1.
German Empire
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The German Empire was the historical German nation state that existed from the unification of Germany in 1871 to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1918, when Germany became a federal republic. The German Empire consisted of 26 constituent territories, with most being ruled by royal families and this included four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory. Although Prussia became one of kingdoms in the new realm, it contained most of its population and territory. Its influence also helped define modern German culture, after 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron, chemicals, and railways. In 1871, it had a population of 41 million people, and by 1913, a heavily rural collection of states in 1815, now united Germany became predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological, Germany became a great power, boasting a rapidly growing rail network, the worlds strongest army, and a fast-growing industrial base. In less than a decade, its navy became second only to Britains Royal Navy, after the removal of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II, the Empire embarked on a bellicose new course that ultimately led to World War I. When the great crisis of 1914 arrived, the German Empire had two allies, Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy, however, left the once the First World War started in August 1914. In the First World War, German plans to capture Paris quickly in autumn 1914 failed, the Allied naval blockade caused severe shortages of food. Germany was repeatedly forced to send troops to bolster Austria and Turkey on other fronts, however, Germany had great success on the Eastern Front, it occupied large Eastern territories following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 was designed to strangle the British, it failed, but the declaration—along with the Zimmermann Telegram—did bring the United States into the war. Meanwhile, German civilians and soldiers had become war-weary and radicalised by the Russian Revolution and this failed, and by October the armies were in retreat, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, Bulgaria had surrendered and the German people had lost faith in their political system. The Empire collapsed in the November 1918 Revolution as the Emperor and all the ruling monarchs abdicated, and a republic took over. The German Confederation had been created by an act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848, called Pan-Germanism, to Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarcks pragmatic Realpolitik. He envisioned a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany, the war resulted in the Confederation being partially replaced by a North German Confederation in 1867, comprising the 22 states north of the Main. The new constitution and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871, during the Siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William accepted to be proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The second German Constitution was adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April, the political system remained the same. The empire had a parliament called the Reichstag, which was elected by universal male suffrage, however, the original constituencies drawn in 1871 were never redrawn to reflect the growth of urban areas
2.
Jagdgeschwader 1 (World War I)
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Jagdgeschwader 1 of World War I, was a fighter unit of the German Luftstreitkräfte, comprising four Jastas. It was formed on 24 June 1917, with Manfred von Richthofen as commanding officer, during early 1917, it became apparent to the German High Command that they would always be outnumbered in air operations over the Western Front. The average Jasta could only muster some six or eight aircraft in total for a patrol, in order to maintain some impact and local command of the air the Jastas began to fly in larger, composite groups. By mid 1917 the first official grouping of Jastas saw JG1 formed and its role was simple, to achieve localized air superiority wherever it was sent and to deny Allied air operations over a specific location. The unit was highly mobile, and JG1 and its supporting logistical infrastructure traveled to wherever local air superiority was needed. Thus 9-victory ace Leutnant Eduard Ritter von Dostler and the rising Leutnant Hans von Adam were soon posted to Jasta 6, and Lieutenant Werner Voss into Jasta 10. This policy had the effect of making the Jagdgeschwader an elite unit, JG1 itself suffered a dilution of talent when competent members were posted away to command their own Jastas in late 1917, when the number of Jastas were doubled from 40 to 80. JG1 was soon flying intensively over the Flanders battlefield above the Allied offensive started in June 1917. Richthofen was severely wounded in the head on 6 July, leading elements of JG1 in combat with F. E. 2ds of the Royal Flying Corpss No.20 Squadron. Oberleutnant Kurt von Doering, Commanding Officer of Jasta 4, took temporary command. Richthofen reassumed command on 25 July, but left on a period of leave on 6 September. JG1 was the first unit to operationally trial the new Fokker Dr. I triplane, Jasta 10s Werner Voss would be the triplanes greatest exponent, scoring 10 victories with it in just 21 days before his death in combat. The unit meantime soldiered on with the Albatros D. V, JG1 was rushed from Ypres to Cambrai by 23 November 1917, following the launch of the British offensive, and did much to stabilise the air war over the battlefield when the bad weather permitted. At this time Richthofen recruited Hans Kirchstein and Fritz Friedrichs from two-seater units, by April 1918 the formation was flying from Harbonnieres, the most south westerly airfield they were to ultimately occupy. Most of JG 1s victims at this time were the low flying fighter bombers, after von Richthofens death in April 1918, Hauptmann Wilhelm Reinhard became JG1 Commanding Officer. On 10 May JG1 claimed its 300th victory while on 20 May the unit received the title of JG1 Richthofen. Soon after JG1 moved to the 7th Army front to support the forthcoming Aisne offensive, JG1 moved to Guise, and then Puiseux Ferme, operating primarily against the French and the newly arrived American Air Forces. Between 31 May and 8 June JG1 claimed some 43 French aircraft and balloons, Jasta 6s Lt. Hans Kirschstein was the star performer of JG1 at this time, claiming 27 victories between 18 March and 14 June
3.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
4.
Douai
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Douai is a commune in the Nord département in northern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department, located on the river Scarpe some 40 kilometres from Lille and 25 km from Arras, Douai is home to one of the regions most impressive belfries. The population of the area, including Lens, was 552,682 in 1999. The main industries in the town are in the chemical and metal engineering sectors, Renault has a large vehicle assembly plant near the town, which has produced many well known Renault vehicles, such as the R14, R11, R19, and the Megane and Scenic of today. The Gare de Douai railway station is served by trains towards Lille, Arras, Lens, Amiens, Saint-Quentin. It is also connected to the TGV network, with high speed trains to Paris, Lyon, Nantes and its site probably corresponds to that of a 4th-century Roman fortress known as Duacum. From 10th century the town was a fiefdom of the counts of Flanders. The town became a textile market centre during the Middle Ages. In 1384, the county of Flanders passed into the domains of the Dukes of Burgundy, in 1667, Douai was taken by the troops of Louis XIV of France, and by the 1668 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the town was ceded to France. During successive sieges from 1710 to 1712, Douai was almost completely destroyed by the British Army, by 1713, the town was fully integrated into France. Douai became the seat of the Parliament of Flanders, the town is still a transportation and commercial center for the area, which was known up to the Sixties for its coalfield, the richest in northern France. Douais ornate Gothic style belfry was begun in 1380, on the site of an earlier tower, the 80 m high structure includes an impressive carillon, consisting of 62 bells spanning 5 octaves. The originals, some dating from 1391 were removed in 1917 during World War I by the occupying German forces and they were reinstalled after repairs in 1924, but 47 of them were replaced in 1954 to obtain a better sound. An additional larger bell in the summit, a La called Joyeuse, dates from 1471, the chimes are rung by a mechanism every quarter-hour, but are also played via a keyboard on Saturday mornings and at certain other times. The substantial Porte de Valenciennes town gate, a reminder of the towns past military importance, was built in 1453, one face is built in Gothic style, while the other is of Classical design. The University of Douai was founded under the patronage of Phillip II and it was prominent, from the 1560s until the French Revolution, as a centre for the education of English Catholics escaping the persecution in England. Connected with the University were not only the English College, Douai, founded by William Allen, but also the Irish and Scottish colleges and the Benedictine, Franciscan and Jesuit houses. However, the community was expelled at the time of the French Revolution in 1793 and, after years of wandering, finally settled at Downside Abbey, Somerset
5.
