1.
Vancouver
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Vancouver is a coastal seaport city in Canada, located in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia. As the most populous city in the province, the 2016 census recorded 631,486 people in the city, the Greater Vancouver area had a population of 2,463,431 in 2016, making it the third largest metropolitan area in Canada. Vancouver has the highest population density in Canada with over 5,400 people per square kilometre. With over 250,000 residents, Vancouver municipality is the fourth most densely populated city in North America behind New York City, San Francisco, and Mexico City according to the 2011 census. In that census, Vancouver was one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in Canada, Vancouver is classed as a Beta global city. In 2014, following thirty years in California, the annual TED conference made Vancouver its indefinite home, several matches of the 2015 FIFA Womens World Cup were played in Vancouver, including the final at BC Place Stadium. From that first enterprise, other stores and some hotels quickly appeared along the waterfront to the west, Gastown became formally laid out as a registered townsite dubbed Granville, B. I. As of 2014, Port Metro Vancouver is the third largest port by tonnage in the Americas, 27th in the world, the busiest and largest in Canada, and the most diversified port in North America. While forestry remains its largest industry, Vancouver is well known as an urban centre surrounded by nature, archaeological records indicate the presence of Aboriginal people in the Vancouver area from 8,000 to 10,000 years ago. The city is located in the territories of the Squamish, Musqueam. They had villages in various parts of present-day Vancouver, such as Stanley Park, False Creek, Kitsilano, Point Grey, the city takes its name from George Vancouver, who explored the inner harbour of Burrard Inlet in 1792 and gave various places British names. The explorer and North West Company trader Simon Fraser and his became the first known Europeans to set foot on the site of the present-day city. In 1808, they travelled from the east down the Fraser River, perhaps as far as Point Grey. The Fraser Gold Rush of 1858 brought over 25,000 men, mainly from California, to nearby New Westminster on the Fraser River, on their way to the Fraser Canyon, a sawmill established at Moodyville in 1863, began the citys long relationship with logging. It was quickly followed by mills owned by Captain Edward Stamp on the shore of the inlet. This mill, known as the Hastings Mill, became the nucleus around which Vancouver formed, the mills central role in the city waned after the arrival of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the 1880s. It nevertheless remained important to the economy until it closed in the 1920s. The settlement which came to be called Gastown grew up quickly around the original makeshift tavern established by Gassy Jack Deighton in 1867 on the edge of the Hastings Mill property
2.
British Columbia
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British Columbia is the westernmost province of Canada, with a population of more than four million people located between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. British Columbia is also a component of the Pacific Northwest and the Cascadia bioregion, along with the U. S. states of Idaho, Oregon, Washington and Alaska. The first British settlement in the area was Fort Victoria, established in 1843, subsequently, on the mainland, the Colony of British Columbia was founded by Richard Clement Moody and the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, in response to the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. Port Moody is named after him, in 1866, Vancouver Island became part of the colony of British Columbia, and Victoria became the united colonys capital. In 1871, British Columbia became the province of Canada. Its Latin motto is Splendor sine occasu, the capital of British Columbia remains Victoria, the fifteenth-largest metropolitan region in Canada, named for the Queen who created the original European colonies. The largest city is Vancouver, the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada, the largest in Western Canada, in October 2013, British Columbia had an estimated population of 4,606,371. British Columbia evolved from British possessions that were established in what is now British Columbia by 1871, First Nations, the original inhabitants of the land, have a history of at least 10,000 years in the area. Today there are few treaties and the question of Aboriginal Title, notably, the Tsilhqotin Nation has established Aboriginal title to a portion of their territory, as a result of the recent Supreme Court of Canada decision. BCs economy is diverse, with service producing industries accounting for the largest portion of the provinces GDP and it is the endpoint of transcontinental railways, and the site of major Pacific ports that enable international trade. Though less than 5% of its vast 944,735 km2 land is arable and its climate encourages outdoor recreation and tourism, though its economic mainstay has long been resource extraction, principally logging, farming, and mining. Vancouver, the provinces largest city and metropolitan area, also serves as the headquarters of many western-based natural resource companies and it also benefits from a strong housing market and a per capita income well above the national average. The Northern Interior region has a climate with very cold winters. The climate of Vancouver is by far the mildest winter climate of the major Canadian cities, the provinces name was chosen by Queen Victoria, when the Colony of British Columbia, i. e. the Mainland, became a British colony in 1858. The current southern border of British Columbia was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty, British Columbias land area is 944,735 square kilometres. British Columbias rugged coastline stretches for more than 27,000 kilometres and it is the only province in Canada that borders the Pacific Ocean. British Columbias capital is Victoria, located at the tip of Vancouver Island. Only a narrow strip of the Island, from Campbell River to Victoria, is significantly populated, much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by thick, tall and sometimes impenetrable temperate rainforest
3.
Redmond, Washington
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Redmond is a city in King County, Washington, United States, located 16 miles east of Seattle, within the Seattle metropolitan area. The population is 60,560 in 2016, an increase from the 2010 census, Redmond is commonly recognized as the home of Microsoft and Nintendo of America. With an annual race on city streets and the states only velodrome. Redmond is bordered by Kirkland to the west, Bellevue to the southwest, unincorporated King County lies to the north and east. The citys urban downtown lies just north of Lake Sammamish, residential areas lie north, Overlake, the citys second urban center, is to the west of Lake Sammamish. The Sammamish River runs north from the lake along the west edge of the citys downtown, Redmond is located at 47°40′10″N 122°07′26″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 16.94 square miles. Redmond, like most of the Pacific Northwest, has mild weather, summers tend to be warm and dry, with low rainfall and sunny or partly sunny from June to September. Winters tend to be cool and wet, with November being the rainiest month, snowfall is uncommon, with the most common cold air being in a form of a high pressure system, driving out the rains from the area. However, snowfall is not as rare as in cities like Seattle near the moderating effects of Puget Sound. The average warmest month is August, the highest recorded temperature was 103 °F in 2009. On average, the coolest month is January, the lowest recorded temperature was 1 °F in 1961. The maximum average precipitation occurs in December, According to a 2015 estimate, the annual median income for a household in the city was $99,586. The average home value in 2014 was $649,000, as of the census of 2010, there were 54,144 people,22,550 households, and 13,890 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,325.8 inhabitants per square mile, there were 24,177 housing units at an average density of 1,485.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 65. 2% White,1. 7% African American,0. 4% Native American,25. 4% Asian,0. 2% Pacific Islander,3. 2% from other races, and 4. 0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7. 8% of the population,29. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the family size was 2.98
4.
Puget Sound
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Puget Sound /ˈpjuːdʒɪt/ is a sound along the northwestern coast of the U. S. state of Washington, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean, and part of the Salish Sea. Flow through Deception Pass is approximately equal to 2% of the tidal exchange between Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Puget Sound extends approximately 100 miles from Deception Pass in the north to Olympia and its average depth is 450 feet and its maximum depth, off Point Jefferson between Indianola and Kingston, is 930 feet. The depth of the basin, between the southern tip of Whidbey Island and Tacoma, Washington, is approximately 600 feet. Since 2009, the term Salish Sea has been established by the United States Board on Geographic Names as the waters of Puget Sound, the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Sometimes the terms Puget Sound and Puget Sound and adjacent waters are used for not only Puget Sound proper but also for waters to the north, such as Bellingham Bay and the San Juan Islands region. The term Puget Sound is used not just for the body of water, major cities on the sound include Seattle, Tacoma, Olympia, and Everett, Washington. Puget Sound is also the second largest estuary in the United States, in 1792 George Vancouver gave the name Pugets Sound to the waters south of the Tacoma Narrows, in honor of Peter Puget, a Huguenot lieutenant accompanying him on the Vancouver Expedition. This name later came to be used for the north of Tacoma Narrows as well. The USGS defines Puget Sound as all the south of three entrances from the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The main entrance at Admiralty Inlet is defined as a line between Point Wilson on the Olympic Peninsula, and Point Partridge on Whidbey Island. The second entrance is at Deception Pass along a line from West Point on Whidbey Island, to Deception Island, the third entrance is at the south end of the Swinomish Channel, which connects Skagit Bay and Padilla Bay. Under this definition, Puget Sound includes the waters of Hood Canal, Admiralty Inlet, Possession Sound, Saratoga Passage and it does not include Bellingham Bay, Padilla Bay, the waters of the San Juan Islands or anything farther north. Another definition, given by NOAA, subdivides Puget Sound into five basins or regions, four of these correspond to areas within the USGS definition, but the fifth one, called Northern Puget Sound includes a large additional region. It is defined as bounded to the north by the boundary with Canada. Kruckeberg uses the term Puget Sound and adjacent waters, continental ice sheets have repeatedly advanced and retreated from the Puget Sound region. The most recent glacial period, called the Fraser Glaciation, had three phases, or stades. S. Since each new advance and retreat of ice erodes away much of the evidence of ice ages
5.
Low Earth orbit
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A low Earth orbit is an orbit around Earth with an altitude between 160 kilometers, and 2,000 kilometers. Objects below approximately 160 kilometers will experience very rapid orbital decay, with the exception of the 24 human beings who flew lunar flights in the Apollo program during the four-year period spanning 1968 through 1972, all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO or below. The International Space Station conducts operations in LEO, the altitude record for a human spaceflight in LEO was Gemini 11 with an apogee of 1,374.1 kilometers. All crewed space stations to date, as well as the majority of satellites, have been in LEO, objects in LEO encounter atmospheric drag from gases in the thermosphere or exosphere, depending on orbit height. Due to atmospheric drag, satellites do not usually orbit below 300 km, objects in LEO orbit Earth between the denser part of the atmosphere and below the inner Van Allen radiation belt. The mean orbital velocity needed to maintain a stable low Earth orbit is about 7.8 km/s, calculated for circular orbit of 200 km it is 7.79 km/s and for 1500 km it is 7.12 km/s. The delta-v needed to achieve low Earth orbit starts around 9.4 km/s, atmospheric and gravity drag associated with launch typically adds 1. 3–1.8 km/s to the launch vehicle delta-v required to reach normal LEO orbital velocity of around 7.8 km/s. Equatorial low Earth orbits are a subset of LEO and these orbits, with low inclination to the Equator, allow rapid revisit times and have the lowest delta-v requirement of any orbit. Orbits with an inclination angle to the equator are usually called polar orbits. Higher orbits include medium Earth orbit, sometimes called intermediate circular orbit, orbits higher than low orbit can lead to early failure of electronic components due to intense radiation and charge accumulation. Although the Earths pull due to gravity in LEO is not much less than on the surface of the Earth, people, a low Earth orbit is simplest and cheapest for satellite placement. It provides high bandwidth and low communication time lag, but satellites in LEO will not be visible from any point on the Earth at all times. Earth observation satellites and spy satellites use LEO as they are able to see the surface of the Earth more clearly as they are not so far away and they are also able to traverse the surface of the Earth. A majority of satellites are placed in LEO, making one complete revolution around the Earth in about 90 minutes. The International Space Station is in a LEO about 400 km above the Earths surface, since it requires less energy to place a satellite into a LEO and the LEO satellite needs less powerful amplifiers for successful transmission, LEO is used for many communication applications. Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary, a network of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage, lower orbits also aid remote sensing satellites because of the added detail that can be gained. Remote sensing satellites can also take advantage of sun-synchronous LEO orbits at an altitude of about 800 km, envisat is one example of an Earth observation satellite that makes use of this particular type of LEO. The LEO environment is becoming congested with space debris due to the frequency of object launches and this has caused growing concern in recent years, since collisions at orbital velocities can easily be dangerous, and even deadly
6.
Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre
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Neighborhood Playhouse had originally been founded as an off-Broadway theatre by philanthropists Alice Lewisohn and Irene Lewisohn in 1915, but closed in 1927. The following year, it re-opened as the Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre with the addition of Rita Wallach Morgenthau, sanford Meisner joined the faculty in 1935 from the Group Theatre. Meisner used his study of Russian theatre and acting innovator, Konstantin Stanislavskis System to develop his own technique, the Executive Director Emeritus of the Playhouse, Harold G. Baldridge, a graduate of the school himself, had been head of the school for 32 years. Pamela Moller Kareman serves as the current Executive Director, also a graduate of The Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre, the school offers a Two Year Certificate Program, with admission to the second year dependent upon unanimous approval of the faculty. There is also a Six Week Summer Intensive, the Neighborhood Playhouse also offers Playhouse Juniors, a popular Saturday training program for children in grades 1–12. Children attend a fixed curriculum of singing, acting and dancing classes in a non-competitive environment, playwright Horton Foote met actor Robert Duvall at Neighborhood Playhouse when Duvall starred in a 1957 production of Footes play, The Midnight Caller. Foote recommended Duvall to play the part of Boo Radley in the 1962 film, To Kill a Mockingbird
7.
