1.
Hamburg
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Hamburg, officially Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, is the second largest city in Germany and the eighth largest city in the European Union. It is the second smallest German state by area and its population is over 1.7 million people, and the wider Hamburg Metropolitan Region covers more than 5.1 million inhabitants. The city is situated on the river Elbe, the official long name reflects Hamburgs history as a member of the medieval Hanseatic League, a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire, a city-state, and one of the 16 states of Germany. Before the 1871 Unification of Germany, it was a sovereign state. Prior to the changes in 1919, the civic republic was ruled by a class of hereditary grand burghers or Hanseaten. Though repeatedly destroyed by the Great Fire of Hamburg, the floods and military conflicts including WW2 bombing raids, the city managed to recover and emerge wealthier after each catastrophe. On the river Elbe, Hamburg is a port and a global service, media, logistics and industrial hub, with headquarters and facilities of Airbus, Blohm + Voss, Aurubis, Beiersdorf. The radio and television broadcaster NDR, Europes largest printing and publishing firm Gruner + Jahr, Hamburg has been an important financial centre for centuries, and is the seat of Germanys oldest stock exchange and the worlds second oldest bank, Berenberg Bank. The city is a fast expanding tourist destination for domestic and international visitors. It ranked 16th in the world for livability in 2015, the ensemble Speicherstadt and Kontorhausviertel was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 2015. Hamburg is a major European science, research and education hub with several universities and institutes and its creative industries and major cultural venues include the renowned Elbphilharmonie and Laeisz concert halls, various art venues, music producers and artists. It is regarded as a haven for artists, gave birth to movements like Hamburger Schule. Hamburg is also known for theatres and a variety of musical shows. St. Paulis Reeperbahn is among the best known European entertainment districts, Hamburg is on the southern point of the Jutland Peninsula, between Continental Europe to the south and Scandinavia to the north, with the North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the north-east. It is on the River Elbe at its confluence with the Alster, the city centre is around the Binnenalster and Außenalster, both formed by damming the River Alster to create lakes. The island of Neuwerk and two neighbouring islands Scharhörn and Nigehörn, in the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park, are also part of Hamburg. The neighbourhoods of Neuenfelde, Cranz, Francop and Finkenwerder are part of the Altes Land region, neugraben-Fischbek has Hamburgs highest elevation, the Hasselbrack at 116.2 metres AMSL. Hamburg has a climate, influenced by its proximity to the coast
2.
Galaxy Science Fiction
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Galaxy Science Fiction was an American digest-size science fiction magazine, published from 1950 to 1980. It was founded by an Italian company, World Editions, which was looking to break into the American market. World Editions hired as editor H. L. Gold, who rapidly made Galaxy the leading science fiction magazine of its time, in 1952, the magazine was acquired by Robert Guinn, its printer. By the late 1950s, Frederik Pohl was helping Gold with most aspects of the magazines production, when Golds health worsened, Pohl took over as editor, starting officially at the end of 1961, though he had been doing the majority of the production work for some time. Under Pohl Galaxy had continued success, regularly publishing fiction by such as Cordwainer Smith, Jack Vance, Harlan Ellison. However, Pohl never won the annual Hugo Award for his stewardship of Galaxy, in 1969 Guinn sold Galaxy to Universal Publishing and Distribution Corporation and Pohl resigned, to be replaced by Ejler Jakobsson. Under Jakobsson the magazine declined in quality, by the end of the 1970s the gaps between issues were lengthening, and the title was finally sold to Galileo publisher Vincent McCaffrey, who brought out only a single issue in 1980. A brief revival as a magazine followed in 1994, edited by H. L. Golds son, E. J. Gold. At its peak, Galaxy greatly influenced the science fiction field and it was regarded as one of the leading sf magazines almost from the start, and its influence did not wane until Pohls departure in 1969. Gold brought a sophisticated intellectual subtlety to magazine science fiction according to Pohl, SF historian David Kyle agrees, commenting that of all the editors in and out of the post-war scene, the most influential beyond any doubt was H. L. Gold. Kyle suggests that the new direction Gold set inevitably led to the experimental New Wave, the first science fiction magazine, Amazing Stories, appeared in 1926. By the end of the 1930s, the genre was flourishing in the United States, in the late 1940s, the market began to recover. From a low of eight active US magazines in 1946, the field expanded to 20 just four years later, Galaxys appearance in 1950 was part of this boom. With the advent of the war, Gold left publishing and went into the army, but in late 1949 he was approached by Vera Cerutti, Cerutti was now working for an Italian publisher, Edizione Mondiale, that had opened an office in New York as World Editions. She initially asked Gold for guidance on how to produce a magazine, World Editions took a heavy loss on Fascination, its first attempt to launch a US magazine, and Cerutti returned to Gold asking for recommendations for new titles. Gold knew about The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, a digest launched in the fall of 1949, World Editions agreed, hired Gold as the editor, and the first issue appeared in October 1950. The novel series subsequently appeared as Galaxy Science Fiction Novels, Gold initially suggested two titles for the magazine, If and Galaxy. For the first issue, Gold obtained stories by several authors, including Isaac Asimov, Fritz Leiber
3.