4th Army (German Empire)
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The 4th Army was an army level command of the German Army in World War I. It was formed on mobilization in August 1914 from the VI Army Inspection, the army was disbanded in 1919 during demobilization after the war. The 4th Army defeated Belgian forces on the frontier, drove the French out of the Ardennes, at the end of the war it was serving as part of Heeresgruppe Kronprinz Rupprecht. By the end of the war, the 4th Army was organised as, armee-Abteilung or Army Detachment in the sense of something detached from an Army. It is not under the command of an Army so is in itself a small Army, armee-Gruppe or Army Group in the sense of a group within an Army and under its command, generally formed as a temporary measure for a specific task. Heeresgruppe or Army Group in the sense of a number of armies under a single commander, 4th Army for the equivalent formation in World War II German Army order of battle German Army order of battle, Western Front Schlieffen Plan
6.
Jagdstaffel
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A Jagdstaffel was a fighter Staffel of the German Imperial Luftstreitkräfte during World War I. The Feldfliegerabteilungen were subordinate to the Army command to which they were attached, by the end of the spring of 1915 the first German fighter aircraft were being issued in small numbers to various ordinary Feldflieger-Abteilungen. At this period their function was seen almost entirely as protection for the missions which were the primary responsibility of the German air service. Fighter aircraft already in service and their pilots, were detached from the general-purpose FFA units and brought together in pairs, such units were formed at Vaux, Avillers, Jametz, Cunel and other places along the Western Front as Luftwachtdienst units, consisting only of fighters. This process was by no means universally welcomed, nor did it bring immediate success, Boelcke, as the leading fighter pilot of the day, was called on to organise the manning, equipment and training of Jasta 2 which was to become the model for these new squadrons. Initially Jasta 2 was equipped with a collection of fighters, including early Fokker. In September the squadron began to receive the first of the superior Albatros fighters that would create the German air superiority of the first half of 1917, several pilots of Jasta 2 trained by Boelcke, became fighter leaders, notably Manfred von Richthofen. By April 1917, the Jagdstaffeln had established air superiority on the Western Front. V/D. Va, the Jagdstaffeln concentrated on hindering the work of the Allied two-seater corps, reconnaissance and bombing squadrons. Most Jagdstaffeln were considered to be Prussian while other units were associated with Bavaria, Saxony. The Bavarian Jagdstaffeln in particular were associated for organisational and supply purposes with the Bavarian army, to obtain a local and temporary air superiority, larger fighter units were established, composed of several Jagdstaffeln, known as Jagdgeschwader and Jagdgruppen. These units were moved from one section of the front to another as the situation demanded. By March 1918, there were 80 Jagdstaffeln in the Luftstreitkräfte, a long overdue re-equipment with new types began, most notably the Fokker D. VII, which for the first time since mid-1917, gave the Jagdstaffeln equipment that matched their opponents. German aircraft left the factory in a standard finish - although this differed from one manufacturer to another, initial clear varnish on fabric and wooden surfaces had changed by 1916 to various camouflage schemes. In the Jagdstaffeln this gave way to a riot of colour, a squadron theme was sometimes followed, with machines decorated in similar colours or with similar motifs but generally personal preference seems to have been standard. Jasta 1 Jasta 2 Jasta 5 Jasta 11 Jasta 15 Jasta 18 Jagdstaffeln
7.
Oberleutnant
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Oberleutnant is the highest lieutenant officer rank in the armed forces of Germany, Austrian Armed Forces, and Military of Switzerland. In the German Army, it dates from the early 19th century, translated as senior lieutenant, the rank is typically bestowed upon commissioned officers after five to six years of active duty service. Oberleutnant is used by both the German Army and the German Air Force, in the NATO military comparison system, a German Oberleutnant is the equivalent of a First lieutenant or Poruchik in the Army/Air Forces of Allied nations. Other uses The equivalent naval rank is Oberleutnant zur See, in Nazi Germany, within the SS, SA and Waffen-SS, the rank of Obersturmführer was considered the equivalent of an Oberleutnant in the German Army. Comparative military ranks of World War I Comparative military ranks of World War II Ranks of the German Bundeswehr Rank insignia of the German Bundeswehr Yliluutnantti
8.
Rittmeister
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Rittmeister was a military rank of a commissioned cavalry officer in the armies of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Scandinavia, and some other countries. He was typically in charge of a squadron, and was the equivalent of a Hauptmann-rank, the Norwegian equivalent, rittmester, still serves as the official designation for officers in the armoured and mechanized infantry branches of the Norwegian Army. In Sweden the rank was known as ryttmästare, and in Denmark as ritmester, the armies of Poland, Finland, Lithuania and Russia adopted, but localised, the Germanic term for someone of similar rank. These were, Polish, rotmistrz, Finnish, ratsumestari, Lithuanian, rotmistras, Russian, in the Polish army a rotmistrz commanded a formation called a rota. However, a rotmistrz of hussars was a commander of between 100 and 180 hussars, with a lieutenant of hussars as his second-in-command, in the cavalry the rank continued until 1945 as a company level title. Applied to the commander of a troop, it was equivalent of a modern-day captain, the rank was also adopted by Russian New Regiments as rotmistr and later formalized in Table of Ranks as the cavalry post, until 1798, a lower-ranking shtabs-rotmistr also existed. In British and Commonwealth military forces, a Riding Master is an appointment, in the Household Cavalry Regiment a suitable Warrant Officer within the ranks of Riding Instructors is commissioned from the ranks
9.
Manfred von Richthofen
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Manfred Albrecht Freiherr von Richthofen, also widely known as the Red Baron, was a German fighter pilot with the Imperial German Army Air Service during the First World War. He is considered the ace-of-aces of the war, being credited with 80 air combat victories. Originally a cavalryman, Richthofen transferred to the Air Service in 1915 and he quickly distinguished himself as a fighter pilot, and during 1917 became leader of Jasta 11 and then the larger unit Jagdgeschwader 1. By 1918, he was regarded as a hero in Germany. Richthofen was shot down and killed near Amiens on 21 April 1918, There has been considerable discussion and debate regarding aspects of his career, especially the circumstances of his death. He remains perhaps the most widely known fighter pilot of all time, Richthofen was a Freiherr, a title of nobility often translated as baron. This is not a name nor strictly a hereditary title—since all male members of the family were entitled to it. This title, combined with the fact that he had his aircraft painted red, led to Richthofen being called The Red Baron both inside and outside Germany, during his lifetime he was more often described in German as Der Rote Kampfflieger. This name was used as the title of Richthofens 1917 autobiography, Manfred von Richthofen was born in Kleinburg, near Breslau, Lower Silesia, on 2 May 1892 into a prominent Prussian aristocratic family. His father was Major Albrecht Philipp Karl Julius Freiherr von Richthofen and he had an elder sister, Ilse, and two younger brothers. When he was four years old, Manfred moved with his family to nearby Schweidnitz and he enjoyed riding horses and hunting as well as gymnastics at school. He excelled at bars and won a number of awards at school. He and his brothers, Lothar and Bolko, hunted wild boar, elk, birds, after being educated at home he attended a school at Schweidnitz before beginning military training when he was 11. After completing cadet training in 1911, he joined an Uhlan cavalry unit, disappointed and bored at not being able to directly participate in combat, the last straw for Richthofen was an order to transfer to the armys supply branch. He is supposed to have written in his application for transfer, I have not gone to war in order to collect cheese and eggs, in spite of this unmilitary attitude, and to his own surprise, his request was granted. Manfred joined the service at the end of May 1915. From June to August 1915, Richthofen served as an observer on reconnaissance missions over the Eastern Front with Feldflieger Abteilung 69, after a chance meeting with the German ace fighter pilot Oswald Boelcke, Richthofen entered training as a pilot in October 1915. In February 1916 Manfred rescued his brother Lothar from the boredom of training new troops in Luben, the following month, Manfred joined Kampfgeschwader 2 flying a two-seater Albatros C. III
10.
