1.
Mercat cross
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It therefore served a secular purpose as a symbol of authority, and was an indication of a burghs relative prosperity. Historical documents often refer simply to the cross of whichever town or village is mentioned, today, there are around 126 known examples of extant crosses in Scotland, though the number rises if later imitations are added. The earliest documentary reference occurs in the reign of William the Lion and they are thought to have been originally pillars of wood, possibly placed on stone bases, changing to stone pillars in later centuries. Some, as at Inverkeithing, incorporate sundials, the cross was the place around which market stalls would be arranged, and where merchants would gather to discuss business. It was also the spot where state and civic proclamations would be read by the bellman. For example, in 1682 a town guild in Stirling was accorded the privilege of making a proclamation, to this day, royal proclamations are still ceremonially read in public at the Mercat Cross in Edinburgh, including the calling of a general election and succession of a new monarch. The cross was also the focal point of public events such as civic ceremonials, official rejoicings. Some crosses still incorporate the iron staples to which jougs and branks were once attached, communal gatherings still take place at crosses, as at Galashiels on Braw Lads Day or Peebles at the start of the Beltane Festival. Crosses are often the place to mark the start or end of Common Ridings as at Musselburgh or events such as the Stonehaven fireball ceremony. Despite the name, the typical mercat cross is not usually cruciform, another finial commonly seen is a stone ball as at Clackmannan and Newton Stewart. The shaft is usually surmounted by a plain or decorated capital, a variety of decorative designs are employed, including foliage, emblems like thistles and roses, armorial shields, and mouldings of the egg-and-dart type. Five crosses, at Edinburgh, Dundee, Perth, Aberdeen and Preston were supported by a drum-shaped understructure, known as a cross-house, in the case of Aberdeens late 17th-century cross the platform is supported by a series of open semi-circular arcades. The Preston Cross, built in the early 17th century, is the one of the type still existing on its original site. This traditional design has been replicated approximately with added Scots baronial elements in Victorian reconstructions at Edinburgh, most crosses, however, stand on stepped, often octagonal stone bases and are of an average height of between 9 and 13 feet. In some cases, as at Musselburgh and Kirkcudbright, the pillar is secured within or stands upon a stone structure. A war memorial may incorporate a part of the cross, as at Renfrew or Bowden, or have been built deliberately in the style of a mercat cross, as at Lauder. The war memorials at Abernethy, North Berwick and Portree also closely resemble mercat crosses and are known as such, the last, of course, lies geographically well outside the historic area of Scottish Lowland burghs. Another example of what might be termed a cross is the war memorial at Dalmeny
2.
St Giles' Cathedral
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St Giles Cathedral, also known as the High Kirk of Edinburgh, is the principal place of worship of the Church of Scotland in Edinburgh. Its distinctive crown steeple is a prominent feature of the city skyline, the church has been one of Edinburghs religious focal points for approximately 900 years. The present church dates from the late 14th century, though it was restored in the 19th century. Today it is regarded as the Mother Church of Presbyterianism. The cathedral is dedicated to Saint Giles, who is the saint of Edinburgh, as well as of cripples and lepers. It is the Church of Scotland parish church for part of Edinburghs Old Town, St Giles was only a cathedral in its formal sense for two periods during the 17th century, when episcopalianism, backed by the Crown, briefly gained ascendancy within the Kirk. In the mediaeval period, prior to the Reformation, Edinburgh had no cathedral as it was under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of St Andrews, for most of its post-Reformation history the Church of Scotland has not had bishops, dioceses, or cathedrals. As such, the use of the cathedral today carries no practical meaning. The High Kirk title is older, being attested well before the brief period as a cathedral. The oldest parts of the building are four central pillars, often said to date from 1124. In 1385 the building suffered a fire and was rebuilt in the subsequent years, much of the current interior dates from this period. Over the years many chapels, referred to as aisles, were added, greatly enlarging the church, in 1466 St Giles was established as a collegiate church by Pope Paul II. In response to this raising of status, the tower was added around 1490, and the chancel ceiling raised, vaulted. At the height of the Scottish Reformation the Protestant leader and firebrand John Knox was chosen minister at St Giles by Edinburgh Town Council, a 19th-century stained glass window in the south wall of the church shows him delivering the funeral sermon for the Regent Moray in 1570. A bronze statue of Knox, cast by Pittendrigh MacGillivray in 1904, by about 1580, the church was partitioned into separate preaching halls to suit the style of reformed Presbyterian worship for congregations drawn from the quarters of Edinburgh. The partition walls were removed in 1633 when St Giles became the cathedral for the new see of Edinburgh. Our pleasure is that with all diligence you cause raze to the ground the east wall in the church. The internal partitions were restored in 1639 and, after several re-arrangements, the disturbances led to the National Covenant and hence the Bishops Wars, the first conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, which included the English Civil War
3.
University of St Andrews
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The University of St Andrews is a British public research university in St Andrews, Fife, Scotland. It is the oldest of the four ancient universities of Scotland, St Andrews was founded between 1410 and 1413, when the Avignon Antipope Benedict XIII issued a papal bull to a small founding group of Augustinian clergy. St Andrews is made up from a variety of institutions, including three constituent colleges and 18 academic schools organised into four faculties, the university occupies historic and modern buildings located throughout the town. The academic year is divided into two terms, Martinmas and Candlemas, in term time, over one-third of the towns population is either a staff member or student of the university. It is ranked as the third best university in the United Kingdom in national league tables, the Times Higher Education World Universities Ranking names St Andrews among the worlds Top 50 universities for Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities. St Andrews has the highest student satisfaction amongst all multi-faculty universities in the United Kingdom, St Andrews has many notable alumni and affiliated faculty, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, theologians, philosophers, and politicians. Six Nobel Laureates are among St Andrews alumni and former staff, a charter of privilege was bestowed upon the society of masters and scholars by the Bishop of St Andrews, Henry Wardlaw, on 28 February 1411. Wardlaw then successfully petitioned the Avignon Pope Benedict XIII to grant the university status by issuing a series of papal bulls. King James I of Scotland confirmed the charter of the university in 1432, subsequent kings supported the university with King James V confirming privileges of the university in 1532. A college of theology and arts called St Johns College was founded in 1418 by Robert of Montrose, St Salvators College was established in 1450, by Bishop James Kennedy. St Leonards College was founded in 1511 by Archbishop Alexander Stewart, St Johns College was refounded by Cardinal James Beaton under the name St Marys College in 1538 for the study of divinity and law. Some university buildings that date from this period are still in use today, such as St Salvators Chapel, St Leonards College Chapel, at this time, the majority of the teaching was of a religious nature and was conducted by clerics associated with the cathedral. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the university had mixed fortunes and was beset by civil. He described it as pining in decay and struggling for life, in the second half of the 19th century, pressure was building upon universities to open up higher education to women. In 1876, the University Senate decided to allow women to receive an education at St Andrews at a roughly equal to the Master of Arts degree that men were able to take at the time. The scheme came to be known as the L. L. A and it required women to pass five subjects at an ordinary level and one at honours level and entitled them to hold a degree from the university. In 1889 the Universities Act made it possible to admit women to St Andrews. Agnes Forbes Blackadder became the first woman to graduate from St Andrews on the level as men in October 1894
4.
Clan Graham
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Clan Graham is a Scottish clan who had territories in both the Scottish Highlands and Lowlands. There is a tradition that the first Graham was one Greme who broke the Roman Antonine Wall driving the Roman legions out of Scotland, however the likely origin is that the chiefs of Clan Graham were of Anglo-Norman origin. The Manor of Gregham is recorded in William the Conquerors Domesday Book, when David I claimed the throne of Scotland, Graham was one of the knights who accompanied him. Sir William de Graham was present at the erection of Holyrood Abbey, the first lands that the chiefs of Clan Graham appear to have held were around Dalkeith in Midlothian. Sir Nicholas de Graham attended the Parliament of 1290 where the Treaty of Birgham was signed, the Clan Graham fought at the Battle of Dunbar in 1296 where Sir Patrick Graham of Kincardine was the only man of all the Scots not to retreat and instead fought to the death. Sir John de Graham, was a friend and follower of William Wallace, Sir John de Graham is regarded as hero for rescuing Wallace at Queensbury. Sir John de Graham was regarded as Wallaces right-hand man and Wallace was at his side when Graham was killed in 1298 at the Battle of Falkirk, John de Grahams name is still perpetuated in the district of Grahamston. The grave of Sir John de Graham in Falkirk churchyard is still to be seen, one great two-handed sword of Sir John the Graham is preserved at Buchanan Castle by the Duke of Montrose. Another was long in possession of the Grahams of Orchil and is now treasured by the Free Mason Lodge at Auchterarder, the Clan Graham also fought against the English at the Battle of Durham in 1346, in support of King David II of Scots. The Grahams acquired the lands of Mugdock north of Glasgow, where they built a castle around 1370. In John Stewarts book, The Grahams, he states that Most Scottish Clans would be proud to have one great hero and he refers to Sir John de Graham, the Marquis of Montrose and the Viscount of Dundee. Stewart also wrote, It is remarkable that the early Grahams were one, the Clan Graham fought at the Battle of Sauchieburn led by the third Lord Graham. The battle was fought on 11 June 1488, at the side of Sauchie Burn, in 1504 Lord Graham, on account of his gallantry was made Earl of Montrose. He would go on to part of the Scottish Vanguard against the English at the Battle of Flodden in 1513. The Clan Graham was among the clans which fought against the English at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh 1547, where Robert, the eldest son of the second Earl, was killed. One of the most notable chiefs of the Clan Graham was James, Marquis of Montrose, a poet, but above all and he played a massive part in the Civil War in Scotland and the Grahams rallied to their chief. In 1646 Montrose laid siege to the Castle Chanonry of Ross which was held by the Clan Mackenzie, in March 1650 he captured Dunbeath Castle castle of the Clan Sinclair, who would later support him at Carbisdale. Montrose was defeated at the Battle of Carbisdale by the Munros, Rosses, Sutherlands and he was subsequently captured and executed in Edinburgh in 1650
5.
