher, and writer, famous for his libertine sexuality. He was a proponent of freedom, unrestrained by morality, religion. The words sadism and sadist are derived from his name, during the French Revolution, he was an elected delegate to the National Convention. Many of his works were written in prison and he was his parents only surviving child. He was educated by an uncle, the Abbé de Sade, in Sades youth, his father abandoned the family, his mother joined a convent. He was raised with servants who indulged his every whim, which led to him becoming known as a rebellious, later in his childhood, Sade was sent to the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris, a Jesuit college, for four years. While at the school, he was tutored by Abbé Jacques-François Amblet, later in life, the Abbé testified at one of Sades trials, saying that Sade had a passionate temperament which made him eager in the pursuit of pleasure but had a good heart. At the Lycée Louis-le-Grand, he was subjected to corporal punishment, including flagellation. At age 14, Sade began attending a military academy. At age 15, he was commissioned as a sub-lieutenant on 14 December 1755 after 20 months of training, becoming a soldier. After 13 months as a sub-lieutenant, he was commissioned to the rank of cornet in the Brigade de S. André of the Comte de Provences Carbine Regiment and he eventually became Colonel of a Dragoon regiment and fought in the Seven Years War. In 1766, he had a theatre built in his castle. In January 1767, his father died, the men of the Sade family alternated between using the marquis and comte titles. His grandfather, Gaspard François de Sade, was the first to use marquis, occasionally, he was the Marquis de Sade, but is identified in documents as the Marquis de Mazan. The Sade family were noblesse dépée, claiming at the time the oldest, Frank-descended nobility, so, at Court, precedence was by seniority and royal favor, not title. There is father-and-son correspondence, wherein father addresses son as marquis, for many years, Sades descendants regarded his life and work as a scandal to be suppressed. At that time, the marquis of legend was so unmentionable in his own family that Xavier de Sade only learned of him in the late 1940s when approached by a journalist. He subsequently discovered a store of Sades papers in the family château at Condé-en-Brie and his youngest son, the Marquis Thibault de Sade, has continued the collaboration
Marquis de Sade
–
Portrait of Donatien Alphonse François de Sade by
Charles Amédée Philippe van Loo. The drawing dates to 1760, when the Sade was nearly 20 years old. It's the only known authentic portrait of the Marquis.
Marquis de Sade
–
The
Château de Lacoste above
Lacoste, a residence of Sade; currently the site of theater festivals.
Marquis de Sade
–
Sade's father, Jean-Baptiste François Joseph de Sade.
Marquis de Sade
–
Marie Eleonore de Maille de Carman.
22.
Alain Badiou
–
Badiou has written about the concepts of being, truth, event and the subject in a way that, he claims, is neither postmodern nor simply a repetition of modernity. Badiou has been involved in a number of organisations. Badiou argues for resurrecting the idea of communism, Badiou is the son of mathematician and member of the Resistance in France during World War II Raymond Badiou. He was a student at the Lycée Louis-Le-Grand and then the École Normale Supérieure, in 1960, he wrote his diplôme détudes supérieures on Spinoza for Georges Canguilhem. Badiou was politically active early on, and was one of the founding members of the Unified Socialist Party. The PSU was particularly active in the struggle for the decolonization of Algeria and he wrote his first novel, Almagestes, in 1964. In 1967 he joined a group organized by Louis Althusser, became increasingly influenced by Jacques Lacan. By then he already had a grounding in mathematics and logic. The student uprisings of May 1968 reinforced Badious commitment to the far Left, to quote Badiou himself, the UCFml is the Maoist organization established in late 1969 by Natacha Michel, Sylvain Lazarus, myself and a fair number of young people. During this time, Badiou joined the faculty of the newly founded University of Paris VIII/Vincennes-Saint Denis which was a bastion of counter-cultural thought, nonetheless, Badiou has never renounced Althusser or Lacan, and sympathetic references to Marxism and psychoanalysis are not uncommon in his more recent works. He took up his current position at the ENS in 1999 and he is also associated with a number of other institutions, such as the Collège International de Philosophie. He was a member of LOrganisation Politique which, as mentioned above and this organization disbanded in 2007, according to the French Wikipedia article. In 2002, he was a co-founder of the Centre International dEtude de la Philosophie Française Contemporaine, alongside Yves Duroux, Badiou has also enjoyed success as a dramatist with plays such as Ahmed le Subtil. In the last decade, a number of Badious works have been translated into English, such as Ethics, Deleuze, Manifesto for Philosophy, Metapolitics. Short pieces by Badiou have likewise appeared in American and English periodicals, such as Lacanian Ink, New Left Review, Radical Philosophy, Cosmos and History and Parrhesia. Unusually for a contemporary European philosopher his work is increasingly being taken up by militants in countries like India, in 2005–6 Badiou got into a fierce controversy within the confines of Parisian intellectual life. It started in 2005 with the publication of his Circonstances 3 and this book generated a strong response with Badiou being labelled Anti-Semitic. The wrangling became a cause célèbre with articles going back and forth in the French newspaper Le Monde, linguist and Lacanian philosopher Jean-Claude Milner, a past president of Collège international de philosophie, has accused Badiou of Anti-Semitism
Alain Badiou
–
Alain Badiou, 2012
Alain Badiou
–
Drawing from 18 November 2006 "Truth procedure in politics" lecture
23.
Louis Althusser
–
Louis Pierre Althusser was a French Marxist philosopher. He was born in Algeria and studied at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris, Althusser was a longtime member—although sometimes a strong critic—of the French Communist Party. His arguments and theses were set against the threats that he saw attacking the theoretical foundations of Marxism, Althussers life was marked by periods of intense mental illness. In 1980, he killed his wife by strangling her and he was declared unfit to stand trial due to insanity, and was committed to a psychiatric hospital for three years. He did little further work, dying in 1990. Althusser was born in French Algeria in the town of Birmendreïs, near Algiers and he was named after his paternal uncle who had been killed in the First World War. Althusser wrote later that his mother had intended to marry his uncle, Althusser later alleged that his mother treated him as a substitute for his deceased uncle, to which he attributed deep psychological damage. Following the death of his father, Althusser moved from Algiers with his mother and younger sister to Marseille and he joined the Roman Catholic youth movement Jeunesse Étudiante Chrétienne in 1937. Althusser was a brilliant student at the Lycée du Parc in Lyon and was accepted by the elite École Normale Supérieure in Paris. There, Althusser began the thinking that took him toward Communism and he was held in the camp for the rest of the war, under conditions that contributed to his lifelong bouts of mental instability. Returning from the war, he was in health, both mentally and physically. In 1947 he was hospitalized for the first time for manic-depressive psychosis, Althusser would from this point suffer from periodic mental illness for the rest of his life and was repeatedly hospitalized. In about 1950 he received narcotherapy and from 1964 to 1980 he was treated by the psychiatrist and psychonanalyst René Diatkine, after the war, Althusser was able to finally attend the École Normale Supérieure in Paris. The school was sympathetic with his illness, allowing him to reside in his own room in the school infirmary, Althusser would live at the ENS in the Rue dUlm for decades, except for periods of hospitalization. His professional role within the structure was ill-defined, leading to his nickname amongst the students Althusserarien. In 1946, Althusser met Hélène Rytman, a revolutionary of Lithuanian Jewish origin, Hélène had been involved with the French resistance and had been a member of the French Communist Party, but the party expelled her. Althusser and Rytman began a life-long relationship, Althusser obtained his diplôme détudes supérieures in 1947 for a work directed by Gaston Bachelard and titled On Content in the Thought of G. W. F. Hegel. Formerly a devout if left-wing Catholic, Althusser joined the French Communist Party in 1948 and that same year, Althusser passed the agrégation in philosophy
Louis Althusser
–
Louis Althusser
24.
Julia Kristeva
–
Julia Kristeva is a Bulgarian-French philosopher, literary critic, psychoanalyst, feminist, and, most recently, novelist, who has lived in France since the mid-1960s. She is now a professor at the University Paris Diderot, Kristeva became influential in international critical analysis, cultural studies and feminism after publishing her first book, Semeiotikè, in 1969. She is prominent in structuralist and poststructuralist thought, Kristeva is also the founder and head of the Simone de Beauvoir Prize committee. Born in Sliven, Bulgaria to Christian parents, Kristeva is the daughter of a church accountant, Kristeva and her sister attended a Francophone school run by Dominican nuns. Kristeva became acquainted with the work of Mikhail Bakhtin at this time in Bulgaria, Kristeva went on to study at the University of Sofia, and while a postgraduate there obtained a research fellowship that enabled her to move to France in December 1965, when she was 24. She continued her education at several French universities, studying under Lucien Goldmann and Roland Barthes, on August 2,1967, Kristeva married the novelist Philippe Sollers, né Philippe Joyaux. Kristeva taught at Columbia University in the early 1970s, and remains a Visiting Professor and she has also published under the married name Julia Joyaux. After joining the Tel Quel group founded by Sollers, Kristeva focused on the politics of language and she trained in psychoanalysis, and earned her degree in 1979. In some ways, her work can be seen as trying to adapt a psychoanalytic approach to the poststructuralist criticism, for example, her view of the subject, and its construction, shares similarities with Sigmund Freud and Lacan. However, Kristeva rejects any understanding of the subject in a structuralist sense, instead, in this way, she contributes to the poststructuralist critique of essentialized structures, whilst preserving the teachings of psychoanalysis. She travelled to China in the 1970s and later wrote About Chinese Women and it is an emotional field, tied to the instincts, which dwells in the fissures and prosody of language rather than in the denotative meanings of words. It is closely tied to the feminine, and represents the state of the pre-Mirror Stage infant. Upon entering the Mirror Stage, the child learns to distinguish between self and other, and enters the realm of shared meaning, known as the symbolic. This process of separation is known as abjection, whereby the child must reject and move away from the mother in order to enter into the world of language, culture, meaning, and the social. This realm of language is called the symbolic and is contrasted with the semiotic in that it is associated with the masculine, the law, Kristeva departs from Lacan in the idea that even after entering the symbolic, the subject continues to oscillate between the semiotic and the symbolic. Therefore, rather than arriving at an identity, the subject is permanently in process. Because female children continue to identify to some degree with the mother figure and this continued identification with the mother may result in what Kristeva refers to in Black Sun as melancholia, given that female children simultaneously reject and identify with the mother figure. After abjecting the mother, subjects retain an unconscious fascination with the semiotic, desiring to reunite with the mother, slasher films thus provide a way for audience members to safely reenact the process of abjection by vicariously expelling and destroying the mother figure
Julia Kristeva
–
Julia Kristeva in Paris, 2008
Julia Kristeva
25.
