1.
Edinburgh
–
Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls
Edinburgh
–
Clockwise from top-left: View from
Calton Hill,
Old College,
Old Town from Princes Street,
Edinburgh Castle,
Princes Street from Calton Hill
Edinburgh
–
Edinburgh, showing Arthur's Seat, one of the earliest known sites of human habitation in the area
Edinburgh
–
Edinburgh in the 17th century
Edinburgh
–
A painting showing Edinburgh characters (based on
John Kay 's caricatures) behind
St Giles' Cathedral in the late 18th century
2.
Cambridge
–
Cambridge is a university city and the county town of Cambridgeshire, England, on the River Cam about 50 miles north of London. At the United Kingdom Census 2011, its population was 123,867, there is archaeological evidence of settlement in the area in the Bronze Age and in Roman Britain, under Viking rule, Cambridge became an important trading centre. The first town charters were granted in the 12th century, although city status was not conferred until 1951, the University of Cambridge, founded in 1209, is one of the top five universities in the world. The university includes the Cavendish Laboratory, Kings College Chapel, the citys skyline is dominated by the last two buildings, along with the spire of the Our Lady and the English Martyrs Church, the chimney of Addenbrookes Hospital and St Johns College Chapel tower. Anglia Ruskin University, evolved from the Cambridge School of Art, Cambridge is at the heart of the high-technology Silicon Fen with industries such as software and bioscience and many start-up companies spun out of the university. More than 40% of the workforce has a higher education qualification, the Cambridge Biomedical Campus, one of the largest biomedical research clusters in the world, is soon to be home to AstraZeneca, a hotel and the relocated Papworth Hospital. Parkers Piece hosted the first ever game of Association football, the Strawberry Fair music and arts festival and Midsummer Fairs are held on Midsummer Common, and the annual Cambridge Beer Festival takes place on Jesus Green. The city is adjacent to the M11 and A14 roads, settlements have existed around the Cambridge area since prehistoric times. The earliest clear evidence of occupation is the remains of a 3, the principal Roman site is a small fort Duroliponte on Castle Hill, just northwest of the city centre around the location of the earlier British village. The fort was bounded on two sides by the lines formed by the present Mount Pleasant, continuing across Huntingdon Road into Clare Street, the eastern side followed Magrath Avenue, with the southern side running near to Chesterton Lane and Kettles Yard before turning northwest at Honey Hill. It was constructed around AD70 and converted to use around 50 years later. Evidence of more widespread Roman settlement has been discovered including numerous farmsteads, evidence exists that the invading Anglo-Saxons had begun occupying the area by the end of the century. Their settlement—also on and around Castle Hill—became known as Grantebrycge, Anglo-Saxon grave goods have been found in the area. During this period, Cambridge benefited from good trade links across the hard-to-travel fenlands, by the 7th century, the town was less significant and described by Bede as a little ruined city containing the burial site of Etheldreda. Cambridge was on the border between the East and Middle Anglian kingdoms and the settlement slowly expanded on both sides of the river, the arrival of the Vikings was recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 875. Viking rule, the Danelaw, had been imposed by 878 Their vigorous trading habits caused the town to grow rapidly. During this period the centre of the town shifted from Castle Hill on the bank of the river to the area now known as the Quayside on the right bank. In 1068, two years after his conquest of England, William of Normandy built a castle on Castle Hill, like the rest of the newly conquered kingdom, Cambridge fell under the control of the King and his deputies
Cambridge
–
King's College Chapel, seen from
the Backs
Cambridge
–
St Bene't's Church, the oldest standing building in Cambridge.
Cambridge
–
Peterhouse was the first college to be founded in the University of Cambridge.
Cambridge
–
Cambridge in 1575
3.
University of Edinburgh
–
The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582, is the sixth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands ancient universities. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city of Edinburgh, the University of Edinburgh was ranked 17th and 21st in the world by the 2014–15 and 2015-16 QS rankings. It is now ranked 19th in the according to 2016-17 QS Rankings. It is ranked 16th in the world in arts and humanities by the 2015–16 Times Higher Education Ranking and it is ranked the 23rd most employable university in the world by the 2015 Global Employability University Ranking. It is ranked as the 6th best university in Europe by the U. S. News Best Global Universities Ranking and it is a member of both the Russell Group, and the League of European Research Universities, a consortium of 21 research universities in Europe. It has the third largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, after the universities of Cambridge and it continues to have links to the British Royal Family, having had the Duke of Edinburgh as its Chancellor from 1953 to 2010 and Princess Anne since 2011. Edinburgh receives approximately 50,000 applications every year, making it the fourth most popular university in the UK by volume of applicants, after St Andrews, it is the most difficult university to gain admission into in Scotland, and 9th overall in the UK. This was a move at the time, as most universities were established through Papal bulls. Established as the Tounis College, it opened its doors to students in October 1583, instruction began under the charge of another St Andrews graduate Robert Rollock. It was the fourth Scottish university in a period when the more populous. It was renamed King Jamess College in 1617, by the 18th century, the university was a leading centre of the Scottish Enlightenment. The universitys first custom-built building was the Old College, now Edinburgh Law School and its first forte in teaching was anatomy and the developing science of surgery, from which it expanded into many other subjects. From the basement of a nearby house ran the anatomy tunnel corridor and it went under what was then North College Street, and under the university buildings until it reached the universitys anatomy lecture theatre, delivering bodies for dissection. It was from this tunnel the body of William Burke was taken after he had been hanged, towards the end of the 19th century, Old College was becoming overcrowded and Robert Rowand Anderson was commissioned to design new Medical School premises in 1875. The medical school was more or less built to his design and was completed by the addition of the McEwan Hall in the 1880s. The building now known as New College was originally built as a Free Church college in the 1840s and has been the home of divinity at the university since the 1920s. The two oldest schools – law and divinity – are both well-esteemed, with law being based in Old College and divinity in New College on the Mound and they are also represented by the Edinburgh University Sports Union which was founded in 1866. The medical school is renowned throughout the world and it was widely considered the best medical school in the English-speaking world throughout the 18th century and first half of the 19th century
University of Edinburgh
–
King James's College, c. 1647
University of Edinburgh
–
The University Of Edinburgh
University of Edinburgh
–
The university's
Old College
University of Edinburgh
–
The university's
New College building
4.
Maxwell relations
–
Maxwells relations are a set of equations in thermodynamics which are derivable from the symmetry of second derivatives and from the definitions of the thermodynamic potentials. These relations are named for the nineteenth-century physicist James Clerk Maxwell, the structure of Maxwell relations is a statement of equality among the second derivatives for continuous functions. It follows directly from the fact that the order of differentiation of a function of two variables is irrelevant. It is seen that for every thermodynamic potential there are n/2 possible Maxwell relations where n is the number of variables for that potential. The thermodynamic square can be used as a mnemonic to recall, the usefulness of these relations lies in their quantifying entropy changes, which are not directly measurable, in terms of measurable quantities like temperature, volume, and pressure. Maxwell relations are based on simple partial differentiation rules, in particular the differential of a function. This leads to the identity d P d V = d T d S. The physical meaning of identity can be seen by noting that the two sides are the equivalent ways of writing the work done in an infinitesimal Carnot cycle. An equivalent way of writing the identity is ∂ ∂ =1, the Maxwell relations now follow directly. For example, T = ∂ ∂ = ∂ ∂ = V, the critical step is the penultimate one. The other Maxwell relations follow in similar fashion, for example, S = ∂ ∂ = ∂ ∂ = − V. The above are not the only Maxwell relationships, for example, if we have a single-component gas, then the number of particles N is also a natural variable of the above four thermodynamic potentials. The Maxwell relationship for the enthalpy with respect to pressure and particle number would then be, in addition, there are other thermodynamic potentials besides the four that are commonly used, and each of these potentials will yield a set of Maxwell relations. Each equation can be re-expressed using the relationship z =1 / z which are also known as Maxwell relations. Table of thermodynamic equations Thermodynamic equations
Maxwell relations
–
Flow chart showing the paths between the Maxwell relations. P:
pressure, T:
temperature, V:
volume, S:
entropy, α:
coefficient of thermal expansion, κ:
compressibility, C V:
heat capacity at constant volume, C P:
heat capacity at constant pressure.
5.
Maxwell distribution
–
In statistics the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is a particular probability distribution named after James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann. Particle in this context refers to particles, and the system of particles is assumed to have reached thermodynamic equilibrium. While the distribution was first derived by Maxwell in 1860 on heuristic grounds, the distribution depends on the temperature of the system and the mass of the particle. The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution applies to the ideal gas, which is an idealization of real gases. In real gases, there are effects that can make their speed distribution different from the Maxwell–Boltzmann form. However, rarefied gases at ordinary temperatures behave very nearly like an ideal gas, thus, it forms the basis of the Kinetic theory of gases, which provides a simplified explanation of many fundamental gaseous properties, including pressure and diffusion. The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is the function f =34 π v 2 e − m v 22 k T and this probability density function gives the probability, per unit speed, of finding the particle with a speed near v. This equation is simply the Maxwell distribution with parameter a = k T / m. In probability theory the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is a chi distribution with three degrees of freedom and scale parameter a = k T / m, note that a distribution is not the same as the probability. The distribution stands for a number, as in all three kinds of statistics. With the Darwin–Fowler method of mean values the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is obtained as an exact result, the mean speed, most probable speed, and root-mean-square can be obtained from properties of the Maxwell distribution. The typical speeds are related as follows,0.886 ⟨ v ⟩ = v p < ⟨ v ⟩ < ⟨ v 2 ⟩ =1.085 ⟨ v ⟩. After Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann in 1872 also derived the distribution on mechanical grounds and argued that gases should over time tend toward this distribution and he later derived the distribution again under the framework of statistical thermodynamics. The derivations in this section are along the lines of Boltzmanns 1877 derivation, additionally, the particles are assumed to be in thermal equilibrium. The denominator in Equation is simply a normalizing factor so that the Ni/N add up to 1 — in other words it is a kind of partition function. Because velocity and speed are related to energy, Equation can be used to derive relationships between temperature and the speeds of gas particles, all that is needed is to discover the density of microstates in energy, which is determined by dividing up momentum space into equal sized regions. The potential energy is taken to be zero, so all energy is in the form of kinetic energy. The relationship between energy and momentum for massive non-relativistic particles is where p2 is the square of the momentum vector p =
Maxwell distribution
–
Probability density function
6.
Maxwell speed distribution
–
In statistics the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is a particular probability distribution named after James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann. Particle in this context refers to particles, and the system of particles is assumed to have reached thermodynamic equilibrium. While the distribution was first derived by Maxwell in 1860 on heuristic grounds, the distribution depends on the temperature of the system and the mass of the particle. The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution applies to the ideal gas, which is an idealization of real gases. In real gases, there are effects that can make their speed distribution different from the Maxwell–Boltzmann form. However, rarefied gases at ordinary temperatures behave very nearly like an ideal gas, thus, it forms the basis of the Kinetic theory of gases, which provides a simplified explanation of many fundamental gaseous properties, including pressure and diffusion. The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is the function f =34 π v 2 e − m v 22 k T and this probability density function gives the probability, per unit speed, of finding the particle with a speed near v. This equation is simply the Maxwell distribution with parameter a = k T / m. In probability theory the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is a chi distribution with three degrees of freedom and scale parameter a = k T / m, note that a distribution is not the same as the probability. The distribution stands for a number, as in all three kinds of statistics. With the Darwin–Fowler method of mean values the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is obtained as an exact result, the mean speed, most probable speed, and root-mean-square can be obtained from properties of the Maxwell distribution. The typical speeds are related as follows,0.886 ⟨ v ⟩ = v p < ⟨ v ⟩ < ⟨ v 2 ⟩ =1.085 ⟨ v ⟩. After Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann in 1872 also derived the distribution on mechanical grounds and argued that gases should over time tend toward this distribution and he later derived the distribution again under the framework of statistical thermodynamics. The derivations in this section are along the lines of Boltzmanns 1877 derivation, additionally, the particles are assumed to be in thermal equilibrium. The denominator in Equation is simply a normalizing factor so that the Ni/N add up to 1 — in other words it is a kind of partition function. Because velocity and speed are related to energy, Equation can be used to derive relationships between temperature and the speeds of gas particles, all that is needed is to discover the density of microstates in energy, which is determined by dividing up momentum space into equal sized regions. The potential energy is taken to be zero, so all energy is in the form of kinetic energy. The relationship between energy and momentum for massive non-relativistic particles is where p2 is the square of the momentum vector p =
Maxwell speed distribution
–
Probability density function
7.