6th Army (German Empire)
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The 6th Army was an army level command of the German Army in World War I. It was formed on mobilization in August 1914 from the IV Army Inspectorate, the army was disbanded in 1919 during demobilization after the war. At the outbreak of World War I, command of the army was given to Rupprecht, the 6th Army initially consisted of the units of the Bavarian Army, with some additional Prussian units. During the execution of Plan XVII, the 6th Army was stationed in the Central sector, in August 1914, in the Battle of Lorraine, Rupprechts 6th Army managed to hold against the French offensive, using a feigned withdrawal to lure the advancing armies onto prepared defensive positions. After the Western Front turned to stalemate and the forces formed lines of trenches. Most of the Bavarian units were dispersed to other commands. Nevertheless, command of the 6th Army remained with the Bavarian Crown Prince, on 24 September 1915 the 6th Army was the target for the British Armys first chlorine gas attack of the war. Despite the horrific casualties inflicted, the British offensive became bogged down after several days. Rupprecht was promoted to the rank of marshal in July 1916 and assumed command of Army Group Rupprecht on 28 August that year, consisting of the 1st, 2nd. Following Rupprechts promotion, command of the 6th Army was given to General Ludwig von Falkenhausen, in March 1917 the 6th Army was the target for the assault of the Canadian and British forces at the Battle of Vimy Ridge. The 6th Army under von Falkenhausen suffered over 20,000 casualties in the fighting and were pushed back from the ridge by the Canadian Corps. At the end of the war it was serving as part of Heeresgruppe Kronprinz Rupprecht, armee-Abteilung or Army Detachment in the sense of something detached from an Army. It is not under the command of an Army so is in itself a small Army, armee-Gruppe or Army Group in the sense of a group within an Army and under its command, generally formed as a temporary measure for a specific task. Heeresgruppe or Army Group in the sense of a number of armies under a single commander, 6th Army for the equivalent formation in World War II German Army order of battle German Army order of battle, Western Front Schlieffen Plan Cron, Hermann. Imperial German Army 1914–18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle
11.
Arras
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Arras is the capital of the Pas-de-Calais department, which forms part of the region of Hauts-de-France, prior to the reorganization of 2014 it was located in Nord-Pas-de-Calais. It is located in Northern France on the Scarpe river, the Arras plain lies on a large chalk plateau bordered on the north by the Marqueffles fault, on the southwest by the Artois and Ternois hills, and on the south by the slopes of Beaufort-Blavincourt. On the east it is connected to the Scarpe valley, established during the Iron Age by the Gauls, the town of Arras was first known as Nemetocenna, which is believed to have originated from the Celtic word nemeton, meaning sacred space. The first mention of the name Arras appeared in the 12th century, some hypothesize it is a contraction of Atrebates, a Belgic tribe of Gaul and Britain that used to inhabit the area. The name Atrebates could have evolved to become Atrades, Atradis, Aras. Others believe it comes from the Celtic word Ar, meaning running water, Arras is Pas-de-Calais’ third most populous town after Calais and Boulogne-sur-Mer. The town counted 43,693 residents in 2012, with the Arras metropolitan area having a population of 124,200, Arras is located 182 kilometers north of Paris and can be reached in 2 hours by car and in 50 minutes by TGV. It is the center of the former Artois province. Its local speech is characterized as a patois, the city of Arras is well known for its architecture, culture, and history. It was once part of the Spanish Netherlands, a portion of the Low Countries controlled by Spain from 1556 to 1714, each year Arras attracts thousands of visitors, who explore the citys architecture and historic buildings. Some famous attractions include the splendid Town Hall and its Belfry, the Boves, the Squares, the Art District, the Abbey District, the Vauban Citadel, unlike many French words, the final s in the name Arras should be pronounced. Archaeologists found evidence of human settlements in the Scarpe basin. The archaeological sites of Mont-Saint-Vaast in Arras and Biache-Saint-Vaast were Stone Age settlements of the Mousterian culture and they were evidenced by the finds of stone tools. Very little was found to document the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age in the Arras area, Arras was founded on the boat of Baudimont by the Belgic tribe of the Atrebates, who named it Nemetocenna in reference to a nemeton that probably existed there. It was later renamed Nemetacum/Atrebatum by the Romans, under whom it became an important garrison town, in the Scarpe valley archaeologists excavations and data recovery revealed Late Iron Age settlements. These buildings, believed to be farms, were found near the municipalities of Arras, Hamblain-les-Prés, in the 4th century, Nemetecacum was renowned for its arts and crafts as well as textiles trade throughout the whole empire. Between 406 and 407, the city was taken and destroyed by Germanic invaders, in 428, the Salian Franks led by Clodion le Chevelu took control of the region including the current Somme department. Roman General Aetius then chose to negotiate for peace and concluded a treaty with Clodion that gave the Franks the status of «foederati» fighting for Rome
12.
Albatros D.III
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The Albatros D. III was a biplane fighter aircraft used by the Imperial German Army Air Service during World War I. A modified licence model was built by Oeffag for the Austro-Hungarian Air Service and it was the preeminent fighter during the period of German aerial dominance known as Bloody April 1917. Development of the prototype D. III started in late July or early August 1916, the date of the maiden flight is unknown, but is believed to have occurred in late August or early September. Following the successful Albatros D. I and D. II series, however, at the request of the Idflieg, the D. III adopted a sesquiplane wing arrangement broadly similar to the French Nieuport 11. The upper wingspan was extended, while the wing was redesigned with reduced chord. V shaped interplane struts replaced the previous parallel struts, for this reason, British aircrews commonly referred to the D. III as the V-strutter. After a Typenprüfung on 26 September 1916, Albatros received an order for 400 D. III aircraft, Idflieg placed additional orders for 50 aircraft in February and March 1917. The D. III entered squadron service in December 1916, and was acclaimed by German aircrews for its maneuverability. Two faults with the new aircraft were soon identified, like the D. II, early D. IIIs featured a Teves und Braun airfoil-shaped radiator in the center of the upper wing, where it tended to scald the pilot if punctured. From the 290th D. III onward, the radiator was offset to the right on production machines while others were moved to the right as a field modification. Aircraft deployed in Palestine used two wing radiators, to cope with the warmer climate, more seriously, the new aircraft immediately began experiencing failures of the lower wing ribs and leading edge, a defect shared with the Nieuport 17. On 23 January 1917, a Jasta 6 pilot suffered a failure of the right wing spar. On the following day, Manfred von Richthofen suffered a crack in the wing of his new D. III. On 27 January, the Kogenluft issued an order grounding all D. IIIs pending resolution of the wing failure problem, on 19 February, after Albatros introduced a reinforced lower wing, the Kogenluft rescinded the grounding order. At the time, the wing failures were attributed to poor workmanship. In fact, the cause of the failures lay in the sesquiplane arrangement taken from the Nieuport. While the lower wing had sufficient strength in static tests, it was determined that the main spar was located too far aft. Pilots were therefore advised not to perform steep or prolonged dives in the D. III and this design flaw persisted despite attempts to rectify the problem in the D. III and succeeding D. V
13.