Planet Stories
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Planet Stories was an American pulp science fiction magazine, published by Fiction House between 1939 and 1955. It featured interplanetary adventures, both in space and on planets, and was initially focused on a young readership. Malcolm Reiss was editor or editor-in-chief for all of its 71 issues, Planet Stories was launched at the same time as Planet Comics, the success of which probably helped to fund the early issues of Planet Stories. In 1952 Planet published Philip K. Dicks first sale, bradburys work for Planet included an early story in his Martian Chronicles sequence. Bracketts best-known work for the magazine was a series of adventures featuring Eric John Stark, the artwork also emphasized attractive women, with scantily clad damsels in distress or alien princesses on almost every cover. By the end of the 1930s the field was undergoing its first boom, Fiction House, a major pulp publisher, had run into difficulties during the Depression, but after a relaunch in 1934 found success with detective and romance pulp titles. The first issue was dated Winter 1939, with the Summer 1950 issue the editorship passed to Jerome Bixby, who was already editing Jungle Stories. Soon thereafter Planet Stories switched from a quarterly to bimonthly schedule, Bixby lasted a little over a year, Malcolm Reiss took over again in September 1951, and three issues later, in March 1952, Jack OSullivan became editor. A contemporary market survey records that in 1953, payment rates were only one to two cents per word, this was substantially behind the magazines of the day. Planet returned to a quarterly schedule beginning with the Summer 1954 issue, but the market was collapsing. Planet relied on a few authors to provide the bulk of its fiction in the years, with Nelson Bond providing eight lead stories. Fourteen more were written by Ray Cummings and Ross Rocklynne, and Leigh Brackett was also a regular contributor, the letter column in Planet was titled The Vizigraph, it was very active, with long letters from an engaged readership. Despite the focus on melodramatic space adventure, the fiction in Planet Stories improved over the few years, largely due to the work of Brackett. Both writers set many of their stories on a version of Mars that owed much to the Barsoom of Edgar Rice Burroughs. Bracketts writing improved during the 1940s from formulaic pulp adventure to a mature style. She wrote a series of stories featuring adventurer Eric John Stark. Also arguing in support of Planet Stories, science fiction critic John Clute has commented that the content was far more sophisticated than the covers. He also collaborated on a story with Leigh Brackett, Lorelei of the Red Mist, based on an idea of hers and his stories for Planet demonstrate his reservations about the advance of technology, in particular The Golden Apples of the Sun, and A Sound of Thunder
4.
Amazing Stories
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Amazing Stories is an American science fiction magazine launched in April 1926 by Hugo Gernsbacks Experimenter Publishing. It was the first magazine devoted solely to science fiction, Science fiction stories had made regular appearances in other magazines, including some published by Gernsback, but Amazing helped define and launch a new genre of pulp fiction. Amazing was published, with interruptions, for almost eighty years, going through a half-dozen owners. Gernsback was forced into bankruptcy and lost control of the magazine in 1929, and by 1938 it was purchased by Ziff-Davis, Palmer made the magazine successful though it was not regarded as a quality magazine within the science fiction community. Amazing switched to a digest size format in 1953, shortly before the end of the pulp-magazine era. Ted White took over as editor in 1969, eliminated the reprints and made the magazine respected again, several other owners attempted to create a modern incarnation of the magazine in the following decades, but publication was suspended after the March 2005 issue. A new incarnation appeared in July 2012 as an online magazine, Gernsbacks initial editorial approach was to blend instruction with entertainment, he believed science fiction could educate readers. His audience rapidly showed a preference for implausible adventures, however, despite this, Gernsback had an enormous impact on the field, the creation of a specialist magazine for science fiction spawned an entire genre publishing industry. The letter columns in Amazing, where fans could make contact with other, led to the formation of science fiction fandom. Writers whose first story was published in the magazine include John W. Campbell, Isaac Asimov, Howard Fast, Le Guin, Roger Zelazny, and Thomas M. Disch. Overall, though, Amazing itself was rarely an influential magazine within the genre after the 1920s, by the end of the 19th century, stories centered on scientific inventions, and stories set in the future, were appearing regularly in popular fiction magazines. The market for short stories lent itself to tales of invention in the tradition of Jules Verne, Magazines such as Munseys Magazine and The Argosy, launched in 1889 and 1896 respectively, carried a few science fiction stories each year. In 1908, Hugo Gernsback published the first issue of Modern Electrics and it was an immediate success, and Gernsback began to include articles on imaginative uses of science, such as Wireless on Saturn. In 1920 Gernsback retitled the magazine Science and Invention, and through the early 1920s he published much scientific fiction in its pages, Gernsback had started another magazine called Practical Electrics in 1921. However, in 1926 he decided to go ahead, and ceased publication of The Experimenter to make room in his schedule for a new magazine. The editor of The Experimenter, T. OConor Sloane, became the editor of Amazing Stories, the first issue appeared on 10 March 1926, with a cover date of April 1926. Initially the magazine focussed on reprints, the first original story was “The Man From the Atom ” by G. Peyton Wertenbaker in the May 1926 issue, in the August issue, new stories were noted with an asterisk in the table of contents. The editorial work was largely done by Sloane, but Gernsback retained final say over the fiction content, Two consultants, Conrad A. Brandt and Wilbur C
5.