Elisabeth Roudinesco
–
Élisabeth Roudinesco is a French historian and psychoanalyst, affiliated researcher in history at Paris Diderot University, in the group « Identités-Cultures-Territoires ». She also conducts a seminar on the history of psychoanalysis at the École Normale Supérieure and she has been awarded The Prix Décembre 2014 and The Prix des Prix 2014 for her biography of Freud, In his time and Ours translated at Harvard University Press. Her work has translated into thirty languages. Roudinesco was born to parents in newly liberated Paris in September 1944. She was an anglophile who, in the 1950s, introduced to France John Bowlbys theories on the importance of maternal care and she was a friend of Jacques Lacan - and whose sister was the feminist Louise Weiss, of the Javal family. Her father was physician Alexandre Roudinesco, of Romanian origin, who had a passion for history and he was born in Bucharest in a Jewish and francophile milieu, and his father had been an editor. She received her education in Paris at the Collège Sévigné. She also took classes with Michel de Certeau, Gilles Deleuze and this work was published under the title Généalogies. From 1969 to 1981, she was a member of the École Freudienne de Paris, founded by psychoanalyst and she was also a member of the editorial board of Action Poétique. She has written for French national newspapers, Libération, and then Le Monde since 1996, for the past 30 years, she has been married to, Olivier Bétourné, CEO of Le Seuil. In the 1970s, Elisabeth Roudinescos first works dealt with criticism, notably with Raymond Roussel, Antonin Artaud, Bertolt Brecht. This approach allowed her to demonstrate that most of 20th century literature has influenced by the history of Freudianism. From 1979, Elisabeth Roudinesco writes a history of psychoanalysis in France, at that time, the main model was still the biography, because the archives and documents of the psychoanalytical movement were still in the hand of Freuds heirs. Indeed, this corresponded to the historiographical trend centered on the notion of the founding father figure. However, this model has gradually declined, then, the Dreyfus affair, which has precipitated the arrival of intellectuals self-awareness as a class. Designating themselves as an avant-garde, they furnished fruitful and innovative ideas, finally, the emergence of literary modernity with Baudelaire, Rimbaud and Lautréamont, who enunciate, in a new style of writing, the project of changing man through I is another. Scholarly historiography emerged with such work as Henri Ellenbergers The Discovery of the Unconscious, The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry, though this book had been known in English-speaking countries since that date, the book remained largely unnoticed in France. Elisabeth Roudinesco republished it with a new preface in 1994
Elisabeth Roudinesco
–
Élisabeth Roudinesco in 2007
26.
Psychosexual development
–
Each stage – the oral, the anal, the phallic, the latent, and the genital – is characterized by the erogenous zone that is the source of the libidinal drive. He argued that adult neurosis often is rooted in childhood sexuality, sexual infantilism, in pursuing and satisfying his or her libido, the child might experience failure and thus might associate anxiety with the given erogenous zone. e. The tendency to place objects in the mouth, the id dominates, because neither the ego nor the super ego is yet fully developed, and, since the infant has no personality, every action is based upon the pleasure principle. Nonetheless, the ego is forming during the oral stage, two factors contribute to its formation, in developing a body image, he or she is discrete from the external world. Weaning is the key experience in the oral stage of psychosexual development. In the case of too little gratification, the infant might become passive upon learning that gratification is not forthcoming, the style of parenting influences the resolution of the id–ego conflict, which can be either gradual and psychologically uneventful, or which can be sudden and psychologically traumatic. If the child obeys the id, and the yield, he or she might develop a self-indulgent personality characterized by personal slovenliness. If the parents respond to that, the child must comply, but might develop a sense of self, because it was the parents will, and not the childs ego. The third stage of development is the phallic stage, spanning the ages of three to six years, wherein the childs genitalia are his or her primary erogenous zone. In the phallic stage, a boys decisive psychosexual experience is the Oedipus complex and this psychological complex derives from the 5th-century BC Greek mythologic character Oedipus, who unwittingly killed his father, Laius, and sexually possessed his mother, Jocasta. Analogously, in the stage, a girls decisive psychosexual experience is the Electra complex. The boy focuses his libido upon his mother, and focuses jealousy, Electra, Whereas boys develop castration anxiety, girls develop penis envy that is rooted in anatomic fact, without a penis, she cannot sexually possess mother, as the infantile id demands. As a result, the girl redirects her desire for sexual union upon father, thus, moreover, after the phallic stage, the girls psychosexual development includes transferring her primary erogenous zone from the infantile clitoris to the adult vagina. Freud thus considered a girls Oedipal conflict to be more intense than that of a boy, resulting, potentially. Psychologic defense, In both sexes, defense mechanisms provide transitory resolutions of the conflict between the drives of the Id and the drives of the Ego. The first defense mechanism is repression, the blocking of memories, emotional impulses, in a boy, a phallic-stage fixation might lead him to become an aggressive, over-ambitious, vain man. The genital stage affords the person the ability to confront and resolve his or her remaining psychosexual childhood conflicts, as in the phallic stage, the genital stage is centered upon the genitalia, but the sexuality is consensual and adult, rather than solitary and infantile. Hence, the stage proved controversial, for being based upon clinical observations of the Oedipus complex
Psychosexual development
–
The
neurologist Sigmund Freud,
c. 1921.
Psychosexual development
–
Oedipus complex: Oedipus explains the riddle of the Sphinx,
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres. (ca. 1805)
Psychosexual development
–
Electra complex: Electra at the Tomb of
Agamemnon, by
Frederic Leighton, c.1869
Psychosexual development
–
Psychosexual development: Bronisław Malinowski and natives,
Trobriand Islands (1918).
27.
Unconscious mind
–
The unconscious mind consists of the processes in the mind which occur automatically and are not available to introspection, and include thought processes, memories, interests, and motivations. Even though these processes exist well under the surface of conscious awareness they are theorized to exert an impact on behavior, the term was coined by the 18th-century German Romantic philosopher Friedrich Schelling and later introduced into English by the poet and essayist Samuel Taylor Coleridge. The concept was popularized by the Austrian neurologist and psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, in psychoanalytic theory, unconscious processes are understood to be directly represented in dreams, as well as in slips of the tongue and jokes. Thus the unconscious mind can be seen as the source of dreams and automatic thoughts, the repository of forgotten memories, and it has been argued that consciousness is influenced by other parts of the mind. These include unconsciousness as a habit, being unaware. Phenomena related to semi-consciousness include awakening, implicit memory, subliminal messages, trances, hypnagogia, while sleep, sleepwalking, dreaming, delirium, and comas may signal the presence of unconscious processes, these processes are seen as symptoms rather than the unconscious mind itself. Some critics have doubted the existence of the unconscious, the term unconscious was coined by the 18th-century German Romantic philosopher Friedrich Schelling and later introduced into English by the poet and essayist Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Some rare earlier instances of the term unconsciousness can be found in the work of the 18th-century German physician, the idea of internalised unconscious processes in the mind was also instigated in antiquity and has been explored across a wide variety of cultures. Unconscious aspects of mentality were referred to between 2500 and 600 BC in the Hindu texts known as the Vedas, found today in Ayurvedic medicine, william Shakespeare explored the role of the unconscious in many of his plays, without naming it as such. In 1880, Edmond Colsenet supports at the Sorbonne, a thesis on the unconscious. Elie Rabier and Alfred Fouillee perform syntheses of the unconscious at a time when Freud was not interested in the concept, psychologist Jacques Van Rillaer points out that, the unconscious was not discovered by Freud. Sigmund Freud and his followers developed an account of the unconscious mind and it plays an important role in psychoanalysis. Freud divided the mind into the mind and the unconscious mind. Later was then divided into the id and the superego. In this theory, the unconscious refers to the processes of which individuals make themselves unaware. Freud proposed a vertical and hierarchical architecture of human consciousness, the mind, the preconscious. He believed that significant psychic events take place below the surface in the unconscious mind and he interpreted such events as having both symbolic and actual significance. In psychoanalytic terms, the unconscious does not include all that is not conscious, Freud viewed the unconscious as a repository for socially unacceptable ideas, wishes or desires, traumatic memories, and painful emotions put out of mind by the mechanism of psychological repression
Unconscious mind
–
An iceberg is often (though misleadingly) used to provide a visual representation of
Freud's theory that most of the human mind operates unconsciously.
28.