Lord Lieutenant
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The Lord-Lieutenant is the British monarchs personal representative in each county of the United Kingdom. Historically, the Lord-Lieutenant was responsible for organising the militia but it is today a largely ceremonial position. Lieutenants were first appointed to a number of English counties by King Henry VIII in the 1540s and he raised and was responsible for the efficiency of the local militia units of the county, and afterwards of the yeomanry, and volunteers. He was commander of forces, whose officers he appointed. Lieutenancies soon became more organised, probably in the reign of his successor King Edward VI, however, it was not until the threat of invasion by the forces of Spain in 1585 that lieutenants were appointed to all counties and counties corporate and became in effect permanent. Although not explicitly stated, from that date lieutenants were appointed to counties at large, the origin of this anomaly may have lain in the former palatine status of Pembrokeshire. The City of London was uniquely given a commission of lieutenancy, an Act to make the Militia of this Kingdom more useful was passed by the Parliament of Ireland in 1715. The lieutenants were empowered to embody militia regiments, in 1921, with the establishment of Northern Ireland, lord-lieutenants continued to be appointed through the Governor of Northern Ireland to the six counties and two county boroughs. By the Militia Act 1797, the lieutenants appointed for the Counties, Stewartries, Cities, the Lord Provosts of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Dundee are, by virtue of office, also the Lord-Lieutenant of their respective city. The Militia Act 1802 provided for the appointment of lieutenants to Lieutenants for the Counties, Ridings, and Places in England and Wales, and gave them command of the county militia. In the case of towns or cities which were counties of themselves, the Militia Act 1882 revested the jurisdiction of the lieutenants in the crown. Counties for lieutenancy purposes were also redefined as a county at large, the text of the letters patent appointing lieutenants under the act stated they were to be. Haverfordwest was permitted to retain a lieutenant while the Tower Hamlets, from 1889 lieutenancy counties in England and Wales were to correspond to groupings of administrative counties and county boroughs established by the Local Government Act 1888. The creation of a new County of London also led to the ending of the Tower Hamlets lieutenancy, the Act also extinguished the lieutenancy of the Cinque Ports. Section 69 of the Local Government Act 1898 realigned the lieutenancy counties with the new counties created by the Act. The one exception was County Tipperary, which administered by two county councils, was to remain united for lieutenancy. In contrast to the legislation in England and Wales, each county borough was to have its own lieutenant, and those counties corporate not made county boroughs were abolished. The effect of this was to create a lieutenant for the county boroughs of Belfast and Londonderry, the office of lieutenant was honorary, and held during the royal pleasure, but virtually for life
6.
Duke of Montrose
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The title of Duke of Montrose has been created twice in the Peerage of Scotland, firstly in 1488 for David Lindsay, 5th Earl of Crawford. It was forfeited and then returned, but only for the period of the holders lifetime, the title was bestowed anew in 1707, again in the Peerage of Scotland, on the fourth Marquess of Montrose, and has since been in the Graham family. The title is tied as the chieftainship of Clan Graham. The titles Earl and Baron Graham of Belford are in the Peerage of Great Britain, the eldest son of the Duke uses the courtesy title Marquess of Graham and Buchanan. The family seat is Auchmar House, near Loch Lomond, Stirlingshire and it was previously Buchanan Castle, near Drymen, Stirlingshire. His dukedom was forfeit when James IV acceded in 1488, but it was restored for life in 1489
7.
Covenanter
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The Covenanters were a Scottish Presbyterian movement that played an important part in the history of Scotland, and to a lesser extent that of England and Ireland, during the 17th century. Presbyterian denominations tracing their history to the Covenanters and often incorporating the name continue the ideas and traditions in Scotland and internationally. They derived their name from the word covenant meaning a band, legal document or agreement, there were two important covenants in Scottish history, the National Covenant and the Solemn League and Covenant. Based on the Scots Confession of Faith of 1560, this document denounced the Pope, in 1637, Scotland was in a state of turmoil. King Charles I and William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, met with a reverse in their efforts to impose a new liturgy on the Scots. Fearing further measures on the part of the King, it occurred to Archibald Johnston to revive the Negative Confession of 1581 in a suited to the times. Together with the cooperation of Alexander Henderson, this National Covenant was finalized in early 1638, the Covenant was adopted and signed by a large gathering in the kirkyard of Greyfriars Kirk in Edinburgh, on 28 February 1638, after which copies were sent throughout the country for signing. The subscribers engaged by oath to maintain religion in the form that it existed in 1580 and it did not specifically reject episcopacy but in effect undermined it. The year 1638 marked an apex of events for the Covenanters, confrontations occurred in several parts of Scotland, such as the one with the Bishops of Aberdeen by a high level assembly of Covenanters staging their operations from Muchalls Castle. The General Assembly of 1638 was composed of ardent Covenanters, and in 1640 the Covenant was adopted by the Scottish parliament, before this date, the Covenanters were usually referred to as Supplicants, but from about this time the former designation began to prevail. The Covenanters raised an army to resist Charles Is religious reforms, the crisis that this caused to the Stuart monarchy helped bring about the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, which included the English Civil War, the Scottish Civil War and Irish Confederate Wars. For the following ten years of war in Britain, the Covenanters were the de facto government of Scotland. In 1642, they sent an army to Ulster in Ireland to protect the Scottish settlers there from the Irish Catholic rebels who had attacked them in the Irish Rebellion of 1641. The Scottish army remained in Ireland until the end of the civil wars, a further Covenanter military intervention began in 1643. Following considerable debate, a document called the Solemn League and Covenant was drawn up and it did not explicitly mention Presbyterianism and included some ambiguous formulations that left the door open to Independency. It was subscribed to by many in both kingdoms and also in Ireland, and was approved by the English Parliament, and with slight modifications by the Westminster Assembly of Divines. This agreement meant that the Covenanters sent another army south to England to fight on the Parliamentarian side in the First English Civil War, the Scottish armies in England were instrumental in bringing about the victory of the English Parliament over the King. In turn, this sparked the outbreak of war in Scotland in 1644–47
8.
Wars of the Three Kingdoms
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The Wars of the Three Kingdoms, sometimes known as the British Civil Wars, formed an intertwined series of conflicts that took place in England, Ireland and Scotland between 1639 and 1651. The English Civil War proper has become the best-known of these conflicts and included the execution of the monarch, Charles I. The wars were the outcome of tensions over religious and civil issues, religious disputes centered on whether religion was to be dictated by the monarch or the choice of the individual, with many people feeling that they ought to have freedom of religion. The related civil questions were to what extent the kings rule was constrained by parliaments—in particular his right to raise taxes, furthermore, the wars also had an element of national conflict, as Ireland and Scotland rebelled against Englands primacy within the Three Kingdoms. Since 1541, monarchs of England had also styled their Irish territory as a Kingdom, Scotland, the third separate kingdom, was governed by the House of Stuart. With the English Reformation, King Henry VIII made himself head of the Protestant Church of England and outlawed Catholicism in England and Wales. However, Catholicism remained the religion of most people in Ireland and was for many a symbol of resistance to the Tudor conquest of Ireland in the 16th century. In the Kingdom of Scotland the Protestant Reformation was a movement led by John Knox. In 1584, he introduced bishops, but met opposition and had to concede that the General Assembly running the church should continue to do so. The personal union of the three kingdoms under one monarch came about when King James VI of Scotland succeeded Elizabeth to the English throne in 1603 and he showed little interest in his other two kingdoms, Scotland and Ireland. James VI remained Protestant, taking care to maintain his hopes of succession to the English throne and he duly also became James I of England in 1603 and moved to London. In 1625, he was succeeded by his son Charles I who was less skillful or restrained and was crowned in St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh, opposition to his attempts to enforce Anglican practices reached a flashpoint when he introduced a Book of Common Prayer. Charles confrontation with the Scots came to a head in 1639, see also the English Civil War. Charles shared his fathers belief in the Divine Right of Kings, while the Church of England remained dominant, a powerful Puritan minority, represented by around one third of the members of Parliament, had much in common with the Presbyterian Scots. The English Parliament also had repeated disputes with the king over such subjects as taxation, military expenditure, while James I had held the same opinions as his son with regard to royal prerogatives, he had enough charisma to persuade the Parliament to accept his policies. Charles did not have this skill in human management and so, meanwhile, in the Kingdom of Ireland, tensions had also begun to mount. Charles Is Lord Deputy there, Thomas Wentworth, had antagonised the native Irish Catholics by repeated initiatives to confiscate their lands and he had also angered Roman Catholics by enforcing new taxes but denying them full rights as subjects. Modern historians have emphasised the lack of the inevitability of the wars, pointing out that all sides resorted to violence in a situation marked by mutual distrust
9.