Science fiction
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Science fiction often explores the potential consequences of scientific and other innovations, and has been called a literature of ideas. Science fiction is difficult to define, as it includes a range of subgenres and themes. Author and editor Damon Knight summed up the difficulty, saying science fiction is what we point to when we say it, a definition echoed by author Mark C. Glassy, who argues that the definition of science fiction is like the definition of pornography, you do not know what it is, in 1970 or 1971William Atheling Jr. According to science fiction writer Robert A, rod Serlings definition is fantasy is the impossible made probable. Science fiction is the improbable made possible, Science fiction is largely based on writing rationally about alternative possible worlds or futures. Science fiction elements include, A time setting in the future, in alternative timelines, a spatial setting or scenes in outer space, on other worlds, or on subterranean earth. Characters that include aliens, mutants, androids, or humanoid robots, futuristic or plausible technology such as ray guns, teleportation machines, and humanoid computers. Scientific principles that are new or that contradict accepted physical laws, for time travel, wormholes. New and different political or social systems, e. g. utopian, dystopian, post-scarcity, paranormal abilities such as mind control, telepathy, telekinesis Other universes or dimensions and travel between them. A product of the budding Age of Reason and the development of science itself. Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan considered Keplers work the first science fiction story and it depicts a journey to the Moon and how the Earths motion is seen from there. Later, Edgar Allan Poe wrote a story about a flight to the moon, more examples appeared throughout the 19th century. Wells The War of the Worlds describes an invasion of late Victorian England by Martians using tripod fighting machines equipped with advanced weaponry and it is a seminal depiction of an alien invasion of Earth. In the late 19th century, the scientific romance was used in Britain to describe much of this fiction. This produced additional offshoots, such as the 1884 novella Flatland, the term would continue to be used into the early 20th century for writers such as Olaf Stapledon. In the early 20th century, pulp magazines helped develop a new generation of mainly American SF writers, influenced by Hugo Gernsback, the founder of Amazing Stories magazine. In 1912 Edgar Rice Burroughs published A Princess of Mars, the first of his series of Barsoom novels, situated on Mars
6.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
7.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
8.
International Harvester
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The International Harvester Company was a United States manufacturer of agricultural machinery, construction equipment, trucks, and household and commercial products. In 1902, J. P. Morgan merged the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company and Deering Harvester Company, in 1985, International Harvester sold off most of its agricultural division to Tenneco, Inc. which merged it into its subsidiary J. I. Case under the Case IH brand, following the terms of IHs agreement with Tenneco, International Harvester renamed itself Navistar International Corporation in 1986. Together with his brother Leander J. McCormick, McCormick moved to Chicago in 1847, the McCormick reaper sold well, partially as a result of savvy and innovative business practices. Their products came onto the market just as the development of railroads offered wide distribution to distant market areas and he developed marketing and sales techniques, developing a vast network of trained salesmen able to demonstrate operation of the machines in the field. In 1902, the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company and Deering Harvester Company, banker J. P. Morgan provided the financing. In 1919, the Parlin and Orendorff factory in Canton, Illinois, was a leader in the manufacturing industry. International Harvester purchased the factory, calling it the Canton Works, in 1926, IHs Farmall Works began production in a new plant in Rock Island, Illinois, built solely to produce the new Farmall tractor. By 1930, the 100, 000th Farmall was produced, IH next set their sights on introducing a true general-purpose tractor designed to satisfy the needs of the average US family farmer. IH ranked 33rd among United States corporations in the value of World War II production contracts, in 1946 IH acquired a defense plant in Louisville, Kentucky, which was enlarged, expanded, and re-equipped for production of the Farmall A, B, and the new 340 tractors. Then in 1948, IH acquired the Metropolitan Body Company of Bridgeport and this was the manufacturing facility for the bodies of the commercially successful Metro line of forward control vans and trucks from 1938 until roughly 1964. In 1974, the five-millionth IHC tractor was produced at the Rock Island Farmall plant, throughout the 1960s and 1970s, despite good sales, IHs profit margins remained slim. An overly conservative management, combined with a policy of in-house promotions, tended to stifle new management strategies. Products with increasingly ancient technology continued in production despite their marginal addition to sales, in 1979, IH named a new CEO, who was determined to improve profit margins and drastically cut ballooning costs. Unprofitable model lines were terminated, and factory production curtailed, by the end of the year, IH profits were at their highest in 10 years, but cash reserves were still too low. Union members became increasingly irate over production cutbacks and other cost-cutting measures, in the spring and summer of 1979, IH began short-term planning for a strike that seemed inevitable. Then on November 1, IH announced figures showing that president, McCardell sought overtime, work rule, and other changes from the United Auto Workers, which led to a strike on November 2,1979. Soon after, the economy turned unfavorable, and IH faced a financial crisis, the strike lasted about six months
9.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
10.