Consciousness
–
Consciousness is the state or quality of awareness, or, of being aware of an external object or something within oneself. Despite the difficulty in definition, many believe that there is a broadly shared underlying intuition about what consciousness is. Western philosophers, since the time of Descartes and Locke, have struggled to comprehend the nature of consciousness, the majority of experimental studies assess consciousness in humans by asking subjects for a verbal report of their experiences. The origin of the concept of consciousness is often attributed to John Lockes Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Locke defined consciousness as the perception of what passes in a mans own mind and his essay influenced the 18th-century view of consciousness, and his definition appeared in Samuel Johnsons celebrated Dictionary. Consciousness is also defined in the 1753 volume of Diderot and dAlemberts Encyclopédie, the earliest English language uses of conscious and consciousness date back, however, to the 1500s. This phrase had the meaning of knowing that one knows. In its earliest uses in the 1500s, the English word conscious retained the meaning of the Latin conscius. For example, Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan wrote, Where two, or more men, know of one and the fact, they are said to be Conscious of it one to another. The Latin phrase conscius sibi, whose meaning was more related to the current concept of consciousness, was rendered in English as conscious to oneself or conscious unto oneself. For example, Archbishop Ussher wrote in 1613 of being so conscious unto myself of my great weakness, Lockes definition from 1690 illustrates that a gradual shift in meaning had taken place. A related word was conscientia, which primarily means moral conscience, in the literal sense, conscientia means knowledge-with, that is, shared knowledge. The word first appears in Latin juridical texts by such as Cicero. Here, conscientia is the knowledge that a witness has of the deed of someone else, rené Descartes is generally taken to be the first philosopher to use conscientia in a way that does not fit this traditional meaning. Descartes used conscientia the way modern speakers would use conscience, in Search after Truth he says conscience or internal testimony. The dictionary meaning of the word consciousness extends through several centuries, B. inward awareness of an external object, state, or fact. The philosophy of mind has given rise to many stances regarding consciousness, something within ones mind is introspectively conscious just in case one introspects it. Introspection is often thought to deliver ones primary knowledge of ones mental life, an experience or other mental entity is phenomenally conscious just in case there is something it is like for one to have it
Consciousness
–
Schema of the neural processes underlying consciousness, from
Christof Koch
Consciousness
–
Representation of consciousness from the seventeenth century
Consciousness
–
A Buddhist monk meditating
29.
Id, ego and super-ego
–
The super-ego can stop one from doing certain things that ones id may want to do. The super-ego is observable in how someone can view themselves as guilty, bad, pathetic, shameful, weak, Freud in The Ego and the Id discusses the general character of harshness and cruelty exhibited by the ideal – its dictatorial Thou shalt. At the time at which the Oedipus complex gives place to the super-ego they are something quite magnificent, the earlier in development, the greater the estimate of parental power. When one defuses into rivalry with the imago, then one feels the dictatorial thou shalt to manifest the power the imago represents. Four general levels are found in Freuds work, the auto-erotic, the narcissistic, the anal, and these different levels of development and the relations to parental imagos correspond to specific id forms of aggression and affection. Freuds proposal was influenced by the ambiguity of the term unconscious, the id is the disorganized part of the personality structure that contains a humans basic, instinctual drives. Id is the component of personality that is present from birth. It is the source of our needs, wants, desires. The id contains the libido, which is the source of instinctual force that is unresponsive to the demands of reality. We approach the id with analogies, we call it a chaos, in the id, …contrary impulses exist side by side, without cancelling each other out. There is nothing in the id that could be compared with negation, nothing in the id which corresponds to the idea of time. Developmentally, the id precedes the ego, i. e. the psychic apparatus begins, at birth, as an undifferentiated id, part of which then develops into a structured ego. The mind of a child is regarded as completely id-ridden, in the sense that it is a mass of instinctive drives and impulses. The id knows no judgements of value, no good and evil, instinctual cathexes seeking discharge—that, in our view, is all there is in the id. It is regarded as the reservoir of libido, the instinctive drive to create—the life instincts that are crucial to pleasurable survival. For Freud, the death instinct would thus seem to express itself—though probably only in part—as an instinct of destruction directed against the external world, Freud considered that the id, the whole person. Originally includes all the instinctual impulses, the destructive instinct as well, as eros or the life instincts. The reality principle that operates the ego is a mechanism that enables the individual to delay gratifying immediate needs
Id, ego and super-ego
–
"The ego is not sharply separated from the id; its lower portion merges into it.... But the repressed merges into the id as well, and is merely a part of it. The repressed is only cut off sharply from the ego by the resistances of repression; it can communicate with the ego through the id." (
Sigmund Freud, 1923)
30.
Libido
–
Libido, colloquially known as sex drive, is a persons overall sexual drive or desire for sexual activity. Sex drive is influenced by biological, psychological and social factors, biologically, the sex hormones and associated neurotransmitters that act upon the nucleus accumbens regulate libido in humans. Social factors, such as work and family, and internal factors, like personality and stress. Sex drive can also be affected by conditions, medications, lifestyle and relationship issues. A person who has extremely frequent or a suddenly increased sex drive may be experiencing hypersexuality, while the opposite condition is hyposexuality. A person may have a desire for sex, but not have the opportunity to act on that desire, psychologically, a persons urge can be repressed or sublimated. On the other hand, a person can engage in activity without an actual desire for it. Multiple factors affect human sex drive, including stress, illness, pregnancy, Sexual desires are often an important factor in the formation and maintenance of intimate relationships in humans. A lack or loss of desire can adversely affect relationships. Changes in the desires of any partner in a sexual relationship, if sustained and unresolved. The infidelity of a partner may be an indication that a partners changing sexual desires can no longer be satisfied within the current relationship, problems can arise from disparity of sexual desires between partners, or poor communication between partners of sexual needs and preferences. A person is sex starved or sexually frustrated when they have a libido, sigmund Freud defined libido as the energy, regarded as a quantitative magnitude. Of those instincts which have to do all that may be comprised under the word love. It is the energy or force, contained in what Freud called the id. Freud pointed out that these drives can conflict with the conventions of civilised behavior. Excessive use of ego defenses results in neurosis, a primary goal of psychoanalysis is to bring the drives of the id into consciousness, allowing them to be met directly and thus reducing the patients reliance on ego defenses. Freud viewed libido as passing through a series of stages within the individual. According to Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung, the libido is identified as psychic energy, defined more narrowly, libido also refers to an individuals urge to engage in sexual activity, and its antonym is the force of destruction termed mortido or destrudo
Libido
–
Sigmund Freud
31.
Defence mechanisms
–
A defence mechanism is an unconscious psychological mechanism that reduces anxiety arising from unacceptable or potentially harmful stimuli. Sigmund Freud was one of the first proponents of this construct, defence mechanisms may result in healthy or unhealthy consequences depending on the circumstances and frequency with which the mechanism is used. In psychoanalytic theory, repression is considered as the basis for defence mechanisms. Healthy persons normally use different defences throughout life, an ego defence mechanism becomes pathological only when its persistent use leads to maladaptive behaviour such that the physical or mental health of the individual is adversely affected. Among the purposes of ego defence mechanisms is to protect the mind/self/ego from anxiety and/or social sanctions and/or to provide a refuge from a situation with which one cannot currently cope, one resource used to evaluate these mechanisms is the Defense Style Questionnaire. The concept of id impulses comes from Sigmund Freud’s structural model, according to this theory, id impulses are based on the pleasure principle, instant gratification of ones own desires and needs. Sigmund Freud believed that the id represents biological instinctual impulses in humans, such as aggression, for example, when the id impulses conflict with the superego, unsatisfied feelings of anxiousness or feelings of anxiety come to the surface. To reduce these unpleasant feelings, the ego might use defence mechanisms, Freud believed that conflicts between these two structures resulted in conflicts associated with psychosexual stages. Freud proposed three structures of the psyche or personality, Id, The id is the reservoir of the libido. It is a selfish, childish, pleasure-oriented part of the personality with no ability to delay gratification, superego, The superego contains internalised societal and parental standards of good and bad, right and wrong behaviour. They include conscious appreciations of rules and regulations as well as those incorporated unconsciously, ego, The ego acts as a moderator between the pleasure sought by the id and the morals of the superego, seeking compromises to pacify both. It can be viewed as the sense of time and place. In the ego, there are two ongoing processes, there is no logic and no time line. Lust is important for this process, by contrast, there is the conscious secondary process, where strong boundaries are set and thoughts must be organised in a coherent way. The superego forms as the child grows and learns parental and social standards, when anxiety becomes overwhelming, it is the egos place to protect the person by employing defence mechanisms. Guilt, embarrassment and shame often accompany anxiety, the signaling function of anxiety is thus seen as a crucial one and biologically adapted to warn the organism of danger or a threat to its equilibrium. Defence mechanisms work by distorting the id impulses into acceptable forms, the list of defence mechanisms is huge and there is no theoretical consensus on the exact number. Classifying defence mechanisms according to some of their properties has been attempted, different theorists have different categorizations and conceptualizations of defence mechanisms
Defence mechanisms
–
The
iceberg metaphor is often used to explain the psyche's parts in relation to one another.
32.