Biplane
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A biplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with two main wings stacked one above the other. The first powered, controlled aeroplane to fly, the Wright Flyer, used a biplane wing arrangement, while a biplane wing structure has a structural advantage over a monoplane, it produces more drag than a similar unbraced or cantilever monoplane wing. Improved structural techniques, better materials and the quest for greater speed made the biplane configuration obsolete for most purposes by the late 1930s. Biplanes offer several advantages over conventional cantilever monoplane designs, they permit lighter wing structures, low wing loading, however, interference between the airflow over each wing increases drag substantially, and biplanes generally need extensive bracing, which causes additional drag. Biplanes are distinguished from tandem wing arrangements, where the wings are placed forward and aft, instead of above, the term is also occasionally used in biology, to describe the wings of some flying animals. In a biplane aircraft, two wings are placed one above the other, either or both of the main wings can support ailerons, while flaps are more usually positioned on the lower wing. Bracing is nearly always added between the upper and lower wings, in the form of wires and/or slender interplane struts positioned symmetrically on either side of the fuselage. The primary advantage of the biplane over the traditional single plane or monoplane is to combine great stiffness with light weight. A braced monoplane wing must support itself fully, while the two wings of a help to stiffen each other. The biplane is therefore inherently stiffer than the monoplane, also, the structural forces in the spars of a biplane wing tend to be lower, so the wing can use less material to obtain the same overall strength and is therefore much lighter. A disadvantage of the biplane was the need for extra struts to space the wings apart, the low power supplied by the engines available in the first years of aviation meant that aeroplanes could only fly slowly. This required an even lower stalling speed, which in turn required a low wing loading, combining both large wing area with light weight. A biplane wing of a span and chord has twice the area of a monoplane the same size and so can fly more slowly. Alternatively, a wing of the same area as a monoplane has lower span and chord, reducing the structural forces. Biplanes suffer aerodynamic interference between the two planes and this means that a biplane does not in practice obtain twice the lift of the similarly-sized monoplane. The farther apart the wings are spaced the less the interference, given the slow speed and low power of early aircraft, the drag penalty of the wires and struts and the mutual interference of airflows were relatively minor and acceptable factors. The smaller biplane wing also allows greater maneuverability, during World War One, this further enhanced the dominance of the biplane and, despite the need for speed, military aircraft were among the last to abandon the biplane form. Specialist sports Aerobatic biplanes are still occasionally made, biplanes were originally designed with the wings positioned directly one above the other
14.
Battle of Arras (1917)
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The Battle of Arras was a British offensive on the Western Front during World War I. From 9 April to 16 May 1917, British troops attacked German defences near the French city of Arras on the Western Front, the British achieved the longest advance since trench warfare had begun, surpassing the record set by the French Sixth Army on 1 July 1916. The British advance slowed in the few days and the German defence recovered. The battle became a stalemate for both sides and by the end of the battle the British Third and First armies had suffered about 160,000 casualties. For much of the war, the armies on the Western Front were at a stalemate. The Allied objective from early 1915 was to break through the German defences into the ground beyond. The British attack at Arras was part of the French Nivelle Offensive, the aim of the French offensive was to breathrough the German defences in forty-eight hours. At Arras the British were to re-capture Vimy Ridge, dominating the plain of Douai to the east, advance towards Cambrai, the British effort was a relatively broad front assault between Vimy in the north-west and Bullecourt to the south-east. After a long preparatory bombardment, the Canadian Corps]] of the First Army in the north fought Battle of Vimy Ridge and took the ridge. The Third Army in the centre advanced astride the Scarpe River and in the south, the British armies then engaged in a series of small-scale operations to consolidate the new positions. Although these battles were successful in achieving limited aims, they were costly successes. When the battle ended on 16 May, British Empire troops had made significant advances but had been unable to achieve a breakthrough. At the beginning of 1917, the British and French were still searching for a way to achieve a breakthrough on the Western Front. Both battles consumed enormous quantities of resources while achieving virtually no strategic gains on the battlefield, the mid-war years were momentous times. Governing politicians in Paris and London were under pressure from the press. The casualties from the battles of Gallipoli, the Somme and Verdun had been high, British Prime Minister, H. H. Asquith, resigned in early December 1916 and was succeeded by David Lloyd George. The United States Congress finally declared war on Imperial Germany on 6 April 1917, in March, the German army in the west, withdrew to the Hindenburg line in Operation Alberich, which negated the tactical assumptions underlying the plans for the French offensive. Until French troops advanced to compensate during the Battles of Arras, they encountered no German troops in the assault sector, the French government desperately needed a victory to avoid civil unrest but the British were wary of proceeding, in view of the rapidly changing tactical situation
15.
Royal Flying Corps
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The Royal Flying Corps was the air arm of the British Army before and during the First World War, until it merged with the Royal Naval Air Service on 1 April 1918 to form the Royal Air Force. During the early part of the war, the RFC supported the British Army by artillery co-operation, at the start of World War I the RFC, commanded by Brigadier-General Sir David Henderson, consisted of five squadrons – one observation balloon squadron and four aeroplane squadrons. These were first used for spotting on 13 September 1914. Aerial photography was attempted during 1914, but again only became effective the next year, by 1918, photographic images could be taken from 15,000 feet and were interpreted by over 3,000 personnel. By this time parachutes had been used by balloonists for three years, on 17 August 1917, South African General Jan Smuts presented a report to the War Council on the future of air power. On 1 April 1918, the RFC and the RNAS were amalgamated to form a new service, after starting in 1914 with some 2,073 personnel, by the start of 1919 the RAF had 4,000 combat aircraft and 114,000 personnel in some 150 squadrons. The recommendations of the committee were accepted and on 13 April 1912 King George V signed a royal warrant establishing the Royal Flying Corps, the Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers became the Military Wing of the Royal Flying Corps a month later on 13 May. The Flying Corps initial allowed strength was 133 officers, and by the end of year it had 12 manned balloons and 36 aeroplanes. The RFC originally came under the responsibility of Brigadier-General Henderson, the Director of Military Training, and had branches for the Army. Major Sykes commanded the Military Wing and Commander C R Samson commanded the Naval Wing, the RFCs motto was Per ardua ad astra. This remains the motto of the Royal Air Force and other Commonwealth air forces, the RFCs first fatal crash was on 5 July 1912 near Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain. Loraine and his observer, Staff Sergeant R. H. V, an order was issued after the crash stating Flying will continue this evening as usual, thus beginning a tradition. Four months later on 11 December 1912 Parke was killed when the Handley Page monoplane in which he was flying from Hendon to Oxford crashed. The Naval Wing, with pilots and aircraft than the Military Wing. In November 1914 the Royal Flying Corps, even taking the loss of the Naval Wing into account, had expanded sufficiently to warrant the creation of wings consisting of two or more squadrons and these wings were commanded by lieutenant-colonels. In October 1915 the Royal Flying Corps had undergone further expansion which justified the creation of brigades, further expansion led to the creation of divisions, with the Training Division being established in August 1917 and RFC Middle East, being raised to divisional status in December 1917. Finally, the air raids on London and the south-east of England led to the creation of the London Air Defence Area in August 1917 under the command of Ashmore who was promoted to major-general. Two of the first three RFC squadrons were formed from the Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers, No.1 Company becoming No.1 Squadron, RFC, a second heavier-than-air squadron, No.2 Squadron, RFC, was also formed on the same day
16.