Aerial photography
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Aerial photography is the taking of photographs of the ground from an elevated/direct-down position. Usually the camera is not supported by a ground-based structure, mounted cameras may be triggered remotely or automatically, hand-held photographs may be taken by a photographer. Aerial photography should not be confused with air-to-air photography, where one or more aircraft are used as chase planes that chase, Aerial photography was first practiced by the French photographer and balloonist Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, known as Nadar, in 1858 over Paris, France. However, the photographs he produced no longer exist and therefore the earliest surviving aerial photograph is titled Boston, as the Eagle, taken by James Wallace Black and Samuel Archer King on October 13,1860, it depicts Boston from a height of 630m. Kite aerial photography was pioneered by British meteorologist E. D. Archibald in 1882 and he used an explosive charge on a timer to take photographs from the air. Frenchman Arthur Batut began using kites for photography in 1888, Samuel Franklin Cody developed his advanced Man-lifter War Kite and succeeded in interesting the British War Office with its capabilities. The first use of a motion picture camera mounted to an aircraft took place on April 24,1909 over Rome in the 3,28 silent film short. The use of aerial photography rapidly matured during the war, as aircraft were equipped with cameras to record enemy movements. At the start of the conflict, the usefulness of aerial photography was not fully appreciated, germany adopted the first aerial camera, a Görz, in 1913. The French began the war with several squadrons of Blériot observation aircraft equipped with cameras for reconnaissance, the French Army developed procedures for getting prints into the hands of field commanders in record time. Frederick Charles Victor Laws started aerial photography experiments in 1912 with No.1 Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps, in 1916 the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy made vertical camera axis aerial photos above Italy for map-making. The camera was inserted into the floor of the aircraft and could be triggered by the pilot at intervals. In January 1918, General Allenby used five Australian pilots from No.1 Squadron AFC to photograph a 624 square miles area in Palestine as an aid to correcting and improving maps of the Turkish front and this was a pioneering use of aerial photography as an aid for cartography. Beginning 5 January, they flew with an escort to ward off enemy fighters. The first commercial aerial photography company in the UK was Aerofilms Ltd, founded by World War I veterans Francis Wills, the company soon expanded into a business with major contracts in Africa and Asia as well as in the UK. Operations began from the Stag Lane Aerodrome at Edgware, using the aircraft of the London Flying School, subsequently, the Aircraft Manufacturing Company, hired an Airco DH.9 along with pilot entrepreneur Alan Cobham. From 1921, Aerofilms carried out vertical photography for survey and mapping purposes, during the 1930s, the company pioneered the science of photogrammetry, with the Ordnance Survey amongst the companys clients. One Fairchild aerial survey aircraft in 1935 carried unit that combined two synchronized cameras, and each camera having five six inch lenses with a ten-inch lenses, each photo covered two hundred and twenty five square miles
11.
Asiatic-Pacific Theater
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The Asiatic-Pacific Theater, was the area of operations of U. S. forces during World War II in the Pacific War during 1941-45. From mid-1942 until the end of the war in 1945, there were two U. S. operational commands in the Pacific. The Pacific Ocean Areas, divided into the Central Pacific Area, the North Pacific Area, the South West Pacific Area, including New Guinea, Philippines, Borneo, and the Dutch East Indies, was commanded by General Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Allied Commander South West Pacific Area. During 1945, the United States added the U. S. Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific, commanded by General Carl Spaatz. Because of the roles of the United States Army and the United States Navy in conducting war in the Pacific Theater. There was no command, rather, the Asiatic-Pacific Theater was divided into the SWPA, the POA. The Official Chronology of the U. S. Navy in World War II, in the Service of the Emperor, Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army. Kafka, Roger, Pepperburg, Roy L. Warships of the World, the Campaigns of the Pacific War. A History of Us, War, Peace and all that Jazz, joint Operational Warfare, Theory and Practice. Newport, Rhode Island, United States Naval War College, the Battle for Leyte,1944, Allied and Japanese Plans, Preparations, and Execution
12.