Charles I of England
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Charles I was monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. Charles was the son of King James VI of Scotland, but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603, he moved to England. He became heir apparent to the English, Irish, and Scottish thrones on the death of his brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. Two years later, he married the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France instead, after his succession, Charles quarrelled with the Parliament of England, which sought to curb his royal prerogative. Charles believed in the right of kings and thought he could govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent and he supported high church ecclesiastics, such as Richard Montagu and William Laud, and failed to aid Protestant forces successfully during the Thirty Years War. From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War, after his defeat in 1645, he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament. Charles refused to accept his captors demands for a constitutional monarchy, re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, Charles forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648 Oliver Cromwells New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and a called the Commonwealth of England was declared. The monarchy was restored to Charless son, Charles II, in 1660, the second son of King James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark, Charles was born in Dunfermline Palace, Fife, on 19 November 1600. James VI was the first cousin twice removed of Queen Elizabeth I of England, in mid-July 1604, Charles left Dunfermline for England where he was to spend most of the rest of his life. His speech development was slow, and he retained a stammer, or hesitant speech. In January 1605, Charles was created Duke of York, as is customary in the case of the English sovereigns second son, Thomas Murray, a Presbyterian Scot, was appointed as a tutor. Charles learnt the usual subjects of classics, languages, mathematics, in 1611, he was made a Knight of the Garter. Eventually, Charles apparently conquered his physical infirmity, which might have been caused by rickets and he became an adept horseman and marksman, and took up fencing. Even so, his public profile remained low in contrast to that of his stronger and taller elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. However, in early November 1612, Henry died at the age of 18 of what is suspected to have been typhoid, Charles, who turned 12 two weeks later, became heir apparent
10.
English Civil War
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The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists over, principally, the manner of Englands government. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. The term English Civil War appears most often in the singular form, the war in all these countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who should rule, this war was more concerned with the manner in which the kingdoms of England, Scotland, the two sides had their geographical strongholds, such that minority elements were silenced or fled. The strongholds of the royalty included the countryside, the shires, on the other hand, all the cathedral cities sided with Parliament. All the industrial centers, the ports, and the advanced regions of southern and eastern England typically were parliamentary strongholds. Lacey Baldwin Smith says, the words populist, rich, at times there would be two groups of three lines allowing one group to reload while the other group arranged themselves and fired. Mixed in among the musketeers were pikemen carrying pikes that were between 12 feet and 18 feet long, whose purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. The Royalist cavaliers skill and speed on horseback led to early victories. While the Parliamentarian cavalry were slower than the cavaliers, they were better disciplined. The Royalists had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge leaving their forces scattered and tired, Cromwells cavalry, on the other hand, trained to operate as a single unit, which led to many decisive victories. The English Civil War broke out fewer than forty years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, in spite of this, James personal extravagance meant he was perennially short of money and had to resort to extra-Parliamentary sources of income. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his fathers position on the power of the crown, at the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as an advisory committee and was summoned only if. Once summoned, a continued existence was at the kings pleasure. Yet in spite of this role, Parliament had, over the preceding centuries. Without question, for a monarch, Parliaments most indispensable power was its ability to tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crowns disposal
11.
Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms
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The Scottish Royalists, aided by Irish troops, had a rapid series of victories in 1644–45, but were eventually defeated by the Covenanters. This led to the Third English Civil War, when Scotland was invaded and occupied by the Parliamentarian New Model Army under Oliver Cromwell, Scotland had helped to spark this series of wars in 1638, when it had risen in revolt against Charles Is religious policies. The National Covenant of Scotland was formulated to resist the Kings innovations, the Covenanters raised a large army from the dependants of their landed class and successfully resisted Charles Is attempt to impose his will on Scotland in the so-called Bishops Wars. The Scottish uprising triggered civil war in Charles other two Kingdoms, first in Ireland, then in England, as a result, they had proposed raising an army from Irish Catholics, in return for abolishing discriminatory laws against them. This prospect alarmed Charles enemies in England and Scotland and the Covenanters threatened to invade Ireland, in response a group of Irish conspirators launched the Irish Rebellion of 1641, which quickly degenerated into a series of massacres of English and Scottish Protestant settlers in Ireland. This in turn sparked civil war in England, because the Long Parliament did not trust Charles with command of an army to put down the Irish rebellion, the English Civil War broke out in 1642. The Scottish Covenanters sent an army to Ulster in Ireland in 1642 to protect the Scottish settlers there, however, some in Scotland continued to side with the King. These were most prominent in the Highlands and north-east of Scotland, there were several factors that inclined people towards Royalism. Among them were religion, culture, clan politics and political allegiance, furthermore, the Highlands was a distinct cultural, political and economic region of Scotland. It was Gaelic in language and customs and at time was largely outside of the control of the Scottish government. Some Highland clans preferred the more distant authority of Protestant King Charles to the powerful, however, the largest Highland clan, the Campbells, led by their chief, Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll, did side with the Covenanters. This meant that the Protestant Campbells rivals in the violent world of politics, notably the MacDonalds. It should be said that some of these overlap, for instance the MacDonalds were Catholics, were sworn enemies of the Campbells. Historian David Stevenson writes, It is a moot point whether one should call the MacDonnells of Antrim Scots or Irish, Montrose had already tried and failed to lead a Royalist uprising by 1644, when he was presented with a ready made Royalist army. The Irish Confederates, who were aligned with the Royalists. From their point of view, this would tie up Scottish Covenanter troops who would otherwise be used in Ireland or England, the Irish sent 1500 men to Scotland under the command of Alasdair MacColla MacDonald, a MacDonald clansman from the Western Isles of Scotland. They included Manus OCahan and his 500-man regiment, shortly after landing, the Irish linked up with Montrose at Blair Atholl and proceeded to raise forces from the MacDonalds and other anti-Campbell Highland clans. The new Royalist army led by Montrose and MacColla was in some respects very formidable and they did not fight in the massed pike and musket formations that dominated continental Europe at the time, but fired their muskets in loose order before closing with swords and half-pikes
12.
Henry Stewart, 1st Lord Methven
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Henry Stewart, 1st Lord Methven was Master of the Scottish Artillery and last husband of Margaret Tudor, eldest daughter of Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York. He was a son of Andrew Stewart, 1st Lord Avondale and his brother was Andrew Stewart, 1st Lord Ochiltree. Henry was a fifth-generation male-line descendant of Murdoch Stewart, 2nd Duke of Albany through his son Walter and he was thus a fourth cousin, twice removed of James IV of Scotland, first husband of Margaret Tudor. Henry and Margaret Tudor were married on 3 March 1528, Margaret had divorced her second husband Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus. She was already mother to James V of Scotland and Margaret Douglas from her previous marriages and this third marriage would produce another daughter, Dorothea Stewart, who died young. Reaction to the marriage was swift, Margaret and Henry were besieged at Stirling Castle by Lord Erskine, with the support of James V and her former husband, however, after James V joined his mother at Stirling, Henry was created Lord Methven. Margaret made Methven captain of her castle of Newark in Ettrick, in 1539, Henry and Margaret let their coalfield at Skeoch to John Craigyngelt. As rent he would supply 100 loads to Margarets lodging at Stirling Castle, Henry was discovered to have been keeping a mistress in one of Margarets castles. Margaret Tudor wished to divorce him but James V was reluctant to allow it, after she died in 1541, Methven was able to marry his mistress, Janet Stewart, daughter of John Stewart, 2nd Earl of Atholl and Lady Janet Campbell. Her maternal grandparents were Archibald Campbell, 2nd Earl of Argyll, Elizabeth was a daughter of John Stewart, 1st Earl of Lennox and Margaret Montgomerie. Margaret was a daughter of Alexander Montgomerie, 1st Lord Montgomerie, Henry and Janet were parents to four children, Henry Stewart, 2nd Lord Methven. Married William Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie, married Colin Campbell, 6th Earl of Argyll. Married Andrew Stuart, eldest son of Andrew Stewart, 2nd Lord Ochiltree and they were parents to Andrew Stuart, 1st Baron Castle Stuart. On 10 September 1524, Methven was made Principal Master of the Royal Artillery,25 years later he would direct the Scottish artillery at the Siege of Haddington. During the war of the Rough Wooing, Methven wrote to Mary of Guise on 31 December 1547 to discuss the use of artillery in the war, similarly, a recent ineffective show of artillery at Broughty Castle had only warned the English to get more support and re-fortify. Now, to take Broughty, more cannon needed to be supplied, and Methven asked for French captains with intelligence of the field, Methven wrote to Mary of Guise again on 3 June 1548 with more strategic advice. He said that he had all over Scotland and had been diligent in acquiring intelligence of the motives of those Scots who favoured the English. He found four principal motives, religion, fear, regard for a belief in prophecy, Methven thought the defeat at Pinkie, was due to these causes, and the unorderly haste of the Scottish army
13.