Alfred Adler
–
Alfred W. Adler was an Austrian medical doctor, psychotherapist, and founder of the school of individual psychology. His emphasis on the importance of feelings of inferiority—the inferiority complex—is recognized as an element which plays a key role in personality development. Alfred Adler considered human beings as a whole, therefore he called his psychology Individual Psychology. Adler was the first to emphasize the importance of the element in the re-adjustment process of the individual. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Adler as the 67th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Alfred Adler was born at Mariahilfer Straße 208 in Rudolfsheim, then a village on the fringes of Vienna, and today part of Rudolfsheim-Fünfhaus. He was third of the seven children of a Hungarian-born, Jewish grain merchant, others contend that he was the second of the children. Alfreds younger brother died in the bed next to him, when Alfred was only three years old, Alfred was an active, popular child and an average student who was also known for his competitive attitude toward his older brother, Sigmund. Early on, he developed rickets, which kept him from walking until he was four years old, at the age of four, he developed pneumonia and heard a doctor say to his father, Your boy is lost. At that point, he decided to be a physician and he was very interested in the subjects of psychology, sociology and philosophy. After studying at University of Vienna, he specialized as an eye doctor and his clients included circus people, and it has been suggested that the unusual strengths and weaknesses of the performers led to his insights into organ inferiorities and compensation. In 1902 Adler received an invitation from Sigmund Freud to join an informal group that included Rudolf Reitler. The group, the Wednesday Society, met regularly on Wednesday evenings at Freuds home and was the beginning of the psychoanalytic movement, a long-serving member of the group, Adler became president of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society eight years later. He remained a member of the Society until 1911, when he and a group of his supporters formally disengaged from Freuds circle and this departure suited both Freud and Adler, since they had grown to dislike each other. During his association with Freud, Adler frequently maintained his own ideas which diverged from Freuds. While Adler is often referred to as a pupil of Freuds, in fact this was never true, they were colleagues, in 1929 Adler showed a reporter with the New York Herald a copy of the faded postcard that Freud had sent him in 1902. He wanted to prove that he had never been a disciple of Freuds, Adler founded the Society for Individual Psychology in 1912 after his break from the psychoanalytic movement. Adlers group initially included some orthodox Nietzschean adherents and their enmity aside, Adler retained a lifelong admiration for Freuds ideas on dreams and credited him with creating a scientific approach to their clinical utilization
Alfred Adler
–
Alfred Adler
33.
Wilfred Bion
–
Wilfred Ruprecht Bion DSO was an influential British psychoanalyst, who became president of the British Psychoanalytical Society from 1962 to 1965. Wilfred Bion was a potent and original contributor to psychoanalysis and he was one of the first to analyze patients in psychotic states using an unmodified analytic technique, he extended existing theories of projective processes and developed new conceptual tools. Bions ideas are highly unique, so that he remained larger than life to almost all who encountered him and he has been considered by Neville Symington as possibly the greatest psychoanalytic thinker. after Freud. Bion was born in Mathura, North-Western Provinces, India, and he was demobilised on 1 September 1921, and was granted the rank of captain. The full citation for his DSO reads, Awarded the Distinguished Service Order, T. /2nd Lt, Wilfred Ruprecht Bion, Tank Corps. For conspicuous gallantry, and devotion to duty, when in command of his tank in an attack he engaged a large number of enemy machine guns in strong positions, thus assisting the infantry to advance. When his tank was put out of action by a hit he occupied a section of trench with his men and machine guns. He moved about in the open, giving directions to other tanks when they arrived and he also got a captured machine gun into action against the enemy, and when reinforcements arrived he took command of a company of infantry whose commander was killed. He showed magnificent courage and initiative in a most difficult situation, after World War I, Bion studied history at The Queens College, Oxford, earning a bachelor of arts degree in 1922, then studying medicine at University College London. This was to prove an important influence on Bions interest in group behavior and it did, however, bring him into fruitful contact with Samuel Beckett. He wanted to train in Psychoanalysis and in 1938 he began an analysis with John Rickman. These ideas on the psychoanalysis of groups were taken up and developed by others such as S. H. Foulkes, Rickman, Bridger, Main. It was less a guide for the therapy of individuals within or by the group, the book quickly became a touchstone work for applications of group theory in a wide variety of fields. During the war Bions wife, Betty Jardine, gave birth to a daughter and his daughter, Parthenope, became a highly regarded psychoanalyst In Italy. She died prematurely, in a car crash in Italy in 1998, as his interest in psychoanalysis increased, he underwent training analysis, between 1946 and 1952, with Melanie Klein. He met his wife, Francesca, at the Tavistock in 1951. He joined a group of Kleins students, who were developing Kleins theory of the paranoid-schizoid. He produced a series of original and influential papers on the analysis of schizophrenia, and the specifically cognitive, perceptual
Wilfred Bion
–
Wilfred Bion
Wilfred Bion
–
Wilfred Bion in uniform in 1916
34.
Josef Breuer
–
Born in Vienna, his father, Leopold Breuer, taught religion in Viennas Jewish community. Breuers mother died when he was young, and he was raised by his maternal grandmother. He graduated from the Akademisches Gymnasium of Vienna in 1858 and then studied at the university for one year before enrolling in the school of the University of Vienna. He passed his exams in 1867 and went to work as assistant to the internist Johann Oppolzer at the university. Breuer, working under Ewald Hering at the medical school in Vienna, was the first to demonstrate the role of the vagus nerve in the reflex nature of respiration. This was a departure from previous physiological understanding, and changed the way scientists viewed the relationship of the lungs to the nervous system, the mechanism is now known as the Hering–Breuer reflex. That the sense of balance depends on the three semicircular canals was discovered in 1870 by the physiologist Friedrich Goltz, but Goltz did not discover how the balance-sensing apparatus functions. Breuer is perhaps best known for his work in the 1880s with Anna O. a woman suffering from paralysis of her limbs, Breuer observed that her symptoms reduced or disappeared after she described them to him. Anna O. humorously called this procedure chimney sweeping and she also coined the more serious appellation for this form of therapy, talking cure. Breuer later referred to it as the “cathartic method”, Breuer was then a mentor to the young Sigmund Freud, and had helped set him up in medical practice. Never before had anyone removed a hysterical symptom by such a method, Freud and Breuer documented their discussions of Anna O. and other case studies in their 1895 book, Studies in Hysteria. He also gives others, such as Pierre Janet, credit and argues for “eclecticism”, the two men became increasingly estranged. In 1894 Breuer was elected a Corresponding Member of the Vienna Academy of Sciences, Breuer married Mathilde Altmann in 1868, and they had five children. His daughter Dora later committed suicide rather than be deported by the Nazis, another one of his daughters, Margarete Schiff, perished in Theresienstadt on September 9,1942. Breuers granddaughter, Hanna Schiff, died imprisoned by the Nazis. Das Verhalten der Eigenwärme in Krankheiten, die Selbststeuerung der Athmung durch den Nervus vagus. In, Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften Wien, math. -naturw, bemerkungen zu Senators „Beiträge zur Lehre von der Eigenwärme und dem Fieber“. Über die Function der Bogengänge des Ohrlabyrinthes, beiträge zur Lehre vom statischen Sinne
Josef Breuer
–
Josef Breuer
35.
Max Eitingon
–
Max Eitingon was a Belarusian-German medical doctor and psychoanalyst, instrumental in establishing the institutional parameters of psychoanalytic education and training. Eitingon was cofounder and president from 1920 to 1933 of the Berlin Psychoanalytic Polyclinic, Eitingon was born to an extremely wealthy orthodox Jewish family in Mohilev, Imperial Russia, the son of a successful fur trader Chaim Eitingon. When he was twelve the family moved to Leipzig, before completing his dissertation, Eitingon worked as an intern at Eugen Bleulers Burghölzli Clinic in Zurich. In 1907 he was sent by Bleuler to meet Freud, and in 1908-9 underwent five weeks of analysis with Freud and he completed his dissertation, Effect of an epileptic attack on mental associations, with Carl Jungs help, and settled in Berlin. In 1913 he married Mirra Jacovleina Raigorodsky, an actress with the Moscow Art Theater, during World War I Eitingon became an Austrian citizen, joining the army as a doctor and using hypnosis to treat soldiers with war trauma. Settling in Berlin after the war, he was invited by Freud to join the secret Psychoanalytic Committee, Eitingon financed the building of a polyclinic, using Freuds son Ernst Freud as architect. Eitingon, Karl Abraham and Ernst Simmel ran the clinic until the rise of Nazism in 1933, at the 1925 Bad Homburg Congress, Eitingon proposed that the Berlin system of psychoanalytic training should be made an international standard under an International Training Commission. Eitingon was appointed president of the ITC, and kept the position until his death in 1943, after the family business suffered in the US Great Depression, Eitingon was forced for the first time to take a patient to earn his living. In 1932 he had a cerebral thrombosis, on Freuds advice, Eitingon left Germany in September 1933 and emigrated to Palestine. In 1934 he founded the Palestine Psychoanalytic Association in Jerusalem, however, despite Freuds recommendation, he did not manage to gain a chair in psychoanalysis at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Eitingon died on 30 July 1943 in Jerusalem, and is buried on Mount Scopus, genie, Talent und Psychoanalyse, Zentralblatt für Psychoanalyse 2 539-540. Gott und Vater, Imago 3, 90-93 Ein Fall von Verlesen, Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse 3, zur psychoanalytischen Bewegung, Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse 8, 103-106. Report of the Berlin Psychoanalytical Polyclinic, Bulletin of the International Psychoanalytical Association 4,254
Max Eitingon
–
Left to right, seated:
Sigmund Freud,
Sándor Ferenczi, and
Hanns Sachs. Standing;
Otto Rank,
Karl Abraham, Max Eitingon, and
Ernest Jones. Photo 1922
36.