United States Army Air Corps
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The United States Army Air Corps was the military aviation arm of the United States of America between 1926 and 1941. The USAAC was renamed from the earlier United States Army Air Service on 2 July 1926, the Air Corps became the United States Army Air Forces on 20 June 1941, giving it greater autonomy from the Armys middle-level command structure. The separation of the Air Corps from control of its combat units caused problems of unity of command that became more acute as the Air Corps enlarged in preparation for World War II. This was resolved by the creation of the Army Air Forces, the U. S. Army Air Service had a brief but turbulent history. In early 1926 the Military Affairs Committee of the Congress rejected all bills set forth before it on both sides of the issue. They fashioned a compromise in which the findings of the Morrow Board were enacted as law, while providing the air arm a five-year plan for expansion and development. The legislation changed the name of the Air Service to the Air Corps, thereby strengthening the conception of military aviation as an offensive, the Air Corps Act became law on 2 July 1926. Two additional brigadier generals would serve as assistant chiefs of the Air Corps, previous provisions of the National Defense Act of 1920 that all flying units be commanded only by rated personnel and that flight pay be awarded were continued. The Air Corps also retained the Prop and Wings as its branch insignia through its disestablishment in 1947, patrick became Chief of the Air Corps and Brig. Gen. James E. Fechet continued as his first assistant chief. The Air Corps Act of 2 July 1926 effected no fundamental innovation, the change in designation meant no change in status, the Air Corps was still a combatant branch of the Army with less prestige than the Infantry. The Air Corps Act gave authorization to carry out an expansion program. However, a lack of appropriations caused the beginning of the program to be delayed until 1 July 1927. The act authorized expansion to 1,800 airplanes,1,650 officers, none of the goals were reached by July 1932. Organizationally the Air Corps doubled from seven to fifteen groups, but the expansion was meaningless because all were seriously understrength in aircraft and pilots. Air Corps groups added 1927–1937 ¹Inactivated on 20 May 1937 ²Redesignated 17th Attack Group, 17th Bomb Group As units of the Air Corps increased in number, so did higher command echelons. The 1st Bomb Wing was activated in 1931, followed by the 3rd Attack Wing in 1932 to protect the Mexican border, the three wings became the foundation of General Headquarters Air Force upon its activation in 1935. In 1927 the Air Corps adopted a new scheme for painting its aircraft. The wings and tails of aircraft were painted yellow, with the words U. S
13.
Trailer (vehicle)
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A trailer is generally an unpowered vehicle towed by a powered vehicle. It is commonly used for the transport of goods and materials, sometimes recreational vehicles, travel trailers, or mobile homes with limited living facilities, where people can camp or stay have been referred to as trailers. In earlier days, many vehicles were towable trailers. In the United States, the term is used interchangeably with travel trailer and mobile home, varieties of trailers. Their origins lay in utility trailers built in a fashion to horse-drawn wagons. A trailer park is an area where homes are placed for habitation. In the United States trailers ranging in size from single-axle dollies to 6-axle,13 ft 6 in high,53 ft 0 in long semi-trailers are commonplace. The latter, when towed as part of a tractor-trailer or 18-wheeler, enclosed toy trailers and motorcycle trailers can be towed by commonly accessible pickup truck or van, which generally require no special permit beyond a regular drivers license. Other trailers, such as utility trailers and travel trailers or campers come in single and multiple axle varieties, there also exist highly specialized trailers, such as genset trailers, pusher trailers and their ilk that are also used to power the towing vehicle. Others are custom-built to hold entire kitchens and other specialized equipment used by carnival vendors, there are also trailers for hauling boats. Popular campers use lightweight trailers, aerodynamic trailers that can be towed by a small car and they are built to be lower than the tow vehicle, minimizing drag. Others range from two-axle campers that can be pulled by most mid-sized pickups to trailers that are as long as the host countrys law allows for drivers without special permits. Larger campers tend to be fully integrated recreational vehicles, which often are used to tow single-axle dolly trailers to allow the driver to bring small cars on their travels, a semi-trailer is a trailer without a front axle. A large proportion of its weight is supported either by a tractor or by a detachable front axle assembly known as a dolly. A semi-trailer is normally equipped with legs, called landing gear, which can be lowered to support it when it is uncoupled. In the United States, a single trailer cannot exceed a length of 57 ft 0 in on interstate highways, semi-trailers vary considerably in design, ranging from open-topped grain haulers through Tautliners to normal-looking but refrigerated 13 ft 6 in x 53 ft 0 in enclosures. Many semi-trailers are part of semi-trailer trucks, other types of semi-trailers include dry vans, flatbeds and chassis. A full trailer is a used in the United States for a freight trailer supported by front and rear axles
14.