Maxwell material
–
A Maxwell material is a viscoelastic material having the properties both of elasticity and viscosity. It is named for James Clerk Maxwell who proposed the model in 1867 and it is also known as a Maxwell fluid. The Maxwell model can be represented by a viscous damper. This model describes the damper as a Newtonian fluid and models the spring with Hookes law, if we connect these two elements in parallel, we get a generalized model of Kelvin–Voigt material. In the former case, the viscosity corresponds to that for a Newtonian fluid, in the latter case, it has a slightly different meaning relating stress and rate of strain. The model is applied to the case of small deformations. For the large deformations we should include some geometrical non-linearity, for the simplest way of generalizing the Maxwell model, refer to the upper-convected Maxwell model. If a Maxwell material is deformed and held to a strain of ε0. Since the viscous element would not return to its original length, the Maxwell Model does not exhibit creep since it models strain as linear function of time. If a small stress is applied for a long time. Thus, Maxwell material is a type of liquid, the relaxation time constant is τ ≡ η / E. Generalized Maxwell material Kelvin–Voigt material Oldroyd material Standard Linear Solid Material Upper-convected Maxwell model
Maxwell material
–
Dependence of dimensionless stress upon dimensionless time under constant strain
8.
Generalized Maxwell model
–
The Generalized Maxwell model also known as the Maxwell–Wiechert model is the most general form of the linear model for viscoelasticity. In this model several Maxwell elements are assembled in parallel and it takes into account that the relaxation does not occur at a single time, but in a set of times. Due to the presence of molecular segments of different lengths, with shorter ones contributing less than longer ones, the Wiechert model shows this by having as many spring–dashpot Maxwell elements as are necessary to accurately represent the distribution. The figure on the shows the generalised Wiechert model
Generalized Maxwell model
–
Schematic of Maxwell–Wiechert model
9.
Displacement current
–
In electromagnetism, displacement current is a quantity appearing in Maxwells equations that is defined in terms of the rate of change of electric displacement field. Displacement current has the units as electric current, and it is a source of the magnetic field just as actual current is. However it is not a current of moving charges, but a time-varying electric field. In physical materials, there is also a contribution from the motion of charges bound in atoms. The idea was conceived by James Clerk Maxwell in his 1861 paper On Physical Lines of Force, Maxwell added displacement current to the electric current term in Ampères Circuital Law. In his 1865 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field Maxwell used this version of Ampères Circuital Law to derive the electromagnetic wave equation. This derivation is now accepted as a historical landmark in physics by virtue of uniting electricity, magnetism. The displacement current term is now seen as an addition that completed Maxwells equations and is necessary to explain many phenomena. The electric displacement field is defined as, D = ε0 E + P, the first term on the right hand side is present in material media and in free space. It doesnt necessarily come from any actual movement of charge, but it does have a magnetic field. Some authors apply the name displacement current to the first term by itself, the second term on the right hand side, called polarization current density, comes from the change in polarization of the individual molecules of the dielectric material. Polarization results when, under the influence of an electric field. The positive and negative charges in molecules separate, causing an increase in the state of polarization P, a changing state of polarization corresponds to charge movement and so is equivalent to a current, hence the term polarization current. Maxwell made no special treatment of the vacuum, treating it as a material medium, for Maxwell, the effect of P was simply to change the relative permittivity εr in the relation D = εrε0 E. The modern justification of displacement current is explained below, in this equation the use of ε accounts for the polarization of the dielectric. The scalar value of displacement current may also be expressed in terms of electric flux, the forms in terms of ε are correct only for linear isotropic materials. More generally ε may be replaced by a tensor, may depend upon the field itself. For a linear isotropic dielectric, the polarization P is given by, note that, ε = ε r ε0 = ε0
Displacement current
–
An electrically charging capacitor with an imaginary cylindrical surface surrounding the left-hand plate. Right-hand surface R lies in the space between the plates and left-hand surface L lies to the left of the left plate. No conduction current enters cylinder surface R, while current I leaves through surface L. Consistency of Ampère's law requires a displacement current I D = I to flow across surface R.
Displacement current
–
Example showing two surfaces S 1 and S 2 that share the same bounding contour ∂S. However, S 1 is pierced by conduction current, while S 2 is pierced by displacement current.
10.
Maxwell coil
–
A Maxwell coil is a device for producing a large volume of almost constant magnetic field. It is named in honour of the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, a Maxwell coil is an improvement of a Helmholtz coil, in operation it provides an even more uniform magnetic field, but at the expense of more material and complexity. A constant-field Maxwell coil set consists of three coils oriented on the surface of a virtual sphere. According to Maxwells original 1873 design, each of the coils should be of radius 47 R. The number of ampere-turns of each of the coils should equal exactly 4964 of the middle coil. This arrangement removes variations in field, up to its 6th-order derivative with respect to position. A gradient-field Maxwell coil is essentially the same geometry of the 3-coil configuration above, if the current in one of the coils is reversed, a uniform-gradient magnetic field is produced near the centre of the two coils. Maxwell describes the use of the 2-coil configuration for the generation of a force on a small test coil. A Maxwell coil of this type is similar to a Helmholtz coil with the distance increased from coil radius R to 3 R
Maxwell coil
–
Magnetic field around a Maxwell coil
11.
Physics
–
Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
Physics
–
Further information:
Outline of physics
Physics
–
Ancient
Egyptian astronomy is evident in monuments like the
ceiling of Senemut's tomb from the
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.
Physics
–
Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727), whose
laws of motion and
universal gravitation were major milestones in classical physics
Physics
–
Albert Einstein (1879–1955), whose work on the
photoelectric effect and the
theory of relativity led to a revolution in 20th century physics
12.
Mathematics
–
Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
Mathematics
–
Euclid (holding
calipers), Greek mathematician, 3rd century BC, as imagined by
Raphael in this detail from
The School of Athens.
Mathematics
–
Greek mathematician
Pythagoras (c. 570 – c. 495 BC), commonly credited with discovering the
Pythagorean theorem
Mathematics
–
Leonardo Fibonacci, the
Italian mathematician who established the Hindu–Arabic numeral system to the Western World
Mathematics
–
Carl Friedrich Gauss, known as the prince of mathematicians
13.
Marischal College, Aberdeen
–
Marischal College is a large granite building on Broad Street in the centre of Aberdeen in north-east Scotland, and since 2011 has acted as the headquarters of Aberdeen City Council. However, the building was constructed for and is on lease from the University of Aberdeen. Today, it provides corporate office space and public access to services, adjacent to the Town House. Many Aberdonians consider Marischal College to be an icon of the Granite City, the construction of the modern college building began in 1835, following the demolition of previous buildings on the site, and was completed in its present form in the early 1900s. It is the second largest granite building in the world, the buildings of Marischal College continued to be used for academic purposes until the mid-20th century and less and less until the early 2000s. During this period they were rebuilt and expanded upon. After a number of proposals, the majority of the building was leased to Aberdeen City Council to be restored and refurbished as office accommodation. The extensive renovation was completed on schedule and significantly under budget, the university has retained the Mitchell Hall and a number of other significant parts of the building for its own use, in addition to the Marischal Museum. Marischal College and University of Aberdeen was the name of the former university which occupied the present Marischal College site. The College was founded in 1593 by George Keith, 5th Earl Marischal of Scotland, the original charter of the university was lost by the early 18th century, but two near-contemporary copies exist – one of which was accepted by the courts in 1756 as being authentic. In this charter, Marischal College is described variously as a gymnasium, collegium, academia, as such, both Edinburgh and Marischal came to be known as the Town Colleges of their respective cities. The university was founded with the aim of training clergy for the post-Reformation Kirk. It is believed that Keith desired a protestant institution alongside the pre-Reformation Kings College and it is possible that the founding of another college in nearby Fraserburgh in 1592 was the true cause, its founder Sir Alexander Fraser was a business rival of Marischal. The College was constructed on the site of a medieval Franciscan Friary, the colleges Greek motto translates as virtue is self-sufficient. The Mitchell Hall, where University of Aberdeen graduations previously took place, was built in the early 20th century and it is named for Dr Charles Mitchell, an alumnus of the university and a Tyneside shipbuilder. A large stained-glass window dominates the hall, executed by TR Spence of London, the building was commended by poet John Betjeman following a visit to Aberdeen in 1947, No-one can dismiss Marischal College, Aberdeen, when looking at the work of the present century. Wedged behind a huge town hall in an expensive and attractive mid-Victorian baronial style, I turned down a lane towards them, the front broadened out. Bigger than any cathedral, tower on tower, forests of pinnacles and this was the famous Marischal College
Marischal College, Aberdeen
–
Seen from Broad Street, May 2012
Marischal College, Aberdeen
–
Statue of king
Robert the Bruce in front of Marischal College.
Marischal College, Aberdeen
–
Marischal College from the rear, showing Mitchell Tower and Mitchell Hall
Marischal College, Aberdeen
–
Detail of ornately carved granite pinnacles on the facade of Marischal College, following restoration
14.
University of Cambridge
–
The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s
University of Cambridge
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Emmanuel College Chapel
University of Cambridge
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University of Cambridge coat of arms
University of Cambridge
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Sir Isaac Newton was a student of the University of Cambridge
University of Cambridge
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Trinity Lane in the snow, with
King's College Chapel (centre),
Clare College Chapel (right), and the
Old Schools (left)
15.
William Hopkins
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William Hopkins FRS was an English mathematician and geologist. He is famous as a tutor of aspiring undergraduate Cambridge mathematicians. He also made important contributions in asserting a solid, rather than fluid, interior for the Earth, however, though his conclusions proved to be correct, his mathematical and physical reasoning were subsequently seen as unsound. Hopkins was born at Kingston-on-Soar, in Nottinghamshire, the son of William Hopkins. In his youth he learned practical agriculture in Norfolk before his father rented him a farm at Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk. A. in 1827 as seventh wrangler. Before graduation, Hopkins had married Caroline Frances Boys and was, therefore and he instead maintained himself as a private tutor, coaching the young mathematicians who sought the prestigious distinction of Senior Wrangler. He was enormously successful in the role, earning the sobriquet senior wrangler maker, by 1849, he had coached almost 200 wranglers, of whom 17 were senior wranglers including Arthur Cayley and G. G. Stokes. Among his more famous pupils were Lord Kelvin, James Clerk Maxwell, I never enjoyed anything so much before. He also coached Edward Routh who went on to be Senior Wrangler, in 1833, Hopkins published Elements of Trigonometry and became distinguished for his mathematical knowledge. There was a story that the theory of George Green was almost forgotten. In 1845, Lord Kelvin got some copies of Greens 1828 short book from William Hopkins, subsequently, Lord Kelvin helped to make Greens 1828 work famous according to the book George Green written by D. M. About 1833, through meeting Adam Sedgwick at Barmouth and joining him in several excursions, Hopkins became intensely interested in geology, in this way he discussed the elevation and denudation of the Lake District, the Wealden area, and the Bas Boulonnais. Hopkins conceived of a solid but dynamic Earth threaded with cavities whereby hot vapours or fluids could create locally elevatory pressures. Such a model was at odds with the ideas of Charles Lyell whose theory was of a state with a largely liquid terrestrial interior. He also interpreted earthquakes and volcanoes through the model in an 1847 British Association report. As part of his investigations, Hopkins sought to quantify the effects of enormous pressures on the melting point and he further asserted that the cooling of the Earth had had no real impact on climate. He read a paper to the Geological Society On the Causes which may have produced changes in the Earths superficial Temperature, ultimately, it was Thomson who tactfully pointed out that, though Hopkinss conclusions about the Earths structure were correct, his mathematical and physical reasoning was unsound. Hopkins enjoyed music, poetry and landscape painting and he spent the end of his life in a lunatic asylum in Stoke Newington
William Hopkins
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William Hopkins (1793–1866)
16.