Bloody April
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The tactical, technological and training differences between the two sides ensured the British suffered a casualty rate nearly four times as great as their opponents. The losses were so disastrous that it threatened to undermine the morale of entire squadrons, nevertheless, the RFC contributed to the success, limited as it finally proved, of the British Army during the five-week campaign. The Royal Flying Corps supported British operations by offering close air support, aerial reconnaissance, the RFCs commanding officer, Hugh Trenchard believed in the offensive use of air power and pushed for operations over German-controlled territory. It was expected the numbers of aircraft assembled over the frontlines in the spring of 1917 would fulfil this purpose. However, the aircraft were, for the most part, inferior to German fighter aircraft, crucially, British pilot training was not only poorly organised and inconsistent, it had to be drastically abbreviated in order to keep squadrons suffering heavy casualties up to strength. German pilot training was, at time, more thorough. These units were led by experienced pilots, some of them survivors of the Fokker Scourge period. And had been working up with the first mass-produced twin-gunned German fighters, paradoxically, the one sided nature of the casualty lists during Bloody April was partly a result of German numerical inferiority. Moreover, they could choose when and how to engage in combat, the Battle of Arras began on 9 April 1917. The Allies launched a joint ground offensive, with the British attacking near Arras in Artois, northern France, in support of the British army, the RFC deployed 25 squadrons, totalling 365 aircraft, about one-third of which were fighters. There were initially only five German Jastas in the region, the Allies fighter squadrons were equipped with obsolete pushers such as the Airco DH.2 and F. E.8 – and other outclassed types such as the Nieuport 17 and Sopwith Pup. Only the SPAD S. VII and Sopwith Triplane could compete on more or less equal terms with the Albatros, the new generation of Allied fighters were not yet ready for service, although No.56 Squadron RFC with the S. E. The new R. E.8 two-seaters, which were eventually to prove less vulnerable than the B. E. 2e, during April 1917, the British lost 245 aircraft,211 aircrew killed or missing and 108 as prisoners of war. The German Air Services recorded the loss of 66 aircraft during the same period, as a comparison, in the five months of the Battle of the Somme of 1916 the RFC had suffered 576 casualties. Under Richthofens leadership, Jasta 11 scored 89 victories during April, in casualties suffered, the month marked the nadir of the RFCs fortunes. However, despite the losses inflicted, the German Air Service failed to stop the RFC carrying out its prime objectives, in particular the artillery spotting aircraft rendered valuable reconnaissance to the British artillery, who were able to maintain their superiority throughout the battle. In spite of their ascendancy in air combat, the German fighter squadrons continued to be used defensively, thus the Jastas established air superiority, but certainly not the air supremacy sometimes claimed. Within a couple of months the new technologically advanced generation of fighter had entered service in numbers, as the British fighter squadrons became once more able to adequately protect the slower reconnaissance and artillery observation machines, RFC losses fell and German losses rose
17.
Kurt Wolff (aviator)
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Oberleutnant Kurt Wolff was one of Imperial Germanys highest scoring fighter aces during World War I. After claiming 33 victories, he was killed in action at the age of 22, Kurt Wolff was born in Greifswald, Pomerania. He was orphaned as a child and was raised by relatives in Memel, Wolff enlisted in the army in 1912 at the age of 17, joining a transport unit, Railway Regiment Nr.4. He received a commission on 17 April 1915, and he transferred to the air service in July, Wolffs first flight was almost his last. The aeroplane crashed, dislocating Wolffs shoulder and killing his pilot instructor, nevertheless, Wolff received his pilots badge in late 1915 and was assigned to 2-seater unit Kasta 26 of Kagohl 5, followed by service with Kagohl 7 and KG40. On 12 October 1916 he was posted to the then undistinguished Jasta 11, for months, Wolff, like most of his Jasta comrades, had no success in the air. That changed when command was given to Manfred von Richthofen, under the Red Barons leadership, Jasta 11 thrived and Wolff became an excellent scout pilot. Like his commanding officer, Wolff soon became a collector of souvenirs from the aircraft he shot down. His room at his airfield soon became decorated with serial numbers, parts and he first claimed on 6 March 1917, a Royal Aircraft Factory B. E. 2d of No.16 Squadron RFC. Four more followed during March, and he scored 22 victories during what the RFC termed Bloody April, with 4 victories on 13 April 1917, harvey-Kelly - commander of No.19 Squadron. Like the rest of the Jasta, Wolffs Albatros D. III was painted red, though he added individual markings by painting his elevators, Wolffs youthful looks and frail physical stature masked his deadly skills as a combat pilot. Karl Bodenschatz, in his Jagd in Flanders Himmel, said of him, Jasta 11, at first glance, you could only say delicate little flower. A slender, thin little figure, a young face. He looks as if you could tip him backwards with one harsh word, but below this friendly schoolboys face dangles the order Pour le Mérite. And so far, these modest looking eyes have taken 30 enemy airplanes from the sky over the sights of his guns, set them afire. This slender youth is already one of the best men of the old Richthofen Staffel 11, Wolff was awarded the coveted Pour Le Mérite on 4 May and on 6 May was assigned to command Jasta 29, replacing Lt. von Dornheim who had recently been killed. He shot down a French SPAD on 13 May and a No.60 Squadron Nieuport 17 on 27 June before he returned to command Jasta 11 in July 1917, replacing Leut. Karl Allmenroeder, who had fallen in combat. He downed a RE-8 of No.4 Squadron and a Sopwith Triplane of No.1 Naval Squadron in early July
18.
Lothar von Richthofen
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Lothar-Siegfried Freiherr von Richthofen was a German First World War fighter ace credited with 40 victories. He was a brother of top-scoring ace Manfred von Richthofen. Following the war he worked for a while on a farm before taking an industrial position and he married in June 1919 and had two children. Yearning for aviation he accepted a position as a pilot, conveying passengers and he died on 4 July 1922 in a flying accident at Fuhlsbuettel, he was aged 27. Lothar von Richthofen was born on 27 September 1894 and he and his brothers, Manfred and Bolko, hunted wild boar, elk, birds, and deer. Like his brother Manfred, Lothar began the war as an officer with the 4th Dragoon Regiment. He had remained in the public Gymnasium, he was enrolled in military training at the Kriegsschule in Danzig when war began. On his own initiative Lothar returned to his unit, Lothar was nearly cut down by sniper fire while on patrol. In mid-October 1914, while stationed at Attigny, he was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class for valour and it was the only consolation that Lothar received during his cavalry service. The following month, his regiment was transferred to the Eastern Front, in February 1916 Manfred rescued his brother Lothar from the boredom of training new troops in Luben and encouraged him to also transfer to the Fliegertruppe. Richthofen joined the German Army Air Service in late 1915 and he served from January 1916 as an observer with Jasta 23, sometimes observing for Otto Creutzmann and saw action during the Battle of Verdun. He won the Iron Cross 1st Class in December and then training as a pilot. His first posting as a pilot was to his brothers Jasta 11 on 6 March 1917, an impulsive and aggressive pilot, unlike his coolly calculating brother Manfred, Lothars first victory claim followed on 28 March for an FE 2b of No.25 Squadron, Royal Flying Corps. The German high command appreciated the value of two Richthofens fighting together to defeat the enemy in the air. Taking part in the period of German dominance called Bloody April by the British, when his brother went on leave, Lothar von Richthofen assumed command of the squadron. During the first week of May 1917, Lothar von Richthofen scored three more victories, in a running battle in deteriorating visibility in the middle of a thunderstorm over Bourlon Wood, both sides became scattered. Richthofen engaged in combat with the British Triplane. At about the time, Ball was seen by fellow 56 Squadron pilot Cyril Crowe chasing a red Albatros into a thundercloud
19.