Scotty (Star Trek)
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Montgomery Christopher Jorgensen Scotty Scott is a fictional character in the science fiction franchise Star Trek. Simon Pegg has assumed the character and appeared in the 2009 film Star Trek and its sequels, Star Trek Into Darkness, Chris Doohan, son of James Doohan, has taken on the role of Scotty in the popular web series, Star Trek Continues. Chris has also had roles in the J. J Abrams films Star Trek, the character almost did not make it to the show after series creator Gene Roddenberry sent Doohan a letter informing him, We dont think we need an engineer in the series. Only through the intervention of Doohans agent did the character remain, Doohan tried a variety of accents for the part and decided to use a Scottish accent on the basis that he thought Scottish people make the best engineers. Doohan himself chose Scottys first name, Montgomery, in honor of his maternal grandfather James Montgomery, in a third-season production memo, Roddenberry said Doohan is capable of handling anything we throw at him and that the dour Scot works better when being protective of the ships engines. Scotty spent part of his life in Aberdeen, Scotland, on March 3,2222, Doohan claimed to have based Scottys accent on an Aberdeen accent he once heard. Scottys technical knowledge and skill allow him to devise unconventional and effective solutions to dire problems. Scottys identity is connected to the Enterprise itself, and the character often takes a paternal attitude toward the ship. He is frequently the liaison between Captain James T. Kirks ambitious tactical plans and what is feasible in the realm of the starships capabilities. Scotty oversaw the Enterprises refit prior to the events of Star Trek, The Motion Picture, and is part of the crew when the Enterprise confronts Khan Noonien Singh in Star Trek II, The Wrath of Khan. After Scotty was promoted to captain of engineering of the USS Excelsior in Star Trek III, The Search for Spock, he sabotages the new ship, Scotty joins Kirks crew aboard the USS Enterprise-A at the end of Star Trek IV, The Voyage Home. In Star Trek V, The Final Frontier, he helps Kirk, Spock and Dr. Leonard McCoy escape the brig, Scotty kills Colonel West before the latter can assassinate the Federation president in Star Trek VI, The Undiscovered Country. Scotty joins Kirk and Pavel Chekov for the USS Enterprise-Bs maiden voyage in Star Trek Generations, in September 2007, Paul McGillion auditioned for the Scotty role in the 2009 Star Trek movie and received James Doohans son Chris endorsement. However, Simon Peggs casting was announced on October 12,2007, with assistance from Spock Prime and James Kirk, he joins the Enterprise crew and becomes the ships chief engineer. Slate. com called Peggs performance of Scotty in the 2009 Star Trek film juicily comic. The character of Scotty has a role in the film Star Trek Beyond, in which he meets an alien woman named Jaylah, who leads him to the crashed Federation starship. Working together, the two make the ship again flightworthy and Scotty helps Jaylah to see the value of working together with a crew, following Doohans death, several Scottish towns campaigned to be named Scottys official birthplace. Scripts, production materials and Doohans family support Linlithgows claim to being Scottys birthplace, however, Scotty says in Wolf in the Fold that he is an old Aberdeen pub crawler, and Aberdeen city leaders proposed plans to erect a monument to the actor and character
8.
Sarnia
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Sarnia is a city in Southwestern Ontario, Canada, and had a 2011 population of 72,366. It is the largest city on Lake Huron and in Lambton County, Clair River on 23 August 1679. Located in the harbour, the Sarnia port remains an important centre for lake freighters and oceangoing ships carrying cargoes of grain. The complex of refining and chemical companies is called Chemical Valley, while in 2011, the city had the highest level of particulates air pollution of any Canadian city, it has since dropped down to 30th. About 60 percent of the matter, however, comes from the neighboring United States. In the winter, Sarnia occasionally experiences lake-effect snow from Arctic air blowing across the waters of Lake Huron. Culturally, Sarnia is a part of the artistic presence in Southern Ontario. The citys International Symphony Orchestra is renowned in the area and has won the Outstanding Community Orchestra Award given by the Detroit Music Awards in 2011, Michael Learned graced the stage of the Imperial Theatre for a 2010 production of Driving Miss Daisy. Sarnia Bayfest, which used to be the largest event in Sarnia annually, was a music festival that took place during the summer. In 2013, organizers cancelled the event because of money troubles but are taking a hiatus while planning for the future. The name Sarnia is Latin for Guernsey, which is a British Channel Island, in 1829 Sir John Colborne, a former governor of Guernsey, was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada. In this capacity, he visited two small settlements in 1835 that had laid out on the shores of Lake Huron. One of these, named The Rapids, consisted then of 44 taxpayers, nine houses, four log houses. The villagers wished to change its name but were unable to agree on an alternative, the English settlers favoured the name Buenos Aires and the Scottish New Glasgow. Sir John Colborne suggested Port Sarnia, on 4 January 1836, the name was formally adopted by a vote of 26 to 16, and Colborne also named the nearby village Moore after British military hero Sir John Moore. Sarnia adopted the nickname The Imperial City on 7 May 1914 because of the visit of Canadas Governor General, the Duke of Connaught, and his daughter Princess Patricia. First Nations peoples have lived, hunted, and traveled across the area for at least 10,000 years, as shown by archaeological evidence on Walpole Island. These peoples were drawn from an amalgamation of Ojibwa, Odawa, and Potowatami clans and these clans came together through common links in both language and culture, developing a self-sufficient society where tasks and responsibilities were equally shared among all members
9.
Ontario
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Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions
10.
Star Trek
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Star Trek is an American science fiction media franchise based on the television series created by Gene Roddenberry. The first television series, simply called Star Trek and now referred to as The Original Series, debuted in 1966 and it followed the interstellar adventures of Captain James T. Kirk and his crew aboard the starship USS Enterprise, an exploration vessel. The Star Trek canon of the franchise include The Original Series, a series, four spin-off television series, its film franchise. In creating Star Trek, Roddenberry was inspired by the Horatio Hornblower novels, the satirical book Gullivers Travels and these adventures continued in the short-lived Star Trek, The Animated Series and six feature films. The adventures of The Next Generation crew continued in four feature films. In 2009, the franchise underwent a reboot set in an alternate timeline, or Kelvin Timeline. This film featured a new cast portraying younger versions of the crew from the show, their adventures were continued in the sequel film. The thirteenth film feature and sequel, Star Trek Beyond, was released to coincide with the franchises 50th anniversary, a new Star Trek TV series, titled Star Trek, Discovery, will premiere in May 2017 on the digital platform CBS All Access. Star Trek has been a phenomenon for decades. Fans of the franchise are called Trekkies or Trekkers, the franchise spans a wide range of spin-offs including games, figurines, novels, toys, and comics. Star Trek had an attraction in Las Vegas that opened in 1998. At least two museum exhibits of props travel the world, the series has its own full-fledged constructed language, Klingon. Several parodies have been made of Star Trek, in addition, viewers have produced several fan productions. As of July 2016, the franchise had generated $10 billion in revenue, Star Trek is noted for its cultural influence beyond works of science fiction. The franchise is also noted for its civil rights stances. The Original Series included one of televisions first multiracial casts, Star Trek references can be found throughout popular culture from movies such as the submarine thriller Crimson Tide to the animated series South Park. As early as 1964, Gene Roddenberry drafted a proposal for the series that would become Star Trek
11.
Chris Doohan
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Christopher Doohan is one of the sons of Star Trek actor James Doohan. Chris and his brother, Montgomery, made uncredited appearances as background extras in the first Star Trek. Upon hearing that the role of Montgomery Scott would be recast for J. J. The role of Scotty in the new film went to British actor Simon Pegg, Doohan stated he would not have even won an audition had it not been for the support of the fans. He appeared alongside Scotty, assisting him in operating the controls during the mission to the Narada. In 2012, It was announced that Chris Doohan won a speaking role in Star Trek Into Darkness as a Transport Officer. In 2012, it was announced that Doohan would play Scotty in Star Trek Continues, the first episode Pilgrim of Eternity premiered at the Phoenix Comicon to a crowd of over 3,500 fans. With most of the cast in attendance, they signed posters in the lobby for almost three hours, the second episode, Lolani, premiered in March 2014 at the Dallas, Texas Comic Con. The episode also stars Lou Ferrigno and Erin Gray and he also appears as Scotty in Star Trek Online, with a major appearance in the Agents of Yesterday expansion pack released in July 2016. Star Trek Continues Star Trek Chris Doohan on Myspace Chris Doohan at the Internet Movie Database Chris Doohan at AllMovie
12.
Royal Victorian Order
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The Royal Victorian Order is a dynastic order of knighthood established in 1896 by Queen Victoria. It recognises distinguished personal service to the monarch of the Commonwealth realms, members of the monarchs family, the present monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, is the Sovereign of the order, its motto is Victoria, and its official day is 20 June. The orders chapel is the Savoy Chapel in London, the organisation was founded a year preceding Victorias Diamond Jubilee, so as to give the Queen time to complete a list of first inductees. The orders official day was made 20 June of each year, in 1902, King Edward VII created the Royal Victorian Chain as a personal decoration for royal personages and a few eminent British subjects and it was the highest class of the Royal Victorian Order. It is today distinct from the order, though it is issued by the chancery of the Royal Victorian Order. The order was open to foreigners from its inception, the Prefect of Alpes-Maritimes, Queen Elizabeth II then appointed her daughter, Anne, Princess Royal, to the position in 2007. Foreigners may be admitted as members, there are no limits to the number of any grade. Retiring Deans of the Royal Peculiars of St, prior to 1984, the grades of Lieutenant and Member were classified as Members and Members, respectively, but both with the post-nominals MVO. On 31 December of that year, Queen Elizabeth II declared that those in the grade of Member would henceforth be Lieutenants with the post-nominals LVO. Upon admission into the Royal Victorian Order, members are given various insignia of the organisation, each grade being represented by different emblems and robes. For Knights and Dames Grand Cross, Commanders, and Lieutenants, the orders ribbon is blue with red-white-red stripe edging, the only difference being that for foreigners appointed into the society, their ribbon bearing an additional central white stripe. For Knights Grand Cross, the ribbon is 82.5 millimetres wide, for Dames Grand Cross 57.1 millimetres, for Knights and Dames Commander 44.4 millimetres, and for all other members 31.7 millimetres. Though after the death of a Knight or Dame Grand Cross their insignia may be retained by their family, the collar must be returned. Knights and Dames Grand Cross also wear a mantle of blue satin edged with red satin and lined with white satin. Since 1938, the chapel of the Royal Victorian Order has been the Queens Chapel of the Savoy, in central London, upon the occupants death, the plate is retained, leaving the stalls festooned with a record of the orders Knights and Dames Grand Cross since 1938. There is insufficient space in the chapel for the display of knights and dames banners, founded by Michael Jackson, the group has, since 2008, gathered biennially. The practice of notifying the Prime Minister of Canada of nominees ended in 1982, in Canada, the order has come to be colloquially dubbed as the Royal Visit Order, as the majority of appointments are made by the sovereign during her tours of the country. Persons have been removed from the order at the monarchs command, anthony Blunt, a former surveyor of the Queens Pictures, was in 1979 stripped of his knighthood, after it was revealed that he had been a spy
13.
Chief engineer
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A chief engineer is a senior engineer in an organization. Typically they are in charge of a department, and duties vary considerably depending on the industry. In marine engineering, the engineer is a licensed mariner in charge of the engineering department on a merchant vessel. A chief engineer is responsible for all operations and maintenance that has to do with any, in public works, such as for a city, county, military division, or federal program, the engineering department often has a chief engineer. This is typically shown as Office of the Chief Engineer in organizational charts and this person or group is separate from the other engineering offices, and functions to coordinate their activities from an engineering perspective. In large-scale product development, such as for vehicles or mobile phones. In these industries, the engineer is responsible for the design of the product. In some companies, the title of the most senior engineer is chief engineer and this position may also be called engineering manager, engineering director, or chief technology officer in larger corporations. Seafarers professions and ranks Stationary engineer
14.