Analog Science Fiction and Fact
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Analog Science Fiction and Fact is an American science-fiction magazine published under various titles since 1930. The first issue, titled Astounding Stories of Super-Science, was dated January 1930, published by William Clayton, Clayton went bankrupt in 1933 and the magazine was sold to Street & Smith. At the end of 1937, Campbell took over editorial duties under Tremaines supervision, the period beginning with Campbells editorship is often referred to as the Golden Age of Science Fiction. By 1950, new competition had appeared from Galaxy Science Fiction, in 1960, Campbell changed the title of the magazine to Analog Science Fiction & Fact, he had long wanted to get rid of the word Astounding in the title, which he felt was too sensational. At about the same time Street & Smith sold the magazine to Condé Nast, Campbell remained as editor until his death in 1971. Ben Bova took over from 1972 to 1978, and the character of the magazine changed noticeably, Bova won five consecutive Hugo Awards for his editing of Analog. The title was sold to Davis Publications in 1980, then to Dell Magazines in 1992, Crosstown Publications acquired Dell in 1996 and remains the publisher. Schmidt continued to edit the magazine until 2012, when he was replaced by Trevor Quachri, in 1926, Hugo Gernsback launched Amazing Stories, the first science-fiction magazine. Amazing was very successful, quickly reaching a circulation over 100,000, Clayton was unconvinced, but the following year decided to launch a new magazine, mainly because the sheet on which the color covers of his magazines were printed had a space for one more cover. He suggested to Harry Bates, a newly hired editor, that start a magazine of historical adventure stories. Bates proposed instead a science-fiction pulp, to be titled Astounding Stories of Super Science, Astounding was initially published by Publishers Fiscal Corporation, a subsidiary of Clayton Magazines. The first issue appeared in January 1930, with Bates as editor, Bates aimed for straightforward action-adventure stories, with scientific elements only present to provide minimal plausibility. In February 1931, the original name Astounding Stories of Super-Science was shortened to Astounding Stories, the magazine was profitable, but the Depression caused Clayton problems. Normally a publisher would pay a printer three months in arrears, but when a credit squeeze began in May 1931, it led to pressure to reduce this delay. The financial difficulties led Clayton to start alternating the publication of his magazines, some printers bought the magazines which were indebted to them, Clayton decided to buy his printer to prevent this from happening. As it turned out, enough stories were in inventory, and enough paper was available, to one further issue. In April, Clayton went bankrupt, and sold his titles to T. R. Foley for $100, Foley resold them in August to Street & Smith. Science fiction was not entirely a departure for Street & Smith, the first Street & Smith issue was dated October 1933, until the third issue, in December 1933, the editorial team was not named on the masthead
15.
Gale (publisher)
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Gale is an educational publishing company based in Farmington Hills, Michigan, the United States, in the western suburbs of Detroit. It was part of the Thomson Learning division of the Thomson Corporation, a Canadian company, the company, formerly known as Gale Research and the Gale Group, is active in research and educational publishing for public and academic libraries, schools and businesses. Founded in Detroit, Michigan in 1954 by Frederick Gale Ruffner, in 1999, Thomson Gale acquired Macmillan Reference USA from Pearson. In 2000 it acquired the Munich-based K. G. Saur Verlag, Thomson has said that it expected this sale to generate approximately $5 billion. Sommers was president of Gale from October 22,2007, until he retired in 2010, Gale produces hundreds of products, such as Academic OneFile, Biography and Genealogy Master Index, General OneFile, General Reference Center, Sabin Americana, and World History Collection. Gale print imprints include the reference brands Primary Source Media, Scholarly Resources Inc, schirmer Reference, St. James Press, The TAFT Group and Twayne Publishers, among others. Five Star Publishing is Gales fiction imprint, with hundreds of books in print in the Western, Romance, Mystery, Gale also sells into the K–12 market with several imprints, including U·X·L, Greenhaven Press, KidHaven Press, Lucent Books, and others. Gale also owns large print publishers Christian Large Print and Wheeler Publishing
16.