George Chrystal
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George Chrystal FRSE was a Scottish mathematician. He is primarily remembered for his books on algebra and for his studies of seiches which earned him a Gold Medal from the Royal Society of London. He was born in Old Meldrum on 8 March 1851, the son of William Chrystal a wealthy farmer and grain merchant and his wife, Margaret Burr. He was appointed to the Regius Chair of Mathematics at University of St. Andrews in 1877, in 1911, he was awarded the Royal Medal of the Royal Society for his researches into the surface oscillations of Scottish lakes. He was a contributor to the drafting of the Universities Act 1889 and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1880, his proposers including James Clerk Maxwell. He was awarded the Societys Keith Medal for 1879-81 and their Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize for the period 1904-8 and he served as Vice President of the Society 1895-1901 and General Secretary 1901-1911. He was awarded two honorary doctorates, Aberdeen University in 1887 and Glasgow University in 1911 and he is credited with instigating the move of the Society from the Mound to George Street. In later life he is listed as living at 5 Belgrave Crescent in western Edinburgh, the mathematician Alexander G. Burgess trained under him. He grew very ill in 1909 and this early in 1911. A work-free summer did not improve him and he died on 3 November 1911 at 5 Belgrave Crescent in Edinburgh but was taken north for burial, and is buried in Foveran Churchyard in Aberdeenshire. He married Margaret Anne Balfour in 1879 and she died before him and is buried in the northern Victorian extension to Dean Cemetery with their son Walter MacDonald Chrystal who died in infancy. They had four sons and two daughters, algebra, An Elementary Text-Book for the Higher Classes of Secondary Schools and for Colleges. Three articles within the 1911 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica, Pascal, Blaise, Perpetual Motion, works written by or about George Chrystal at Wikisource OConnor, John J. Robertson, Edmund F. George Chrystal, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews. Algebra, An Elementary Text-Book for the Higher Classes of Secondary Schools and for Colleges
George Chrystal
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George Chrystal (1851–1911)
George Chrystal
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George Chrystal at work. Etching by W. Hole, 1884
17.
Horace Lamb
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Sir Horace Lamb FRS was an English applied mathematician and author of several influential texts on classical physics, among them Hydrodynamics and Dynamical Theory of Sound. Both of these books are still in print, Lamb was born at Stockport, Cheshire, the son of John Lamb and his wife Elizabeth, née Rangeley. His father John Lamb, was a foreman in a cotton mill, John Lamb died when his son was quite young. His widow married again and shortly afterwards Horace went to live with his mothers sister and he studied at Stockport Grammar School where he found a wise and kindly head master, the Rev. Charles Hamilton. To his insight and influence Lamb felt that he owed his start in life, Mr. Hamilton was an excellent teacher, both of classics and elementary mathematics, and from him we are told his pupil acquired a passing enthusiasm for Greek and Latin poets. In 1867, when only seventeen, he gained a scholarship at Queens College, Cambridge. He was very young and was advised to decline this and work for a year at the Owens College, Professor Barker, Professor of Mathematics, had been Senior Wrangler in 1862, and was a former Fellow of Trinity. His professors included James Clerk Maxwell and George Gabriel Stokes, for recreation he took long walks in the country about Cambridge, with an occasional visit to Switzerland. He read much in French, German, and Italian, Lamb had become engaged to Miss Elizabeth Foot, of Dublin, the sister-in-law of his former head master, Mr Hamilton. His marriage took place in 1875 and after the voyage round the Cape, Professor. At first they stayed with Mr. and Mrs Poole, but in June,1876, in 1875 Lamb was appointed the first Elder Professor of Mathematics at the newly founded University of Adelaide. For the next 10 years the number of students doing the arts course at Adelaide was fewer than 12, though Lamb also did some popular lecturing. In 1878 appeared his able and original A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of the Motions of Fluids. Lamb was appointed to the Chair of Mathematics at Owens College, Manchester, in 1885 and which became the Beyer Chair in 1888, a position Lamb held until retirement in 1920. In 1932 Lamb, in an address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science and he reportedly said, I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two matters on which I hope for enlightenment. One is quantum electrodynamics, and the other is the turbulent motion of fluids, and about the former I am rather optimistic. Lamb is also known for description of waves in thin solid layers. Now these waves are called Lamb waves, in 1875, Lamb married Elizabeth Foot of Dublin
Horace Lamb
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Sir Horace Lamb
18.
John Henry Poynting
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John Henry Poynting was an English physicist. He was a professor of physics at Mason Science College, from 1880 to 1900, and then the successor institution, Poynting was the youngest son of Thomas Elford Poynting, a Unitarian minister. He was born at the parsonage of the Monton Unitarian Chapel in Eccles, from 1867 to 1872 he attended Owens College, now the University of Manchester, where his physics teachers included Osborne Reynolds and Balfour Stewart. From 1872 to 1876 he was a student at Cambridge University, in the late 1870s he worked in the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge under James Clerk Maxwell. This work was first published in 1884 and he performed a measurement of Newtons gravitational constant by innovative means during 1893. In 1903 he was the first to realise that the Suns radiation can draw in small particles towards it and he discovered the torsion-extension coupling in finite strain elasticity. This is now known as the Poynting effect in torsion and he was awarded an honorary MSc in Pure Science in 1901 by Birmingham University. Poynting lived at 11 St Augustines Road, Edgbaston with his family and he previously lived at 66 Beaufort Road, Edgbaston and died of a diabetic coma, aged 61, at 10 Ampton Road, Edgbaston in 1914. Craters on Mars and the Moon are named in his honour, as is the main Physics building at the University of Birmingham and the society there
John Henry Poynting
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John Henry Poynting (1852-1914)
John Henry Poynting
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Blue plaque to Poynting erected in Salford by the
Institute of Physics
19.
Sir Issac Newton
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His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, first published in 1687, laid the foundations of classical mechanics. Newton also made contributions to optics, and he shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for developing the infinitesimal calculus. Newtons Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that dominated scientists view of the universe for the next three centuries. Newtons work on light was collected in his influential book Opticks. He also formulated a law of cooling, made the first theoretical calculation of the speed of sound. Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge, politically and personally tied to the Whig party, Newton served two brief terms as Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge, in 1689–90 and 1701–02. He was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705 and he spent the last three decades of his life in London, serving as Warden and Master of the Royal Mint and his father, also named Isaac Newton, had died three months before. Born prematurely, he was a child, his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug. When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabas Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Newtons mother had three children from her second marriage. From the age of twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The Kings School, Grantham which taught Latin and Greek. He was removed from school, and by October 1659, he was to be found at Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Henry Stokes, master at the Kings School, persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his education. Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a bully, he became the top-ranked student. In June 1661, he was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge and he started as a subsizar—paying his way by performing valets duties—until he was awarded a scholarship in 1664, which guaranteed him four more years until he would get his M. A. He set down in his notebook a series of Quaestiones about mechanical philosophy as he found it, in 1665, he discovered the generalised binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became calculus. Soon after Newton had obtained his B. A. degree in August 1665, in April 1667, he returned to Cambridge and in October was elected as a fellow of Trinity. Fellows were required to become ordained priests, although this was not enforced in the restoration years, however, by 1675 the issue could not be avoided and by then his unconventional views stood in the way. Nevertheless, Newton managed to avoid it by means of a special permission from Charles II. A and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1672. Newtons work has been said to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied and his work on the subject usually referred to as fluxions or calculus, seen in a manuscript of October 1666, is now published among Newtons mathematical papers
Sir Issac Newton
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Portrait of Isaac Newton in 1689 (age 46) by
Godfrey Kneller
Sir Issac Newton
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Newton in a 1702 portrait by
Godfrey Kneller
Sir Issac Newton
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Isaac Newton (Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Men of Science. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1889)
Sir Issac Newton
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Replica of Newton's second
Reflecting telescope that he presented to the
Royal Society in 1672
20.
Michael Faraday
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Michael Faraday FRS was an English scientist who contributed to the study of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His main discoveries include the principles underlying electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, although Faraday received little formal education, he was one of the most influential scientists in history. It was by his research on the field around a conductor carrying a direct current that Faraday established the basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field in physics. Faraday also established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was a relationship between the two phenomena. He similarly discovered the principles of induction and diamagnetism. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, Faraday ultimately became the first and foremost Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a lifetime position. James Clerk Maxwell took the work of Faraday and others and summarized it in a set of equations which is accepted as the basis of all theories of electromagnetic phenomena. The SI unit of capacitance is named in his honour, the farad, albert Einstein kept a picture of Faraday on his study wall, alongside pictures of Isaac Newton and James Clerk Maxwell. Faraday was born in Newington Butts, which is now part of the London Borough of Southwark but was then a part of Surrey. His family was not well off and his father, James, was a member of the Glassite sect of Christianity. James Faraday moved his wife and two children to London during the winter of 1790 from Outhgill in Westmorland, where he had been an apprentice to the village blacksmith, Michael was born in the autumn of that year. The young Michael Faraday, who was the third of four children, at the age of 14 he became an apprentice to George Riebau, a local bookbinder and bookseller in Blandford Street. During his seven-year apprenticeship Faraday read many books, including Isaac Wattss The Improvement of the Mind, at this time he also developed an interest in science, especially in electricity. Faraday was particularly inspired by the book Conversations on Chemistry by Jane Marcet, many of the tickets for these lectures were given to Faraday by William Dance, who was one of the founders of the Royal Philharmonic Society. Faraday subsequently sent Davy a 300-page book based on notes that he had taken during these lectures, davys reply was immediate, kind, and favourable. In 1813, when Davy damaged his eyesight in an accident with nitrogen trichloride, very soon Davy entrusted Faraday with the preparation of nitrogen trichloride samples, and they both were injured in an explosion of this very sensitive substance. In the class-based English society of the time, Faraday was not considered a gentleman, Faraday was forced to fill the role of valet as well as assistant throughout the trip. Davys wife, Jane Apreece, refused to treat Faraday as an equal, the trip did, however, give him access to the scientific elite of Europe and exposed him to a host of stimulating ideas
Michael Faraday
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Michael Faraday, 1842
Michael Faraday
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External video
Michael Faraday
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Portrait of Faraday in his late thirties
Michael Faraday
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Michael Faraday, ca. 1861
21.