Starship Enterprise
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Jefferies, who was a pilot, based NCC on 20th century aircraft registration codes. In such 20th century usage, an N first letter refers to a registered in the United States. A C for a second letter refers to a civil aircraft, Jefferies added a second C because he thought it looked better. The Franz Joseph Blueprints, the book The Making of Star Trek, in an interview with the BBC, Jefferies explained that NC is the designation for U. S. commercial aircraft and the Soviet Unions space program used the CCCP designation. He concluded that any major future space projects would likely be an international effort. The 1701 had two functions, it represented the first ship of a 17th federation cruiser design, and that the digits were unlikely to be misread, unlike 6,8, or 9. In Gene Roddenberrys original Star Trek pitch, the starship is described as a United Space Ship, before Star Trek, The Motion Picture, Paramount had planned a Star Trek film to have been named Star Trek, Planet of the Titans. Early in the production, Ralph McQuarrie had been hired to redesign the ship, the major feature of the redesign was to replace the cigar-shaped secondary hull with a larger, triangle-shaped delta wing section. McQuarries design was discarded in favor of keeping the shape of the ship intact for the release of Star Trek. Three spaceships with the name Enterprise predate the United Federation of Planets in Star Treks fictional timeline and it was retroactively entered into the Star Trek continuity. In real life, the selected name for the orbiter was Constitution but it was instead named Enterprise due to Star Trek fans. The 1979 Star Trek Spaceflight Chronology describes this first interstellar liner as a Declaration-class ship launched in 2123 and its length is given as 300 metres, and it has a capacity of 100 crew and 850 passengers. The Star Trek Maps by New Eye Photography Editors, also published in 1979, the Making of Star Trek, The Motion Picture, published in 1980, describes the ship as the very first starship U. S. S. A painting of this ship hangs on the wall of Earths 602 Club in flashbacks from the Star Trek, registry, Enterprise Class, NXService, 2151–2161 Captain, Jonathan Archer, alternate timeline - TPol United Earth Starfleets Enterprise is the main setting of Star Trek, Enterprise. Enterprise was the first human-built starship capable of reaching warp 5 and she was commanded by Captain Jonathan Archer and played an instrumental role in the founding of several proto-Federation alliances. Enterprise had significant engagements with the Klingons, Suliban, and Xindi, three ships named USS Enterprise are featured in the original Star Trek television series and the first through seventh Star Trek films. Registry, USS Enterprise Class, Constitution class refit starship Service, 2286–2293 Captain, Kirk This ship first appears at the conclusion of Star Trek IV, The Voyage Home and is the main setting in the subsequent Star Trek movies which use the original crew. The ship is ordered decommissioned at the end of Star Trek VI, paperwork included with the model kit indicated the ship was mothballed at the Memory Alpha ship museum
15.
Klingon language
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The Klingon language is the constructed language spoken by the fictional Klingons in the Star Trek universe. Described in the 1985 book The Klingon Dictionary by Marc Okrand and deliberately designed to sound alien, the languages basic sound, along with a few words, was first devised by actor James Doohan and producer Jon Povill for Star Trek, The Motion Picture. That film marked the first time the language had been heard on screen, in all previous appearances, Klingons spoke in English. Klingon was subsequently developed by Okrand into a full-fledged language, fords 1984 Star Trek novel The Final Reflection, and appears in other Star Trek novels by Ford. A shorthand version of what had previously been termed Klingonaase, and later adopted under the name by tlhIngan Hol itself, is called battle language. The Klingon Christmas Carol play is the first production that is primarily in Klingon, the opera ’u’ is entirely in Klingon. A small number of people are capable of conversing in Klingon and its vocabulary, heavily centered on Star Trek-Klingon concepts such as spacecraft or warfare, can sometimes make it cumbersome for everyday use. Although mentioned in the original Star Trek series episode The Trouble with Tribbles, the Klingon language first appeared on-screen in Star Trek, The Motion Picture. According to the actor who spoke the lines, Mark Lenard, James Doohan recorded the lines he had written on a tape, Okrand enlarged the lexicon and developed a grammar based on Doohans original dozen words. The language appeared intermittently in later films featuring the original cast, Two non-canon dialects of Klingon are hinted at in the novelization of Star Trek III, The Search for Spock, as Saavik speaks in Klingon to the only Klingon officer aboard Cpt. Kruges starship after his death, as the survivors of the Enterprises self-destruction transport up from the crumbling Genesis Planet to the Klingon ship. The surviving officer, Maltz, states that he speaks the Rumaiy dialect, while Saavik is speaking to him in the Kumburan dialect of Klingon, per Maltzs spoken reply to her. A small number of characters were later depicted in Star Trek as having learned to speak Klingon, notably Jean-Luc Picard. Worf would later reappear among the characters in Star Trek, Deep Space Nine and BElanna Torres. The pilot episode of the prequel series Star Trek, Enterprise, Broken Bow, however, Klingon as described on television is often not entirely congruous with the Klingon developed by Okrand. Hobbyists around the world have studied the Klingon language, four Klingon translations of works of world literature have been published, ghIlghameS, Hamlet, paghmo’ tIn mIS and pIn’a’ qan paQDI’norgh. In the bonus material on the DVD, screenwriter Nicholas Meyer, the Klingon Language Institute exists to promote the language. CBS Television Studios owns the copyright on the dictionary and other canonical descriptions of the language
16.
Vulcan (Star Trek)
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Vulcans are a fictional extraterrestrial humanoid species in the Star Trek franchise who originate from the planet Vulcan. In the various Star Trek television series and movies, they are noted for their attempt to live by logic and they were the first extraterrestrial species in the Star Trek universe to observe first contact protocol with humans. Vulcans are depicted as similar in appearance to humans, the main physical differences are their eyebrows and ears, the former are arched and upswept, while the latter feature pinnae that taper to a point at the top. The ears have been the subject of jokes on many occasions, Vulcans have been portrayed as various races. Most caucasoid-like Vulcans typically appear with a greenish hue to their skin, due to Vulcans copper-based blood. Other features described include an inner eyelid, or nictitating membrane, which protects their vision from bright lights, Vulcans are vegetarians by choice and were omnivores in ages past. Vulcans are repeatedly stated to be herbivorous in the TAS episode The Slaver Weapon, Vulcans do not like to touch their food with their hands, preferring to use utensils whenever possible. It is a Vulcan custom for guests in the home to prepare meals for their hosts, Vulcans are said to not drink alcohol, though they are depicted indulging on special occasions or as a storyline warrants. In the Star Trek, Voyager episode Repression, humans and Vulcans are shown drinking a Vulcan alcoholic drink called Vulcan Brandy, in Star Trek, First Contact, when the Vulcans first meet Zefram Cochrane, Cochrane serves them alcoholic beverages, which they take in lieu of dancing. In non-canon Trek-related literature, such as the novelization of Star Trek IV, The Voyage Home, There are references to Vulcans becoming inebriated by ingesting chocolate. The novelization of Star Trek IV, The Voyage Home also shows Spock reacting almost as if drunk to the ingestion of sucrose, or common table sugar and he tells Kirk that it has the same effect on Vulcans as alcohol does on humans. Once triggered, a Vulcan must have intercourse with someone. If this is not possible, meditation may be used to stabilize their chemical imbalances and help them cope, in the event that neither of these solutions can be achieved, the Vulcan will face insanity, loss of self-control, and death. If a mate is not available, there are ways to relieve the effects of the pon farr. The first is meditation, by means of which the Vulcan must overcome the urge to mate through mental discipline and this is seen in the Voyager episode Blood Fever, when BElanna Torres and Ensign Vorik fight in the traditional Vulcan manner. The violence ends the pon farr, the other option is extreme shock, in the TOS episode Amok Time, Spock believed he had killed James T. Kirk, his best friend, thus providing sufficient shock to nullify the effects of pon farr. When he experienced pon farr, Tuvok of the USS Voyager made use of a simulation of a temporary mate that resembled his wife. Infection is another mechanism writers have used to induce pon farr in Vulcan characters, likewise in the film Star Trek III, The Search for Spock, the regenerated adolescent Spock went through at least two pon farr episodes at accelerated speed
17.
Normandy landings
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The Normandy landings were the landing operations on Tuesday,6 June 1944 of the Allied invasion of Normandy in Operation Overlord during World War II. The largest seaborne invasion in history, the operation began the liberation of German-occupied northwestern Europe from Nazi control, planning for the operation began in 1943. Adolf Hitler placed German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in command of German forces, the amphibious landings were preceded by extensive aerial and naval bombardment and an airborne assault—the landing of 24,000 American, British, and Canadian airborne troops shortly after midnight. Allied infantry and armoured divisions began landing on the coast of France at 06,30, the target 50-mile stretch of the Normandy coast was divided into five sectors, Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno, and Sword. Strong winds blew the landing craft east of their positions, particularly at Utah. Casualties were heaviest at Omaha, with its high cliffs, at Gold, Juno, and Sword, several fortified towns were cleared in house-to-house fighting, and two major gun emplacements at Gold were disabled, using specialised tanks. The Allies failed to any of their goals on the first day. Carentan, St. Lô, and Bayeux remained in German hands, and Caen, German casualties on D-Day have been estimated at 4,000 to 9,000 men. Allied casualties were at least 10,000, with 4,414 confirmed dead, museums, memorials, and war cemeteries in the area now host many visitors each year. Between 27 May and 4 June 1940, over 338,000 troops of the British Expeditionary Force, after the German Army invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin began pressing his allies for the creation of a second front in western Europe. In late May 1942 the Soviet Union and the United States made a joint announcement that a. full understanding was reached with regard to the urgent tasks of creating a front in Europe in 1942. Instead of a return to France, the Western Allies staged offensives in the Mediterranean Theatre of Operations. By mid-1943 the campaign in North Africa had been won, the Allies then launched the invasion of Sicily in July 1943, and subsequently invaded Italy in September the same year. By then, Soviet forces were on the offensive and had won a victory at the Battle of Stalingrad. The decision to undertake a cross-channel invasion within the year was taken at the Trident Conference in Washington in May 1943. Initial planning was constrained by the number of landing craft, most of which were already committed in the Mediterranean. At the Tehran Conference in November 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill promised Stalin that they would open the second front in May 1944. Four sites were considered for the landings, Brittany, the Cotentin Peninsula, Normandy, as Brittany and Cotentin are peninsulas, it would have been possible for the Germans to cut off the Allied advance at a relatively narrow isthmus, so these sites were rejected
18.
Star Trek: The Original Series
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Star Trek is an American science fiction television series created by Gene Roddenberry that follows the adventures of the starship USS Enterprise and its crew. It later acquired the retronym of Star Trek, The Original Series to distinguish the show within the franchise that it began. The show is set in the Milky Way galaxy, roughly during the 2260s, the ship and crew are led by Captain James T. Kirk, first officer and science officer Spock, and chief medical officer Leonard McCoy. Shatners voice-over introduction during each episodes opening credits stated the purpose, Space. These are the voyages of the starship Enterprise and its five-year mission, to explore strange new worlds, to seek out new life and new civilizations, to boldly go where no man has gone before. The series was produced from September 1966 to December 1967 by Norway Productions and Desilu Productions, Star Trek aired on NBC from September 8,1966 to June 3,1969 and was actually seen first on September 6,1966, on Canadas CTV network. Star Treks Nielsen ratings while on NBC were low, and the network cancelled it after three seasons and 79 episodes. Several years later, the became a bona fide hit in broadcast syndication, remaining so throughout the 1970s, achieving cult classic status. The series contains significant elements of Space Western, as described by Gene Roddenberry, on March 11,1964, Gene Roddenberry, a long-time fan of science fiction, drafted a short treatment for a science-fiction television series that he called Star Trek. This was to be set on board a large interstellar spaceship S. S. Yorktown in the 23rd century, whose crew was dedicated to exploring a small portion of our galaxy. Some of the influences on his idea that Roddenberry noted included A. E. van Vogts tales of the spaceship Space Beagle, Eric Frank Russells Marathon series of stories, and the film Forbidden Planet. Roddenberry also drew heavily from C. S. Foresters Horatio Hornblower novels that depict a sea captain who exercises broad discretionary authority on distant sea missions of noble purpose. Roddenberry often humorously referred to Captain Kirk as Horatio Hornblower in Space, Roddenberry had extensive experience in writing for series about the Old West that had been popular television fare earlier in the 1960s and the 1950s. Armed with this background, the first draft deliberately characterizes the new show as Wagon Train to the stars. Like the familiar Wagon Train, each episode was to be an adventure story, set within the overarching structure of a continuing journey. With the notable exception of Star Trek, Deep Space Nine, all future television, in Roddenberrys original concept, the protagonist was Captain Robert April of the starship S. S. Yorktown. This character was developed into Captain Christopher Pike, first portrayed by Jeffrey Hunter, in April 1964, Roddenberry presented the Star Trek draft to Desilu Productions, a leading independent television production company. He met with Herb Solow, Desilus Director of Production, Solow saw promise in the idea and signed a three-year program-development contract with Roddenberry
19.