Space opera
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Space opera is a subgenre of science fiction that emphasizes space warfare, melodramatic adventure, interplanetary battles, as well as chivalric romance, and often risk-taking. Set mainly or entirely in space, it usually involves conflict between opponents possessing advanced abilities, futuristic weapons, and other sophisticated technology. The term has no relation to music, but is instead a play on the soap opera and horse opera. Space operas emerged in the 1930s and they continue to be produced in literature, film, comics, notable space opera novels include the Foundation series by Isaac Asimov, the Lensman series by E. E. Smith and the Enders Game series by Orson Scott Card. An early notable space opera film was Flash Gordon created by Alex Raymond, in the late 1970s, the Star Wars franchise created by George Lucas brought a great deal of attention to the subgenre. Space opera is defined as an adventure science-fiction story, the term space opera was coined in 1941 by fan writer and author Wilson Tucker as a pejorative term in an article in issue 36 of science fiction fanzine Le Zombie. At the time, serial dramas in the United States had become popularly known as soap operas because many were sponsored by soap manufacturers. Tucker defined space opera as the science fiction equivalent, a hacky, grinding, stinking, outworn, even earlier, the term horse opera had come into use as a term for Western films. Still, during the late 1920s and early 1930s, when the stories were printed in science-fiction magazines, beginning in the 1960s, and widely accepted by the 1970s, the space opera was redefined, following Brian Aldiss definition in Space Opera as the good old stuff. Yet soon after his redefinition, it began to be challenged, for example, by the practice and marketing of Judy-Lynn del Rey and in the reviews of her husband. In particular, they disputed the claims that space operas were obsolete, by the early 1980s, space operas were again redefined, and the label was attached to major popular culture works such as Star Wars. The term space opera began to be recognized only in the early 1990s as a genre of science fiction. It often deals with war, piracy, military virtues, and very large-scale action, early works related to but preceding the subgenre contained many elements of what would become space opera. They are today referred to as proto-space opera, defontenay and Lumen by Camille Flammarion. Not widely popular, proto-space operas were nevertheless occasionally written during the late Victorian and Edwardian science fiction era, examples may be found in the works of Percy Greg, Garrett P. Serviss, George Griffith and Robert Cromie. One critic cites Robert William Coles The Struggle for Empire, A Story of the Year 2236 as the first space opera, the novel does depict an interstellar conflict between solar men of Earth and a fierce humanoid race headquartered on Sirius. Despite this seemingly early beginning, it was not until the late 1920s that the opera proper began to appear regularly in pulp magazines such as Amazing Stories. In film, the genre began with the 1918 Danish film
17.
Telzey Amberdon
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She is introduced as a fifteen-year-old genius, a first-year law student, living on the human-settled planet Orado. Through interaction with alien psychic animals on a planet, she discovers that she has psychic powers. Upon her return to her planet, her abilities are recognized by a mechanism at the spaceport reentry gate. A major pattern in the stories is the development of her powers, eventually she teams up with the redheaded secret agent Trigger Argee. The series ends inconclusively, in the last story, a villain makes a duplicate of her, the series features one of the few imaginings of the internet before its existence—although the system takes a half-hour to download a document of modest length. The Telzey stories were published in Analog Science Fiction and Fact between 1962 and 1972. The series was popular, often getting the cover illustration. Most of it was assembled in three books, The Universe Against Her, The Lion Game and The Telzey Toy, the books remained in print as of June 2007. They were made available for download at Baen Free Library in 2005, note, TnT, Telzey & Trigger includes as Prologue to Compulsion the Trigger-only story The Pork Chop Tree, originally published in February 1965 Analog. James H. Schmitz, The Universe Against Her, the Universe Against Her title listing at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database The Lion Game. The Lion Game title listing at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database The Telzey Toy, DAW1973 The Telzey Toy title listing at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database James H. Schmitz, edited and compiled by Eric Flint, Telzey Amberdon. Baen Books, New York April 2000, partial text in Baen Free Library. Telzey Amberdon title listing at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database James H. Schmitz, edited by first Eric Flint, TnT, contentos Index to Science Fiction Anthologies and Collections Telzey Amberdon series in Locus Index to Science Fiction,2000 and in the 1984–98 volume
18.
Damsel in distress
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The damsel-in-distress or persecuted maiden is a classic theme in world literature, art, film and video games. This trope usually involves a young woman placed in a dire predicament by a villain or monster. After rescuing her, the hero often obtains her hand in marriage and she has become a stock character of fiction, particularly of melodrama. Though she is human, she can also be of any other species, including fictional or folkloric species. The word damsel derives from the French demoiselle, meaning lady. It is a term not used in modern English except for effect or in expressions such as this. It can be traced back to the knight-errant of Medieval songs and tales, the English term damsel in distress itself first appeared in Tobias Smolletts 1755 translation of Don Quixote, a parody of medieval chivalry tales. The damsel in distress theme featured in the stories of the ancient Greeks, greek mythology, while featuring a large retinue of competent goddesses, also contains helpless maidens threatened with sacrifice. For example, Andromedas mother offended Poseidon, who sent a beast to ravage the land, to appease him Andromedas parents fastened her to a rock in the sea. The hero Perseus slew the beast, saving Andromeda, Andromeda in her plight, chained naked to a rock, became a favorite theme of later painters. This theme of the Princess and dragon is also pursued in the myth of St George, another early example of a damsel in distress is Sita in the ancient Indian epic Ramayana. In the epic, Sita is kidnapped by the villain Ravana and her husband Rama goes on a quest to rescue her, with the help of the monkey-god Hanuman. European fairy tales frequently feature damsels in distress, evil witches trapped Rapunzel in a tower, cursed the princess to die in Snow White, and put Sleeping Beauty into a magical sleep. In all of these, a prince comes to the maidens aid, saves her. A number of tales in the One Thousand and One Nights also feature damsels in distress and this story appears to have influenced later European tales such as Adenes Le Rois Cleomades and The Squires Tale told in Geoffrey Chaucers The Canterbury Tales. The damsel in distress was a character of medieval romances. Chaucers The Clerks Tale of the trials and bizarre torments of patient Griselda was drawn from Petrarch. The Emprise de lEscu vert à la Dame Blanche was an order with the express purpose of protecting oppressed ladies
19.