Erik Erikson
–
Erik Homburger Erikson was a German-born American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychosocial development of human beings. He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis and his son, Kai T. Erikson, is a noted American sociologist. Although Erikson lacked even a bachelors degree, he served as a professor at prominent institutions such as Harvard, a Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Erikson as the 12th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Eriksons mother, Karla Abrahamsen, came from a prominent Jewish family in Copenhagen and she was married to Jewish stockbroker Valdemar Isidor Salomonsen, but had been estranged from him for several months at the time Erik was conceived. Little is known about Eriks biological father except that he was a Danish gentile, on discovering her pregnancy, Karla fled to Frankfurt, Germany, where Erik was born on June 15,1902 and was given the surname Salomonsen. Following Eriks birth, Karla trained to be a nurse and moved to Karlsruhe, in 1905 she married Eriks Jewish pediatrician, Theodor Homberger. In 1908, Erik Salomonsens name was changed to Erik Homberger, the development of identity seems to have been one of Eriksons greatest concerns in his own life as well as in his theory. As an older adult, he wrote about his adolescent “identity confusion” in his European days. “My identity confusion, ” he wrote was at times on “the borderline between neurosis and adolescent psychosis. ”Erikson’s daughter writes that her father’s “real psychoanalytic identity” was not established until he “replaced his stepfather’s surname with a name of his own invention. ”During his childhood and early adulthood he was known as Erik Homberger, and his parents kept the details of his birth a secret. He was a tall, blond, blue-eyed boy who was raised in the Jewish religion, at temple school, the kids teased him for being a Nordic, at grammar school, they teased him for being Jewish. At Das Humanistische Gymnasium his main interests were art, history and languages, after graduation, instead of attending medical school, as his stepfather had desired, he attended art school in Munich, but soon dropped out. Uncertain about his vocation and his fit in society, Erikson began a period of roaming about Germany and Italy as a wandering artist with his childhood friend Peter Blos. During this period he continued to contend with questions about his father and competing ideas of ethnic, religious and he specialized in child analysis and underwent a training analysis with Anna Freud. Helene Deutsch and Edward Bibring supervised his initial treatment of an adult, simultaneously he studied the Montessori method of education, which focused on child development and sexual stages. In 1933 he received his diploma from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute and this and his Montessori diploma were to be Eriksons only earned academic credentials for his lifes work. In 1931 Erikson married Joan Mowat Serson, a Canadian dancer, during their marriage Erikson converted to Christianity. Unable to regain Danish citizenship because of requirements, the family left for the United States. In 1936, Erikson left Harvard and joined the staff at Yale University, while at Yale he became a naturalized citizen of the United States and changed his familys surname from his adoptive fathers name of Homberger to Erikson
Erik Erikson
–
Erik Erikson
37.
Anna Freud
–
Anna Freud was an Austrian-British psychoanalyst. She was the 6th and last child of Sigmund Freud and Martha Bernays and she followed the path of her father and contributed to the field of psychoanalysis. Compared to her father, her work emphasized the importance of the ego, a Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Freud as the 99th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Anna Freud was born in Vienna, Austria-Hungary on 3 December 1895 and she was the youngest daughter of Sigmund Freud and Martha Bernays. She grew up in comfortable bourgeois circumstances and she had difficulties getting along with her siblings, specifically with her sister Sophie Freud. It seems that in general, she was competitive with her siblings. The close relationship between Anna and her father was different from the rest of her family and she was a lively child with a reputation for mischief. Freud wrote to his friend Wilhelm Fliess in 1899, Anna has become downright beautiful through naughtiness, Freud is said to refer to her in his diaries more than others in the family. Later on Anna Freud would say that she didn’t learn much in school, instead she learned from her father and this was how she picked up Hebrew, German, English, French and Italian. At the age of 15, she started reading her father’s work, commentators have noted how in the dream of little Anna. little Anna only hallucinates forbidden objects. Anna finished her education at the Cottage Lyceum in Vienna in 1912, suffering from a depression and anorexia, she was very insecure about what to do in the future. In 1914 she passed the test to work as an apprentice at her old school. From 1915 to 1917, she worked as an apprentice for third, fourth. She finally quit her career in 1920, due to multiple episodes of illness. Her first analysis was conducted by her father Sigmund Freud from 1918 to 1922, jacques Van Rillaer describes this incestuous analysis. She presented the paper Beating Fantasies and Daydreams to the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, in 1923, Anna Freud began her own psychoanalytical practice with children and two years later she was teaching at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Training Institute on the technique of child analysis. From 1925 until 1934, she was the Secretary of the International Psychoanalytical Association while she continued child analysis and seminars and it became a founding work of ego psychology and established Freud’s reputation as a pioneering theoretician. In 1938 the Freuds had to flee from Austria as a consequence of the Nazis intensifying harassment of Jews in Vienna following the Anschluss by Germany
Anna Freud
–
Freud in 1957
Anna Freud
–
Sigmund Freud with his daughter Anna in 1913
38.
Erich Fromm
–
Erich Seligmann Fromm was a German social psychologist, psychoanalyst, sociologist, humanistic philosopher, and democratic socialist. He was associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory, Erich Fromm was born on March 23,1900, at Frankfurt am Main, the only child of Orthodox Jewish parents. He started his studies in 1918 at the University of Frankfurt am Main with two semesters of jurisprudence. During the summer semester of 1919, Fromm studied at the University of Heidelberg, where he began studying sociology under Alfred Weber, psychiatrist-philosopher Karl Jaspers, Fromm received his PhD in sociology from Heidelberg in 1922. During the mid-1920s, he trained to become a psychoanalyst through Frieda Reichmanns psychoanalytic sanatorium in Heidelberg and he began his own clinical practice in 1927. In 1930 he joined the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research and completed his psychoanalytical training, after the Nazi takeover of power in Germany, Fromm moved first to Geneva and then, in 1934, to Columbia University in New York. Together with Karen Horney and Harry Stack Sullivan, Fromm belongs to a Neo-Freudian school of psychoanalytical thought, Horney and Fromm each had a marked influence on the others thought, with Horney illuminating some aspects of psychoanalysis for Fromm and the latter elucidating sociology for Horney. Their relationship ended in the late 1930s and he was on the faculty of Bennington College from 1941 to 1949, and taught courses at the New School for Social Research in New York from 1941 to 1959. When Fromm moved to Mexico City in 1949, he became a professor at the National Autonomous University of Mexico and he taught at UNAM until his retirement, in 1965, and at the Mexican Society of Psychoanalysis until 1974. In 1974 he moved from Mexico City to Muralto, Switzerland, all the while, Fromm maintained his own clinical practice and published a series of books. Indeed, Escape from Freedom is viewed as one of the works of political psychology. His second important work, Man for Himself, An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics, first published in 1947, taken together, these books outlined Fromms theory of human character, which was a natural outgrowth of Fromms theory of human nature. Central to Fromms world view was his interpretation of the Talmud and he began studying Talmud as a young man under Rabbi J. Horowitz and later under Rabbi Salman Baruch Rabinkow, a Chabad Hasid. While working towards his doctorate in sociology at the University of Heidelberg, Fromm studied the Tanya by the founder of Chabad, Fromm also studied under Nehemia Nobel and Ludwig Krause while studying in Frankfurt. Fromms grandfather and two great grandfathers on his fathers side were rabbis, and an uncle on his mothers side was a noted Talmudic scholar. However, Fromm turned away from orthodox Judaism in 1926, towards secular interpretations of scriptural ideals, the cornerstone of Fromms humanistic philosophy is his interpretation of the biblical story of Adam and Eves exile from the Garden of Eden. However, Fromm distinguished his concept of love from unreflective popular notions as well as Freudian paradoxical love. Fromm also asserted that few people in society had respect for the autonomy of their fellow human beings
Erich Fromm
–
Fromm in 1970
39.
Karen Horney
–
Karen Horney was a German psychoanalyst who practiced in the United States during her later career. Her theories questioned some traditional Freudian views and this was particularly true of her theories of sexuality and of the instinct orientation of psychoanalysis. She is credited with founding feminist psychology in response to Freuds theory of penis envy and she disagreed with Freud about inherent differences in the psychology of men and women, and she traced such differences to society and culture rather than biology. As such, she is classified as Neo-Freudian. Karen Horney was born Karen Danielsen on 16 September 1885 in Blankenese, Germany and her father, Berndt Wackels Danielsen, was Norwegian but had German citizenship. He was a captain in the merchant marine, and a Protestant traditionalist. Her mother, Clotilde, née van Ronzelen, known as Sonni, was also Protestant and she was said to be more open-minded than Berndt, and yet she was depressed, irritable, and domineering toward Karen. Karens elder brother was also named Berndt, and Karen cared for him deeply and she also had four elder half-siblings from her fathers previous marriage. However, there was no contact between the children of her father’s two marriages, according to Horneys adolescent diaries her father was a cruel disciplinary figure, who also held his son Berndt in higher regard than Karen. Instead of being offended or feeling indignation over Karens perceptions of him, despite this, Karen always felt deprived of her fathers affection and instead became attached to her mother. From roughly the age of nine Karen became ambitious and somewhat rebellious and she felt that she could not become pretty, and instead decided to vest her energies into her intellectual qualities — despite the fact she was seen by most as pretty. At this time she developed a crush on her older brother and she suffered the first of several bouts of depression — an issue that would plague her for the rest of her life. In 1904, when Karen was 19, her left her father. Against her parents wishes, Horney entered medical school in 1906, the University of Freiburg was in fact one of the first institutions throughout Germany to enroll women in medical courses—with higher education only becoming available to women in Germany in 1900. By 1908, Horney had transferred to the University of Göttingen, attending several universities was common at the time to gain a basic medical education. Through her fellow student Carl Müller-Braunschweig - who later became a psychoanalyst - she met the business student Oskar Horney, the couple moved to Berlin together, where Oskar worked in industry while Karen continued her studies at Charité. Within the space of one year, Karen gave birth to her first child and she entered psychoanalysis to help her cope. Her first analyst was Karl Abraham in 1910, then she moved to Hanns Sachs, Karen and Oskar had three daughters
Karen Horney
–
Karen Horney
40.