Star Trek: The Animated Series
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Star Trek, The Animated Series is a 1973 animated science fiction television series set in the Star Trek universe following the events of Star Trek, The Original Series of the 1960s. The animated series was aired under the name Star Trek, the series was critically acclaimed and was the first Star Trek series to win an Emmy Award when its second season won the 1975 Emmy for Outstanding Entertainment - Childrens Series. The series featured most of the original cast voicing their characters, except for Pavel Chekov and he was replaced by two animated characters who made semi-regular appearances, Lieutenant Arex, whose Edosian species had three arms and three legs, and Lt. MRess, a female Caitian. Besides performing their characters Montgomery Scott and Christine Chapel, James Doohan and Majel Barrett also performed the voices of Arex and MRess, initially, Filmation was only going to use the voices of William Shatner, Leonard Nimoy, DeForest Kelley, Doohan, and Barrett. Doohan and Barrett would also perform the voices of Sulu and Uhura, Nimoy also took this stand as a matter of principle, as he knew of the financial troubles many of his Star Trek co-stars were facing after cancellation of the series. Koenig was not forgotten, and later wrote an episode for the series, koenig wrote The Infinite Vulcan, which had plot elements from the original Star Trek episode Space Seed blended into it. As is usual with animation projects, the actors did not perform together. For example, William Shatner, who was touring in a play at the time, other occasional guest voice actors were also used, including Ed Bishop who voiced the Megan Prosecutor in The Magicks of Megas-tu, and Ted Knight who voiced Carter Winston in The Survivor. Nichelle Nichols also performed character voices in addition to Uhura in several episodes, including The Time Trap. Similar to most animated series of the era, the 22 episodes of TAS were spread out over two seasons, with copious reruns of each episode. The director of the first season was Hal Sutherland and Bill Reed directed the 6 episodes of season two, all of this series episodes were novelized by Alan Dean Foster and released in ten volumes under the Star Trek Logs banner. Initially, Foster adapted three episodes per book, but later saw the half-hour scripts expanded into full, novel-length stories. Star Trek, The Animated Series was the only Star Trek series not to be produced with a cold open, instead starting directly with the title credits sequence. However, some versions of the original live action series. The series writing benefited from a Writers Guild of America, East strike in 1973, here Cyrano Jones is rescued from the Klingons, bringing with him a genetically altered breed of tribbles which do not reproduce but do grow extremely large. The Klingons, because of their hatred of tribbles, are eager to get Jones back because he stole a creature they created and this is the only animated Trek episode written by original series and later Next Generation writer D. C. This was the first actual appearance of Spocks pet sehlat, first mentioned in Journey to Babel, elements of Spocks childhood from Yesteryear are also referenced in the Star Trek, The Next Generation episode Unification as well as the 2009 Star Trek feature film. Larry Nivens The Slaver Weapon, adapted from his own short story The Soft Weapon and it includes some elements from his Known Space mythos such as the Kzinti and the Slavers
20.
Science-fiction convention
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Science fiction conventions are gatherings of fans of the speculative fiction genre, science fiction. Historically, science fiction conventions had focused primarily on literature, but the purview of many extends to such other avenues of expression as movies, television, comics, animation, the precise time and place of the first science fiction convention is a matter of some dispute. Sometime in 1936, a group of British fans made plans to have an organized gathering and they subsequently declared that event to be the first science fiction convention. This small get-together set the stage for an event held in New York, in February,1937. Attendees at this event included James Blish, Charles D. Hornig, Julius Schwartz and it was at this event that a committee was named to arrange the first World Science Fiction Convention in New York in 1939, formalizing planning that had begun at the Third Eastern. On January 3,1937, the British fans held their long-planned event at the Theosophical Hall in Leeds, around twenty fans, including Eric Frank Russell and Arthur C. Nevertheless, by 1939, American fans had organized sufficiently to hold, in conjunction with the 1939 Worlds Fair, subsequent conventions were held in Chicago in 1940 and Denver in 1941. Like many cultural events, it was suspended during World War II, Conventions resumed in 1946 with the hosting of the World Science Fiction Convention in Los Angeles, California. At these conventions, fans of science fiction together with the professional writers, artists. Some cities have a number of science fiction conventions, as well as a number of special interest conventions for anime, media, some conventions move from city to city, serving a particular country, region, or special interest. Nearly every weekend of the now has at least one convention somewhere. Worldcon, or more formally The World Science Fiction Convention, is a science fiction convention that has held each year since 1939. These members of WSFS vote both to select the site of the Worldcon two years in advance and to select the winners of the Hugo Awards, which are presented at the convention. The rules for selection are deliberately drafted to ensure the convention occurs in a different city each year. Fantasy is usually considered alongside science fiction at conventions, Conventions that are nominally science fiction conventions such as Worldcon, are also fantasy conventions in all but name. World Fantasy Convention was begun in 1975, and has since held on an annual basis. The World Fantasy Convention, however, is oriented toward the fan community. Many of those who attend World Fantasy also attend Worldcon, the World Horror Convention is an annual gathering of professionals of the World Horror Society and other interested parties
21.
Bangor, County Down
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Bangor is a large town in County Down, Northern Ireland. It is a resort on the southern side of Belfast Lough. In 2007 the town was voted by UTV viewers as the most desirable place to live in Northern Ireland. It functions as a town for the Greater Belfast area, which it is linked to by the A2 road. Bangor is situated 13.6 miles east from the heart of Belfast, Bangor is part of the North Down area. The largest plot of land in the area, the Clandeboye Estate. Bangor hosts the Royal Ulster and Ballyholme Yacht clubs, Bangor Marina is one of the largest in both Northern Ireland and Republic of Ireland, and holds Blue Flag status. The town is twinned with Bregenz in Austria and Virginia Beach in the United States, the town was originally called Inver Beg after the stream which ran past the abbey. The name Bangor is derived from the Irish word Beannchor meaning a horned or peaked curve or perhaps a staked enclosure and it may also be linked to Beanna, the Irish for cliffs. The area was known as The Vale of Angels, as Saint Patrick once rested there and is said to have had a vision filled with angels. The shield is emblazoned with two ships, which feature the Red Hand of Ulster on their sails, denoting that Bangor is in the province of Ulster, the blue and white stripes on the shield show that Bangor is a seaside town. Supporting the shield are two sharks, signifying Bangors links with the sea, each is charged with a gold roundle, the left featuring a shamrock to represent Ireland, and the right featuring a bulls head, possibly in reference to the derivation of the towns name. The arms are crested by a haloed St Comgall, founder of the towns abbey, the motto reads Beannchor, the archaic form of the towns name in Irish. The town has prospered as an important port, a centre of production. Today it is a retail centre and a commuter town for Belfast. The monastery had such influence that the town is one of only four places in Ireland to be named in the Hereford Mappa Mundi in 1300. Saint Malachy was elected Abbot of the monastery in 1123, a year before being consecrated Bishop of Connor, Bangors founder, Comgall, was born in Antrim in 517. Originally a soldier, he took monastic vows and was educated for his new life
22.
Northern Ireland
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Northern Ireland is a constituent unit of the United Kingdom in the north-east of Ireland. It is variously described as a country, province, region, or part of the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland shares a border to the south and west with the Republic of Ireland. In 2011, its population was 1,810,863, constituting about 30% of the total population. Northern Ireland was created in 1921, when Ireland was partitioned between Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland by an act of the British parliament, Northern Ireland has historically been the most industrialised region of Ireland. After declining as a result of the political and social turmoil of the Troubles, its economy has grown significantly since the late 1990s. Unemployment in Northern Ireland peaked at 17. 2% in 1986, dropping to 6. 1% for June–August 2014,58. 2% of those unemployed had been unemployed for over a year. Prominent artists and sports persons from Northern Ireland include Van Morrison, Rory McIlroy, Joey Dunlop, Wayne McCullough, some people from Northern Ireland prefer to identify as Irish while others prefer to identify as British. Cultural links between Northern Ireland, the rest of Ireland, and the rest of the UK are complex, in many sports, the island of Ireland fields a single team, a notable exception being association football. Northern Ireland competes separately at the Commonwealth Games, and people from Northern Ireland may compete for either Great Britain or Ireland at the Olympic Games. The region that is now Northern Ireland was the bedrock of the Irish war of resistance against English programmes of colonialism in the late 16th century, the English-controlled Kingdom of Ireland had been declared by the English king Henry VIII in 1542, but Irish resistance made English control fragmentary. Victories by English forces in war and further Protestant victories in the Williamite War in Ireland toward the close of the 17th century solidified Anglican rule in Ireland. In Northern Ireland, the victories of the Siege of Derry and their intention was to materially disadvantage the Catholic community and, to a lesser extent, the Presbyterian community. In the context of open institutional discrimination, the 18th century saw secret, militant societies develop in communities in the region and act on sectarian tensions in violent attacks. Following this, in an attempt to quell sectarianism and force the removal of discriminatory laws, the new state, formed in 1801, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, was governed from a single government and parliament based in London. Between 1717 and 1775 some 250,000 people from Ulster emigrated to the British North American colonies and it is estimated that there are more than 27 million Scotch-Irish Americans now living in the US. By the close of the century, autonomy for Ireland within the United Kingdom, in 1912, after decades of obstruction from the House of Lords, Home Rule became a near-certainty. A clash between the House of Commons and House of Lords over a controversial budget produced the Parliament Act 1911, which enabled the veto of the Lords to be overturned. The House of Lords veto had been the unionists main guarantee that Home Rule would not be enacted, in 1914, they smuggled thousands of rifles and rounds of ammunition from Imperial Germany for use by the Ulster Volunteers, a paramilitary organisation opposed to the implementation of Home Rule
23.
Homemaking
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Homemaking is a mainly American term for the management of a home, otherwise known as housework, housekeeping, or household management. It is the act of overseeing the organizational, day-to-day operations of a house or estate, and the managing of other domestic concerns. A person in charge of the homemaking, who isnt employed outside the home, is in the U. S. and Canada often called a homemaker, a gender-neutral term for a housewife or a househusband. The term homemaker, however, may refer to a social worker who manages a household during the incapacity of the housewife or househusband. Housework is not always a lifetime commitment, many, for economic or personal reasons, in previous decades, there were many mandatory courses for the young to learn the skills of homemaking. In high school, courses included cooking, nutrition, home economics, family and consumer science and this last one may underlie the tradition that a homemaker is portrayed wearing an apron. More recently, most of these courses have been abolished, and many youths in school and college would be more likely to study child development. The reason for this is that mechanical invention has been applied extensively to different tasks of the home, inventors have developed mechanical labor-saving devices not only for the shop and office, but also for the home. There are, on the market, thousands of tools, devices. It only remains for the homemaker to choose between them, another reason for the great supply and demand for household labor savers in the industrial world is that the homemaker has to face the increasingly complex problem of scarce domestic help. With cheap labor, the need for the mechanical replacers of labor, or mechanical servants, will not be felt, however. It is to class of homemakers who are actively concerned in domestic work that the labor-saver. The homemakers time and effort are worth conserving by every means, homemakers should, therefore, be eager to buy and use all the household tools that will save their strength and time and liberate them from household drudgery. While some homemakers are handy with tools, the remains that most homemakers are unfamiliar with the different principles involved in mechanical tools. The homemaker, however, is called to have knowledge of the principles of applied mechanics, courses in school physics unfortunately leave a student with little practical knowledge that can be applied to domestic equipment. The gaining of knowledge concerning domestic tools may lead the homemaker to purchase good quality equipment, housekeeping by the homemaker is the care and control of property, ensuring its maintenance and proper use and appearance. A home is a place of residence, in a private home a maid or housekeeper might be employed to do some of the housekeeping. Housework is work done by the act of housekeeping, Some housekeeping is housecleaning and some housekeeping is home chores
24.