Albert Einstein
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Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist. He developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics, Einsteins work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. Einstein is best known in popular culture for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2, near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led him to develop his theory of relativity during his time at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. Briefly before, he aquired the Swiss citizenship in 1901, which he kept for his whole life and he continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the theory of relativity to model the large-scale structure of the universe. He was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 and, being Jewish, did not go back to Germany and he settled in the United States, becoming an American citizen in 1940. This eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project, Einstein supported defending the Allied forces, but generally denounced the idea of using the newly discovered nuclear fission as a weapon. Later, with the British philosopher Bertrand Russell, Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, Einstein was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955. Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific works, on 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einsteins papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents. Einsteins intellectual achievements and originality have made the word Einstein synonymous with genius, Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879. His parents were Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, the Einsteins were non-observant Ashkenazi Jews, and Albert attended a Catholic elementary school in Munich from the age of 5 for three years. At the age of 8, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium, the loss forced the sale of the Munich factory. In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan, when the family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the schools regimen. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought was lost in strict rote learning, at the end of December 1894, he travelled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctors note. During his time in Italy he wrote an essay with the title On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field
Albert Einstein
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Albert Einstein in 1921
Albert Einstein
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Einstein at the age of 3 in 1882
Albert Einstein
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Albert Einstein in 1893 (age 14)
Albert Einstein
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Einstein's matriculation certificate at the age of 17, showing his final grades from the Argovian cantonal school (Aargauische Kantonsschule, on a scale of 1–6, with 6 being the highest possible mark)
22.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
Fellow of the Royal Society
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The entrance to the Royal Society in Carlton House Terrace, London
Fellow of the Royal Society
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The President, Council, and Fellows of the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge
Fellow of the Royal Society
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John Evelyn, who helped to found the Royal Society
Fellow of the Royal Society
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Mace granted by Charles II
23.
Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
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The Royal Society of Edinburgh is Scotlands national academy of science and letters. It is a charity, operating on a wholly independent and non-party-political basis. As of 2014 it has more than 1,500 Fellows, the Society covers a broader selection of fields than the Royal Society of London including literature and history. Fellowship includes people from a range of disciplines – science & technology, arts, humanities, medicine, social science, business. The Medals were instituted in 2000 by Queen Elizabeth II, whose permission is required to make a presentation, past winners include, The Lord Kelvin Medal is the Senior Prize for Physical, Engineering and Informatics Sciences. It is awarded annually to a person who has achieved distinction nationally and internationally, winners receive a silver medal and are required to deliver a public lecture in Scotland. The award is named after William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, who was a mathematical physicist and engineer. Senior Prize-winners are required to have a Scottish connection but can be based anywhere in the world, the Keith medal has been historically awarded every four years for a scientific paper published in the societys scientific journals, preference being given to a paper containing a discovery. It is awarded alternately for papers on Mathematics or Earth and Environmental Sciences, the medal was founded in 1827 as a result of a bequest by Alexander Keith of Dunottar, the first Treasurer of the Society. The prize was founded in 1855 by Sir Thomas Makdougall Brisbane, the cumbersome name was changed the following year to the Edinburgh Philosophical Society. Under the leadership of Prof. Thus, for the first four decades of the 19th century, by the 1850s, the society once again unified its membership under one journal. During the 19th century the society produced many scientists whose ideas laid the foundation of the modern sciences, from the 20th century onward, the society functioned not only as a focal point for Scotlands eminent scientists, but also the arts and humanities. It still exists today and continues to promote research in Scotland. In February 2014, Dame Jocelyn Bell Burnell was announced as the societys first female president, taking up her position in October
Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
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The Royal Society building, at the junction of George Street and Hanover Street in the
New Town
Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
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The cover of a 1788 volume of the journal Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. This is the issue where
James Hutton published his Theory of the Earth.
24.
Scientist
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A scientist is a person engaging in a systematic activity to acquire knowledge that describes and predicts the natural world. In a more restricted sense, a scientist may refer to an individual who uses the scientific method, the person may be an expert in one or more areas of science. The term scientist was coined by the theologian, philosopher and historian of science William Whewell and this article focuses on the more restricted use of the word. Scientists perform research toward a comprehensive understanding of nature, including physical, mathematical and social realms. Philosophers aim to provide an understanding of fundamental aspects of reality and experience, often pursuing inquiries with conceptual, rather than empirical. When science is done with a goal toward practical utility, it is called applied science, an applied scientist may not be designing something in particular, but rather is conducting research with the aim of developing new technologies and practical methods. When science seeks to answer questions about aspects of reality it is sometimes called natural philosophy. Science and technology have continually modified human existence through the engineering process, as a profession the scientist of today is widely recognized. Jurisprudence and mathematics are often grouped with the sciences, some of the greatest physicists have also been creative mathematicians and lawyers. There is a continuum from the most theoretical to the most empirical scientists with no distinct boundaries, in terms of personality, interests, training and professional activity, there is little difference between applied mathematicians and theoretical physicists. Scientists can be motivated in several ways, many have a desire to understand why the world is as we see it and how it came to be. They exhibit a strong curiosity about reality, other motivations are recognition by their peers and prestige, or the desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of peoples health, the nations, the world, nature or industries. Scientists tend to be motivated by direct financial reward for their work than other careers. As a result, scientific researchers often accept lower average salaries when compared with other professions which require a similar amount of training. The number of scientists is vastly different from country to country, for instance, there are only 4 full-time scientists per 10,000 workers in India while this number is 79 for the United Kingdom and the United States. According to the US National Science Foundation 4.7 million people with science degrees worked in the United States in 2015, across all disciplines, the figure included twice as many men as women. Of that total, 17% worked in academia, that is, at universities and undergraduate institutions, 5% of scientists worked for the federal government and about 3. 5% were self-employed. Of the latter two groups, two-thirds were men, 59% of US scientists were employed in industry or business, and another 6% worked in non-profit positions
Scientist
Scientist
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Chemical scientists in a laboratory of the
University of La Rioja
Scientist
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"No one in the history of civilization has shaped our understanding of science and natural philosophy more than the great Greek philosopher and scientist
Aristotle (384-322 BC), who exerted a profound and pervasive influence for more than two thousand years" —Gary B. Ferngren
Scientist
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Alessandro Volta, the inventor of the
electrical battery and discoverer of
methane, is widely regarded as one of the greatest scientists in history.
25.
Mathematical physics
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Mathematical physics refers to development of mathematical methods for application to problems in physics. It is a branch of applied mathematics, but deals with physical problems, there are several distinct branches of mathematical physics, and these roughly correspond to particular historical periods. The rigorous, abstract and advanced re-formulation of Newtonian mechanics adopting the Lagrangian mechanics, both formulations are embodied in analytical mechanics. These approaches and ideas can be and, in fact, have extended to other areas of physics as statistical mechanics, continuum mechanics, classical field theory. Moreover, they have provided several examples and basic ideas in differential geometry, the theory of partial differential equations are perhaps most closely associated with mathematical physics. These were developed intensively from the half of the eighteenth century until the 1930s. Physical applications of these developments include hydrodynamics, celestial mechanics, continuum mechanics, elasticity theory, acoustics, thermodynamics, electricity, magnetism, and aerodynamics. The theory of atomic spectra developed almost concurrently with the fields of linear algebra. Nonrelativistic quantum mechanics includes Schrödinger operators, and it has connections to atomic, Quantum information theory is another subspecialty. The special and general theories of relativity require a different type of mathematics. This was group theory, which played an important role in quantum field theory and differential geometry. This was, however, gradually supplemented by topology and functional analysis in the description of cosmological as well as quantum field theory phenomena. In this area both homological algebra and category theory are important nowadays, statistical mechanics forms a separate field, which includes the theory of phase transitions. It relies upon the Hamiltonian mechanics and it is related with the more mathematical ergodic theory. There are increasing interactions between combinatorics and physics, in statistical physics. The usage of the mathematical physics is sometimes idiosyncratic. Certain parts of mathematics that arose from the development of physics are not, in fact, considered parts of mathematical physics. The term mathematical physics is sometimes used to research aimed at studying and solving problems inspired by physics or thought experiments within a mathematically rigorous framework
Mathematical physics
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An example of mathematical physics: solutions of
Schrödinger's equation for
quantum harmonic oscillators (left) with their
amplitudes (right).
26.
Electromagnetic radiation
–
In physics, electromagnetic radiation refers to the waves of the electromagnetic field, propagating through space carrying electromagnetic radiant energy. It includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, light, ultraviolet, X-, classically, electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves, which are synchronized oscillations of electric and magnetic fields that propagate at the speed of light through a vacuum. The oscillations of the two fields are perpendicular to other and perpendicular to the direction of energy and wave propagation. The wavefront of electromagnetic waves emitted from a point source is a sphere, the position of an electromagnetic wave within the electromagnetic spectrum can be characterized by either its frequency of oscillation or its wavelength. Electromagnetic waves are produced whenever charged particles are accelerated, and these waves can interact with other charged particles. EM waves carry energy, momentum and angular momentum away from their source particle, quanta of EM waves are called photons, whose rest mass is zero, but whose energy, or equivalent total mass, is not zero so they are still affected by gravity. Thus, EMR is sometimes referred to as the far field, in this language, the near field refers to EM fields near the charges and current that directly produced them, specifically, electromagnetic induction and electrostatic induction phenomena. In the quantum theory of electromagnetism, EMR consists of photons, quantum effects provide additional sources of EMR, such as the transition of electrons to lower energy levels in an atom and black-body radiation. The energy of a photon is quantized and is greater for photons of higher frequency. This relationship is given by Plancks equation E = hν, where E is the energy per photon, ν is the frequency of the photon, a single gamma ray photon, for example, might carry ~100,000 times the energy of a single photon of visible light. The effects of EMR upon chemical compounds and biological organisms depend both upon the power and its frequency. EMR of visible or lower frequencies is called non-ionizing radiation, because its photons do not individually have enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules, the effects of these radiations on chemical systems and living tissue are caused primarily by heating effects from the combined energy transfer of many photons. In contrast, high ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays are called ionizing radiation since individual photons of high frequency have enough energy to ionize molecules or break chemical bonds. These radiations have the ability to cause chemical reactions and damage living cells beyond that resulting from simple heating, Maxwell derived a wave form of the electric and magnetic equations, thus uncovering the wave-like nature of electric and magnetic fields and their symmetry. Because the speed of EM waves predicted by the wave equation coincided with the speed of light. Maxwell’s equations were confirmed by Heinrich Hertz through experiments with radio waves, according to Maxwells equations, a spatially varying electric field is always associated with a magnetic field that changes over time. Likewise, a varying magnetic field is associated with specific changes over time in the electric field. In an electromagnetic wave, the changes in the field are always accompanied by a wave in the magnetic field in one direction
Electromagnetic radiation
27.