Xenophon
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Xenophon of Athens was an ancient Greek philosopher, historian, soldier and mercenary, and a student of Socrates. Despite being an Athenian citizen, born to Gryllus, of the deme Erchia of Athens, Xenophon of Athens also was associated with city-state of Sparta, the traditional enemy of Athens. Besides the philosopher Plato, Xenophon of Athens is an authority on Socrates, about whom he wrote the dialogue Apology of Socrates to the Jury, which recounts the Trial of Socrates. In the Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, Diogenes Laërtius said that, as a writer, Xenophon of Athens was known as the “Attic Muse”, Xenophon was born around 430 BC near the city of Athens to a wealthy equestrian family. Written years after events, Xenophons book Anabasis is his record of the entire expedition of Cyrus against the Persians. Xenophon writes that he had asked the veteran Socrates for advice on whether to go with Cyrus, the oracle answered his question and told him to which gods to pray and sacrifice. When Xenophon returned to Athens and told Socrates of the oracles advice, under the pretext of fighting Tissaphernes, the Persian satrap of Ionia, Cyrus assembled a massive army composed of native Persian soldiers, but also a large number of Greeks. Prior to waging war against Artaxerxes, Cyrus proposed that the enemy was the Pisidians, at Tarsus the soldiers became aware of Cyruss plans to depose the king, and as a result, refused to continue. However, Clearchus, a Spartan general, convinced the Greeks to continue with the expedition, the army of Cyrus met the army of Artaxerxes II in the Battle of Cunaxa. Despite effective fighting by the Greeks, Cyrus was killed in the battle, shortly thereafter, Clearchus was invited to a peace conference, where, alongside four other generals and many captains, he was betrayed and executed. The mercenaries, known as the Ten Thousand, found themselves without leadership far from the sea and they elected new leaders, including Xenophon himself, and fought their way north along the Tigris through hostile Persians and Medes to Trapezus on the coast of the Black Sea. They then made their way back to Greece via Chrysopolis. Once there, they helped Seuthes II make himself king of Thrace, the Spartans were at war with Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus II, Persian satraps in Anatolia, probably on account of the aforementioned treacherous slaughter of their general Clearchus. Xenophon’s military activity with these Spartans marks the final episodes of the Anabasis, on account of this he was exiled from Athens. There may have been contributory causes, such as his support for Socrates, the Spartans gave him property at Scillus, near Olympia in Elis, where he likely composed the Anabasis. Because his son Gryllus fought and died for Athens at the Battle of Mantinea while Xenophon was still alive, Xenophon has long been associated with the opposition of democracy. Some scholars go so far as to say his views aligned with those of the democracy in his time, however, certain works of Xenophon, in particular the Cyropaedia, appear to display his pro-oligarchic politics. This historical-fiction serves as a forum for Xenophon to subtly display his political inclinations, Xenophon wrote the Cyropaedia to present his political and moral philosophy
14.
Torquato Tasso
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He suffered from mental illness and died a few days before he was due to be crowned as the king of poets by the Pope. Until the beginning of the 20th century, Tasso remained one of the most widely read poets in Europe. Born in Sorrento, Torquato was the son of Bernardo Tasso, a nobleman of Bergamo and an epic and lyric poet of considerable fame in his day, and his wife Porzia de Rossi, a noblewoman from Naples. His father had for years been secretary in the service of Ferrante Sanseverino, Prince of Salerno. When the prince of Salerno came into collision with the Spanish government of Naples, being subsequently outlawed and deprived of his hereditary fiefs and he was proclaimed a rebel to the state, together with his son Torquato, and his patrimony was sequestered. These things happened during the boys childhood, in 1552 Torquato was living with his mother and his only sister Cornelia at Naples, pursuing his education under the Jesuits, who had recently opened a school there. The precocity of intellect and the fervour of the boy attracted general admiration. At the age of eight he was already famous, soon after this date he was allowed to join his father, who then resided in great poverty and without occupation in exile in Rome. News reached them in 1556 that Porzia Tasso had died suddenly and mysteriously at Naples and her husband was firmly convinced that she had been poisoned by her brother with the object of getting control over her property. As it subsequently happened, Porzias estate never descended to her son, Tassos father was a poet by predilection and a professional courtier. Therefore, when an opening at the court of Urbino was offered in 1557, the young Torquato, a handsome and brilliant lad, became the companion in sports and studies of Francesco Maria della Rovere, heir to the duke of Urbino. At Urbino a society of cultivated men pursued the aesthetic and literary studies which were then in vogue. Bernardo Tasso read cantos of his poem LAmadigi to the duchess and her ladies, or discussed the merits of Homer and Virgil, Trissino and Ariosto, with the dukes librarians and secretaries. Torquato grew up in an atmosphere of refined luxury and somewhat pedantic criticism, at Venice, where his father went to superintend the printing of his own epic, Amadigi, these influences continued. He found himself the pet and prodigy of a literary circle. But Bernardo had suffered in his own career so seriously from dependence on the Muses and the nobility, Torquato was sent to study law at Padua. Instead of applying himself to law, the young man bestowed all his attention upon philosophy, before the end of 1562, he had produced a twelve-canto epic poem called Rinaldo, which was meant to combine the regularity of the Virgilian with the attractions of the romantic epic. Nevertheless, its author was recognized as the most promising young poet of his time, the flattered father allowed the work to be printed, and, after a short period of study at Bologna, he consented to his sons entering the service of Cardinal Luigi dEste
15.
John Buchan
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John Buchan, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir GCMG GCVO CH PC was a Scottish novelist, historian and Unionist politician who served as Governor General of Canada, the 15th since Canadian Confederation. He eventually wrote propaganda for the British war effort in the First World War, in 1935 he was appointed Governor General of Canada by King George V, on the recommendation of Prime Minister of Canada R. B. Bennett, to replace the Earl of Bessborough and he occupied the post until his death in 1940. Buchan proved to be enthusiastic about literacy, as well as the evolution of Canadian culture, Buchan was born in Perth, Scotland. He was the first child of John Buchan—a Free Church of Scotland minister—and Helen Jane Buchan, Buchan was brought up in Kirkcaldy, Fife, and spent many summer holidays with his maternal grandparents in Broughton, in the Scottish Borders. The childhood he and his sister, Anna, shared was documented in her memoir, Unforgettable, after attending Hutchesons Grammar School, Buchan was awarded a scholarship to the University of Glasgow at age 17, where he studied classics, wrote poetry, and became a published author. With a junior Hulme scholarship, he moved on in 1895 to study Literae Humaniores at Brasenose College, Oxford, where his friends included Hilaire Belloc, Raymond Asquith, and Aubrey Herbert. It was at around the time of his graduation from Oxford that Buchan had his first portrait painted, together, Buchan and his wife had four children, Alice, John, William, and Alastair, two of whom would spend most of their lives in Canada. With the outbreak of the First World War, Buchan went to write for the British War Propaganda Bureau and he continued to write fiction, and in 1915 published his most famous work, The Thirty-Nine Steps, a spy-thriller set just prior to World War I. The novel featured Buchans oft used hero, Richard Hannay, whose character was based on Edmund Ironside, a sequel, Greenmantle, came the following year. Buchan then enlisted in the British Army and was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Intelligence Corps. It was difficult for him, given his close connections to many of Britains military leaders, following the close of the war, Buchan turned his attention to writing on historical subjects, along with his usual thrillers and novels. Robert Graves, who lived in nearby Islip, mentioned his being recommended by Buchan for a position at the newly founded Cairo University. In a 1927 by-election, Buchan was elected as the Unionist Party Member of Parliament for the Combined Scottish Universities, politically, he was of the Unionist-Nationalist tradition, believing in Scotlands promotion as a nation within the British Empire. Buchan remarked in a speech to parliament, I believe every Scotsman should be a Scottish nationalist, if it could be proved that a Scottish parliament were desirable. He found himself profoundly affected by John Morleys Life of Gladstone, after the United Free Church of Scotland joined in 1929 with the Church of Scotland, Buchan remained an active elder of St. Columbas Church in London, as well as of the Oxford Presbyterian parish. In 1933 and 1934 Buchan was further appointed as the King George Vs Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, beginning in 1930 Buchan aligned himself with Zionism and the related Palestine All Party Parliamentary Group. In recognition of his contributions to literature and education, on 1 January 1932, in 1935 Buchans literary work was adapted for the cinema with the completion of Alfred Hitchcocks The 39 Steps, starring Robert Donat as Richard Hannay, though with Buchans story much altered
16.
Walter Raleigh
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Sir Walter Raleigh was an English landed gentleman, writer, poet, soldier, politician, courtier, spy and explorer. He was cousin to Sir Richard Grenville and younger half-brother of Sir Humphrey Gilbert and he is also well known for popularising tobacco in England. Raleigh was born to a Protestant family in Devon, the son of Walter Raleigh, later, he became a landlord of property confiscated from the native Irish. He rose rapidly in the favour of Queen Elizabeth I and was knighted in 1585, Raleigh was instrumental in the English colonisation of North America and was granted a royal patent to explore Virginia, which paved the way for future English settlements. In 1591, he secretly married Elizabeth Throckmorton, one of the Queens ladies-in-waiting, without the Queens permission, for which he, after his release, they retired to his estate at Sherborne, Dorset. In 1594, Raleigh heard of a City of Gold in South America and sailed to find it, publishing an exaggerated account of his experiences in a book that contributed to the legend of El Dorado. After Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, Raleigh was again imprisoned in the Tower, this time for being involved in the Main Plot against King James I, in 1616, he was released to lead a second expedition in search of El Dorado. During the expedition, men led by his top commander ransacked a Spanish outpost and he returned to England and, to appease the Spanish, was arrested and executed in 1618. Raleigh was one of the most notable figures of the Elizabethan era, in 2002, he was featured in the BBC poll of the 100 Greatest Britons. Little is known about Raleighs birth, some historians believe that he was born on 22 January 1552, although the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography currently favours a date of 1554. He grew up in the house of Hayes Barton, a farmhouse near the village of East Budleigh and he was the youngest of five sons born to Catherine Champernowne in two successive marriages. His half-brothers John Gilbert, Humphrey Gilbert, and Adrian Gilbert, Catherine Champernowne was a niece of Kat Ashley, Elizabeths governess, who introduced the young men at court. Raleighs family was highly Protestant in religious orientation and had a number of near escapes during the reign of Roman Catholic Queen Mary I of England, in the most notable of these, his father had to hide in a tower to avoid execution. As a result, Raleigh developed a hatred of Roman Catholicism during his childhood, in matters of religion, Elizabeth was more moderate than her half sister Mary. In 1569, Raleigh left for France to serve with the Huguenots in the French religious civil wars, in 1572, Raleigh was registered as an undergraduate at Oriel College, Oxford, but he left a year later without a degree. Raleigh proceeded to finish his education in the Inns of Court, in 1575, he was registered at the Middle Temple. At his trial in 1603, he stated that he had never studied law and his life is uncertain between 1569 and 1575, but in his History of the World he claimed to have been an eyewitness at the Battle of Moncontour in France. In 1575 or 1576, Raleigh returned to England, between 1579 and 1583, Raleigh took part in the suppression of the Desmond Rebellions
17.