Ernest Jones
–
Alfred Ernest Jones, FRCP, MRCS was a British neurologist and psychoanalyst. A lifelong friend and colleague of Sigmund Freud from their first meeting in 1908, Jones was the first English-speaking practitioner of psychoanalysis and became its leading exponent in the English-speaking world. Ernest Jones was born in Gowerton, Wales, a village on the outskirts of Swansea. His father was a colliery engineer who went on to establish himself as a successful business man, becoming accountant. His mother, Mary Ann, was from a Welsh-speaking Carmarthenshire family which had relocated to Swansea, Jones was educated at Swansea Grammar School, Llandovery College, and Cardiff University in Wales. Jones studied at University College London and meanwhile he obtained the Conjoint diplomas LRCP, a year later, in 1901, he obtained an M. B. degree with honours in medicine and obstetrics. Within five years he received an MD degree and a Membership of the Royal College of Physicians in 1903 and he was particularly pleased to receive the Universitys gold medal in obstetrics from his distinguished fellow-Welshman, Sir John Williams. After obtaining his degrees, Jones specialised in neurology and took a number of posts in London hospitals. It was through his association with the surgeon Wilfred Trotter that Jones first heard of Freuds work, having worked together as surgeons at University College Hospital, he and Trotter became close friends, with Trotter taking the role of mentor and confidant to his younger colleague. They had in common a wide-ranging interest in philosophy and literature, as well as a growing interest in Continental psychiatric literature, by 1905 they were sharing accommodation above Harley Street consulting rooms with Joness sister, Elizabeth, installed as housekeeper. Trotter and Elizabeth Jones later married, appalled by the treatment of the mentally ill in institutions, Jones began experimenting with hypnotic techniques in his clinical work. Jones first encountered Freuds writings directly in 1905, in a German psychiatric journal in which Freud published the famous Dora case-history, Joness early attempts to combine his interest in Freuds ideas with his clinical work with children resulted in adverse effects on his career. In 1906 he was arrested and charged with two counts of indecent assault on two adolescent girls whom he had interviewed in his capacity as an inspector of schools for mentally defective children. At the court hearing Jones maintained his innocence, claiming the girls were fantasising about any inappropriate actions by him, the magistrate concluded that no jury would believe the testimony of such children and Jones was acquitted. In 1908, employed as a pathologist at a London hospital, Jones duly obliged but, before conducting the interview, he omitted to inform the girl’s consultant or arrange for a chaperone. Subsequently, he faced complaints from the parents over the nature of the interview. Joness first serious relationship was with Loe Kann, a wealthy Dutch émigré referred to him in 1906 after she had become addicted to morphine during treatment for a kidney condition. It ended with Kann in analysis with Freud and Jones, at Freuds behest, a tentative romance with Freuds daughter, Anna, did not survive the disapproval of her father
Ernest Jones
–
Ernest Jones
Ernest Jones
–
Group photo 1909 in front of
Clark University. Front row:
Sigmund Freud,
G. Stanley Hall,
Carl Jung; back row:
Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones,
Sándor Ferenczi.
Ernest Jones
–
The "Committee". Left to right, seated:
Sigmund Freud,
Sándor Ferenczi, and
Hanns Sachs. Standing;
Otto Rank,
Karl Abraham,
Max Eitingon, and Ernest Jones. Photo 1922
41.
Carl Jung
–
Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. His work has been not only in psychiatry but also in anthropology, archaeology, literature, philosophy. As a notable research scientist based at the famous Burghölzli hospital, under Eugen Bleuler, he came to the attention of the Viennese founder of psychoanalysis, the two men conducted a lengthy correspondence and collaborated on an initially joint vision of human psychology. Freud saw in the man the potential heir he had been seeking to carry on his new science of psychoanalysis. Jungs researches and personal vision, however, made it impossible for him to bend to his older colleagues dogma and this break was to have historic as well as painful personal repercussions that have lasted to this day. Jung was also an artist, craftsman and builder as well as a prolific writer, many of his works were not published until after his death and some are still awaiting publication. Among the central concepts of analytical psychology is individuation—the lifelong psychological process of differentiation of the out of each individuals conscious and unconscious elements. Jung considered it to be the task of human development. He created some of the best known psychological concepts, including synchronicity, archetypal phenomena, the unconscious, the psychological complex. Carl Gustav Jung was born in Kesswil, in the Swiss canton of Thurgau, on 26 July 1875 as the second and first surviving son of Paul Achilles Jung and their first child, born in 1873 was a boy named Paul who survived only a few days. Emilie was the youngest child of a distinguished Basel churchman and academic, Samuel Preiswerk, and his second wife. Preiswerk was antistes, the given to the head of the Reformed clergy in the city, as well as a Hebraist, author and editor. When Jung was six months old, his father was appointed to a prosperous parish in Laufen. Emilie Jung was an eccentric and depressed woman, she spent considerable time in her bedroom where she said that spirits visited her at night, although she was normal during the day, Jung recalled that at night his mother became strange and mysterious. He reported that one night he saw a luminous and indefinite figure coming from her room with a head detached from the neck. Jung had a relationship with his father. Jungs mother left Laufen for several months of hospitalization near Basel for a physical ailment. His father took the boy to be cared for by Emilie Jungs unmarried sister in Basel, Emilie Jungs continuing bouts of absence and often depressed mood influenced her sons attitude towards women — one of innate unreliability
Carl Jung
–
A portrait of Jung, unknown date
Carl Jung
–
The clergy house of Kleinhüningen, where Carl Gustav Jung grew up.
Carl Jung
–
Group photo 1909 in front of
Clark University. Front row,
Sigmund Freud,
G. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung. Back row,
Abraham Brill,
Ernest Jones,
Sándor Ferenczi.
Carl Jung
–
Jung outside Burghölzli in 1910.
42.
Melanie Klein
–
Melanie Reizes Klein was an Austrian-British psychoanalyst who devised novel therapeutic techniques for children that influenced child psychology and contemporary psychoanalysis. She was an innovator in object relations theory. Born in Vienna of Jewish heritage, Klein first sought psychoanalysis for herself from Sándor Ferenczi when she was living in Budapest during World War I, there she became a psychoanalyst and began analysing children in 1919. Allegedly two of the first children she analysed were her son and daughter, in 1921 she moved to Berlin, where she studied with and was analysed by Karl Abraham. Although Abraham supported her work with children, neither Klein nor her ideas received much support in Berlin. However, impressed by her work, British psychoanalyst Ernest Jones invited Klein to come to London in 1926. Klein had a influence on the theory and technique of psychoanalysis. As a divorced woman whose academic qualifications did not even include a bachelors degree, after the arrival of Sigmund Freud and his psychoanalyst daughter, Anna Freud, in London in 1938, Klein’s ideas came into conflict with those of Continental analysts who were migrating to Britain. This division remains to the current time, apart from her professional successes, Klein’s life had a number of tragic events. She was youngest of four children and her much loved elder sister died at the age of eight, when Klein was four, and she was made to feel responsible for her brother’s death. Her academic studies were interrupted by marriage and children and her daughters analyst at the time, Edward Glover, openly challenged Klein in the British Society meetings. Mother and daughter were not reconciled before Kleins death, and Schmideberg did not attend Kleins funeral and she was an atheist, but she never forgot her Jewish roots. Although Klein questioned some of the assumptions of Sigmund Freud. Klein was the first person to use traditional psychoanalysis with young children and she was innovative in both her techniques and her theories on infant development. Strongly opinionated, and demanding loyalty from her followers, Klein established an influential training program in psychoanalysis. She is considered one of the co-founders of object relations theory, in psychological terms, Eros, the postulated sustaining and uniting principle of life, is thereby presumed to have a companion force, Thanatos, which seeks to terminate and disintegrate life. Both Freud and Klein regarded these forces as the foundations of the psyche. These primary unconscious forces, whose matrix is the id
Melanie Klein
–
Melanie Klein in 1952
Melanie Klein
–
Melanie Klein c. 1900
Melanie Klein
–
A dinner to celebrate Melanie Klein's 70th birthday
Melanie Klein
–
Melanie Klein in 1950s
43.
Ronald Laing
–
Ronald David Laing, usually cited as R. D. Laing, was a Scottish psychiatrist who wrote extensively on mental illness – in particular, the experience of psychosis. Laing was associated with the movement, although he rejected the label. Politically, he was regarded as a thinker of the New Left, Laing was born in the Govanhill district of Glasgow on 7 October 1927, the only child of David Park MacNair Laing and Amelia Glen Laing. Laing described his parents – his mother especially – as being somewhat odd and he was educated initially at Sir John Neilson Cuthbertson Public School and after four years transferred to Hutchesons Grammar School. Described variously as clever, competitive or precocious, he studied mainly Classics, particularly philosophy and he was also a musician, being made an Associate of the Royal College of Music. He chose to go on to study medicine at the University of Glasgow, during his medical degree he set up a Socratic Club, of which the philosopher Bertrand Russell agreed to be President. Laing failed his final exams on his first attempt, in 1950, in 1953 Laing left the Army and worked at the Glasgow Royal Mental Hospital, becoming the youngest consultant in the country. During this period Laing also participated in a discussion group in Glasgow, organised by Karl Abenheimer. In 1956 Laing went on to train on a grant at the Tavistock Institute in London, widely known as a centre for the study, at this time, he was associated with John Bowlby, D. W. Winnicott and Charles Rycroft. He remained at the Tavistock Institute until 1964, in 1965 Laing and a group of colleagues created the Philadelphia Association and started a psychiatric community project at Kingsley Hall, where patients and therapists lived together. The Norwegian author Axel Jensen contacted Laing at Kingsley Hall after reading his book The Divided Self, Jensen was treated by Laing and subsequently they became close friends. Laing often visited Jensen onboard his ship Shanti Devi, which was his home in Stockholm, in October 1972, Laing met Arthur Janov, author of the popular book The Primal Scream. Though Laing found Janov modest and unassuming, he thought of him as a jig man, Laing sympathized with Janov, but regarded his primal therapy as a lucrative business, one which required no more than obtaining a suitable space and letting people hang it all out. Many former colleagues regarded him as a brilliant mind gone wrong, Laing was seen as an important figure in the anti-psychiatry movement, along with David Cooper, although he never denied the value of treating mental distress. Hence, according to Laing, psychiatry was founded on an epistemology, illness diagnosed by conduct. His attitude to recreational drugs was quite different, privately, he advocated an anarchy of experience and his mother Amelia, according to some speculation and rumour about her behaviour, has been described as psychologically peculiar. These admissions were to have consequences for Laing as they formed part of the case against him by the General Medical Council which led to him ceasing to practise medicine. He died at age 61 of an attack while playing tennis with his colleague
Ronald Laing
–
R. D. Laing in 1983, perusing the
The Ashley Book of Knots (1944)
44.