Magnetism
–
Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that are mediated by magnetic fields. Electric currents and the moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field. The most familiar effects occur in materials, which are strongly attracted by magnetic fields and can be magnetized to become permanent magnets. Only a few substances are ferromagnetic, the most common ones are iron, nickel and cobalt, the prefix ferro- refers to iron, because permanent magnetism was first observed in lodestone, a form of natural iron ore called magnetite, Fe3O4. The magnetic state of a material depends on temperature and other such as pressure. A material may exhibit more than one form of magnetism as these variables change, magnetism was first discovered in the ancient world, when people noticed that lodestones, naturally magnetized pieces of the mineral magnetite, could attract iron. The word magnet comes from the Greek term for lodestone, magnítis líthos, in ancient Greece, Aristotle attributed the first of what could be called a scientific discussion of magnetism to the philosopher Thales of Miletus, who lived from about 625 BC to about 545 BC. Around the same time, in ancient India, the Indian surgeon Sushruta was the first to use of the magnet for surgical purposes. In ancient China, the earliest literary reference to magnetism lies in a 4th-century BC book named after its author, the 2nd-century BC annals, Lüshi Chunqiu, also notes, The lodestone makes iron approach, or it attracts it. The earliest mention of the attraction of a needle is in a 1st-century work Lunheng, by the 12th century the Chinese were known to use the lodestone compass for navigation. They sculpted a directional spoon from lodestone in such a way that the handle of the spoon always pointed south, alexander Neckam, by 1187, was the first in Europe to describe the compass and its use for navigation. In 1269, Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt wrote the Epistola de magnete, in 1282, the properties of magnets and the dry compass were discussed by Al-Ashraf, a Yemeni physicist, astronomer, and geographer. In 1600, William Gilbert published his De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, in this work he describes many of his experiments with his model earth called the terrella. From his experiments, he concluded that the Earth was itself magnetic and this landmark experiment is known as Ørsteds Experiment. James Clerk Maxwell synthesized and expanded these insights into Maxwells equations, unifying electricity, magnetism, in 1905, Einstein used these laws in motivating his theory of special relativity, requiring that the laws held true in all inertial reference frames. Magnetism, at its root, arises from two sources, Electric current, Spin magnetic moments of elementary particles. The magnetic moments of the nuclei of atoms are thousands of times smaller than the electrons magnetic moments. Nuclear magnetic moments are very important in other contexts, particularly in nuclear magnetic resonance
Magnetism
–
Drawing of a medical treatment using magnetic brushes.
Charles Jacque 1843, France.
Magnetism
–
A magnetic quadrupole
Magnetism
–
Michael Faraday, 1842
Magnetism
–
A permanent magnet holding up several coins
28.
Isaac Newton
–
His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, first published in 1687, laid the foundations of classical mechanics. Newton also made contributions to optics, and he shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for developing the infinitesimal calculus. Newtons Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that dominated scientists view of the universe for the next three centuries. Newtons work on light was collected in his influential book Opticks. He also formulated a law of cooling, made the first theoretical calculation of the speed of sound. Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge, politically and personally tied to the Whig party, Newton served two brief terms as Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge, in 1689–90 and 1701–02. He was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705 and he spent the last three decades of his life in London, serving as Warden and Master of the Royal Mint and his father, also named Isaac Newton, had died three months before. Born prematurely, he was a child, his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug. When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabas Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Newtons mother had three children from her second marriage. From the age of twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The Kings School, Grantham which taught Latin and Greek. He was removed from school, and by October 1659, he was to be found at Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Henry Stokes, master at the Kings School, persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his education. Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a bully, he became the top-ranked student. In June 1661, he was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge and he started as a subsizar—paying his way by performing valets duties—until he was awarded a scholarship in 1664, which guaranteed him four more years until he would get his M. A. He set down in his notebook a series of Quaestiones about mechanical philosophy as he found it, in 1665, he discovered the generalised binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became calculus. Soon after Newton had obtained his B. A. degree in August 1665, in April 1667, he returned to Cambridge and in October was elected as a fellow of Trinity. Fellows were required to become ordained priests, although this was not enforced in the restoration years, however, by 1675 the issue could not be avoided and by then his unconventional views stood in the way. Nevertheless, Newton managed to avoid it by means of a special permission from Charles II. A and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1672. Newtons work has been said to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied and his work on the subject usually referred to as fluxions or calculus, seen in a manuscript of October 1666, is now published among Newtons mathematical papers
Isaac Newton
–
Portrait of Isaac Newton in 1689 (age 46) by
Godfrey Kneller
Isaac Newton
–
Newton in a 1702 portrait by
Godfrey Kneller
Isaac Newton
–
Isaac Newton (Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Men of Science. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1889)
Isaac Newton
–
Replica of Newton's second
Reflecting telescope that he presented to the
Royal Society in 1672
29.
A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field
–
A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field is the third of James Clerk Maxwells papers regarding electromagnetism, published in 1865. In the paper, Maxwell derives an electromagnetic wave equation with a velocity for light in close agreement with measurements made by experiment, and deduces that light is an electromagnetic wave. Following standard procedure for the time, the paper was first read to the Royal Society on 8 December 1864 and it then underwent peer review, being sent to William Thompson on 24 December 1864. It was then sent to George Gabriel Stokes, the Societys Physical Sciences Secretary and it was approved for publication in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society on 15 June 1865, by the Committee of Papers and sent to the printer the following day. During this period, Philosophical Transactions was only published as a volume once a year. However, the printer would have prepared and delivered to Maxwell offprints, for the author to distribute as he wished, Heavisides versions of Maxwells equations are distinct by virtue of the fact that they are written in modern vector notation. They actually only one of the original eight—equation G. Another of Heavisides four equations is an amalgamation of Maxwells law of total currents with Ampères circuital law, for his original text on force, see, On Physical Lines of Force. For his original text on dynamics, see, A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, eighteen of the twenty original Maxwells equations can be vectorized into 6 equations. Each vectorized equation represents 3 original equations in component form, including the other two equations, in modern vector notation, they can form a set of eight equations. J is the current density. ρ is the charge density. F is the force per unit charge, σ is the electrical conductivity. ∇ is the vector operator del. This means that equation D is effectively the Lorentz force and this equation first appeared at equation in On Physical Lines of Force quite some time before Lorentz thought of it. In the modern age, the force equations described by Hendrik Lorentz are placed alongside Maxwells equations as an additional electromagnetic equation that is not included as part of the set. When Maxwell derives the electromagnetic wave equation, he uses equation D as opposed to using Faradays law of induction as in modern textbooks. Maxwell however drops the μ term from equation D when he is deriving the electromagnetic wave equation and he obtained a wave equation with a speed in close agreement to experimental determinations of the speed of light. Maxwells equations can also be derived by extending general relativity into five physical dimensions, a Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism On Physical Lines of Force Maxwell, James C
A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field
–
Father of Electromagnetic Theory
A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field
–
A postcard from Maxwell to
Peter Tait.
30.
Electric force
–
Coulombs law, or Coulombs inverse-square law, is a law of physics that describes force interacting between static electrically charged particles. The force of interaction between the charges is attractive if the charges have opposite signs and repulsive if like-signed, the law was first published in 1784 by French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb and was essential to the development of the theory of electromagnetism. It is analogous to Isaac Newtons inverse-square law of universal gravitation, Coulombs law can be used to derive Gausss law, and vice versa. The law has been tested extensively, and all observations have upheld the laws principle, ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects, such as rods of amber, could be rubbed with cats fur to attract light objects like feathers. Thales was incorrect in believing the attraction was due to a magnetic effect and he coined the New Latin word electricus to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed. This association gave rise to the English words electric and electricity, however, he did not generalize or elaborate on this. In 1767, he conjectured that the force between charges varied as the square of the distance. In 1769, Scottish physicist John Robison announced that, according to his measurements, in the early 1770s, the dependence of the force between charged bodies upon both distance and charge had already been discovered, but not published, by Henry Cavendish of England. Finally, in 1785, the French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb published his first three reports of electricity and magnetism where he stated his law and this publication was essential to the development of the theory of electromagnetism. The torsion balance consists of a bar suspended from its middle by a thin fiber, the fiber acts as a very weak torsion spring. In Coulombs experiment, the balance was an insulating rod with a metal-coated ball attached to one end. The ball was charged with a charge of static electricity. The two charged balls repelled one another, twisting the fiber through an angle, which could be read from a scale on the instrument. By knowing how much force it took to twist the fiber through a given angle, the force is along the straight line joining them. If the two charges have the sign, the electrostatic force between them is repulsive, if they have different signs, the force between them is attractive. Coulombs law can also be stated as a mathematical expression. The vector form of the equation calculates the force F1 applied on q1 by q2, if r12 is used instead, then the effect on q2 can be found. It can be calculated using Newtons third law, F2 = −F1
Electric force
–
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
Electric force
–
Electromagnetism
31.
Magnetic field
–
A magnetic field is the magnetic effect of electric currents and magnetic materials. The magnetic field at any point is specified by both a direction and a magnitude, as such it is represented by a vector field. The term is used for two distinct but closely related fields denoted by the symbols B and H, where H is measured in units of amperes per meter in the SI, B is measured in teslas and newtons per meter per ampere in the SI. B is most commonly defined in terms of the Lorentz force it exerts on moving electric charges, Magnetic fields can be produced by moving electric charges and the intrinsic magnetic moments of elementary particles associated with a fundamental quantum property, their spin. In quantum physics, the field is quantized and electromagnetic interactions result from the exchange of photons. Magnetic fields are used throughout modern technology, particularly in electrical engineering. The Earth produces its own field, which is important in navigation. Rotating magnetic fields are used in electric motors and generators. Magnetic forces give information about the carriers in a material through the Hall effect. The interaction of magnetic fields in electric devices such as transformers is studied in the discipline of magnetic circuits, noting that the resulting field lines crossed at two points he named those points poles in analogy to Earths poles. He also clearly articulated the principle that magnets always have both a north and south pole, no matter how finely one slices them, almost three centuries later, William Gilbert of Colchester replicated Petrus Peregrinus work and was the first to state explicitly that Earth is a magnet. Published in 1600, Gilberts work, De Magnete, helped to establish magnetism as a science, in 1750, John Michell stated that magnetic poles attract and repel in accordance with an inverse square law. Charles-Augustin de Coulomb experimentally verified this in 1785 and stated explicitly that the north and south poles cannot be separated, building on this force between poles, Siméon Denis Poisson created the first successful model of the magnetic field, which he presented in 1824. In this model, a magnetic H-field is produced by magnetic poles, three discoveries challenged this foundation of magnetism, though. First, in 1819, Hans Christian Ørsted discovered that an electric current generates a magnetic field encircling it, then in 1820, André-Marie Ampère showed that parallel wires having currents in the same direction attract one another. Finally, Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix Savart discovered the Biot–Savart law in 1820, extending these experiments, Ampère published his own successful model of magnetism in 1825. This has the benefit of explaining why magnetic charge can not be isolated. Also in this work, Ampère introduced the term electrodynamics to describe the relationship between electricity and magnetism, in 1831, Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction when he found that a changing magnetic field generates an encircling electric field
Magnetic field
–
One of the first drawings of a magnetic field, by
René Descartes, 1644. It illustrated his theory that magnetism was caused by the circulation of tiny helical particles, "threaded parts", through threaded pores in magnets.
Magnetic field
–
Magnetic field of an ideal cylindrical
magnet with its axis of symmetry inside the image plane. The magnetic field is represented by
magnetic field lines, which show the direction of the field at different points.
Magnetic field
–
Hans Christian Ørsted, Der Geist in der Natur, 1854
32.