St Salvator's College, St Andrews
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St Salvators College was a college of the University of St Andrews in St Andrews, Scotland. Founded in 1450, it is the oldest of the Universitys colleges, in 1747 it merged with St Leonards College to form United College. St Salvators College was founded in 1450 by Bishop James Kennedy, in 1528, the Protestant martyr, Patrick Hamilton, was burned alive outside the college, though Patrick himself was a member of St Leonards college. Initially a college of Theology and the Arts, St Salvators was created to revitalize, shortly after this, the initial site of St Leonards College was sold, though the university retained ownership of St Leonards College Chapel. Although the buildings of St Salvators College were grand by medieval standards, from 1837 the quadrangle was rebuilt and extended into its current form, with a north and a west wing in Jacobean style. To the south is the Chapel, where many university services are held, St Salvators College was residential until the unification with St Leonards. The current St Salvators Hall, which lies east of the college, is one of the halls of residence for students, the chapel, tower and Hebdomadars Building are all designated as Category A listed buildings by Historic Scotland. Other buildings and structures are listed as Category B, the college chapel is unusual for a collegiate church in that the main entrance faces out into the town, and not like those in Oxford or Cambridge, closed into the college itself. It is indeed the only chapel in Scotland with this arrangement. The chapel was used as a church after the St Leonards college chapel was unroofed in the 1750s until this arrangement was withdrawn by the university. The 1450 college had cloister buildings to the north of the college chapel - the two doors to the side of the chapel show the alignment of the cloister. It is commonly referred to as “the quad”, and is the setting of Raisin Monday festivities, the point of the post-Graduation processions. Cant The University of St. Andrews, A Short History
18.
Willem van Honthorst
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Willem van Honthorst, was a Dutch Golden Age painter. He was born in Utrecht as the brother of Gerard van Honthorst. Like his brother, he is known as a follower of Caravaggio and he was court painter in Berlin to Countess Louise Henriette of Nassau during the years 1647-1664. 2 Painting by or after Willem van Honthorst at the Art UK site Willem van Honthorst on Artnet
19.
Bishops in the Church of Scotland
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There have not been bishops in the Church of Scotland since the Restoration Episcopacy of the 17th century, although there have occasionally been attempts to reintroduce episcopalianism. Like most Reformed Churches, the Church of Scotland has a structure which invests in a hierarchy of courts. Nevertheless, the Church of Scotland does have the concept of a bishop, the word bishop is derived from Greek episcopos, meaning overseer. The word is used in the New Testament, but it is not certain what exactly the function of this office entailed in the Early Church, by the third century, however, both the Eastern and Western Church had a system of bishops as spiritual rulers. After the Reformation, the Lutheran and Anglican traditions retained the episcopal system, during parts of the 17th century there were conflicts between the Presbyterian and Episcopalian tendencies in the Kirk, with Episcopalianism sometimes in the ascendancy. Presbyterianians finally gained the hand, leading to the establishment of a separate Episcopal Church of Scotland in 1690. For a list of the 17th-century Church of Scotland bishops, see Bishop of Edinburgh, Archbishop of Glasgow, specifically, a minister who is placed in charge of a person training for the ministry is referred to as the students bishop. This term is used in the context of theology students doing student attachments in parishes, most lay people in the Church of Scotland, however, would be unaware of this usage. In the latter part of the 20th century, there were a number of moves to reopen the debate on episcopacy and these bishops would not have the power of bishops in other traditions, but would have analogous pastoral functions. Precedents for such a system were to be found in the Uniting Church in Australia. The most serious presentation of such proposals came in the 1980s when a union between the Church of Scotland and the Scottish Episcopal Church was attempted, a precondition from the Episcopalian side was that the united church should have a form of episcopacy recognisable to their tradition. In the 1990s, the Scottish Churches Initiative for Union aimed to unite the Church of Scotland, Scottish Episcopal Church, the Methodist Church, an element of the proposed structure was again a form of episcopal oversight, whilst retaining elders from the Presbyterian system. After considerable debate, the SCIFU proposals were rejected by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in May 2003, five Articles of Perth The Killing Time Tulchan
20.
Bishops' Wars
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The Bishops Wars were conflicts, both political and military, which occurred in 1639 and 1640 centred on the nature of the governance of the Church of Scotland, and the rights and powers of the Crown. They constitute part of a political conflict across Scotland, England and Ireland. James VI of Scotland had reintroduced episcopacy to the Church of Scotland in 1584, after acceding to the English throne, he increased the numbers of bishops. His son, Charles I continually tried to foster uniformity between the churches of his realms following the Anglican model. His regulation of liturgy in Scotland through the imposition of a Book of Common Prayer in 1637 sparked rioting and his attempts to control the situation from London were unsuccessful, and by July 1638 he decided in his English Privy Council that force would have to be used. The Scottish army, of some 12,000 men, led by Leslie, were encamped a few miles away on the side of the border near Duns. Meanwhile, a series of engagements between Covenanters and Scottish royalist forces took place in Aberdeenshire. The first was a confrontation at the town of Turriff called the Raid of Turriff at which no blood was shed. The next was the siege of Towie Barclay Castle, in one person was shot – the very first casualty of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. This was followed by two minor engagements known as the Trot of Turriff and the battle of the Brig o Dee to the south of Aberdeen. The new General Assembly then re-enacted all the measures passed by the Glasgow Assembly, Charles considered these terms unacceptable and dissolved parliament. Thomas Wentworth, now earl of Strafford, became the adviser to the King. He threw himself into Charles’s plans with great energy and left no stone unturned to furnish the new expedition with supplies. The Scots under Leslie and Montrose crossed the River Tweed, in a short time, the invaders overran the whole of Northumberland and County Durham. Charles had to leave the two counties in Scots hands as a pledge for the payment of Scots expenses when he agreed to peace and it sat until purged in 1648. He had now all the causes of the original dispute. English Civil War timeline Wars of the Three Kingdoms Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms Bishops in the Church of Scotland Baillie, Robert, Letters, calendar of State Papers Domestic of the Reign of King Charles I, 1858–97. The Register of the Privy Council of Scotland, variously edited, rothes, John Leslie, earl of, A Relation of the Proceedings of the Affairs of the Kirk of Scotland, from August 1637 to July 1638,1830
21.
Puritans
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Puritanism in this sense was founded as an activist movement within the Church of England. The founders, clergy exiled under Mary I, returned to England shortly after the accession of Elizabeth I of England in 1558, Puritanism played a significant role in English history during the first half of the 17th century. One of the most effective stokers of anti-Catholic feeling was John Pym, Puritans were blocked from changing the established church from within and were severely restricted in England by laws controlling the practice of religion. They took on distinctive beliefs about clerical dress and in opposition to the episcopal system and they largely adopted Sabbatarianism in the 17th century, and were influenced by millennialism. Consequently, they became a political force in England and came to power as a result of the First English Civil War. Almost all Puritan clergy left the Church of England after the Restoration of 1660, the nature of the movement in England changed radically, although it retained its character for a much longer period in New England. Puritans by definition were dissatisfied with the extent of the English Reformation. They formed and identified with various groups advocating greater purity of worship and doctrine, as well as personal. Puritans adopted a Reformed theology and, in sense, were Calvinists. In church polity, some advocated separation from all other established Christian denominations in favor of autonomous gathered churches. The Puritans were never a formally defined sect or religious division within Protestantism, the Congregationalist tradition, widely considered to be a part of the Reformed tradition, claims descent from the Puritans. Historically, the word Puritan was considered a term that characterized Protestant groups as extremists. According to Thomas Fuller in his Church History, the dates to 1564. Archbishop Matthew Parker of that used it and precisian with the sense of the modern stickler. In modern times, the word puritan is often used to mean against pleasure, in this sense, the term Puritan was coined in the 1560s, when it first appeared as a term of abuse for those who found the Elizabethan Religious Settlement of 1559 inadequate. The term Puritan, therefore, was not intended to refer to strict morality, a common modern misunderstanding, the word Puritan was applied unevenly to a number of Protestant churches from the late 16th century onwards. Puritans did not originally use the term for themselves, the practitioners knew themselves as members of particular churches or movements, and not by a single term. Precise men and Precisians were other early derogatory terms for Puritans, seventeenth century English Puritan preacher Thomas Watson used the godly to describe Puritans in the title of one of his more famous works The Godly Mans Picture
22.