Belfast
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Belfast is the capital and largest city of Northern Ireland, the second largest on the island of Ireland, and the heart of the tenth largest Primary Urban Area in the United Kingdom. On the River Lagan, it had a population of 286,000 at the 2011 census and 333,871 after the 2015 council reform, Belfast was granted city status in 1888. Belfast played a key role in the Industrial Revolution, and was an industrial centre until the latter half of the 20th century. It has sustained a major aerospace and missiles industry since the mid 1930s, industrialisation and the inward migration it brought made Belfast Irelands biggest city at the beginning of the 20th century. Today, Belfast remains a centre for industry, as well as the arts, higher education, business, and law, additionally, Belfast city centre has undergone considerable expansion and regeneration in recent years, notably around Victoria Square. Belfast is served by two airports, George Best Belfast City Airport in the city, and Belfast International Airport 15 miles west of the city. Although the county borough of Belfast was created when it was granted city status by Queen Victoria in 1888, the site of Belfast has been occupied since the Bronze Age. The Giants Ring, a 5, 000-year-old henge, is located near the city, Belfast remained a small settlement of little importance during the Middle Ages. The ONeill clan had a presence in the area, in the 14th century, Cloinne Aodha Buidhe, descendants of Aodh Buidhe ONeill built Grey Castle at Castlereagh, now in the east of the city. Conn ONeill of the Clannaboy ONeills owned vast lands in the area and was the last inhabitant of Grey Castle, evidence of this period of Belfasts growth can still be seen in the oldest areas of the city, known as the Entries. Belfast blossomed as a commercial and industrial centre in the 18th and 19th centuries, industries thrived, including linen, rope-making, tobacco, heavy engineering and shipbuilding, and at the end of the 19th century, Belfast briefly overtook Dublin as the largest city in Ireland. The Harland and Wolff shipyards became one of the largest shipbuilders in the world, in 1886 the city suffered intense riots over the issue of home rule, which had divided the city. In 1920–22, Belfast became the capital of the new entity of Northern Ireland as the island of Ireland was partitioned, the accompanying conflict cost up to 500 lives in Belfast, the bloodiest sectarian strife in the city until the Troubles of the late 1960s onwards. Belfast was heavily bombed during World War II, in one raid, in 1941, German bombers killed around one thousand people and left tens of thousands homeless. Apart from London, this was the greatest loss of life in a raid during the Blitz. Belfast has been the capital of Northern Ireland since its establishment in 1921 following the Government of Ireland Act 1920 and it had been the scene of various episodes of sectarian conflict between its Catholic and Protestant populations. These opposing groups in conflict are now often termed republican and loyalist respectively. The most recent example of conflict was known as the Troubles – a civil conflict that raged from around 1969 to 1998
25.
Pharmacist
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Pharmacists, also known as chemists or druggists, are healthcare professionals who practice in pharmacy, the field of health sciences focusing on safe and effective medication use. A pharmacist is a member of the care team directly involved with patient care. This is mated to anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology, Pharmacists interpret and communicate this specialized knowledge to patients, physicians, and other health care providers. Among other licensing requirements, different countries require pharmacists to hold either a Bachelor of Pharmacy, Master of Pharmacy, in most countries, the profession is subject to professional regulation. Depending on the scope of practice, pharmacists may contribute to prescribing and administering certain medications in some jurisdictions. Pharmacists may also practice in a variety of settings, including industry, wholesaling, research, academia, military. Historically, the role of pharmacists as a healthcare practitioner was to check. Pharmacists monitor the health and progress of patients to ensure the safe, Pharmacists may practice compounding, however, many medicines are now produced by pharmaceutical companies in a standard dosage and drug delivery form. One of the most important roles that pharmacists are currently taking on is one of pharmaceutical care, Pharmaceutical care involves taking direct responsibility for patients and their disease states, medications, and management of each to improve outcomes. Pharmacists are often the first point-of-contact for patients with health inquiries, thus pharmacists have a significant role in assessing medication management in patients, and in referring patients to physicians. In most countries, pharmacists must obtain a university degree at a school or related institution. In many contexts, students must first complete pre-professional coursework, followed by four years of professional academic studies to obtain a degree in pharmacy. Additional curriculum may cover diagnosis with emphasis on tests, disease state management, therapeutics. On graduation, pharmacists are licensed, either nationally or regionally, some may undergo further specialized training, such as in cardiology or oncology. Specialties include, The Australian Pharmacy Council is the independent accreditation agency for Australian pharmacists and it conducts examinations on behalf of the Pharmacy Board of Australia towards eligibility for registration. The Australian College of Pharmacy provides continuing education programs for pharmacists, wages for pharmacists in Australia appear to have stagnated. The award wages for a pharmacist is $812 a week, Pharmacist graduates are the lowest paid university graduates most years. Most pharmacists do earn above the wage, the average male pharmacist earns $65,000
26.
Veterinary physician
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In many cases, the activities that may be undertaken by a veterinarian are restricted only to those professionals who are registered as a veterinarian. Most veterinary physicians work in clinical settings, treating animals directly, as with other healthcare professionals, veterinarians face ethical decisions about the care of their patients. The word veterinary comes from the Latin veterinae meaning working animals, Veterinarian was first used in print by Thomas Browne in 1646. The first veterinary college was founded in Lyon, France in 1762 by Claude Bourgelat, according to Lupton, after observing the devastation being caused by cattle plague to the French herds, Bourgelat devoted his time to seeking out a remedy. The Odiham Agricultural Society was founded in 1783 in England to promote agriculture and industry, a 1785 Society meeting resolved to promote the study of Farriery upon rational scientific principles. The Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons was established by charter in 1844. Veterinary science came of age in the late 19th century, with contributions from Sir John McFadyean. Veterinarians treat disease, disorder or injury in animals, which includes diagnosis, treatment, the scope of practice, specialty and experience of the individual veterinarian will dictate exactly what interventions they perform, but most will perform surgery. Unlike in human medicine, veterinarians must rely primarily on clinical signs, additionally, there are scenarios where euthanasia is considered due to the constrains of the clients finances. As with human medicine, much work is concerned with prophylactic treatment. Common interventions include vaccination against common illnesses, such as distemper or rabies. This may also involve owner education so as to future medical or behavioral issues. Additionally veterinarians have important roles in health and the prevention of zoonoses. The majority of veterinarians are employed in private practice treating animals, small animal veterinarians typically work in veterinary clinics, veterinary hospitals, or both. Large animal veterinarians often spend time travelling to see their patients at the primary facilities which house them. Other employers include charities treating animals, colleges of medicine, research laboratories, animal food companies. In many countries, the government may also be an employer of veterinarians. State and local governments also employ veterinarians, Veterinarians and their practices may be specialized in certain areas of veterinary medicine
27.
Dentist
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A dentist, also known in the U. S. as a dental surgeon, is a surgeon who specializes in dentistry—the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases and conditions of the oral cavity. The dentists supporting team aids in providing health services. The dental team includes dental assistants, dental hygienists, dental technicians, in China as well as France, the first people to perform dentistry were barbers. They have been categorized into 2 distinct groups, guild of barbers, the first group, the Guild of Barbers, was created to distinguish more educated and qualified dental surgeons from lay barbers. Guild barbers were trained to do complex surgeries, the second group, the lay barbers, were qualified to perform regular hygienic services such as shaving and tooth extraction as well as basic surgery. However, in 1400 France made decrees prohibiting lay barbers from practicing all types of surgery, in Germany as well as France from 1530 to 1575 publications completely devoted to dentistry were being published. Ambrose Pare, often known as the Father of Surgery, published his own work about the proper maintenance, ambrose Pare was a French barber surgeon who performed dental care for multiple French monarchs. He is often credited with having raised the status of barber surgeons, pierre Fauchard of France is often referred to as the father of modern dentistry for being the first to publish a scientific textbook on the techniques and practices of dentistry. Over time, trained dentists immigrated from Europe to the Americas to practice dentistry, newspapers were used at the time to advertise and promote dental services. In America from 1768-1770 the first application of dentistry to verify forensic cases was being pioneered, with the rise of dentists there was also the rise of new methods to improve the quality of dentistry. These new methods included the spinning wheel to rotate a drill, in the 1840s the worlds first dental school and national dental organization were established. Along with the first dental school came the establishment of the Doctor of Dental Surgery degree, in response to the rise in new dentists as well as dentistry techniques, the first dental practice act was established to regulate dentistry. In the United States, the First Dental Practice Act required dentists to pass each specific states medical board exam in order to practice dentistry in particular state. However, because the act was rarely enforced, some dentists did not obey the act. From 1846-1855 new dental techniques were being invented such as the use of anesthesia for surgery. The American Dental Association was established in 1859 after a meeting with 26 dentists, around 1867, the first university associated dental school was established, Harvard Dental School. Lucy Hobbs Taylor was the first woman to earn a dental degree, in the 1880s, tube toothpaste was created which replaced the original forms of powder or liquid toothpaste. New dental boards, such as the National Association of Dental Examiners, were created to establish standards, in 1887 the first dental laboratory was established, dental laborites are used to create dentures and crowns that are specific to each patient
28.
Octane rating
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An octane rating, or octane number, is a standard measure of the performance of an engine or aviation fuel. The higher the number, the more compression the fuel can withstand before detonating. In broad terms, fuels with an octane rating are used in high performance gasoline engines that require higher compression ratios. Gasoline engines rely on ignition of air and fuel compressed together as a mixture, therefore, high compressibility of the fuel matters mainly for gasoline engines. Use of gasoline with lower numbers may lead to the problem of engine knocking. In a normal engine, the air-fuel mixture is triggered to burn rapidly by the spark plug. If it is compressed too much, it will self-ignite before the ignition system sparks and this causes much higher pressures than engine components are designed for, and can cause a knocking or pinging sound. Knocking can cause engine damage if severe. The most typically used engine management systems found in automobiles today have a sensor that monitors if knock is being produced by the fuel being used. In modern computer-controlled engines, the timing will be automatically altered by the engine management system to reduce the knock to an acceptable level. Octanes are a family of hydrocarbon that are components of gasoline. They are colorless liquids that boil around 125 °C, one member of the octane family, isooctane, is used as a reference standard to benchmark the tendency of gasoline or LPG fuels to resist self-ignition. For example, gasoline with the same knocking characteristics as a mixture of 90% iso-octane, a rating of 90 does not mean that the gasoline contains just iso-octane and heptane in these proportions but that it has the same detonation resistance properties. Because some fuels are more knock-resistant than pure iso-octane, the definition has been extended to allow for octane numbers greater than 100, Octane ratings are not indicators of the energy content of fuels. They are only a measure of the tendency to burn in a controlled manner, rather than exploding in an uncontrolled manner. Where the octane number is raised by blending in ethanol, energy content per volume is reduced, Ethanol BTUs can be compared with gasoline BTUs in heat of combustion tables. It is possible for a fuel to have a Research Octane Number more than 100, Racing fuels, avgas, LPG and alcohol fuels such as methanol may have octane ratings of 110 or significantly higher. Typical octane booster gasoline additives include MTBE, ETBE, isooctane and toluene, lead in the form of tetraethyllead was once a common additive, but its use for fuels for road vehicles has been progressively phased-out worldwide, beginning in the 1970s
29.
Gasoline
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Gasoline /ˈɡæsəliːn/, known as petrol /ˈpɛtrəl/ outside North America, is a transparent, petroleum-derived liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the distillation of petroleum. On average, a 42-gallon barrel of oil yields about 19 US gallons of gasoline when processed in an oil refinery. The characteristic of a gasoline blend to resist igniting too early is measured by its octane rating. Gasoline is produced in several grades of octane rating, sometimes, gasoline also contains ethanol as an alternative fuel, for economic or environmental reasons. Gasoline, as used worldwide in the vast number of combustion engines used in transport and industry, has a significant impact on the environment. Gasoline may also enter the environment uncombusted, as liquid and as vapors, from leakage and handling during production, transport and delivery, from tanks, from spills. As an example of efforts to control leakage, many storage tanks are required to have extensive measures in place to detect. Gasoline contains benzene and other known carcinogens, Gasoline inhalation can produce an intense high, however the practice is thought to cause severe organ damage, including mental retardation. The first automotive combustion engines, so-called Otto engines, were developed in the last quarter of the 19th century in Germany, the fuel was a relatively volatile hydrocarbon obtained from coal gas. With a boiling point near 85 °C, it was suited for early carburetors. The development of a spray nozzle carburetor enabled the use of less volatile fuels, further improvements in engine efficiency were attempted at higher compression ratios, but early attempts were blocked by knocking. In the 1920s, antiknock compounds were introduced by Thomas Midgley Jr. and Boyd and this innovation started a cycle of improvements in fuel efficiency that coincided with the large-scale development of oil refining to provide more products in the boiling range of gasoline. In the 1950s oil refineries started to focus on high octane fuels, the 1970s witnessed greater attention to the environmental consequences of burning gasoline. These considerations led to the out of TEL and its replacement by other antiknock compounds. Subsequently, low-sulfur gasoline was introduced, in part to preserve the catalysts in modern exhaust systems, Gasoline is the term that is used in North America to refer to the most popular automobile fuel. The Oxford English Dictionary dates the first use to 1863, when it was spelled gasolene and it was never a trademark, although it may have been derived from older trademarks such as Cazeline and Gazeline. Variant spellings of gasoline had been used to refer to raw petroleum since the 16th century, Petrol is the preferred term in most Commonwealth countries
30.