Wave
–
In physics, a wave is an oscillation accompanied by a transfer of energy that travels through a medium. Frequency refers to the addition of time, wave motion transfers energy from one point to another, which displace particles of the transmission medium–that is, with little or no associated mass transport. Waves consist, instead, of oscillations or vibrations, around almost fixed locations, there are two main types of waves. Mechanical waves propagate through a medium, and the substance of this medium is deformed, restoring forces then reverse the deformation. For example, sound waves propagate via air molecules colliding with their neighbors, when the molecules collide, they also bounce away from each other. This keeps the molecules from continuing to travel in the direction of the wave, the second main type, electromagnetic waves, do not require a medium. Instead, they consist of periodic oscillations of electrical and magnetic fields generated by charged particles. These types vary in wavelength, and include radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, waves are described by a wave equation which sets out how the disturbance proceeds over time. The mathematical form of this varies depending on the type of wave. Further, the behavior of particles in quantum mechanics are described by waves, in addition, gravitational waves also travel through space, which are a result of a vibration or movement in gravitational fields. While mechanical waves can be transverse and longitudinal, all electromagnetic waves are transverse in free space. A single, all-encompassing definition for the wave is not straightforward. A vibration can be defined as a back-and-forth motion around a reference value, however, a vibration is not necessarily a wave. An attempt to define the necessary and sufficient characteristics that qualify a phenomenon as a results in a blurred line. The term wave is often understood as referring to a transport of spatial disturbances that are generally not accompanied by a motion of the medium occupying this space as a whole. In a wave, the energy of a vibration is moving away from the source in the form of a disturbance within the surrounding medium and it may appear that the description of waves is closely related to their physical origin for each specific instance of a wave process. For example, acoustics is distinguished from optics in that sound waves are related to a rather than an electromagnetic wave transfer caused by vibration. Concepts such as mass, momentum, inertia, or elasticity and this difference in origin introduces certain wave characteristics particular to the properties of the medium involved
Wave
–
Surface waves in
water
Wave
–
Wavelength λ, can be measured between any two corresponding points on a waveform
Wave
–
Light beam exhibiting reflection, refraction, transmission and dispersion when encountering a prism
33.
Speed of light
–
The speed of light in vacuum, commonly denoted c, is a universal physical constant important in many areas of physics. Its exact value is 299792458 metres per second, it is exact because the unit of length, the metre, is defined from this constant, according to special relativity, c is the maximum speed at which all matter and hence information in the universe can travel. It is the speed at which all particles and changes of the associated fields travel in vacuum. Such particles and waves travel at c regardless of the motion of the source or the reference frame of the observer. In the theory of relativity, c interrelates space and time, the speed at which light propagates through transparent materials, such as glass or air, is less than c, similarly, the speed of radio waves in wire cables is slower than c. The ratio between c and the speed v at which light travels in a material is called the index n of the material. In communicating with distant space probes, it can take minutes to hours for a message to get from Earth to the spacecraft, the light seen from stars left them many years ago, allowing the study of the history of the universe by looking at distant objects. The finite speed of light limits the theoretical maximum speed of computers. The speed of light can be used time of flight measurements to measure large distances to high precision. Ole Rømer first demonstrated in 1676 that light travels at a speed by studying the apparent motion of Jupiters moon Io. In 1865, James Clerk Maxwell proposed that light was an electromagnetic wave, in 1905, Albert Einstein postulated that the speed of light c with respect to any inertial frame is a constant and is independent of the motion of the light source. He explored the consequences of that postulate by deriving the theory of relativity and in doing so showed that the parameter c had relevance outside of the context of light and electromagnetism. After centuries of increasingly precise measurements, in 1975 the speed of light was known to be 299792458 m/s with a measurement uncertainty of 4 parts per billion. In 1983, the metre was redefined in the International System of Units as the distance travelled by light in vacuum in 1/299792458 of a second, as a result, the numerical value of c in metres per second is now fixed exactly by the definition of the metre. The speed of light in vacuum is usually denoted by a lowercase c, historically, the symbol V was used as an alternative symbol for the speed of light, introduced by James Clerk Maxwell in 1865. In 1856, Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch had used c for a different constant later shown to equal √2 times the speed of light in vacuum, in 1894, Paul Drude redefined c with its modern meaning. Einstein used V in his original German-language papers on special relativity in 1905, but in 1907 he switched to c, sometimes c is used for the speed of waves in any material medium, and c0 for the speed of light in vacuum. This article uses c exclusively for the speed of light in vacuum, since 1983, the metre has been defined in the International System of Units as the distance light travels in vacuum in 1⁄299792458 of a second
Speed of light
–
One of the last and most accurate time of flight measurements, Michelson, Pease and Pearson's 1930-35 experiment used a rotating mirror and a one-mile (1.6 km) long vacuum chamber which the light beam traversed 10 times. It achieved accuracy of ±11 km/s
Speed of light
–
Sunlight takes about 8 minutes 17 seconds to travel the average distance from the surface of the
Sun to the
Earth.
Speed of light
–
Diagram of the
Fizeau apparatus
Speed of light
–
Rømer's observations of the occultations of Io from Earth
34.
Radio waves
–
Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light. Radio waves have frequencies as high as 300 GHz to as low as 3 kHz, though some definitions describe waves above 1 or 3 GHz as microwaves, at 300 GHz, the corresponding wavelength is 1 mm, and at 3 kHz is 100 km. Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the speed of light, naturally occurring radio waves are generated by lightning, or by astronomical objects. Radio waves are generated by radio transmitters and received by radio receivers, the radio spectrum is divided into a number of radio bands on the basis of frequency, allocated to different uses. Radio waves were first predicted by mathematical work done in 1867 by Scottish mathematical physicist James Clerk Maxwell, Maxwell noticed wavelike properties of light and similarities in electrical and magnetic observations. Radio waves were first used for communication in the mid 1890s by Guglielmo Marconi, different frequencies experience different combinations of these phenomena in the Earths atmosphere, making certain radio bands more useful for specific purposes than others. It does not necessarily require a cleared sight path, at lower frequencies radio waves can pass through buildings, foliage and this is the only method of propagation possible at microwave frequencies and above. On the surface of the Earth, line of propagation is limited by the visual horizon to about 40 miles. This is the used by cell phones, cordless phones, walkie-talkies, wireless networks, FM and television broadcasting. Indirect propagation, Radio waves can reach points beyond the line-of-sight by diffraction, diffraction allows a radio wave to bend around obstructions such as a building edge, a vehicle, or a turn in a hall. Radio waves also reflect from surfaces such as walls, floors, ceilings, vehicles and these effects are used in short range radio communication systems. Ground waves allow mediumwave and longwave broadcasting stations to have coverage areas beyond the horizon, the nonzero resistance of the earth absorbs energy from ground waves, so as they propagate the waves lose power and the wavefronts bend over at an angle to the surface. As frequency decreases, the decrease and the achievable range increases. Military very low frequency and extremely low frequency communication systems can communicate over most of the Earth, and with submarines hundreds of feet underwater. Tropospheric propagation, In the VHF and UHF bands, radio waves can travel somewhat beyond the horizon due to refraction in the troposphere. This is due to changes in the index of air with temperature and pressure. At times, radio waves can travel up to 500 -1000 km due to tropospheric ducting and these effects are variable and not as reliable as ionospheric propagation, below. So radio waves directed at an angle into the sky can return to Earth beyond the horizon, by using multiple skips communication at intercontinental distances can be achieved
Radio waves
–
Diagram of the
electric fields (E) and
magnetic fields (H) of radio waves emitted by a
monopole radio transmitting
antenna (small dark vertical line in the center). The E and H fields are perpendicular as implied by the phase diagram in the lower right.
35.
Kinetic theory of gases
–
Kinetic theory explains macroscopic properties of gases, such as pressure, temperature, viscosity, thermal conductivity, and volume, by considering their molecular composition and motion. The theory posits that gas pressure is due to the impacts, on the walls of a container, Kinetic theory defines temperature in its own way, not identical with the thermodynamic definition. Under a microscope, the making up a liquid are too small to be visible. Known as Brownian motion, it directly from collisions between the grains or particles and liquid molecules. As analyzed by Albert Einstein in 1907, this evidence for kinetic theory is generally seen as having confirmed the concrete material existence of atoms. The theory for ideal gases makes the assumptions, The gas consists of very small particles known as molecules. This smallness of their size is such that the volume of the individual gas molecules added up is negligible compared to the volume of the smallest open ball containing all the molecules. This is equivalent to stating that the distance separating the gas particles is large compared to their size. These particles have the same mass, the number of molecules is so large that statistical treatment can be applied. These molecules are in constant, random, and rapid motion, the rapidly moving particles constantly collide among themselves and with the walls of the container. All these collisions are perfectly elastic and this means, the molecules are considered to be perfectly spherical in shape, and elastic in nature. Except during collisions, the interactions among molecules are negligible and this means that the inter-particle distance is much larger than the thermal de Broglie wavelength and the molecules are treated as classical objects. Because of the two, their dynamics can be treated classically. This means that the equations of motion of the molecules are time-reversible, the average kinetic energy of the gas particles depends only on the absolute temperature of the system. The kinetic theory has its own definition of temperature, not identical with the thermodynamic definition, the elapsed time of a collision between a molecule and the containers wall is negligible when compared to the time between successive collisions. Because they have mass, the gas molecules will be affected by gravity, more modern developments relax these assumptions and are based on the Boltzmann equation. These can accurately describe the properties of gases, because they include the volume of the molecules. The necessary assumptions are the absence of quantum effects, molecular chaos, expansions to higher orders in the density are known as virial expansions
Kinetic theory of gases
–
Hydrodynamica front cover
Kinetic theory of gases
–
The
temperature of an ideal
monatomic gas is proportional to the average
kinetic energy of its atoms. The
size of
helium atoms relative to their spacing is shown to scale under 1950
atmospheres of pressure. The atoms have a certain, average speed, slowed down here two
trillion fold from room temperature.
36.
Color photography
–
Color photography is photography that uses media capable of reproducing colors. By contrast, black-and-white photography records only a channel of luminance. In color photography, electronic sensors or light-sensitive chemicals record color information at the time of exposure, monochrome images which have been colorized by tinting selected areas by hand or mechanically or with the aid of a computer are colored photographs, not color photographs. Their colors are not dependent on the colors of the objects photographed. Color photography has been the dominant form of photography since the 1970s, Color photography was attempted beginning in the 1840s. Early experiments were directed at finding a substance which would assume the color of the light falling on it. Other experimenters, such as Edmond Becquerel, achieved better results, over the following several decades, renewed experiments along these lines periodically raised hopes and then dashed them, yielding nothing of practical value. Gabriel Lippmann is remembered as the inventor of a method for reproducing colors by photography, based on the interference phenomenon, in 1886 Lippmanns interest had turned to a method of fixing the colors of the solar spectrum on a photographic plate. By April 1892, he was able to report that he had succeeded in producing color images of a glass window, a group of flags, a bowl of oranges topped by a red poppy. He presented his theory of photography using the interference method in two papers to the Academy, one in 1894, the other in 1906. The named colors are somewhat arbitrary divisions imposed on the spectrum of visible light. The test subject was a bow made of ribbon with stripes of colors, apparently including red. Creating colors by mixing colored lights in various proportions is the method of color reproduction. LCD, LED, plasma and CRT color video displays all use this method and this is also known as the RGB color model. In photography, the dye colors are cyan, a greenish-blue which absorbs red, magenta, a purplish-pink which absorbs green, and yellow. The red-filtered image is used to create a dye image, the green-filtered image to create a magenta dye image. When the three dye images are superimposed they form a color image. This is also known as the CMYK color model, most commonly, three pigment images were first created separately by the so-called carbon process and then carefully combined in register
Color photography
–
A circa 1850 "Hillotype" photograph of a colored engraving. Long believed to be a complete fraud, recent testing found that
Levi Hill 's process did reproduce some color photographically, but also that many specimens had been "sweetened" by the addition of hand-applied colors.
Color photography
–
The first color photograph made by the three-color method suggested by
James Clerk Maxwell in 1855, taken in 1861 by
Thomas Sutton. The subject is a colored ribbon, usually described as a
tartan ribbon.
Color photography
–
An 1877 color photographic print on paper by
Louis Ducos du Hauron, the foremost early French pioneer of color photography. The overlapping yellow, cyan and red
subtractive color elements are apparent.
Color photography
–
The Emir of Bukhara in a 1911 color photograph by
Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii. At right is the triple color-filtered black-and-white glass plate negative, shown here as a positive.