Otto Rank
–
Otto Rank was an Austrian psychoanalyst, writer, and teacher. In 1926, Otto Rank left Vienna for Paris, for the remaining 14 years of his life, Rank had a successful career as a lecturer, writer and therapist in France and the United States. Rank thus became the first paid member of the psychoanalytic movement, Freud considered Rank, with whom he was more intimate intellectually than his own sons, to be the most brilliant of his Viennese disciples. Encouraged and supported by Freud, Rank, completed the Gymnasium or college-preparatory high school, attended the University of Vienna and his thesis, on the Lohengrin Saga, was published as a book in 1911, the first Freudian doctoral dissertation to be published as a book. Rank was one of Freuds six collaborators brought together in a committee or ring to defend the psychoanalytic mainstream as disputes with Adler. Rank was the most prolific author in the ring besides Freud himself, extending psychoanalytic theory to the study of legend, myth, art and he worked closely with Freud, contributing two chapters on myth and legend to later editions of The Interpretation of Dreams. Ranks name appeared underneath Freuds on the page of Freuds greatest work from 1914 until 1930. Between 1915 and 1918, Rank served as Secretary of the International Psychoanalytical Association which Freud had founded in 1910, everyone in the small psychoanalytic world understood how much Freud respected Rank and his prolific creativity in expanding psychoanalytic theory. Freud announced to the circle, full of jealous rivals. But there was no such phase in Freud’s theories, the Oedipus complex, Freud explained, was the nucleus of the neurosis and the foundational source of all art, myth, religion, philosophy, therapy – indeed of all human culture and civilization. It was the first time anyone in the inner circle had dared to suggest that the Oedipus complex might not be the supreme causal factor in psychoanalysis. Rank was the first to use the term “pre-Oedipal” in a public forum in 1925. In a 1930 self-analysis of his own writings, Rank observes that the pre-Oedipal super-ego has since been overemphasized by Melanie Klein, without any reference to me. After some hesitation, Freud distanced himself from The Trauma of Birth, I am boiling with rage, Freud told Sándor Ferenczi then Ranks best friend. The characteristic of that time, remembers Sándor Radó, who was in analysis with Karl Abraham from 1922 to 1925, was a neglect of a human emotional life. Adds Rado, Everybody was looking for oral, pregenital, All emotional experience by human beings was being reduced by analysis to a derivative, no matter how disguised, of libido. For Freud, emotion was always sexual, derived from a dangerous Id that must be uprooted, Where Id was, Freud said famously. “Libido, ” according to Freud’s 1921 work on Group Psychology, increases in emotion, according to Freud, are unpleasurable
Otto Rank
–
Otto Rank
Otto Rank
–
Left to right, seated:
Sigmund Freud,
Sándor Ferenczi, and
Hanns Sachs. Standing; Otto Rank,
Karl Abraham,
Max Eitingon, and
Ernest Jones. Photo 1922
45.
Wilhelm Reich
–
Wilhelm Reich was an Austrian psychoanalyst, a member of the second generation of analysts after Sigmund Freud. His writing influenced generations of intellectuals, he coined the phrase the sexual revolution, during the 1968 student uprisings in Paris and Berlin, students scrawled his name on walls and threw copies of The Mass Psychology of Fascism at police. After graduating in medicine from the University of Vienna in 1922, Reich became deputy director of Freuds outpatient clinic and he said he wanted to attack the neurosis by its prevention rather than treatment. From the 1930s he became a controversial figure, and from 1932 until his death in 1957 all his work was self-published. In 1940 he started building orgone accumulators, devices that his patients sat inside to harness the reputed health benefits, leading to newspaper stories about sex boxes that cured cancer. Charged with contempt in 1956 for having violated the injunction, Reich was sentenced to two years imprisonment, and that summer over six tons of his publications were burned by order of the court. He died in prison of heart failure just over a year later, Reich was born the first of two sons to Leon Reich, a farmer, and his wife Cäcilie in Dobzau, Galicia, then part of Austria-Hungary, now in Ukraine. There was a sister too, born one year after Reich, shortly after his birth the family moved to Jujinetz, a village in Bukovina, where his father ran a cattle farm leased by his mothers uncle, Josef Blum. His father was by all accounts a cold and jealous man, both parents were Jewish, but decided against raising the boys as Jews. Reich and his brother, Robert, were brought up to speak only German, were punished for using Yiddish expressions, as an adult Reich wrote extensively, in his diary, about his sexual precocity. He wrote of visits to brothels, the first when he was 15. He also developed sexual fantasies about his mother, writing when he was 22 that he masturbated while thinking about her, Reich was taught at home until he was 12, when his mother was discovered having an affair with his live-in tutor. Reich wrote about the affair in 1920 in his first published paper, Über einen Fall von Durchbruch der Inzestschranke, presented in the third person as though about a patient. He wrote that he would follow his mother when she went to the bedroom at night, feeling ashamed and jealous. He briefly thought of forcing her to have sex with him, in the end, he did tell his father, and after a protracted period of beatings, his mother committed suicide in 1910, for which Reich blamed himself. With the tutor ordered out of the house, Reich was sent to a gymnasium in Czernowitz. It was during this period that a skin condition appeared, diagnosed as psoriasis and he visited brothels every day and wrote in his diary of his disgust for the women. His father died of tuberculosis in 1914, and because of rampant inflation the fathers insurance was worthless, Reich managed the farm and continued with his studies, graduating in 1915 with Stimmeneinhelligkeit
Wilhelm Reich
–
Reich in his mid-20s
Wilhelm Reich
–
Reich in 1900.
Wilhelm Reich
–
Staff of the Vienna Ambulatorium, 1922. Eduard Hitschmann is seated fourth from the left, Reich fifth, and
Annie Reich first on the right.
Wilhelm Reich
–
Reich lived for a time on Berggasse in Vienna (seen here in 2010), where Freud lived at number 19
46.
Sabina Spielrein
–
Sabina Nikolayevna Spielrein was a Russian physician and one of the first female psychoanalysts. She also met, corresponded, and had a relationship with Sigmund Freud. One of her more famous analysands was the Swiss developmental psychologist and she worked as a psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, teacher and paediatrician in Switzerland and Russia. In a thirty-year professional career, she published over 35 papers in three languages, covering psychoanalysis, developmental psychology, psycholinguistics and educational psychology. Her best known and perhaps most influential published work in the field of psychoanalysis is the essay titled Destruction as the Cause of Coming Into Being and she was born in 1885 into a wealthy Jewish family in Rostov-on-Don, Russian Empire. Her mother Eva Lublinskaya was the daughter and granddaughter of rabbis from Yekaterinoslav, Eva trained as a dentist, but did not practise. Sabinas father Nikolai Spielrein was an agronomist, after moving from Warsaw to Rostov, he became a successful merchant. On her birth certificate, Sabina appeared as Sheyve Naftulovna, but throughout her life and she was the eldest of five children. All three of her brothers later became eminent scientists, one of them, Isaac Spielrein, was a Soviet psychologist, a pioneer of work psychology. From her early childhood, Sabina was highly imaginative and believed that she had a calling to achieve greatness. However, her parents marriage was turbulent and she experienced physical violence from both of them and she suffered from multiple somatic symptoms and obsessions. Some commentators believe she may have sexually abused by someone in the family. She attended a Froebel school followed by the Yekaterinskaya Gymnasium in Rostov and she learned to speak three languages fluently. During her teens, she continued to be troubled emotionally and became infatuated first with her history teacher, while at school, she resolved to go abroad to train as a doctor, with the approval of her rabbinic grandfather. At the end of her schooling she was awarded a gold medal, after an unsuccessful stay in a Swiss sanatorium, where she developed another infatuation with one of the doctors, she was admitted to the Burghölzli mental hospital near Zurich in August 1904. Its director was Eugen Bleuler, who ran it as a community with social activities for the patients including gardening, drama. One of Bleulers assistants was Carl Jung, afterwards appointed as deputy director, in the days following her admission, Spielrein disclosed to Jung that her father had often beaten her, and that she was troubled by masochistic fantasies of being beaten. Bleuler ensured that she was separated from her family, later requiring her father and she made a rapid recovery, and by October was able to apply for medical school and to start assisting Jung with word association tests in his laboratory
Sabina Spielrein
–
Memorial plaque at former residence of Sabina Spielrein in Berlin, Germany
Sabina Spielrein
–
Memorial plaque on the house where Sabina Spielrein lived at 83 Pushkin St,
Rostov-on-Don. The sign says: "In this house lived the famous student of C. G. Jung and S. Freud, psychoanalyst Sabina Spielrein (1885-1942)"
47.