Head constable
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Head constable was a rank used in some British and British colonial police forces, and is still used in the Indian police. Originally, head constable was the title for the chief officer of a borough police force in England. Throughout the later 19th century and early 20th century, this title was superseded by chief constable in most forces, a few smaller borough forces and the Liverpool City Police retained it until it was finally abolished under the Police Act 1919. However, Winchester City Police appears to have retained the title until 1943, head constable in the Indian police is equivalent to sergeant in police forces in other countries. Head constables wear three chevrons on their sleeps or three bars on their epaulettes. In colonial forces, it was usually a rank held by Europeans only, some colonial forces also had a higher rank of head constable major
31.
Royal Irish Constabulary
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The Royal Irish Constabulary was the armed police force of the United Kingdom in Ireland from the early nineteenth century until 1922. About seventy-five percent of the RIC were Roman Catholic and about twenty-five percent were of various Protestant denominations, the Catholics mainly constables and the Protestants officers. In consequence of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, the RIC was disbanded in 1922 and was replaced by the Garda Síochána in the Irish Free State and the Royal Ulster Constabulary in Northern Ireland. The 1822 Act established a force in each province with chief constables, by 1841 this force numbered over 8,600 men. The original force had been reorganised under The Act of 1836, the discipline was strict and the pay low. The police faced civil unrest among the Irish rural poor, and was involved in bloody confrontations during the period of the Tithe War, other deployments were against organisations like the Ribbonmen, which attacked landlords, their property and stock. This was followed by a period of relative calm, the advent of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, founded in 1858, brought a plan for an armed uprising. Direct action began with the Fenian Rising of 1867, Fenians attacked on the more isolated police barracks and smaller stations. This rebellion was put down with ruthless efficiency, the police had infiltrated the Fenians with informers. The RIC presided over a decline in general crime around the country. The unstable rural unrest of the nineteenth century characterised by secret organisations. Policing generally became a routine of controlling misdemeanours such as moonshine distilling, public drunkenness, minor theft, a Land War broke out in the 1879–82 Depression period, causing some general unrest. In Belfast, with its boom, the working population mushroomed. Much of the increase arose from Catholic migration and there were serious riots in 1857,1864,1872 and 1886. As a result, the small Belfast Town Police civic force was disbanded, likewise in 1870, the RIC took over the duties of the Londonderry Borough Police. About 70% of the force in Belfast declared their support of the strikers and were encouraged by Larkin to carry out their own strike for higher wages. It never came to fruition, however, as dissident policemen were transferred out of Belfast four days before the strike was to begin, barrett and six other constables were dismissed and extra British Army troops were deployed to Belfast. The dock strike ended on 28 August 1907, the RICs existence was, increasingly troubled by the rise of the Home Rule campaign in the early twentieth century period prior to World War I
32.
Royal Canadian Army Cadets
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The Royal Canadian Army Cadets is a Canadian national youth program sponsored by the Canadian Forces and the civilian Army Cadet League of Canada. Under the authority of the National Defence Act the program is administered by the Canadian Forces, the civilian partner provides support in the local community. Many Army Cadet corps receive additional support from affiliated Regular or Reserve Army units, while cadets may wear the badges and accoutrements of their affiliated unit, cadets are civilians, they are not members of the Canadian Forces. Recognized as Canadas oldest youth program, there are approximately 21,000 army cadets in about 450 corps across the country, together with the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets and Royal Canadian Air Cadets, it forms the largest federally funded youth program. Cadets are encouraged to become active, responsible members of their communities, along with the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets and Royal Canadian Air Cadets, the RCAC is part of the Canadian Cadet Organization. The RCAC and the cadet programs is led and financed by the Canadian Forces. Cadets are not members of the Forces, and there is no expectation to join the Canadian Forces. In keeping with Commonwealth custom, the Royal Canadian Army Cadets stand second in the order of precedence, after the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets, people aged 12 to 18 may join the RCAC, free of charge. Uniforms, training manuals, and instruction are provided, a cadet must leave the organization before their 19th birthday. Upon departing, most items issued to them during their time in the program must be returned, some cadet corps conduct a leaving ceremony, to recognize departing cadets. If the senior-ranked cadet is departing he or she will relinquish the position by passing on the drill cane. The organization and rank system of the Canadian Army is used, Cadets are appointed to non-commissioned member ranks and take seniority amongst themselves. A few large school sponsored cadet corps use cadet officer designations from Lieutenant to Lieutenant Colonel a practice that is not officially recognized, Army Cadet Corps are often affiliated to a Reserve or Regular Force army regiment and wear the accoutrements of their affiliated unit. The CIC Branch is specifically trained to deliver the Royal Canadian Sea, Army, and Air Cadet training program, some are former cadets, many have former regular or reserve force service. The Royal Canadian Army Cadet Badge is the emblem of RCAC. It is worn on the sleeve of the cadet uniform. It is also worn as a brass or cloth cap badge in place of a unit badge or for non-affiliated corps. The moto Acer Acerpori is Latin for as the maple, so the sapling, the RCAC shares this aim with the Sea and Air Cadets, however, each focuses on its own parent element
33.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
34.
Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery
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The Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery is the artillery personnel branch of the Canadian Army. Many of the units and batteries of the Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery are older than the Dominion of Canada itself, the first artillery company in Canada was formed in the province of Canada in 1750. Volunteer Canadian artillery batteries existed before 1855 but their history is mostly unknown, seven batteries of artillery were formed after the passage of the Militia Act of 1855 which allowed Canada to retain a paid military force of 5,000 men. One of the pre-1855 volunteer batteries formed in Saint John, New Brunswick, in 1793 was called the “Loyal Company of Artillery” and exists today as the 3rd Field Artillery Regiment, RCA. On 20 October 1871, the first regular Canadian army units were created, a Battery in Kingston, Ontario, and B Battery in Quebec City, Quebec, became gunnery schools and performed garrison duties in their respective towns. They are still today as part of the 1st Regiment. The Royal Canadian Artillery has participated in every conflict in Canadas history. During the war in South Africa, Canada contributed the Brigade Division of the Canadian Field Artillery and it consisted of three batteries, named C, D and E, each of six 12-pounder field guns. Each battery consisted of three sections of two each, and was manned by a core of Permanent Force soldiers, with additional members from the Militia. The militia for C and D batteries came from Ontario and Winnipeg, while E battery had militia from Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. D and E Batteries arrived in Cape Town aboard the SS Laurentian in February 1900, in March and April they took part in an operation in the Kenhardt district, covering 700 miles in six weeks, seeing little action, but much heavy rain. On 29 May, E battery was part of operation under Lieutenant-General Sir Charles Warren. The Boers were eventually driven off, though the battery had one man killed, in his subsequent despatch Warren particularly mentioned E Batterys Major Ogilvie and Captain Mackie. By the end of June E Battery had been split up into sections and was stationed along the Kimberley–Mafeking Railway, three Victoria Crosses were won during the engagement. From the end of May the battery operated with Plumers column in the Zeerust district until November, the Canadian Artillery and the Garrison Artillery were the designations of the Non-Permanent Active Militia as of 1 January 1914. The Canadian Artillery and the Garrison Artillery were collectively redesignated the Royal Canadian Artillery on 3 June 1935, by November 1918, the 1st Canadian Division had expanded to the following artillery units, 1st Brigade, C. F. A. 1st Field Battery 3rd Field Battery 4th Field Battery 2nd Howitzer Battery 2nd Brigade, 17th Field Battery 18th Field Battery 20th Field Battery 23rd Howitzer Battery 6th Brigade, C. F. A. F. A. 31st Field Battery 33rd Field Battery 45th Field Battery 36th Howitzer Battery 10th Brigade, 10th Field Battery 11th Field Battery 12th Field Battery 9th Howitzer Battery 4th Brigade, C. F. A
35.
2nd Canadian Division during World War II
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The 2nd Canadian Division, an infantry division of the Canadian Army, was mobilized for war service on 1 September 1939 at the outset of World War II. On 19 August 1942, with air and naval gunfire support, the Germans were well prepared and, despite being reinforced, the Canadians sustained heavy losses and had to be evacuated, with fewer than half their number returning to the United Kingdom. Following a period of reconstruction and retraining from 1942 to 1944, the 2nd Division saw significant action from 20 July to 21 August in the battles for Caen and Falaise. The division was deactivated shortly after the end of the war, at the start of the Second World War, the Canadian Active Service Force was initially composed of two divisions, the 1st and 2nd Canadian Infantry Divisions, both raised on 1 September 1939. The fighting power of this lay in its constituent infantry brigades. These were in turn composed of three rifle and one machine gun battalion, with divisional artillery and engineer units in support. Its 4th Brigade was composed of regiments from Ontario, the 5th Brigade of regiments from Quebec, the first brigade concentrations took place in May and June 1940, until which time all units had trained in their own garrisons. The 4th Brigade assembled at Camp Borden in Ontario, the 5th at Valcartier Camp in Quebec, the divisional artillery was concentrated at artillery training centres at Camp Petawawa in Ontario, and at Shilo. The 2nd Divisions structure was altered in early 1940, reducing its number of battalions from three to one. As a result, most of the 2nd Divisions units were sent to the United Kingdom in August 1940, the absence of the Mont Royals allowed Odlum to reassign the Calgary Highlanders to the 5th Brigade in September, in an attempt to ethnically mix the brigades of the division. By late December 1940, the 2nd Canadian Division was joined with the 1st to form the Canadian Corps, in 1941, the Toronto Scottish Regiment was transferred from the 1st Division to become the machine-gun battalion of the 2nd Division. Around the same time, the 8th Reconnaissance Regiment was raised from 2nd Division personnel supplemented by reinforcements from Canada, due to equipment shortages, it was often difficult to adequately supply newly arrived divisions in England. When the division was not engaged in coastal-defence duties or unit training, exercise Waterloo, conducted from 14–16 June 1941, was the largest in the United Kingdom to date, with I Canadian Corps counter-attacking an imagined German sea and air landing. Exercise Bumper, held from 29 September to 3 October, was larger still and these exercises tended to concentrate on traffic control, communications, and logistical concerns, and were of little practical value to the infantry. On 23 December 1941, Major General Harry Crerar was appointed as commander, replacing Odlum who had ceased command in November. Meanwhile, on 30 December 1941, the Calgary Highlanders introduced battle drill to the division, as April and May progressed, the exercises intensified, becoming significantly more demanding on the participants. Mounted as a test of whether or not such a landing was feasible, the Dieppe raid was to be undertaken by the 4th and 6th Brigades, with additional naval, air, significant elements of the 5th Brigade were also involved. On 19 August 1942, while British commando units attacked bunker positions on the outskirts of Dieppe, only six percent of the men that landed on Blue Beach returned to Britain
36.
3rd Canadian Division
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The 3rd Canadian Division is a formation of the Canadian Army. It was first created as a formation of the Canadian Corps during the First World War and it was stood down following the war and was later reactivated as the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division during the Second World War. The second iteration served with distinction from 1941 to 1945, taking part in the D-Day landings of 6 June 1944, a duplicate of the 3rd Canadian Division was formed in 1945 to serve on occupation duty in Germany, and was disbanded the following year. In 2013, Land Force Western Area, a military organization in western Canada, was ordered to be redesignated as 3rd Canadian Division. On 6 June 2014, the 3rd Canadian Division adopted the insignia, traditions, from the middle of 1916, the division has been identified by a distinctive French-Grey patch worn on the uniforms of its soldiers. The 3rd Canadian Division was formed in France in December 1915 under the command of Major-General Malcolm Mercer and its members served in France and Flanders until Armistice Day. While with the 3rd Division at Ypres, Mercer became the highest-ranking Canadian officer killed in action during the First World War. On the same day, Brigadier V. A. Williams, commanding the 8th Infantry Brigade, became the highest-ranking Canadian officer captured in the First World War, also at the Battle of Mount Sorrel. Mercer was replaced by Louis Lipsett, who commanded the division until September 1918, shortly before he too was killed in action on 14 October 1918, Major-General Frederick Loomis closed out World War I as the commander. 7th Infantry Brigade, The Royal Canadian Regiment, December 1915 –11 November 1918, Princess Patricias Canadian Light Infantry. 24 December 1915 –11 November 1918, 42nd Battalion Canadian Infantry, December 1915 –11 November 1918, 49th Battalion Canadian Infantry. December 1915 –11 November 1918, 8th Infantry Brigade, 1st Battalion, Canadian Mounted Rifles, CEF. December 1915 –11 November 1918, 2nd Battalion, Canadian Mounted Rifles, December 1915 –11 November 1918, 4th Battalion, Canadian Mounted Rifles, CEF. December 1915 –11 November 1918, 5th Battalion, Canadian Mounted Rifles, December 1915 –11 November 1918. 9th Infantry Brigade, 43rd Battalion Canadian Infantry, January 1916 –11 November 1918, 52nd Battalion Canadian Infantry. January 1916 –11 November 1918, 58th Battalion Canadian Infantry, January 1916 –11 November 1918, 60th Battalion Canadian Infantry. January 1916 –30 April 1917, April 1917 –11 November 1918. 8 January 1916 – May 1917, 123rd Canadian Pioneer Battalion, to the 3rd Canadian Engineer Brigade
37.