37.
Structural rigidity
–
In discrete geometry and mechanics, structural rigidity is a combinatorial theory for predicting the flexibility of ensembles formed by rigid bodies connected by flexible linkages or hinges. Rigidity is the property of a structure that it does not bend or flex under an applied force, the opposite of rigidity is flexibility. A structure is rigid if it cannot flex, that is, if there is no motion of the structure that preserves the shape of its rigid components. There are two different kinds of rigidity. Finite or macroscopic rigidity means that the structure will not flex, fold, infinitesimal rigidity means that the structure will not flex by even an amount that is too small to be detected even in theory. A rigid graph is an embedding of a graph in a Euclidean space which is structurally rigid and that is, a graph is rigid if the structure formed by replacing the edges by rigid rods and the vertices by flexible hinges is rigid. A graph that is not rigid is called flexible, the latter condition rules out Euclidean congruences such as simple translation and rotation. It is also possible to consider rigidity problems for graphs in which some edges represent compression elements while other edges represent tension elements, a rigid graph with edges of these types forms a mathematical model of a tensegrity structure. The fundamental problem is how to predict the rigidity of a structure by theoretical analysis, key results in this area include the following, In any dimension, the rigidity of rod-and-hinge linkages is described by a matroid. The bases of the rigidity matroid are the Laman graphs. Cauchys theorem states that a convex polyhedron constructed with rigid plates for its faces, connected by hinges along its edges. Flexible polyhedra, non-convex polyhedra that are not rigid, were constructed by Raoul Bricard, Robert Connelly, the bellows conjecture, now proven, states that any continuous motion of a flexible polyhedron must preserve its volume. However, in many simple situations it is not yet always known how to analyze the rigidity of a structure mathematically despite the existence of considerable mathematical theory. One of the founders of the theory of structural rigidity was the great physicist James Clerk Maxwell. The late twentieth century saw an efflorescence of the theory of rigidity. Theory of the equilibrium and deflections of frameworks subjected to the action of forces, in cases in which the framework. Is strengthened by additional connecting pieces, there are, however, six equations of equilibrium of the system which must be fulfilled necessarily by the forces, on account of the equality of action and reaction in each piece. Hence if e== 3s-6, the effect of any eternal force will be definite in producing tensions or pressures in the different pieces, but if e>3s-6, these forces will be indeterminate
Structural rigidity
–
Graphs are drawn as rods connected by rotating hinges. The
cycle graph C 4 drawn as a square can be tilted over by the blue force into a parallelogram, so it is a flexible graph. K 3, drawn as a triangle, cannot be altered by any force that is applied to it, so it is a rigid graph.
38.
Truss
–
In engineering, a truss is a structure that consists of two-force members only, where the members are organized so that the assemblage as a whole behaves as a single object. A two-force member is a component where force is applied to only two points. In this typical context, external forces and reactions to those forces are considered to act only at the nodes and result in forces in the members that are either tensile or compressive. For straight members, moments are explicitly excluded because, and only because, all the joints in a truss are treated as revolutes, as is necessary for the links to be two-force members. A planar truss is one all members and nodes lie within a two dimensional plane, while a space truss has members and nodes that extend into three dimensions. The top beams in a truss are called top chords and are typically in compression, the beams are called bottom chords. The interior beams are called webs, and the areas inside the webs are called panels, Truss derives from the Old French word trousse, from around 1200, which means collection of things bound together. The term truss has often used to describe any assembly of members such as a cruck frame or a couple of rafters. One engineering definition is, A truss is a single plane framework of individual structural member connected at their ends of forms a series of triangle to span a large distance, a truss consists of typically straight members connected at joints, traditionally termed panel points. Trusses are typically composed of triangles because of the stability of that shape. A triangle is the simplest geometric figure that will not change shape when the lengths of the sides are fixed, in comparison, both the angles and the lengths of a four-sided figure must be fixed for it to retain its shape. The joint at which a truss is designed to be supported is commonly referred to as the Munter Point, the simplest form of a truss is one single triangle. This type of truss is seen in a roof consisting of rafters and a ceiling joist. Because of the stability of this shape and the methods of used to calculate the forces within it. The traditional diamond-shape bicycle frame, which utilizes two conjoined triangles, is an example of a simple truss, a planar truss lies in a single plane. Planar trusses are used in parallel to form roofs and bridges. The depth of a truss, or the height between the upper and lower chords, is what makes it an efficient structural form, a solid girder or beam of equal strength would have substantial weight and material cost as compared to a truss. For a given span, a deeper truss will require less material in the chords, an optimum depth of the truss will maximize the efficiency
Truss
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Truss bridge for a single-track railway, converted to pedestrian use and pipeline support
Truss
–
Planar roof trusses
Truss
–
The roof trusses of the
basilica di Santa Croce (
Florence)
Truss
39.
Theory of relativity
–
The theory of relativity usually encompasses two interrelated theories by Albert Einstein, special relativity and general relativity. Special relativity applies to particles and their interactions, describing all their physical phenomena except gravity. General relativity explains the law of gravitation and its relation to other forces of nature and it applies to the cosmological and astrophysical realm, including astronomy. The theory transformed theoretical physics and astronomy during the 20th century and it introduced concepts including spacetime as a unified entity of space and time, relativity of simultaneity, kinematic and gravitational time dilation, and length contraction. In the field of physics, relativity improved the science of elementary particles and their fundamental interactions, with relativity, cosmology and astrophysics predicted extraordinary astronomical phenomena such as neutron stars, black holes, and gravitational waves. Max Planck, Hermann Minkowski and others did subsequent work, Einstein developed general relativity between 1907 and 1915, with contributions by many others after 1915. The final form of general relativity was published in 1916, the term theory of relativity was based on the expression relative theory used in 1906 by Planck, who emphasized how the theory uses the principle of relativity. In the discussion section of the paper, Alfred Bucherer used for the first time the expression theory of relativity. By the 1920s, the community understood and accepted special relativity. It rapidly became a significant and necessary tool for theorists and experimentalists in the new fields of physics, nuclear physics. By comparison, general relativity did not appear to be as useful and it seemed to offer little potential for experimental test, as most of its assertions were on an astronomical scale. Its mathematics of general relativity seemed difficult and fully understandable only by a number of people. Around 1960, general relativity became central to physics and astronomy, new mathematical techniques to apply to general relativity streamlined calculations and made its concepts more easily visualized. Special relativity is a theory of the structure of spacetime and it was introduced in Einsteins 1905 paper On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies. Special relativity is based on two postulates which are contradictory in classical mechanics, The laws of physics are the same for all observers in motion relative to one another. The speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all observers, the resultant theory copes with experiment better than classical mechanics. For instance, postulate 2 explains the results of the Michelson–Morley experiment, moreover, the theory has many surprising and counterintuitive consequences. Some of these are, Relativity of simultaneity, Two events, simultaneous for one observer, time dilation, Moving clocks are measured to tick more slowly than an observers stationary clock
Theory of relativity
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USSR stamp dedicated to Albert Einstein
Theory of relativity
–
Key concepts
40.
Quantum mechanics
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Quantum mechanics, including quantum field theory, is a branch of physics which is the fundamental theory of nature at small scales and low energies of atoms and subatomic particles. Classical physics, the physics existing before quantum mechanics, derives from quantum mechanics as an approximation valid only at large scales, early quantum theory was profoundly reconceived in the mid-1920s. The reconceived theory is formulated in various specially developed mathematical formalisms, in one of them, a mathematical function, the wave function, provides information about the probability amplitude of position, momentum, and other physical properties of a particle. In 1803, Thomas Young, an English polymath, performed the famous experiment that he later described in a paper titled On the nature of light. This experiment played a role in the general acceptance of the wave theory of light. In 1838, Michael Faraday discovered cathode rays, Plancks hypothesis that energy is radiated and absorbed in discrete quanta precisely matched the observed patterns of black-body radiation. In 1896, Wilhelm Wien empirically determined a distribution law of black-body radiation, ludwig Boltzmann independently arrived at this result by considerations of Maxwells equations. However, it was only at high frequencies and underestimated the radiance at low frequencies. Later, Planck corrected this model using Boltzmanns statistical interpretation of thermodynamics and proposed what is now called Plancks law, following Max Plancks solution in 1900 to the black-body radiation problem, Albert Einstein offered a quantum-based theory to explain the photoelectric effect. Among the first to study quantum phenomena in nature were Arthur Compton, C. V. Raman, robert Andrews Millikan studied the photoelectric effect experimentally, and Albert Einstein developed a theory for it. In 1913, Peter Debye extended Niels Bohrs theory of structure, introducing elliptical orbits. This phase is known as old quantum theory, according to Planck, each energy element is proportional to its frequency, E = h ν, where h is Plancks constant. Planck cautiously insisted that this was simply an aspect of the processes of absorption and emission of radiation and had nothing to do with the reality of the radiation itself. In fact, he considered his quantum hypothesis a mathematical trick to get the right rather than a sizable discovery. He won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work, Einstein further developed this idea to show that an electromagnetic wave such as light could also be described as a particle, with a discrete quantum of energy that was dependent on its frequency. The Copenhagen interpretation of Niels Bohr became widely accepted, in the mid-1920s, developments in quantum mechanics led to its becoming the standard formulation for atomic physics. In the summer of 1925, Bohr and Heisenberg published results that closed the old quantum theory, out of deference to their particle-like behavior in certain processes and measurements, light quanta came to be called photons. From Einsteins simple postulation was born a flurry of debating, theorizing, thus, the entire field of quantum physics emerged, leading to its wider acceptance at the Fifth Solvay Conference in 1927
Quantum mechanics
–
Max Planck is considered the father of the quantum theory.
Quantum mechanics
–
Solution to
Schrödinger's equation for the hydrogen atom at different energy levels. The brighter areas represent a higher probability of finding an
electron
Quantum mechanics
–
The 1927
Solvay Conference in
Brussels.
41.
Penicuik
–
Penicuik is a town and former burgh in Midlothian, Scotland, lying on the west bank of the River North Esk. It lies on the A701 midway between Edinburgh and Peebles, east of the Pentland Hills and its population at the 2011 census was 15,926 computed according to the 2010 definition of the locality. The town was developed as a village in 1770 by Sir James Clerk of Penicuik. It became a burgh in 1867, the town was well known for its paper mills, the last of which closed in 2004. More recently the town was home to the Edinburgh Crystal works, Penicuik has two secondary schools, Penicuik High School and Beeslack Community High School. Penicuik is Scotlands 50th largest town and the biggest settlement in Midlothian, near Penicuik is Glencorse Parish Kirk, which formed part of the inspiration for Robert Louis Stevensons Kidnapped. Some of the nearby are named after characters in the novel and its sequel. Penicuik is home to the Royal Highland Fusiliers, 2nd Battalion The Royal Regiment of Scotland, Penicuik is twinned with the town of LIsle-sur-la-Sorgue in France. In 1296 Thomas Rymers Foedera mentions a Walter Edgar a person of Penicok south of Edenburgh, penycook appears as the name on John Adairs map of 1682. The ruined old church, in the centre of the graveyard. The site of Penicuik was home to the paper established by Agnes Campbell in 1709. A monument in the churchyard reads 1737, Annabel Millar spouse to Thomas Rutherford Papermaker at Pennycuik, around 1770, the arrival of the Cowan family, and their expansion of the paper mill, led to the need for homes for their workers. The hamlet of Penicuik was expanded as a town by Sir James Clerk of Penicuik, the builder of nearby Penicuik House. Penicuik was the site of a camp for French prisoners during the Napoleonic Wars. The former camp is now the site of a development in Valleyfield. A monument dated 1830 by the River Esk commemorates the mortal remains of 309 prisoners of war who died 1811-14 and it was erected by Alexander Cowan owner of the paper mill, whose house overlooked the burial site. Penicuik hosted the inaugural Grand Match in curling, between the north and the south of Scotland, in 1847 and this took place on the high pond on the estate of Penicuik House, not the low pond which is still used for curling on rare occasions. The town became a burgh in 1867, as such Penicuik has a number of ancient travellers inns, including The Crown, and the Royal
Penicuik
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The Cowan Institute, Penicuik
Penicuik
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St. Mungo's Church, Penicuik (1771)
Penicuik
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The Clerk mausoleum and old kirk, Penicuik
42.