Werner Voss
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Werner Voss was a World War I German flying ace credited with 48 aerial victories. Voss, a son from Krefeld, was a patriotic young man even while still in school. He began his career in November 1914 as a 17‑year‑old Hussar. After turning to aviation, he proved to be a natural pilot, after flight school and six months in a bomber unit, he joined a newly formed fighter squadron, Jagdstaffel 2 on 21 November 1916. There he became friends with Manfred von Richthofen, by 6 April 1917, Voss had scored 24 victories and awarded Germanys highest award, the Pour le Mérite. The medals mandatory months leave removed Voss from the battlefield during Bloody April, in his absence, nevertheless, Richthofen regarded Voss as his only possible rival as top scoring ace of the war. Soon after Voss returned from leave, he was at odds with his squadron commander and he was detailed from his squadron to evaluate new fighter aircraft and became enthusiastic about the Fokker Triplane. After transferring through three temporary squadron commands in two months, Voss was given command of Jagdstaffel 10 on 30 July 1917 at Richthofens request, by now, his victory total was 34. His last stand came on 23 September 1917, just hours after his 48th victory, after he fell in solo opposition to eight British aces, he was described by his preeminent foe, James McCudden, as the bravest German airman. Werner Voss was born in Krefeld, Germany, on 13 April 1897 and his mother, Johanna Mathilde Pastor Voss, was a pious homemaker who raised her children in the Evangelical Lutheran faith. His father Maxmilian owned a dye factory, Werner was soon followed by two brothers, Maxmilian Jr. was born in 1898, and Otto on 22 April 1901. An unusual feature of the Voss household was the presence of two first cousins, Margaret and Katherine, the elder Vosses longed for daughters, so they virtually adopted their nieces. The two nieces were referred to within the family as daughters and sisters. The Voss family home at 75 Blumenthalstrasse was a comfortable house with surrounding grounds. Young Werner was expected to carry on the trade as he grew into his heritage. However, even before World War I burgeoned, he was drawn towards patriotic service. When he finished his schooling at Krefelds Moltke Gymnasium, he joined the Krefeld Militia, in April 1914, disregarding conscription laws, underaged Werner Voss joined Ersatz Eskadron 2. As the war erupted, Voss qualified as a motorcyclist and motorcycle mechanic and he received his Certificate of Graduation as a motorcyclist on 2 August 1914, subsequently, his parents would give him a 300 cc Vee-twin Wanderer motorcycle for his 18th birthday
20.
Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen
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Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen was a German field marshal of the Luftwaffe during the World War II. Born in 1895 into a family of the Prussian nobility, Richthofen grew up in prosperous surroundings, at the age of eighteen, after leaving school, he opted to join the German Army rather than choose an academic career, and joined the armys cavalry arm in 1913. On the outbreak of the First World War, Richthofen fought on the Western Front, in 1915 he was posted to the Eastern Front, where he stayed until 1917. The Richthofen family produced several notable personalities that would become famous during the First War and his cousins, the brothers Lothar and Manfred von Richthofen both became flying aces and they encouraged him to join the Luftstreitkräfte. He did so, and joined Manfreds Geschwader, Jagdgeschwader 1, Manfred, known as the Red Baron, was the highest scoring ace of the war, with 80 victories. On his first mission with his cousin, on 21 April 1918, Wolfram continued flying and went on to claim eight aerial victories before the armistice in November 1918. Lothar survived the war but was killed in a accident in 1922. After the war Richthofen resumed civilian life after being discharged from the army and he studied Engineering at University before rejoining the Reichswehr, the German armed forces of the Weimar Republic era. In 1933 Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power in Germany, and he also served as part of the Condor Legion which supported the Nationalists in the Spanish Civil War. During this time, he recognised the need for air support in military campaigns and championed the dive bomber. He also believed in improving ground-air communications, which was put into effect in the Second World War, after his experiences in Spain, the combination of effective air-ground communications and powerful concentration of dive bombers would lead to personal success for Wolfram in the first half of the war. By 1941, a standard of air to ground communications became a uniform facility in the Luftwaffe. The effectiveness of his units proved decisive at certain points in the French Campaign and he was awarded the Knights Cross of the Iron Cross on 23 May 1940, in view of his achievements. He continued in service during the Battle of Britain and the Balkans Campaign in 1940 and 1941. Richthofen achieved his greatest success on the Eastern Front, in particular, he achieved notable success in the Crimean Campaigns during 1942. He remained in service until late 1944, when he was retired on medical grounds. Soon after the capitulation of Germany in May 1945, he was prisoner by the United States Army. Richthofen was born on 10 October 1895, at the Richthofen Barzdorf estate, near Striegau and his father, Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen, and mother, Therese Gotz von Olenhusen were of the Silesian nobility, and the family had been ennobled 350 years before Wolframs birth
21.
Friedrich T. Noltenius
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Lieutenant Friedrich Theodor Noltenius was a German flying ace in the First World War, with a total of 21 victories. Friedrich Theodor Noltenius was born in Bremen on 8 January 1894, the younger Noltenius graduated from high school in Bremen. The war interrupted him becoming a doctor, Noltenius enlisted in Field Artillery Regiment No.13 at the outbreak of war, on 4 August 1914. He served on the Eastern Front until December 1915, during this time and he then saw action at Ypres and the Somme in France until November 1917, winning the Iron Cross 2nd class. He was commissioned in October 1916 and was wounded on 16 April 1917, in May he was awarded the Iron Cross 1st class. In December, he commenced ground school in Altenburg, he took flight school with FEA10 at Böblingen in February 1918. In June 1918 he attended school and then posted to the Royal Prussian Jasta 27 in Jagdgeschwader 3. Flying a Fokker D. VII with red and white bands painted around the fuselage and on the middle of the top wing and his first victory was over a Sopwith Dolphin, on 10 August. His second win, ten days later, initiated him into the ranks of balloon busters as he destroyed an observation balloon, by 2 September, he was an ace, scoring his fifth and sixth triumphs. He was also shot down on the 22nd by George Vaughn, nevertheless, by the end of September, Noltenius had successfully claimed victory over another four enemy airplanes and three more balloons, raising his score to a bakers dozen. Disputes over victories with his fellow pilots prompted his transfer to the Royal Prussian Jasta 6 on 27 September and he thus joined the elite Flying Circus, Royal Prussian Jagdgeschwader I. Noltenius scored twice with Jasta 6, once on a balloon on 6 October 1918, the former victory made him one of the rare balloon aces. A clash with Ulrich Neckel, his Commanding Officer, led to another move and he scored thrice for his new squadron on 23 October. Three more singleton victories, on 28 October,3 and 4 November, the armistice a week after his final victory, and the subsequent revolution, scotched his chances of being awarded Germanys highest decoration, the Pour le Mérite or Blue Max. Indeed, he was one of the last awardees of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern, after the war he fought against the communists before qualifying as a doctor. Living in South America from 1923–33, he returned to Germany and his war diary and military service record was published in the Cross and Cockade Journal, Volume 7, Number 4
22.