James Strachey
–
James Beaumont Strachey was a British psychoanalyst, and, with his wife Alix, a translator of Sigmund Freud into English. He is perhaps best known as the editor of the Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. He was a son of Lt-Gen Sir Richard Strachey and Lady Strachey, called the enfant miracle as his father was 70, Some of his nieces and nephews, who were considerably older than James, called him Jembeau or Uncle Baby. His parents had thirteen children, of ten lived to adulthood. At Cambridge, Strachey fell deeply in love with the poet Rupert Brooke and he was himself pursued by mountaineer George Mallory—conceding to his sexual advances—by Harry Norton, and by economist John Maynard Keynes, with whom he also had an affair. His love of Brooke was a constant, however, until the death in 1915. On the imposition of conscription in 1916, during World War I. James was assistant editor of The Spectator, and a member of the Bloomsbury Group or Bloomsberries when he became familiar with Alix Sargant Florence and they moved in together in 1919 and married in 1920. Soon afterwards they moved to Vienna, where James began a psychoanalysis with Freud and he would claim to Lytton that his analysis provided a complete undercurrent for life. Freud asked the couple to translate some of his works into English, a. degrees, no medical qualifications. no experience of anything except third-rate journalism. The only thing in my favour was that at the age of thirty I wrote a letter out of the blue to Freud, a year later, I was made a full member. So there I was, launched on the treatment of patients, with no experience, with no supervision and he concluded wryly that the modern curriculum vitae is essential. Whether it is possible for it to become over-institutionalized is an open question, is it worthwhile to leave a loophole for an occasional maverick. If the curriculum vitae had existed forty years ago, you wouldnt have had to listen to these remarks tonight, nevertheless, Freud had decided that the Stracheys should become members of the Society. To be sure their conflicts have not been decided, but we need not wait so long, James Strachey characterised the battle between the two women in his own wryly sensible way, My own view is that Mrs K. has made some highly important contributions. But that it’s absurd to make out that they cover the subject or that their validity is axiomatic. On the other hand, I think it is equally ludicrous for Miss F. to maintain that is a Game Preserve belonging to the F. family, Strachey published three articles in the International Journal of Psychoanalysis between 1930 and 1935. In the first, on Some Unconscious Factors in Reading, he explored the oral ambitions, taking in words, by hearing or reading, both unconsciously meaning eating – something of central significance for reading addictions as well as for neurotic disturbances of reading
James Strachey
–
Lytton Strachey, painter
Dora Carrington (an elusive subject for the camera), and James Strachey.
48.
Susan Sutherland Isaacs
–
Susan Sutherland Isaacs, CBE was a Lancashire-born educational psychologist and psychoanalyst. She published studies on the intellectual and social development of children, for Isaacs, the best way for children to learn was by developing their independence. She believed that the most effective way to achieve this was through play, Isaacs was born in 1885 in Turton, Lancashire, the daughter of William Fairhurst, a journalist and Methodist lay preacher, and his wife, Miriam Sutherland. Isaacs mother died when she was six years old, shortly afterwards she became alienated from her father after he married the nurse who had attended her mother during her illness. Aged 15, she was removed from Bolton Secondary School by her father because she had converted to atheistic socialism and she stayed at home with her stepmother until she was 22. She was first apprenticed to a photographer and then she began her career as a governess for an English family. In 1907, Isaacs enrolled to train as a teacher of children at the University of Manchester. Isaacs then transferred to a course and graduated in 1912 with a first class degree in Philosophy. She was awarded a scholarship at the Psychological Laboratory in Newnham College, Cambridge, Isaacs also trained and practised as a psychoanalyst after analysis by the psychoanalyst John Carl Flugel. She became a member of the newly formed British Psychoanalytical Society in 1921. She began her own practice that same year, Isaacs also helped popularise the works of Klein, as well as the theories of Jean Piaget and Sigmund Freud. Between 1924 and 1927, she was the head of Malting House School in Cambridge, the school fostered the individual development of children. Children were given freedom and were supported rather than punished. The teachers were seen as observers of the children who were seen as research workers and her work had a great influence on early education and made play a central part of a childs education. Isaacs strongly believed that play was the childs work, between 1929 and 1940, she was an agony aunt under the pseudonym of Ursula Wise, replying to readers problems in several child care journals, notably The Nursery World and Home and School. Her department had a influence on the teaching profession and encouraged the profession to consider psychodynamic theory with developmental psychology. Isaacs argued that it is important to develop skills to think clearly. Developing a childs independence is beneficial to their development as an individual, parents were viewed as the main educators of their children with institutionalised care for children before the age 7 being potential damaging
Susan Sutherland Isaacs
–
Susan Isaacs, 1910s
49.
The Interpretation of Dreams
–
Freud revised the book at least eight times and, in the third edition, added an extensive section which treated dream symbolism very literally, following the influence of Wilhelm Stekel. Freud said of this work, Insight such as this falls to ones lot, the book was first published in an edition of 600 copies, which did not sell out for eight years. The Interpretation of Dreams later gained in popularity, and seven editions were published in Freuds lifetime. Because of the length and complexity, Freud also wrote an abridged version called On Dreams. The original text is regarded as one of Freuds most significant works. Freud spent the summer of 1895 at Schloss BelleVue near Grinzing in Austria, at the moment I see little prospect of it. — Freud in a letter to Wilhelm Fliess, June 12,1900 While staying at Schloss Bellevue and his reading and analysis of the dream allowed him to be exonerated from his mishandling of the treatment of a patient in 1895. In 1963, Belle Vue manor was demolished, but today a plaque with just that inscription has been erected at the site by the Austrian Sigmund Freud Society. Dreams, in Freuds view, are all forms of wish fulfillment — attempts by the unconscious to resolve a conflict of some sort, whether something recent or something from the recesses of the past. Because the information in the unconscious is in an unruly and often disturbing form, Freud introduced the term manifest content to describe what the dream recalled. As such, images in dreams are not what they appear to be, according to Freud. Freud used to mention the dreams as The Royal Road to the Unconscious and he proposed the phenomenon of condensation, the idea that one simple symbol or image presented in a persons dream may have multiple meanings. For this very reason, Freud tried to focus on details during psychoanalysis, an abridged version called On Dreams was published in 1901 as part of Lowenfeld and Kurellas Grenzfragen des Nerven und Seelenlebens. It was re-published in 1911 in slightly larger form as a book, on Dreams is also included in the 1953 edition and the second part of Freuds work on dreams, Volume Five, The Interpretation of Dreams II and On Dreams. It follows chapter seven in The Interpretation of Dreams and in this edition, is fifty three pages in length, there are thirteen chapters in total and Freud directs the reader to The Interpretation of Dreams for further reading throughout On Dreams, in particular, in the final chapter. Immediately after its publication, Freud considered On Dreams as a version of The Interpretation of Dreams. The English translation of On Dreams was first published in 1914, Freud investigates the subject of displacement and our inability to recognize our dreams. This accomplished by investigation will terminate as it will reach the point where the problem of the dream meets broader problems and he then makes his argument by describing a number of dreams which he claims illustrate his theory
The Interpretation of Dreams
–
Title page of the original German edition
The Interpretation of Dreams
–
Memorial plate in commemoration of the place where Freud began The Interpretation of Dreams, near
Grinzing, Austria
50.
The Psychopathology of Everyday Life
–
Psychopathology of Everyday Life is a 1901 work by Sigmund Freud, based on Freuds researches into slips and parapraxes from 1897 onwards. The Psychopathology of Everyday Life became perhaps the best-known of all Freuds writings, the Psychopathology was originally published in the Monograph for Psychiatry and Neurology in 1901, before appearing in book form in 1904. It would receive twelve foreign translations during Freuds lifetime, as well as numerous new German editions, however, in such a popular and theory-light text, the sheer wealth of examples helped make Freuds point for him in an accessible way. A new English-language translation by Anthea Bell was published in 2003, among the most overtly autobiographical of Freuds works, the Psychopathology was strongly linked by Freud to his relationship with Wilhelm Fliess. Freud writes in his introduction, During the year 1898 I published an essay on the Psychic Mechanism of Forgetfulness. I shall now repeat its contents and take it as a starting-point for further discussion and he might give plausible reasons for this forgetting preference for proper names, but he would not assume any deep determinant for the process. Explaining wrong actions with the help of psychoanalysis, just as the interpretation of dreams, can be used for diagnosis. Considering the numerous cases of such deviations, he concludes that the boundary between the normal and abnormal human psyche is unstable and that we are all a bit neurotic, such symptoms are able to disrupt eating, sexual relations, regular work, and communication with others. Freuds conclusion is that, The unconscious, at all events and this state of affairs cannot be elucidated by any comparison from any other sphere. By virtue of this theory every former state of the content may thus be restored. Sometimes called the Mistake Book, The Psychopathology of Everyday Life became one of the classics of the 20th century. Freud realised he was becoming a celebrity when he found his cabin-steward reading the Mistake Book on his 1909 visit to the States, the Rat Man came to Freud for analysis as a result of reading the Psychopathology of Everyday Life. Through its stress on what Freud called switch words and verbal bridges, french author Michel Onfray argues that The Psychopathology of Everyday Life is not scientific. Jacques Bénesteau writes that Freud added lies in each edition, Sigmund Freud, Richard Wollheim, Publisher, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-28385-4 Sebastiano Timpanaro, The Freudian Slip Full text in archive. org
The Psychopathology of Everyday Life
–
The German edition
.jpeg)