Baronetcy
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A baronet or the rare female equivalent, a baronetess, is the holder of a baronetcy, a hereditary title awarded by the British Crown. The practice of awarding baronetcies was originally introduced in England in the 14th century and was used by James I of England in 1611 as a means of raising funds. A baronetcy is the only British hereditary honour that is not a peerage, with the exception of the Anglo-Irish Black Knight, White Knight, Baronets are not deemed members of the nobility, but rather, titled gentry. Their social rank is equivalent to the petty nobility in some countries of continental Europe. The term baronet has medieval origins, Sir Thomas de La More, describing the Battle of Boroughbridge, mentioned that baronets took part, along with barons and knights. Edward III is known to have created eight baronets in 1328, at least one, Sir William de La Pole in 1340, was created for payment of money. Whether or not these early creations were hereditary, all have died out, in 1619 James I established the Baronetage of Ireland, Charles I in 1625 created the Baronetages of Scotland and Nova Scotia. The new baronets were each required to pay 2,000 marks or to support six settlers for two years. Over a hundred of these baronetcies, now known as Scottish baronetcies. As a result of the Union of England and Scotland in 1707, following the Union of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801, new creations were styled as baronets of the United Kingdom. Under royal warrants of 1612 and 1613, certain privileges were accorded to baronets, firstly, no person or persons should have place between baronets and the younger sons of peers. These privileges were extended to baronets of Ireland, and for baronets of Scotland the privilege of depicting the Arms of Nova Scotia as an augmentation of honour, the former applies to this day for all baronets of Great Britain and of the United Kingdom created subsequently. The title of baronet was initially conferred upon noblemen who lost the right of summons to Parliament. A similar title of rank was banneret. Like knights, baronets are accorded the style Sir before their first name, baronetesses in their own right use Dame, also before their first name, while wives of baronets use Lady followed by the husbands surname only, this by longstanding courtesy. Wives of baronets are not baronetesses, only women holding baronetcies in their own right are so styled, unlike knighthoods—which apply to the recipient only—a baronetcy is hereditarily entailed. With some exceptions granted with special remainder by letters patent, baronetcies descend through the male line, a full list of extant baronets appears in Burkes Peerage and Baronetage, which also published a record of extinct baronetcies. A baronetcy is not a peerage, so baronets like knights and junior members of families are commoners
Baronetcy
Baronetcy
–
Royal, noble and
chivalric ranks
Baronetcy
Baronetcy
43.
Clerk baronets
–
There has been one creation of a baronetcy with the surname Clerk. The 1st Baronet acquired the lands of Lasswade, Midlothian, in 1700, the second Baronet built Mavisbank House near Loanhead between 1723 and 1727. The 3rd Baronet, James, laid out plans for a new town in 1770, the rebuilding included a new church, St Mungos, in 1771, reputedly by Sir James himself. The family are said by Anderson to date from at least 1180 AD when one of them appeared as a witness to a donation to Holyrood Abbey by William The Lion, john Scougal is known to have painted at least two portraits of the first baronets. A number of the lineage are buried in Penicuik Old Parish Churchyard, the Clerk Family, Penicuik House Project, Retrieved 8 December 2009. Leigh Rayments list of baronets – Baronetcies beginning with C Clark baronets Clarke baronets Clerke baronets
Clerk baronets
–
The grave of Sir James Clerk, 7th Baronet, St John's Edinburgh
44.
Sir George Clerk, 6th Baronet
–
Sir George Clerk of Pennycuik, 6th Baronet FRSE FRS PC DL was a Scottish politician who served as the Tory MP for Edinburghshire, Stamford and Dover. He was brother of the advocate John Clerk-Maxwell of Middlebie, Clerk was the son of Cpt James Clerk, third son of Sir George Clerk-Maxwell, 4th Baronet and Janet Irving. He studied at the High School in Edinburgh and then went to Oxford University, Clerk sat as Member of Parliament for Edinburghshire from 1811 to 1832 and again from 1835 to 1837, for Stamford from 1838 to 1847 and then for Dover from 1847 to 1852. He served as one of the Commissioners of Weights and Measures from 1818 to 1821, in 1845 he was sworn of the Privy Council and appointed Vice-President of the Board of Trade and Master of the Mint, posts he held until the fall of the Tory administration in 1846. He was also a Deputy Lieutenant for Edinburghshire and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1819. He died at Penicuik House, his home, on 23 December 1867. He is buried in the churchyard in Penicuik. Clerk married Maria Anne Law, the daughter of Ewan Law, brother of Edward Law, 1st Baron Ellenborough and he died in December 1867, aged 80, at Penycuik House, Midlothian. He is buried close to his parents mausoleum in St. Mungos Churchyard in Penicuik and his nephew was the famous physicist, James Clerk Maxwell. Anderson, William, The Scottish Nation, Edinburgh,1867, vol. iii, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Sir George Clerk, Bt
Sir George Clerk, 6th Baronet
–
Sir George Clerk's grave, St. Mungo's churchyard,
Penicuik
45.
Name change
–
Name change generally refers to the legal act by a person of adopting a new name different from their name at birth, marriage or adoption. The procedures and ease of a name change vary between jurisdictions, in general, common law jurisdictions have loose procedures for a name change while civil law jurisdictions are more restrictive. A pseudonym is a name that differs from the original or true name and it is generally adopted to conceal a persons identity, but can also be done for personal, social or ideological reasons. Several federal court rulings have set precedents regarding both court decreed name changes and common law name changes, usually a person can adopt any name desired for any reason. As of 2009,46 states allow a person legally to change names by usage alone, with no paperwork, but a court order may be required for many institutions to officially accept the change. It is necessary to plead that the change is not for a fraudulent or other illegal purpose. Applicants may be required to give an explanation for wanting to change their names. A fee is payable, and the applicant may be required to post legal notices in newspapers to announce the name change. Generally the judge has limited judicial discretion to grant or deny a change of name, usually if the name change is for fraudulent. In 2004, a Missouri man succeeded in changing his name to They, the Minnesota Supreme Court ruled that a name change to 1069 could be denied, but that Ten Sixty-Nine was acceptable, the North Dakota Supreme Court had denied the same request several years before. Some examples of typically allowed reasons for name changes in the U. S. include, returning to the use of a prior surname upon divorce. Simplification or improved familiarity of spelling or pronunciation and this allows them the opportunity to adopt more Americanized names. During the naturalization interview, a petition for a change is prepared to be forwarded to a federal court. Applicants certify that they are not seeking a change of name for any unlawful purpose such as the avoidance of debt or evasion of law enforcement, such a name change would become final if within their jurisdiction, once a federal court naturalizes an applicant. To maintain an identity, it is desirable to obtain a formal order so there is continuity of personal records. The open and notorious use of a name is often sufficient to allow one to use an assumed name, in some jurisdictions, a trade name distinct from ones legal name can be registered with a county clerk, secretary of state, or other similar government authority. Persons who wish to publish materials and notted with them may publish under pseudonyms, a common law name is a legal name. In most states a statutory method, while quick and definitive, only supplements the common law method, although a person may sue under a common law name
Name change
–
Name change certificate issued by Christian X of Denmark in 1917
46.
Corsock
–
Corsock is a village in Dumfries and Galloway, south-west Scotland. It is located 8 miles north of Castle Douglas, and the distance east of New Galloway
Corsock
–
Corsock village hall
47.
Jemima Blackburn
–
Jemima Wedderburn Blackburn was a Scottish painter whose work gives us an evocative picture of rural life in 19th-century Scotland. One of the most popular illustrators in Victorian Britain, she illustrated 27 books and her greatest ornithological achievement was the second edition of her Birds from Nature. Most of the illustrations are watercolors, with early paintings often including some ink work, a few are collages, in which she cut out a bird’s outline and transferred it to a different background, in a similar manner to John James Audubon. Her many watercolours show daily life in the late 19th-century Scottish Highlands as well as fantasy scenes from childrens fables. She achieved widespread recognition under the initials JB or her married name Mrs Hugh Blackburn, the family was attainted and so several of the next generation went to Jamaica, where they grew rich as sugar planters. Two of these sons were John Wedderburn of Ballendean, who reclaimed the family title. The former was notable for the case brought against him under Scots law by Joseph Knight. On her mothers side, Jemima was the first cousin of James Clerk Maxwell, Jemima was a friend and pupil of John Ruskin and Sir Edwin Landseer, both of whom praised her work highly. She married the mathematician Hugh Blackburn and they bought the Roshven estate in 1854, much of her work portrayed Roshven, its animals and birds. She became one of the leading painters of the day. Jemima Blackburn was an observer of bird behavior, as evidenced by her writings. She describes the ejection of nestling meadow pipits by a blind and naked hatchling common cuckoo and this behavior had been reported by Edward Jenner in 1788 but dismissed as impossible by Charles Waterton in 1836. Blackburn’s account was published, not in a scientific journal. Charles Darwin refers to Blackburn’s observations in the edition of On the Origin of Species. in portraying animals. - Sir Edwin Landseer,1843 In 1857 Blackburn was asked to contribute to the first exhibition of contemporary British art in America. She also recalls her delight when given for her birthday a copy of Jemima Blackburns Birds drawn from Nature, a copy of the book, hand coloured under Jemima Blackburns own supervision, was presented to the Zoological Society of London. We have seen no such birds since Bewicks. We say this not ignorant of the magnificent plates by Selby, Audubon, Wilson, - The Scotsman,1868 During her life at Roshven, Blackburn created for us a priceless legacy of paintings covering every facet of the life and customs of her time. Hardly a day passed without her recording some aspect of her varied and she painted her family and friends, important visitors and local people going about their everyday work, cutting peat, gathering bracken, making hay and many other rural activities
Jemima Blackburn
–
Photograph by Alinari of Florence (1852)
48.
William Dyce Cay
–
William Dyce Cay, MICE FRSE was a Scottish civil engineer. He was responsible for the majority of late 19th century works to Aberdeen harbour and he was described by his cousin, James Clerk Maxwell, as a watery engineer. He was born the son of Robert Dundas Cay, an Edinburgh lawyer, in 1844 the family moved to Hong Kong following his fathers appointment as Registrar to the Supreme Court of that city. His mother died as the result of injuries from an accident in 1852 and is buried in the Happy Valley Cemetery in Victoria. William returned to Edinburgh soon after this, to study Mathematics at Edinburgh University and he then moved to Belfast to serve as an apprentice engineer under Lord Kelvins brother, James Thomson. On completion of his training in 1858 he began to specialise in harbour design and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1882. In 1890 he obtained a house on Blackford Road in Edinburgh and he died at Folkestone, Kent on 13 December 1925. His cousin was James Clerk Maxwell and they were close friends and Cay served as Maxwells best man upon his marriage
William Dyce Cay
–
The entrance to the harbour at Buckie
William Dyce Cay
–
Lerwick Harbour