Ernst Udet
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Ernst Udet was a German pilot and air force general during World War II. Udet joined the Imperial German Air Service at age 19, eventually becoming a flying ace of World War I. Udet spent the 1920s and early 1930s as a stunt pilot, international barnstormer, light aircraft manufacturer, in 1933, Udet joined the Nazi Party and became involved in the early development of the Luftwaffe, where he was appointed director of research and development. Influential in the adoption of dive bombing techniques as well as the Stuka dive bomber, the stress of the position and his distaste for administrative duties led to Udet developing alcoholism. Ernst Udet was born on 26 April,1896, in Frankfurt am Main, Udet grew up in Munich, and was known from his early childhood for his sunny temperament and fascination with aviation. In his youth he hung out at an airplane factory. In 1909, he helped found the Munich Aero-Club, after crashing a glider he and a friend constructed, he finally flew in 1913 with a test pilot in the nearby Otto Works owned by Gustav Otto, which he often visited. Shortly after the beginning of World War I, Udet attempted to enlist in the Imperial German Army on 2 August 1914, later that month, when the Allgemeiner Deutscher Automobil-Club appealed for volunteers with motorcycles, Udet applied and was accepted. Udets father had him a motorcycle when he had passed his first year examination. Württembergischen Reserve Division as a messenger rider, after injuring his shoulder when his motorcycle hit a crater from an artillery shell explosion, he was sent to a military hospital, and his motorcycle was sent for repairs. When Udet tried to track down the 26th Division, he was unable to find it, during this time, he met officers from the Chauny flying sector, who advised him to transfer as an aerial observer. However, before he received his orders, the army dispensed with the volunteer motorcyclists, Udet tried to return to the fighting, but he was unable to get into either the pilot or aircraft mechanic training the army offered. However, he learned that if he were a trained pilot, through a family friend, Gustav Otto, owner of the aircraft factory he had hung out around in his youth, Udet received private flight training. This cost him 2,000 marks and new equipment from his fathers firm. Udet received his pilots license at the end of April 1915 and was immediately accepted by the Imperial German Air Service. Udet at first flew in Feld Flieger-Abteilung 206 —an observation unit—as an Unteroffizier pilot with observer Leutnant Justinius and he and his observer won the Iron Cross for nursing their damaged Aviatik B. I two-seater back to German lines after a shackle on a wing-cable snapped. Justinius had climbed out to hold the wing and balance it rather than landing behind the enemy lines, later, Udet was court-martialed for losing an aircraft in an incident the flying corps considered a result of bad judgement. Overloaded with fuel and bombs, the aircraft stalled after a sharp bank, miraculously, both Udet and Justinius survived with only minor injuries
23.
Fokker Dr.I
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The Fokker Dr. I was a World War I fighter aircraft built by Fokker-Flugzeugwerke. The Dr. I saw widespread service in the spring of 1918 and it became famous as the aircraft in which Manfred von Richthofen gained his last 19 victories, and in which he was killed on 21 April 1918. In February 1917, the Sopwith Triplane began to appear over the Western Front, despite its single Vickers machine gun armament, the Sopwith swiftly proved itself superior to the more heavily armed Albatros fighters then in use by the Luftstreitkräfte. In April 1917, Anthony Fokker viewed a captured Sopwith Triplane while visiting Jasta 11, upon his return to the Schwerin factory, Fokker instructed Reinhold Platz to build a triplane, but gave him no further information about the Sopwith design. Initial tests revealed that the V.4 had unacceptably high control forces resulting from the use of unbalanced ailerons, instead of submitting the V.4 for a type test, Fokker produced a revised prototype designated V.5. The most notable changes were the introduction of horn-balanced ailerons and elevators, the V.5 also featured interplane struts, which were not necessary from a structural standpoint, but which minimized wing flexing. On 14 July 1917, Idflieg issued an order for 20 pre-production aircraft, the V.5 prototype, serial 101/17, was tested to destruction at Adlershof on 11 August 1917. The first two pre-production triplanes were designated F. I, in accord with Idfliegs early class prefix for triplanes, the two aircraft were sent to Jastas 10 and 11 for combat evaluation, arriving at Markebeeke, Belgium on 28 August 1917. Richthofen first flew 102/17 on 1 September 1917 and shot two enemy aircraft in the next two days. He reported to the Kogenluft that the F. I was superior to the Sopwith Triplane, Richthofen recommended that fighter squadrons be reequipped with the new aircraft as soon as possible. The remaining pre-production aircraft, designated Dr. I, were delivered to Jasta 11, Idflieg issued a production order for 100 triplanes in September, followed by an order for 200 in November. Apart from the leading edge of the tailplane, these aircraft were almost identical to the F. I. The primary distinguishing feature was the addition of wingtip skids, which proved necessary because the aircraft was tricky to land, in October, Fokker began delivering the Dr. I to squadrons within Richthofens Jagdgeschwader I. Compared to the Albatros and Pfalz fighters, the Dr. I offered exceptional maneuverability, though the ailerons were not very effective, the rudder and elevator controls were light and powerful. Rapid turns, especially to the right, were facilitated by the triplanes marked directional instability, vizefeldwebel Franz Hemer of Jasta 6 said, The triplane was my favorite fighting machine because it had such wonderful flying qualities. I could let myself stunt – looping and rolling – and could avoid an enemy by diving with perfect safety, the triplane had to be given up because although it was very maneuverable, it was no longer fast enough. As Hemer noted, the Dr. I was considerably slower than contemporary Allied fighters in level flight and in a dive. While initial rate of climb was excellent, performance fell off dramatically at higher altitudes because of the low compression of the Oberursel Ur. II, as the war continued, chronic shortages of castor oil made rotary operation increasingly difficult
24.
Fokker D.VII
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The Fokker D. VII was a German World War I fighter aircraft designed by Reinhold Platz of the Fokker-Flugzeugwerke. Germany produced around 3,300 D. VII aircraft in the half of 1918. In service with the Luftstreitkräfte, the D. VII quickly proved itself to be a formidable aircraft, the Armistice ending the war specifically required Germany to surrender all D. VIIs to the Allies. Surviving aircraft saw continued service with many other countries in the years after World War I. Fokkers chief designer, Reinhold Platz, had working on a series of experimental planes. These aircraft were characterized by the use of cantilever wings, Junkers had originated the idea in 1915 with the first all-metal aircraft, the Junkers J1, nicknamed Blechesel. The resulting wings were thick, with a leading edge. This gave greater lift and more docile stalling behavior than the thin wings commonly used at the time, late in 1917, Fokker built the experimental V11 biplane, fitted with the standard Mercedes D. IIIa engine. In January 1918, Idflieg held a competition at Adlershof. For the first time, frontline pilots would participate in the evaluation and selection of new fighters. Fokker submitted the V11 along with other prototypes. Manfred von Richthofen flew the V11 and found it tricky, unpleasant, in response to these complaints, Reinhold Platz lengthened the rear fuselage by one structural bay, and added a triangular vertical fin in front of the rudder. Upon flying the modified V11, Richthofen praised it as the best aircraft of the competition and it offered excellent performance from the outdated Mercedes engine, yet was safe and easy to fly. Richthofens recommendation virtually decided the competition, but he was not alone in recommending it, Fokker immediately received a provisional order for 400 production aircraft, which were designated D. VII by Idflieg. Fokkers factory was not up to the task of meeting all D. VII production orders, Idflieg therefore directed Albatros and AEG to build the D. VII under license, though AEG did not ultimately produce any aircraft. Because the Fokker factory did not use detailed plans as part of its production process, Albatros paid Fokker a five percent royalty for every D. VII built under license. Albatros Flugzeugwerke and its subsidiary, Ostdeutsche Albatros Werke, built the D. VII at factories in Johannisthal and Schneidemühl, aircraft markings included the type designation and factory suffix, immediately before the individual serial number. Some parts were not interchangeable between aircraft produced at different factories, even between Albatros and OAW, additionally each manufacturer tended to differ in nose paint styles
25.