Juno Beach
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Juno or Juno Beach was one of five beaches of the Allied invasion of German-occupied France in the Normandy landings on 6 June 1944 during the Second World War. The beach spanned from Courseulles, a village just east of the British beach Gold, to Saint-Aubin-sur-Mer, the beach was defended by two battalions of the German 716th Infantry Division, with elements of the 21st Panzer Division held in reserve near Caen. The invasion plan called for two brigades of the 3rd Canadian Division to land on two beach sectors—Mike and Nan—focusing on Courseulles, Bernières and Saint-Aubin and it was hoped that the preliminary naval and air bombardments would soften up the beach defences and destroy coastal strong points. Close support on the beaches was to be provided by amphibious tanks of the 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade, the 3rd Canadian Divisions D-Day objectives were to capture Carpiquet Airfield and reach the Caen–Bayeux railway line by nightfall. Several assault companies—notably those of the Royal Winnipeg Rifles and The Queens Own Rifles of Canada—took heavy casualties in the minutes of the first wave. Strength of numbers, as well as coordinated fire support from artillery and armoured squadrons, the reserves of the 7th and 8th brigades began deploying at 08,30, while the 9th Brigade began its deployment at 11,40. The subsequent push inland towards Carpiquet and the Caen–Bayeux railway line achieved mixed results, the sheer numbers of men and vehicles on the beaches created lengthy delays between the landing of the 9th Brigade and the beginning of substantive attacks to the south. The 7th Brigade encountered heavy initial opposition before pushing south and making contact with the British 50th Division at Creully, the 8th Brigade encountered heavy resistance from a battalion of the 716th at Tailleville, while the 9th Brigade deployed towards Carpiquet early in the evening. Resistance in Saint-Aubin prevented the Royal Marines from establishing contact with the British 3rd Division on Sword, in 1942, the Western Allies agreed to open a second front in Western Europe to take pressure off the beleaguered Red Army in the Soviet Union. In August 1942 Anglo-Canadian forces attempted an abortive landing—Operation Jubilee—at the French port of Dieppe, the attack was poorly planned and ended in disaster,4,963 soldiers were killed, wounded or captured. Following the Anglo-American victory against Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in North Africa in May 1943, British, American and Canadian troops invaded Sicily in July 1943, by December the Allies progress had slowed facing tenacious German resistance and the difficult geography of the Italian Peninsula. After gaining valuable experience in amphibious assaults and inland fighting, Allied planners returned to the plans to invade Northern France, under the direction of General Dwight D. Eisenhower and Frederick Morgan, plans for the invasion of France coalesced as Operation Overlord. The attack was scheduled for Monday,5 June 1944. Eight further sectors were added when the invasion was extended to include Utah on the Cotentin Peninsula. Sectors were further subdivided into beaches identified by the colours Green, Red, after delays due to both logistical difficulties and poor weather, the D-Day of Overlord, the largest amphibious operation ever, was postponed 24 hours to 6 June 1944. Eisenhower and Montgomery, commander of 21st Army Group, aimed to capture Caen within the first day, and liberate Paris within 90 days. Operation Neptune, the phase of Overlord, called for a five-division front spread across 50 miles of coastline. Eisenhower and General Bernard Montgomery hoped to have eight infantry divisions, the landing zone was divided into five landing areas, with the Americans attacking Utah and Omaha, and the British attacking Gold and Sword
38.
Sniper
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Sniping requires the development of basic infantry skills to a high degree of skill. A snipers training incorporates a variety of subjects designed to increase value as a force multiplier. The art of sniping requires learning and repetitively practicing these skills until mastered, a sniper must be highly trained in long range rifle marksmanship and field craft skills to ensure maximum effective engagements with minimum risk. The verb to snipe originated in the 1770s among soldiers in British India in reference to shooting snipe, the agent noun sniper appears by the 1820s. The term sniper was first attested in 1824 in the sense of the word sharpshooter, a somewhat older term is sharp shooter, a calque of 18th-century German Scharfschütze, in use in British newspapers as early as 1801. According to figures released by the United States Department of Defense, the average number of rounds expended by U. S. military snipers to kill one enemy soldier is 1.3 rounds. According to the United States Army, the soldier will hit a man-sized target 10 percent of the time at 300 meters using the M16A2 rifle. Graduates of the United States Army Sniper School are expected to achieve 90 percent first-round hits at 600 meters, different countries use different military doctrines regarding snipers in military units, settings, and tactics.50 BMG, like the Barrett M82, McMillan Tac-50, and Denel NTW-20. Soviet- and Russian-derived military doctrines include squad-level snipers, snipers have increasingly been demonstrated as useful by US and UK forces in the recent Iraq campaign in a fire support role to cover the movement of infantry, especially in urban areas. Military snipers from the US, UK, and other countries that adopt their military doctrine are typically deployed in two-man sniper teams consisting of a shooter and spotter, a common practice is for a shooter and a spotter to take turns in order to avoid eye fatigue. A sniper team would be armed with its long weapon. Sniper rifles are classified as crew-served, as the term is used in the United States military, a sniper team consists of a combination of one or more shooters with force protection elements and support personnel, such as a spotter or a flanker. Both spotter and flanker carries additional ammunition and associated equipment, the spotter detects, observes, and assigns targets and watches for the results of the shot. Using a spotting scope and/or rangefinder, the spotter will also read the wind by using physical indicators and it is not unusual for the spotter to be equipped with a notepad and a laptop computer specifically for performing these calculations. Law enforcement snipers, commonly called police snipers, and military snipers differ in ways, including their areas of operation. A police sharpshooter is part of an operation and usually takes part in relatively short missions. Police forces typically deploy such sharpshooters in hostage scenarios and this differs from a military sniper, who operates as part of a larger army, engaged in warfare. Sometimes as part of a SWAT team, police snipers are deployed alongside negotiators and an assault team trained for close quarters combat
39.
Anti-tank mine
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An anti-tank mine is a type of land mine designed to damage or destroy vehicles including tanks and armored fighting vehicles. Compared to anti-personnel mines, anti-tank mines typically have a larger explosive charge. While obviously the anti-tank mine as such did not pre-date the deployment of tanks in 1916, for example, during the U. S. Civil War, Confederate forces created pressure-activated anti-railroad mines which destroyed at least two trains. The first anti-tank mines were improvised during the First World War as a measure against the first tanks introduced by the British towards the end of the war. Initially they were nothing more than a high explosive shell or mortar bomb with its fuze upright. Later, purpose built mines were developed, including the Flachmine 17, the Soviet Union began developing mines in the early 1920s, and in 1924 produced its first anti-tank mine, the EZ mine. The mine, which was developed by Yegorov and Zelinskiy, had a 1 kg charge, meanwhile, in Germany, defeat spurred the development of anti-tank mines, with the first truly modern mine, the Tellermine 29, entering service in 1929. It was a disc shaped device approximately 30 cm across filled with about 5 kg of high explosives, a second mine, the Tellermine 35 was developed in 1935. Anti-tank mines were used by both sides during the Spanish Civil War, notably, Republican forces lifted mines placed by Nationalist forces and used them against the Nationalists. This spurred the development of anti-handling devices for anti-tank mines, the Winter War between the Soviet Union and Finland also saw widespread use of anti-tank mines. The German Tellermine was a purpose-built anti-tank mine developed during the period between the first and second world wars, the first model being introduced in 1929. Some variants were of a shape, but in all cases the outer casing served only as container for the explosives and fuze. Tellermine was the prototypical anti-tank mine, with elements of its design emulated in the Pignone P-1, NR25. Because of its high operating pressure, a vehicle would need to pass directly over top of the mine to set it off. But since the tracks represent only about 20% of a tanks width, as a tank passed over the mine, the rod was pushed forward, causing the charge to detonate directly beneath it. The blast often killed the crew and sometimes exploded onboard ammunition, now that tank crews were directly at risk, they were less likely to plow through a minefield. Shaped charge devices like the Hohl-Sprung mine 4672 were also developed by Germany later in the war, the most advanced German anti-tank mine of the war was their minimal metal Topfmine. In contrast to the dinner plate mines such as the German Tellermine were bar mines such as the German Riegel mine 43 and this form of mine was the inspiration for the British L9 bar mine
40.
Bren light machine gun
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The Bren gun, usually called simply the Bren, was a series of light machine guns made by Britain in the 1930s and used in various roles until 1992. Although fitted with a bipod, it could also be mounted on a tripod or vehicle-mounted, the Bren was a licensed version of the Czechoslovak ZGB33 light machine gun, which in turn, was a modified version of ZB vz. 26, which British Army officials had tested during a firearms service competition in the 1930s, the later Bren featured a distinctive top-mounted curved box magazine, conical flash hider, and quick change barrel. The name Bren was derived from Brno, Moravia, the Czechoslovak city where the Zb vz.26 was originally designed, the original and main designer was Václav Holek, a gun inventor and design engineer. In the 1950s many Brens were rebarrelled to accept the 7. 62×51mm NATO cartridge and it was replaced in the British Army as the section LMG by the L7 general-purpose machine gun, a heavier belt-fed weapon. This was, in turn, supplemented in the 1980s by the L86 Light Support Weapon firing the 5. 56×45mm NATO round, the Bren is still manufactured by Indian Ordnance Factories as the Gun, Machine 7. 62mm 1B. At the close of the First World War in 1918, the British Army was equipped with two automatic weapons, the Vickers medium machine gun and the Lewis light machine gun. The Vickers was heavy and required a supply of water to keep it in operation, although the BAR was recommended, the sheer number of Lewis guns available and the difficult financial conditions meant that nothing was done. Various new models of machine gun were tested as they became available, and in 1930. This time the weapons tested included the SIG Neuhausen KE7, the Vickers-Berthier, following these trials, the British Army adopted the Czechoslovak ZB vz.26 light machine gun manufactured in Brno in 1935, although a slightly modified model, the ZB vz. 27, rather than the ZB vz.26 which had submitted for the trials. The design was modified to British requirements under new designation ZGB33, the magazine was curved in order to feed the rimmed.303 British cartridge, a change from the various rimless Mauser-design cartridges such as the 8mm Mauser round previously used by Czech designs. These modifications were categorised in various numbered designations, ZB vz,32, and finally the ZGB33, which was licensed for manufacture under the Bren name. The vented gas drove a piston which in turn actuated the breech block, each gun came with a spare barrel that could be quickly changed when the barrel became hot during sustained fire, though later guns featured a chrome-lined barrel which reduced the need for a spare. To change barrels, the catch in front of the magazine was rotated to unlock the barrel. The carrying handle above the barrel was used to grip and remove the hot barrel without burning the hands, the Bren was magazine-fed, which slowed its rate of fire and required more frequent reloading than British belt-fed machine guns such as the larger.303 Vickers machine gun. The magazines also prevented the ammunition from getting dirty, which was more of a problem with the Vickers with its 250-round canvas belts, the sights were offset to the left, to avoid the magazine on the top of the weapon. The position of the sights meant that the Bren could be fired only from the right shoulder, in the British and Commonwealth armies, the Bren was generally issued on a scale of one per rifle section, with three rifle sections in each platoon
41.