Aberdeen
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Nicknames include the Granite City, the Grey City and the Silver City with the Golden Sands. During the mid-18th to mid-20th centuries, Aberdeens buildings incorporated locally quarried grey granite, since the discovery of North Sea oil in the 1970s, other nicknames have been the Oil Capital of the World or the Energy Capital of the World. The area around Aberdeen has been settled since at least 8,000 years ago, the city has a long, sandy coastline and a marine climate, the latter resulting in chilly summers and mild winters. Aberdeen received Royal Burgh status from David I of Scotland, transforming the city economically, the traditional industries of fishing, paper-making, shipbuilding, and textiles have been overtaken by the oil industry and Aberdeens seaport. Aberdeen Heliport is one of the busiest commercial heliports in the world, in 2015, Mercer named Aberdeen the 57th most liveable city in the world, as well as the fourth most liveable city in Britain. In 2012, HSBC named Aberdeen as a business hub and one of eight super cities spearheading the UKs economy. The Aberdeen area has seen human settlement for at least 8,000 years. The city began as two separate burghs, Old Aberdeen at the mouth of the river Don, and New Aberdeen, a fishing and trading settlement, the earliest charter was granted by William the Lion in 1179 and confirmed the corporate rights granted by David I. In 1319, the Great Charter of Robert the Bruce transformed Aberdeen into a property-owning, granted with it was the nearby Forest of Stocket, whose income formed the basis for the citys Common Good Fund which still benefits Aberdonians. The city was burned by Edward III of England in 1336, but was rebuilt and extended, the city was strongly fortified to prevent attacks by neighbouring lords, but the gates were removed by 1770. During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms of 1644–1647 the city was plundered by both sides, in 1644, it was taken and ransacked by Royalist troops after the Battle of Aberdeen and two years later it was stormed by a Royalist force under the command of Marquis of Huntly. In 1647 an outbreak of plague killed a quarter of the population. In the 18th century, a new Town Hall was built and the first social services appeared with the Infirmary at Woolmanhill in 1742 and the Lunatic Asylum in 1779. The council began major road improvements at the end of the 18th century with the main thoroughfares of George Street, King Street, gas street lighting arrived in 1824 and an enhanced water supply appeared in 1830 when water was pumped from the Dee to a reservoir in Union Place. An underground sewer system replaced open sewers in 1865, the city was incorporated in 1891. Although Old Aberdeen has a history and still holds its ancient charter. It is an part of the city, as is Woodside. Old Aberdeen is the location of Aberdon, the first settlement of Aberdeen
23.
George Gordon, 2nd Marquess of Huntly
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Some of his earlier years, when he was still Lord Gordon, were spent in England at the court of James I, who took care to educate him in the Protestant faith and created him Earl of Enzie. In 1609 he received a commission of justiciary under the seal against the members of a rebellious society in the north called the Society of Boys. In 1613, he was employed by his father in connection with a dispute regarding his superiority over a portion of Lochaber, held by Lochiel and the Camerons. Enzie had also a ground of quarrel against Mackintosh on account of his failure to perform certain services for lands held of the earl. Having on this account obtained a decree against him from the council, he besieged him in his castle of Culloden. Enzie cited him to appear before the council, and on his failing to appear he was denounced as a rebel. He remained in country for some years in command of a company of gens darmes. On 20 April 1632 he was created Viscount of Aboyne, notwithstanding his fathers differences with the government, the second Marquess found himself in the enjoyment of the royal favour. His supreme influence in the served to balance that of Archibald Campbell. In 1638 he caused the royal proclamation to be read at the cross of New Aberdeen, as a reason for this indecision, Huntly is stated to have affirmed that he had no warrant from the king to strike the first blow. On this account, though ‘naturally a gallant man, ’ says Burnet, ‘he made a poor figure during the whole course of the wars’. At the beginning it is, however, evident that he was supported from the south. The answer of Montrose was unsatisfactory, and Huntly, having caused his lieutenancy to be proclaimed at the cross of Aberdeen, meanwhile, he again sent commissioners to Montrose, but before their return he had disbanded his followers and retired to Stathbogie. Aberdeen, having been wholly abandoned, was entered by Montrose without opposition on 30 March. On 1 April Montrose and Leslie set out for Inverurie with ‘resolution to discusse, Huntly, who had retired to the Bog of Gight, deeming further resistance to be meanwhile vain, sent commissioners to request an interview with Montrose. He was then permitted to return to Strathbogie, Montrose retiring to Aberdeen, soon afterwards a meeting of the covenanting leaders was held at Aberdeen for the settlement of the north. On being summoned to the meeting Huntly agreed to attend it on receiving a safe-condnct, Huntly readily agreed, but perhaps Montrose suspected that he was only temporising, for that evening guards were placed at his lodging to prevent his escape. Huntly then demanded back the bond he had signed at Inverurie before he gave an answer, ‘Then, ’ said Huntly, ‘I will not go as a captive, but as a volunteer’
24.
Edinburgh
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Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls
25.
Muchalls Castle
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Muchalls Castle stands overlooking the North Sea in the countryside of Kincardine and Mearns, Aberdeenshire, Scotland. The lower course is a well preserved Romanesque, double-groined 13th century towerhouse structure, upon this structure, the 17th-century castle was begun by Alexander Burnett of Leys and completed by his son, Sir Thomas Burnett, 1st Baronet, in 1627. The Burnetts of Leys built the four storey present day castle. Muchalls Castle entered national history in 1638 when a seminal Covenanter gathering took place here precedent to the English Civil War, the plasterwork ceilings of the principal drawing rooms are generally regarded as among the three finest examples of plasterwork ceilings in Scotland. These adornments date to 1624 and are in perfect condition. They consist of heraldry of the Burnett of Leys family, along with heraldry of relations, the overmantel of the Great Hall fireplace features the arms of King James VI flanked by impressive egyptianesque figures. The lower course of this L Plan Castle is the original 14th-century ground level of the Clan Fraser towerhouse, on this level are a dungeon, guard room, storerooms, a chamber for merchants and visitors waiting to see the Laird, and a medieval kitchen. In the medieval kitchen the interior wall is over five metres thick, accommodating a hidden staircase, a long hall passageway was constructed as a barrel vaulted design. The dungeon is noted for its window and still has the large steel hinges to which the dungeon door would have attached. Ownership of the castle and lands passed to the Hays in the 15th century probably associated with the real estate transaction of the lands of Ury in 1413 AD. The second floor level is erected over the intact Middle Ages ground level structure, the bartizans render interesting interior features in numerous of the bedrooms, providing interesting circular nooks with small lookout windows strategically placed at upper building corners. There are numerous original arrow slits that indicate the original nature of the structure. There are a number of crow-stepped gables associated with large chimneys at building endpoints, the castle itself is an A listed historical building, however, there are three further listed structures on the castle grounds, including a fine stone stables and a 17th-century dovecote. The next level includes most of the reception rooms, including the Great Hall, the Ladies Drawing Room. The great hall fireplace has an original plasterwork overmantel featuring egyptianesque caryatid figures, one can walk erect inside the fireplace and conduct a small meeting inside with bench seating built in. The firebox also hosts the Lairds Lug, a secret listening system allowing the Laird to overhear conversations in the Great Hall from his suite above. The third level consists of a number of bedrooms, The Lairds Bedroom, The Priests Bedroom, The Queens Bedroom, the Queen naturally had a very elegant room in case she were to visit, in fact, she had a Winter Bedroom for inclement weather. Each of the bedrooms has a fireplace, as do some of the bathrooms, the bathrooms are a Victorian modification of what would have been dressing rooms in the 17th century
26.
William Keith, 7th Earl Marischal
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William Keith, 7th Earl Marischal was a Scottish nobleman and Covenanter. He was the eldest son of William Keith, 6th Earl Marischal and he was appointed a Lord of the Articles after the pacification of Berwick-upon-Tweed, and again seized Aberdeen and enforced signatures of the covenant in 1640. The 7th Earl Marischal was appointed a Privy Councillor in 1641 and he attended covenanting committees in the north but remained inactive in 1643-4. He subsequently refused to give up fugitives to Montrose, and was besieged at Dunnottar Castle in 1645 and he then joined Hamiltons expedition into England in 1648 and entertained Charles II at Dunnottar in 1650. He was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London until the Restoration, the Earl Marischal married, in 1637, Elizabeth Seton daughter of George Seton, 3rd Earl of Winton by his spouse Anne, daughter of Francis Hay, 9th Earl of Erroll. They had the issue, William, Lord Keith, died young. Mary, married firstly to Sir James Hope of Hopetoun in 1657, and secondly to Sir Archibald Murray, 3rd Baronet of Blackbarony
27.
Causey Mounth
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The Causey Mounth is an ancient drovers road over the coastal fringe of the Grampian Mountains in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Constructed in the Middle Ages, the Causey Mounth was created as a rock causeway to span many of the boggy areas such as the Portlethen Moss. A number of prehistoric Megalithic monuments lie along the Causey Mounth such as the Old Bourtreebush stone circle. As late as the Early Middle Ages, the Mounth, or easternmost range of the Grampian Mountains, by the twelfth century AD construction of the Causey Mounth had begun to connect these two regions of Highlands and Lowlands. The Causey Mounth was traversed by William Keith, 7th Earl Marischal, the route was specifically designed to connect the coastal portion of Stonehaven to a crossing of the River Dee at the southern edge of Aberdeen. Stonehaven was most noted in the Middle Ages for the fortress of Dunnottar Castle, controlling land and this fortress along with Cowie Castle at the north of Stonehaven effectively controlled all coastal land and sea movements to the north. Proceeding north from Cowie Castle, the Causey Mounth crosses the Burn of Muchalls at the Bridge of Muchalls, thence the alignment crosses the Burn of Pheppie in an agricultural area and further crosses a bridge over the Burn of Elsick at Gillybrands somewhat southeast of Elsick House. After crossing through the boggy Portlethen Moss, the route passes west of a massive Megalithic standing stone, cairnamounth Elsick House Elsick Mounth Burn of Elsick Article on the Causey Mounth in Leopard Magazine by Nate Pedersen and Neil Ramsay
28.