Darmstadt
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Darmstadt is a city in the state of Hesse in Germany, located in the southern part of the Rhine-Main-Area. Darmstadt has a population around 150,000, the Darmstadt Larger Urban Zone has 430,993 inhabitants. Darmstadt holds the official title City of Science as it is a centre of scientific institutions, universities. The existence of the elements were also confirmed at GSI Centre for Heavy Ion Research, nihonium, flerovium, moscovium, livermorium. Darmstadt is also the seat of the worlds oldest pharmaceutical company, Merck, Darmstadt was formerly the capital of a sovereign country, the Grand Duchy of Hesse and its successor, the Peoples State of Hesse, a federal state of Germany. As the capital of an increasingly prosperous duchy, the city gained some international prominence, in the 20th century, industry, as well as large science and electronics sectors became increasingly important, and are still a major part of the citys economy. It is also home to the football club SV Darmstadt 98, Darmstadt, Indiana was named after Darmstadt and for the former Royal Family. The name Darmstadt first appears towards the end of the 11th century, the origins of the name are unknown. Dar-mund in Middle Low German is translated as Boggy Headlands, even locals often believe, incorrectly, that the name derives from the Darmbach. In fact, the received its current name much later, after the city. Darmstadt was chartered as a city by the Holy Roman Emperor Ludwig the Bavarian in 1330, the city, then called Darmstait, became a secondary residence for the counts, with a small castle established at the site of the current, much larger edifice. When the house of Katzenelnbogen became extinct in 1479, the city was passed to the Landgraviate of Hesse, the city grew in population during the 19th century from little over 10,000 to 72,000 inhabitants. A polytechnical school, which became a Technical University now known as TU Darmstadt, was established in 1877. In the beginning of the 20th century, Darmstadt was an important centre for the art movement of Jugendstil, annual architectural competitions led to the building of many architectural treasures of this period. Also during this period, in 1912 the chemist Anton Kollisch, working for the pharmaceutical company Merck, Darmstadts municipal area was extended in 1937 to include the neighbouring localities of Arheilgen and Eberstadt, and in 1938 the city was separated administratively from the surrounding district. Darmstadt was the first city in Germany to force Jewish shops to close in early 1933, the shops were only closed for one day, for endangering communal order and tranquility. In 1942, over 3,000 Jews from Darmstadt were first forced into a camp located in the Liebigschule. Darmstadt was first bombed on 30 July 1940, and 34 other air raids would follow before the wars end, the old city centre was largely destroyed in a British bombing raid on 11 September 1944
26.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
28.
Jagdstaffel 2
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Jasta 2 was one of the best-known German Luftstreitkräfte Squadrons in World War I. Its first commanding officer was the great aerial tactician Oswald Boelcke, as one of the very first Jastas, Jasta 2 had no parent unit and there was therefore no mass transfer of personnel from existing staffeln. Assigned to the German 1st Army, the unit was created with the intention that Hauptmann Oswald Boelcke would be its leader, Jasta 2 was formed on 10 August 1916 at Bertincourt. Boelcke was ordered to return from a tour of south-eastern theatres of the War to take command. After Max Immelmanns death, Kaiser Wilhelm II had ordered Boelcke grounded for a month to avoid losing him in combat soon after Immelman. He had become such an important hero to the German public, as well as such an authority on aerial warfare, given a choice between a desk job and a tour of the Middle East, Boelcke downed a Nieuport over Douaumont on 27 June and reported to headquarters. Boelcke was detailed to share his expertise with the head of German military aviation, at this time, Boelcke codified his Dicta. He also shared his views on creation of an arm. Boelcke was sent on a tour of the Balkans and he transited Austria to visit Turkey. Upon his return swing, he visited Bulgaria and the Russian Front and he was given permission to choose his own pilots to form a fighter squadron. Among his first selections upon his return were Manfred von Richthofen, Erwin Böhme, Boelcke was appointed commander of Jasta 2 on 30 August 1916. The unit utilised the empty buildings vacated by FFA32 in the Vélu Woods, as of 27 August the fledgling Jasta had three officers and 64 other ranks on strength, but no aircraft. The first aircraft arrived on 1 September, two Fokker DIIIs and an Albatros D. I, by 8 September there were eight pilots on strength, including Manfred von Richthofen and Erwin Böhme. Three days later, Böhme noted he was pushing for permission to use his castoff Halberstadt, since Boelcke had a Fokker, on 16 September, Boelckes new squadron received five new Albatros D. Is for the pilots, and an improved Albatros D. II for the Staffelfuhrer. Boelcke promptly put the new planes in the air on the fighter unit effort to gain local air superiority. At 1300 hours 16 September, Boelcke and five of his pilots took off, while Boelcke held aside, his five tyros bounced a British formation of 14 planes, broke it up, and shot down two. That night, a German army tradition was ditched and a new German air force custom established when the men were invited into the Jastas social center. Boelcke shot down ten Royal Flying Corps planes in his first month with Jasta 2 and he would fly a solo mission in the morning and return to his cubs for afternoon training
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Jagdstaffel 4
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Royal Prussian Jagdstaffel 4, commonly abbreviated to Jasta 4, was a hunting group of the Luftstreitkräfte, the air arm of the Imperial German Army during World War I. The unit would score 192 confirmed victories, in turn, it would suffer 11 killed in action,9 wounded in action and it was one of the units in the famed Flying Circus. Jasta 4 was founded on 25 August 1916, drawing personnel from FFA23 and other reconnaissance units within 2 Armee, as well as from Kampfeinsitzerkommando Vaux. In June 1917, it switched to support and control of the 4 Armee, on 24 June 1917, it became part of the forming Jagdeschwader 1. Membership in the peripatetic Flying Circus kept Jasta 4 on the move, during 1918, the Jasta operated for the fronts of 2 Armee,6 Armee,7 Armee, and 17 Armee. They ended the war on the 5 Armee front, royal Prussian Jagdstaffel 4 passed into history on 16 November 1918, when it was disbanded at FEA9, Darmstadt. They include, Hans Klein Fritz Anders Upon formation, the Jagdstaffel was equipped with Halberstadt D. II, by February 1917, it was operating Albatros D. IIs. Squadron markings during this time included black and white bands around the fuselages in addition to national markings, in early and mid-1918, it had Fokker Triplanes on strength, reportedly striped red and turquoise on wings and fuselages. The squadron also operated, at some time, Albatros D. IIIs, Albatros D. Vs, Halberstadt D. Vs. Notes Bibliography Franks, Norman, Bailey, Frank W. & Guest, above The Lines, The Aces and Fighter Units of the German Air Service, Naval Air Service, and Flanders Marine Corps, 1914–1918
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Jagdstaffel 5
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Many of the first pilots of the Jasta came out of KEK Avillers, itself an early attempt to organize and utilize fighter planes as winged weapons. Jasta 5 began its career at Bechamp near Verdun, in support of 5 Armee. On 29 September 1916, it moved to the Somme to the 1 Armee area of operations, on 11 March 1917, Jasta 5 moved into Boistrancourt, it spent the next year operating from there, in support of the 2 Armee. In March 1918, the Jasta was joined by Jasta 46 thus forming the beginning of Jagdgruppe 2, in July, command passed to Otto Schmidt, in August, it was joined in the JG by Jasta 34 and Jasta 37. With approximately 253 victories at wars end, Jasta 5 had the third highest total of any squadron in the Luftstreitkräfte and its casualties came to 19 pilots killed in action,3 killed in flying accidents,8 wounded in action, and 1 injured in an accident. The third member of the triumvirate not listed is Josef Mai, the squadron was originally equipped with Fokker Eindeckers. It progressed to use of Albatros D. IIs and Halberstadt D. IIs, in 1917, it was using Albatros D. IIIs and Albatros D. Vs. In 1918, it used both the Fokker D. VII and the Fokker Triplane, at one time, the Jasta was one of only three squadrons not belonging to a Jagdgeschwader that was totally equipped with the Triplane. It also reputedly operated the Pfalz D. XII, which entered service in July 1918, bibliography Franks, Norman, Bailey, Frank W. & Guest, Russell F. Above The Lines, The Aces and Fighter Units of the German Air Service, Naval Air Service, jagdstaffel 5 Green Tails in 1917
German Empire