Silver cigarette case
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A cigarette case is a sturdy container used to store small numbers of cigarettes and prevent them from being crushed. A typical cigarette case is a box that opens symmetrically into two halves. Each half stores a row of cigarettes, which are held in place by a spring or an elastic strap. Some cigarette cases are simply sturdy cases used to store standard cigarette packs, in modern times cigarette cases are also made of plastic. Some cigarette cases come with features, such as built-in lighters or ashtrays. A cigarette box, much like a cigar humidor, is a larger item often stored on desktops or coffee tables, made of wood, metal, glass, or ceramic, a cigarette box holds a larger number of cigarettes for use by the homeowner and guests. Typical cigarette tins in the United States of the 1920s–1930s stored 50 cigarettes, because of this, they were sometimes referred to by the nickname flat fifties. Cigarette cases are fashionable accessories within smoking culture, as such, they may be made of precious metals, adorned with artistic engravings, monograms, and jewels. Peter Carl Fabergé, while most famous for his Fabergé eggs, also manufactured exquisite cases of gold and gems for the family of the Tsar, some of which are reportedly worth up to $25,000. At the opening of each of his new Broadway productions, Cole Porters wife, Linda, each was more beautiful than the last, in gold, silver or leather, many studded with gems and generally styled to relate to that shows theme. Cigarette cases are also collectible items, common silver cigarette cases are most often chrome-plated, although there are silver-plated or polished aluminum cases in addition to genuine sterling ones. Cigarette cases used to be popular with soldiers, and many World War I, cigarette cases were a way to avoid the invasive labels. The United States Census Bureau, for the purposes of statistics, includes manufacturing or adorning of cigarette cases in the category NAICS339914 Costume jewelry. Due to the compactness of a case, being just small enough to conveniently fit in a pocket. In some of the James Bond films, Bond is issued gadgets which are concealed in cigarette cases, in the 1987 Disney TV movie Double Agent, the lead character, a spy, carries a cigarette case filled with licorice. In the film Black Swan, Lily uses a cigarette case, in the film Constantine, John Constantine uses a cigarette case. Francisco Scaramanga, the antagonist in the 1974 film The Man with the Golden Gun, assembles his signature weapon the Golden Gun from a lighter, a pen. The Team Fortress 2 spy class is equipped with a disguise kit hidden inside his cigarette case, in Boardwalk Empire the main character Nucky Thompson can often be seen with a cigarette case
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Taylorcraft Auster
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The Taylorcraft Auster was a British military liaison and observation aircraft produced by the Taylorcraft Aeroplanes Limited company during the Second World War. The Auster was a development of an American Taylorcraft design of civilian aircraft. The Model A had to be redesigned in Britain to meet more stringent Civil Aviation standards and was named the Taylorcraft Plus C, the Plus C was re-engined with the Blackburn Cirrus Minor I engine and redesignated the Taylorcraft Plus D. Most of the civil Plus Cs and Ds were impressed into Royal Air Force service, prewar tests identified the Taylorcraft Model D as the most suitable aircraft for the AOP role. Three more Ds were purchased from Taylorcraft and a unit, D Flight, under Major Charles Bazeley RA. The flight did not participate in the fighting and withdrew without loss to the UK, however, the War Office then ordered 100 Stinson L-1 Vigilants. Formation of the RAFs Army Cooperation Command in December 1940 led to the RAF rejecting the notion of light AOP aircraft. Stinson Vigilants eventually arrived in early 1942 but most had been damaged in transit leading to the adoption of the Taylorcraft Auster 1. Some of the Stinsons were resurrected but found to be too big for the AOP role, the Auster II was a re-engined aircraft with an American 130 hp Lycoming O-290 engine. Due to the shortage of American engines that version was not built but led to the Auster III, the next development was the Auster IV which had a slightly larger cabin with three seats and used the Lycoming O-290. The major production version was the Auster V which was an Auster IV with blind flying instruments, further military aircraft were supplied post war, the Auster AOP6, Auster T7, and the Auster AOP9. The Auster Mark III, IV and V were issued to 12 Royal Air Force, one Polish, the first to deploy was No.651 Squadron RAF. The leading elements landed in Algiers on 12 November 1942 with eight aircraft,11 Royal Artillery pilots,39 RA soldiers and 25 airmen. The normal strength of an AOP squadron was 12 aircraft,19 RA officers,83 RA other ranks and 63 RAF including two administrative officers. Aircraft were fitted with the Armys No 22 Wireless, an HF set providing two-way voice communications with artillery units, on 31 March 1943 the Army Cooperation Command was disbanded, most of its assets being used to form the Second Tactical Air Force. Four squadrons fought in North Africa and Italy, being joined from August 1944 by No.663 Polish squadron, the other seven squadrons operated after D-Day in France, the Low Countries and into Germany. No.664 Squadron RCAF, No.665 Squadron RCAF, IV and V, formed in the UK at RAF Andover in late 1944 and early 1945. The three squadrons deployed from RAF Andover, England, to the Netherlands, to Dunkirk, France, where the last Canadian shots in Europe were fired, and later to occupied Germany
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Royal Canadian Air Force
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The Royal Canadian Air Force is the air force of Canada. Its role is to provide the Canadian Forces with relevant, responsive and effective airpower, the RCAF is one of three environmental commands within the unified Canadian Armed Forces. Lieutenant-General Michael J. Hood, CMM CD, is the current Commander of the Royal Canadian Air Force, the RCAF is a partner with the United States Air Force in protecting continental airspace under the North American Aerospace Defense Command. The RCAF also provides all primary air resources to and is responsible for the National Search, the RCAF traces its history to the Canadian Air Force which was formed in 1920. The Canadian Air Force was incorporated in 1923 and granted royal sanction in 1924 by King George V, in 1968 the RCAF was amalgamated with the Royal Canadian Navy, and the Canadian Army, as part of the unification of the Canadian Forces. Air units were split between several different commands, Air Defence Command, Air Transport Command, Mobile Command, Maritime Command, in 1975 some commands were dissolved, and all air units were placed under a new environmental command called simply Air Command. Air Command reverted to its name of the Royal Canadian Air Force in August 2011. The Royal Canadian Air Force has served in the Second World War, the Korean War, as a NATO member, the force maintained a presence in Europe during the second half of the 20th century. The Canadian Air Force was established in 1920 as the successor to a short-lived two-squadron Canadian Air Force formed during the First World War in Europe. John Scott Williams, MC, AFC, was tasked in 1921 with organizing the CAF, the new Canadian Air Force was a branch of the Air Board and was chiefly a training militia that provided refresher training to veteran pilots. Many CAF members also worked with the Air Boards Civil Operations Branch on operations that included forestry, in 1923, the CAF became responsible for all flying operations in Canada, including civil aviation. In 1924, the Canadian Air Force, was granted the royal title, most of its work was civil in nature, however, in the late 1920s the RCAF evolved into more of a military organization. After budget cuts in the early 1930s, the air began to rebuild. By the end of the war, the RCAF had become the fourth largest allied air force, after the war, the RCAF reduced its strength. In 1950, the RCAF became involved with the transport of troops and supplies to the Korean War, however, members of the RCAF served in USAF units as exchange officers and several flew in combat. Both auxiliary and regular air defence squadrons were run by Air Defence Command, at the same time, the Pinetree Line, the Mid-Canada Line and the DEW Line radar stations, largely operated by the RCAF, were built across Canada because of the growing Soviet nuclear threat. In 1957, Canada and the United States created the joint North American Air Defense Command, coastal defence and peacekeeping also became priorities during the 1950s and 1960s. In 1968 the Royal Canadian Navy, Royal Canadian Air Force and this initiative was overseen by then Liberal Defence Minister, Paul Hellyer
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Salisbury Plain
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Salisbury Plain is a chalk plateau in central southern England covering 300 square miles. It is part of a system of chalk downlands throughout eastern and southern England formed by the rocks of the Chalk Group and largely lies within the county of Wiltshire, the plain is famous for its rich archaeology, including Stonehenge, one of Englands best known landmarks. Additionally the plain has arable land, and a few areas of beech trees. Its highest point is Easton Hill, the boundaries of Salisbury Plain have never been truly defined, and there is some difference of opinion as to its exact area. The river valleys surrounding it, and other downs and plains beyond them loosely define its boundaries, to the north the scarp of the downs overlooks the Vale of Pewsey, and to the north west the Bristol Avon. The River Wylye runs along the south west, and the Bourne runs to the east, the Hampshire Avon runs through the eastern half of the plain and to the south the plain peters out as the river valleys close together before meeting at Salisbury. From here the Avon continues south to the English Channel at Christchurch, the Hampshire Downs and the Berkshire Downs are chalk downland to the east and north of Salisbury Plain, and the Dorset Downs is to the south west. In the west and north west the geology is mainly of the clays and limestones of the Blackmore Vale, the A303 road runs along the southern area of the plain, while the A345 and the A360 cut across the centre. Salisbury Plain is famous for its history and archaeology, in the Neolithic period Stone Age man began to settle on the plain, most likely centred around the causewayed enclosure of Robin Hoods Ball. Large long barrows like White Barrow and other earthworks were built across the plain, by 2500 BC areas around Durrington Walls and Stonehenge had become a focus for building, and the southern part of the plain continued to be settled into the Bronze Age. Roman roads are visible features, probably serving a settlement near Old Sarum, villas are sparse, however, and Anglo-Saxon place names suggest that the plain was mostly a grain-producing imperial estate. In the 6th century Anglo-Saxon incomers built planned settlements in the valleys surrounded by strip lynchets, the cathedral is evidence of the prosperity the wool and cloth trade brought to the area. In the mid-19th century the wool and cloth industry began to decline, leading to a decline in the population and change in use from sheep farming to agriculture. Wiltshire became one of the poorest counties in England during this period of decline, there are a number of chalk carvings on the plain, of which the most famous is the Westbury White Horse. The Kennet and Avon Canal was constructed to the north of the plain, in 1896, George Kemp and Guglielmo Marconi experimented with wireless telegraphy on Salisbury Plain, and achieved good results over a distance of 1.75 miles. Media related to Army Training Estate Salisbury Plain at Wikimedia Commons The military training area covers roughly half of the plain, the army first conducted exercises on the plain in 1898. From that time, the Ministry of Defence bought up large areas of land until the Second World War, the MoD now own 150 square miles of land, making it the largest military training area in the United Kingdom. Of this, around 39 square miles are permanently closed to the public, as of 2016, the largest camps and barracks are at Larkhill, Bulford, Tidworth, Trenchard Lines and Warminster
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RAF Andover
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For both the types of transport aircraft called Andover used by the RAF, see Avro Andover and Hawker Siddeley Andover. For the current use of this site see Marlborough Lines, RAF Andover is a former Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force station located 2 miles west of Andover, Hampshire and 15.1 miles north east of Salisbury, Wiltshire, England. RAF Andover was also used before and after the Second World War for a variety of aeronautical research. The RAF Staff College, Andover was founded here in 1922, the Royal Air Force Association was also founded at RAF Andover RAF Andover saw action during the Second World War. Three squadrons of the Royal Canadian Air Force were formed at RAF Andover, before and during the Battle of Normandy, RAF Andover was used by the United States Army Air Forces Ninth Air Force as an operational tactical fighter airfield. It was also known as USAAF Station 406, Pundit Code AV, the code AV was broadcast in morse code by a mobile red light beacon at night, during the latter part of the Second World War. The Pundit Code was also painted on the airfield hangar nearest to the control tower, the site was redeveloped, and part of it has since become Marlborough Lines home to the Army Headquarters of the British Army. The Andover sections of these Roman roads in Britain were constructed by the Legio II Augusta Roman Legion, the Royal Flying Corps opened a station near Andover in August 1917 during the First World War. The station was built by German prisoners of war, some of whom left their signatures in roof spaces of buildings on the station. It is close to the Armed Forces Chaplaincy Centre at Amport House, plans for an RFC Training Depot Station on the airfield site had originally been made in 1912. The station motto was Vis et armis consilioque orta and this is appropriate as the station was built as a Training Depot for aircrews, who had completed basic flying training, to learn to fly the Handley Page Type O and Airco D. H.9 bombers. The first unit to occupy the station was No.2 School of Navigation and this unit took up residence while the station was still under construction. Also, from 24 December 1917 to 6 June 1918 Andover was host to a detachment of the 13th Aero Squadron of the Aviation Section, U. S. Signal Corps. In early 1918 experiments were conducted with Handley Page Type O bombers, based at Andover and Cranwell and this was the first attempt to develop a viable long-range electronic navigation system, of a kind that is today used routinely worldwide. Between the wars, the airfield housed a number of RAF units, including from 1919 the RAF School of Navigation, as No.2 School of Navigation and Bomb Dropping was retitled. The RAF Staff College was founded here on 1 April 1922, to staff training to selected officers. Also, the Royal Air Force Association was formed in 1929, RAF Andover continued to be used for a variety of aeronautical research and flight testing. As part of this, several military aircraft made their first flights from the airfield
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