Portlethen Moss
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The Portlethen Moss is an acidic bog nature reserve located to the west of the town of Portlethen, Aberdeenshire in Scotland. Like other mosses, this area supports a variety of plant and animal species, even though it has been subject to certain development. For example, the Great Crested Newt was found prior to the expansion of the town of Portlethen. Many acid loving vegetative species occur in Portlethen Moss, and the habitat is monitored by the Scottish Wildlife Trust. Portlethen Moss is the location of prehistoric, Middle Ages and seventeenth century history. By at least the Middle Ages this trackway was more formally constructed with raised stonework, without this drovers road, travel through the Portlethen Moss and several nearby bogs would have been impossible between Aberdeen and coastal points to the south. Prehistoric man inhabited the Portlethen Moss area as evidenced by well preserved Iron Age stone circles, the ancient Causey Mounth passage specifically connected the Bridge of Dee to the town of Stonehaven. This route was used to access the historic meeting of the Covenanters at Muchalls Castle in the year 1638 AD as they opposed the Bishops of Aberdeen, in the period 1960 to 2005, Portlethen has developed as a dormitory town to Aberdeen and a location for retail superstores. The Portlethen Moss is a nature preserve by the Scottish Wildlife Trust. While peat cutting was conducted in prehistoric and Middle Ages times, enrichment is not a major issue due to the low density of animals. As a net result damage to the moss is considered extensive. The raised bog habitat of the Portlethen Moss is also protected by the United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan. Portlethen Moss is considered a raised bog, because its situation is on higher ground, at the edge of the Mounth. There are rock outcrops and strewn boulders relict from the age at this site. Elevations within the Portlethen Moss range from approximately 35 to 60 metres above sea level, formation of this moss has occurred due to extensive sets of depressions in the underlying rock formations of Old Red Sandstone. The entire water composition of the bog thus has been provided by precipitation with no source of surface runoff, there was virtually no drainage outlet in prehistoric times, and little drainage even in modern times. Many coastal mosses were initiated by the process of glaciation, which sheared rock formations to a level terrain. A layer of sphagnum moss would have developed at the level of the bog
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Cavalier
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It was later adopted by the Royalists themselves. Prince Rupert, commander of much of Charles Is cavalry, is considered to be an archetypal Cavalier. Cavalier derives from the same Latin root as the French word chevalier, Cavalier is chiefly associated with the Royalist supporters of King Charles I in his struggle with Parliament in the English Civil War. Charles, in the Answer to the Petition 13 June 1642 speaks of Cavaliers as a word by what mistake soever it seemes much in disfavour, Cavalier was not understood at the time as primarily a term describing a style of dress, but a whole political and social attitude. Most Parliamentarian generals wore their hair at much the length as their Royalist counterparts. The best patrons in the nobility of Charles Is court painter Sir Anthony van Dyck, probably the most famous image identified as of a cavalier, Frans Hals Laughing Cavalier, shows a gentleman from the strongly Calvinist Dutch town of Haarlem, and is dated 1624. These derogatory terms also showed what the typical Parliamentarian thought of the Royalist side – capricious men who cared more for vanity than the nation at large. Although they did not share the same outlook on how to worship God as the English Independents of the New Model Army, if I forget Thee, do not forget me. However, the word was coined by the Roundheads as a propaganda image of a licentious, hard drinking and frivolous man. It is this image which has survived and many Royalists, for example Henry Wilmot, 1st Earl of Rochester, fitted this description to a tee. Of all his qualifications dissimulation was his masterpiece, in which he so much excelled and this sense has developed into the modern English use of cavalier to describe a recklessly nonchalant attitude, although still with a suggestion of stylishness. Likewise during Exclusion Bill crisis the term Roundhead was replaced with Whig, an example of the Cavalier style can be seen in the painting Charles I, King of England, from Three Angles by Anthony van Dyck. The mascot of Cavalier has been commonly used in the sports world. Most prominently it has been that of the professional Cleveland Cavaliers in the NBA since 1970 and it has also been adopted by smaller organizations such as Johnson County Community College, Kankakee Community College, St. Gregorys University, and the University of Virginias College at Wise. Cavaliers have been represented as a class and subclass of role-playing character since 1983 in Advanced Dungeons & Dragons, Cavalier Generals, King Charles I and His Commanders in the English Civil War, 1642–46. Going to the Wars, The Experience of the British Civil Wars 1638-1651, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Goring, George Goring, Lord. Clarendon, Edward Hyde, 1st earl of, the history of the rebellion and civil wars in England. The History of England from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution 1688, the Concise Encyclopedia of the Revolutions and Wars of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1639-1660
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Bridge of Dee
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The Bridge of Dee or Brig o Dee is a road bridge over the River Dee in Aberdeen, Scotland. The term is used for the surrounding area of the city. Dating from 1527, the crosses at what was once the City of Aberdeens southern boundary. This was the site of a battle in 1639 between the Royalists under Viscount Aboyne and the Covenanters who were led by the Marquess of Montrose and this was the only substantial action of the First Bishops War, ironically it took place after the peace treaty had already been signed. The Bridge of Dee is approximately 32 feet above typical water height and consists of seven semicircular ribbed arches, built using granite. Today the bridge carries the main A90 road into Aberdeen from the south, previously listed as a Scheduled monument, it was de-scheduled on 16 February 2009 and designated a Category A listed structure. The bridge was built following a bequest of £20,000 by Bishop William Elphinstone who died in 1514, the bridge was completed by Bishop Gavin Dunbar. It was nearly all rebuilt between 1718 and 1723, and in 1841 was widened from 14 to 26 feet under the direction of Aberdeen City Architect John Smith. Smith also designed the Shakkin Briggie, and worked on the Bridge of Don with Telford, the bridge is located near the northern terminus of the Causey Mounth, a medieval drovers road connecting Stonehaven to Aberdeen. This ancient trackway specifically connected the Bridge of Dee via Bourtreebush, Muchalls Castle, the route was that taken by William Keith, 7th Earl Marischal and the Marquess of Montrose when they led a Covenanter army of 9000 men in the first battle of the Civil War in 1639. Until 1832, this was the access to the city from the south. The bridge still features the original 16th-century piers, coats of arms and passing places
31.
Presbyterianism
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Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism which traces its origins to the British Isles, particularly Scotland. Presbyterian churches derive their name from the form of church government. Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of the Scriptures, Presbyterian church government was ensured in Scotland by the Acts of Union in 1707 which created the Kingdom of Great Britain. In fact, most Presbyterians found in England can trace a Scottish connection, the Presbyterian denominations in Scotland hold to the theology of John Calvin and his immediate successors, although there are a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism. The roots of Presbyterianism lie in the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, most Reformed churches which trace their history back to Scotland are either presbyterian or congregationalist in government. In the twentieth century, some Presbyterians played an important role in the ecumenical movement, many Presbyterian denominations have found ways of working together with other Reformed denominations and Christians of other traditions, especially in the World Communion of Reformed Churches. Some Presbyterian churches have entered into unions with other churches, such as Congregationalists, Lutherans, Anglicans, Presbyterian history is part of the history of Christianity, but the beginning of Presbyterianism as a distinct movement occurred during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. As the Catholic Church resisted the reformers, several different theological movements splintered from the Church, the Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to England and Scotland. In August 1560 the Parliament of Scotland adopted the Scots Confession as the creed of the Scottish Kingdom, Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by doctrine, institutional organization and worship, often using a Book of Order to regulate common practice and order. The origins of the Presbyterian churches are in Calvinism, many branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups. Presbyterians place great importance upon education and lifelong learning, Presbyterian government is by councils of elders. Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene in the lowest council known as a session or consistory responsible for the discipline, nurture, teaching elders have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments. Pastors are called by individual congregations, a congregation issues a call for the pastors service, but this call must be ratified by the local presbytery. Ruling elders are usually laymen who are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the elders, assuming responsibility for nurture. Often, especially in larger congregations, the elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance and this group may variously be known as a Deacon Board, Board of Deacons Diaconate, or Deacons Court. These are sometimes known as presbyters to the full congregation, above the sessions exist presbyteries, which have area responsibilities. These are composed of teaching elders and ruling elders from each of the constituent congregations, the presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional or national assembly, generally known as the General Assembly, although an intermediate level of a synod sometimes exists. The Church of Scotland abolished the Synod in 1993, Presbyterian governance is practised by Presbyterian denominations and also by many other Reformed churches
32.
Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll
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Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll, 8th Earl of Argyll, chief of Clan Campbell, was a Scottish nobleman, politician, and peer. He was the de facto head of government of Scotland during most of the known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. He was a figure in the Covenanter movement that fought for the Presbyterian religion. He is often remembered as the arch-enemy of the royalist general James Graham, Argyll was said to be of above average height, but slight in build. He had reddish hair, which darkened in later life - among the Highlanders he was often called red Argyll - and a pronounced squint. Contemporaries said he had a charming and persuasive manner, although early in life he developed a habit of abruptly leaving the room if a conversation took a turn he did not like. Clarendon said that his wit was pregnant, and his gay and pleasant. On the outbreak of the dispute between the king and Scotland in 1637, Lord Lornes support was eagerly sought by Charles I. He was made a councillor in 1628. In consequence, a commission was given to the Randal MacDonnell, Earl of Antrim to invade Argyll. Argyll continued to attend the meetings of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland after its dissolution by the Marquess of Hamilton, in 1639, he sent a statement to Laud, and subsequently to the king, defending the General Assemblys action. Argyll raised a body of troops and seized Hamiltons castle of Brodick in Arran and this was a fundamental change to the Scottish constitution, whereby the management of public affairs was entrusted to a representative body and withdrawn from the control of the crown. It was on occasion that the Bonnie Hoose o Airlie was burned. By this time, the personal dislike and difference in opinion between Montrose and Argyll led to an open breach, the former arranged that on the occasion of Charless approaching visit to Scotland, Argyll would be accused of high treason in the parliament. The plot, however, was disclosed, and Montrose, among others, was imprisoned, accordingly, when the king arrived, he found himself deprived of every remnant of influence and authority. It only remained for Charles to make a series of concessions, meanwhile, there was an unsuccessful attempt to kidnap Argyll, Hamilton, and Lanark, known as The Incident. Argyll was mainly instrumental in this crisis in keeping the party faithful to what was to him evidently the common cause. He forced Huntly to retreat in April, in July, he advanced to abet the Irish troops now landed in Argyll, which were fighting in conjunction with Montrose, who had put himself at the head of the Royalist forces in Scotland
33.
River Tyne
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The River Tyne /ˈtaɪn/ is a river in North East England and its length is 73 miles. It is formed by the confluence of two rivers, the North Tyne and the South Tyne and these two rivers converge at Warden Rock near Hexham in Northumberland at a place dubbed The Meeting of the Waters. The North Tyne rises on the Scottish border, north of Kielder Water and it flows through Kielder Forest, and passes through the village of Bellingham before reaching Hexham. The South Tyne rises on Alston Moor, Cumbria and flows through the towns of Haltwhistle and Haydon Bridge, hadrians Wall lies to the north of the Tyne Gap. Coincidentally the source of the South Tyne is very close to the sources of the two great rivers of the industrial north east namely the Tees and the Wear. The South Tyne Valley falls within the North Pennines Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty - the second largest of the 40 AONBs in England, to the east of Gateshead and Newcastle, the Tyne divides Hebburn and Jarrow on the south bank from Walker and Wallsend on the north bank. Jarrow and Wallsend are linked underneath the river by the Tyne Tunnel, finally it flows between South Shields and Tynemouth into the North Sea. The Tyne Rivers Trust measure the whole Tyne catchment as 2,936 square kilometres, the River Tyne is believed to be around 30 million years old. The largest coal staithes were located at Dunston in Gateshead, Hebburn and Tyne Dock, the dramatic wooden staithes at Dunston, built in 1890, have been preserved, although they were partially destroyed by fire in 2006. And to this day in 2016 Tyne Dock, South Shields is still involved with coal, the tidal river is now managed by the Port of Tyne Authority. Nothing definite is known of the origin of the designation Tyne, nor is the known by that name until the Saxon period. There is a theory that Tīn was a word that meant river in the local Celtic language or in a language spoken in England before the Celts came, there is also a river Tyne that rises in Midlothian in Scotland and flows through East Lothian into the North Sea. The River Vedra on the Roman map of Britain may be the Tyne, the late Thomas John Taylor supposed that the main course of the river anciently flowed through what is now Team Valley, its outlet into the tidal river being by a waterfall at Bill Point. His theory is not far from the truth, as there is evidence that prior to the last Ice Age, Ice diverted the course of the Wear to its current location, flowing east the course of the Tyne) and joining the North Sea at Sunderland. Sculpted by David Wynne, the bronze figure incorporates flowing water into its design. The Environment Agency is currently working with architects and cultural consultancy xsite, in collaboration with Commissions North, the Tyne Salmon Trail will serve as a celebration of the river, its heritage and its increasingly diverse ecosystem. FINS, REFLECTION and JOURNEY were the first 3 cubes to be launched in December 2007 from a family of 10, each cube is inspired by the textures, changing colours, movement and journey of the salmon. With each offering a modern day keepsake to take away, in the form of a designed Bluetooth message, for three days, between 18–20 July 2008, a temporary bamboo artwork was installed over the Tyne close to the Gateshead Millennium Bridge
34.
Newburn
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Not to be confused with Newburne, Nova Scotia Newburn is a semi rural village, parish, electoral ward and former urban district in western Tyne and Wear, North East England. Situated on the banks of the River Tyne, it is rising up the valley from the river. It is situated approximately 5 miles from the city of Newcastle upon Tyne,14 miles east of Hexham and 13 miles south south west of Morpeth, in the 2001 census, the population was given as 9,301, increasing to 9,536 at the 2011 Census. The town is in the Newcastle upon Tyne district of Tyne, historically, the town was larger than Newcastle upon Tyne as it was the most eastern fordable point of the River Tyne. The area has Roman remains, and a Norman church dating from 1070 AD, in 1640, the Battle of Newburn took place. The towns steelworks fell into decline after the First World War, though some claim the villages name comes from the Old English for New Fort or Castle, the name is more commonly thought to have come from the Dewley or New Burn, which runs through the village. This is somewhat substantiated by the fact that the settlement was recorded as Neuburna in 1121, Newburn was originally considered to have pre-eminence over Newcastle, as Newburn was the first point up from the mouth of the river that was fordable. The Romans marked this ford with a framework of stones, the village has other Roman connections, with the route of Hadrians Wall cutting across its northern half, before running toward Throckley. From the eighth century, Newburn was a vill or town. Between 1332 and 1974 the Percy family were associated with Newburn, and Hugh Percy was the last to inherit Newburn Manor House, also in the village at this time was Newburn Hall, which was built in the 15th century. On 28 August 1640, the Battle of Newburn took place, the Scottish claim this occupation to have been the prologue to the English Civil War. The name of Scotswood, one of the villages between Newburn and the city, commemorates one of their positions. Prior to the early 19th century, the majority of employment in the Newburn area was for fishermen, keelmen, the district has many associations with the early development of the railway. The village is also the birthplace of an earlier steam pioneer William Hedley, whose first locomotive Puffing Billy was built in 1812, a gravestone in Newburn churchyard marks his burial in 1843. The future railway engineers Joseph and George Armstrong both lived in the village from 1824, and found their first employment at nearby Walbottle Colliery, in 1822 John Spencer established Newburn Steelworks in a small mill for grinding files, on the Dewley Burn in the north of Newburn. Over the course of next hundred or so years his mill grew to take much of Newburn as the demand for steel boomed with the growth of railways. By the late 19th century, the works had spread to the east of the village along the banks of the Tyne to such an extent Newburn Hall was embedded in them, in 1916 the mill had a weekly output of 1,500 tons. Steel plates for the liner Mauretania were made by Spencers, however the industry was hit hard by the depression after the First World War and the steel works closed between 1924 and 1926, despite a large effort to raise £75,000 needed to save the works
35.
Edinburgh Castle
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Edinburgh Castle is a historic fortress which dominates the skyline of the city of Edinburgh, Scotland, from its position on the Castle Rock. Archaeologists have established human occupation of the rock since at least the Iron Age, there has been a royal castle on the rock since at least the reign of David I in the 12th century, and the site continued to be a royal residence until 1633. From the 15th century the residential role declined, and by the 17th century it was principally used as military barracks with a large garrison. Research undertaken in 2014 identified 26 sieges in its 1100-year-old history, giving it a claim to having been the most besieged place in Great Britain, few of the present buildings pre-date the Lang Siege of the 16th century, when the medieval defences were largely destroyed by artillery bombardment. The castle also houses the Scottish regalia, known as the Honours of Scotland and is the site of the Scottish National War Memorial, the British Army is still responsible for some parts of the castle, although its presence is now largely ceremonial and administrative. Some of the buildings house regimental museums which contribute to its presentation as a tourist attraction. The castle, in the care of Historic Scotland, is Scotlands most-visited paid tourist attraction, the castle stands upon the plug of an extinct volcano, which is estimated to have risen about 350 million years ago during the lower Carboniferous period. The Castle Rock is the remains of a pipe, which cut through the surrounding sedimentary rock before cooling to form very hard dolerite. Subsequent glacial erosion was resisted by the dolerite, which protected the softer rock to the east, leaving a crag and tail formation. The summit of the Castle Rock is 130 metres above sea level, with rocky cliffs to the south, west and north and this means that the only readily accessible route to the castle lies to the east, where the ridge slopes more gently. The defensive advantage of such a site is self-evident, but the geology of the rock also presents difficulties, archaeological investigation has yet to establish when the Castle Rock was first used as a place of human habitation. There is no record of any Roman interest in the location during General Agricolas invasion of northern Britain near the end of the 1st century AD. Ptolemys map of the 2nd century AD shows a settlement in the territory of the Votadini named Alauna, meaning rock place and this could, however, refer to another of the tribes hill forts in the area. The Orygynale Cronykil of Andrew of Wyntoun, a source for Scottish history, names Ebrawce. According to the chronicler, Geoffrey of Monmouth, Ebraucus had fifty children by his twenty wives, and was the founder of Kaerebrauc, Alclud. The 16th-century English writer John Stow, credited Ebraucus with building the Castell of Maidens called Edenbrough in 989 BC, the name Maidens Castle occurs frequently up until the 16th century. It appears in charters of David I and his successors, although the reason for it is not known. According to the 17th-century antiquarian Father Richard Hay, the maidens were a group of nuns, however, this story was considered apocryphal by the 19th-century antiquarian Daniel Wilson and has been ignored by historians since