Unknown (magazine)
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Unknown was an American pulp fantasy fiction magazine, published from 1939 to 1943 by Street & Smith, and edited by John W. Campbell. The leading fantasy magazine in the 1930s was Weird Tales, which focused on shock and horror. Unknowns first issue appeared in March 1939, in addition to Sinister Barrier, it included H. L. Golds Trouble With Water, Golds story was the first of many in Unknown to combine commonplace reality with the fantastic. In May 1923, the first issue of Weird Tales appeared, Weird Tales was a pulp magazine that specialized in fantasy stories and material that no other magazine would accept. It was not initially successful, but by the 1930s had established itself and was regularly publishing science fiction as well as fantasy, Weird Tales was the first magazine to focus solely on fantasy, and it remained the pre-eminent magazine in this field for over a decade. In the meantime, science fiction was starting to form a separately marketed genre, with the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories, a pulp magazine edited by Hugo Gernsback. In 1930 pulp publisher Clayton Publications launched Astounding Stories of Super Science, the title was shortened to Astounding Stories, and it became the leading magazine in the science fiction field over the next few years under the editorship of F. Orlin Tremaine. At the end of 1937 John W. Campbell took over as editor, by 1938, Campbell was planning a fantasy companion to Astounding, Weird Tales was still the leader in the fantasy genre, though competitors such as Strange Stories were also being launched. Campbell began acquiring stories suitable for the new magazine, without a launch date in mind. When Eric Frank Russell sent him the manuscript of his novel Sinister Barrier, the first issue of Unknown appeared in March 1939. It was a monthly at first, but poor sales forced a switch to a bimonthly schedule beginning in February 1941. When wartime paper shortages became severe in late 1943, Campbell made the choice to keep Astounding monthly and cancel Unknown, the last issue was dated October 1943. Campbells plans for Unknown were laid out in the February 1939 issue of Astounding and he argued that it has been the quality of the fantasy that you have read in the past that has made the very word anathema. Will offer fantasy of a quality so far different from that which has appeared in the past as to change your understanding of the term. Campbell asked Russell for revisions to the story to emphasize the fantastic elements and this became a defining characteristic of the fiction published in Unknown, in Ashleys words, Campbell brought the science fiction rationale to fantasy. Under Campbells editorial supervision, the element in Unknown stories had to be treated rigorously. L. Ron Hubbard, Theodore Sturgeon, and L. Sprague de Camp were among the most prolific, de Camp, in collaboration with Fletcher Pratt, contributed three stories featuring Harold Shea, who finds himself in a world where magic operates by rigorous rules. The title of one of these, The Mathematics of Magic, is, according to sf critic John Clute, perfectly expressive of the terms under which magic found easy mention in Unknown
20.
The Witches of Karres
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The Witches of Karres is a space opera novel by James H. Schmitz. It deals with a space ship captain who finds himself increasingly embroiled in wild adventures involving interdimensional alien invaders, space pirates. The story is unrelated to the Hub series of stories by Schmitz, captain Pausert is a well-intentioned but inexperienced merchant traveler from the planet Nikkeldepain, voyaging solo on the old pirate chaser Venture. The girls reveal that they are witches from the planet Karres, the girls’ powers, but especially the possibility of this incredibly fast drive, draw the unwelcome attention of planets and ships they pass. Captain Pausert escapes the Nikkeldepain police and military with the help of the sister, Goth. The two head for the planet Uldune, formerly a pirate stronghold but now a place to buy anything, the captain also finds himself developing minor klatha powers. The pair run afoul of both the government and the Imperium, including industrial espionage and even kidnapping. Finally the newly renamed Early Bird lifts off for the planet Emris via a shorter, all is not as it seems aboard the Early Bird. Vezzarn and one of the passengers, Hulik do Eldel, are spying and creeping around the ship in an attempt to locate the Drive, unfortunately, Vezzarn uncovers the mystery mass, thereby attracting ominous yellow tendrils of insanity called Worm Weather. The captain is having increasingly odd interactions with a powerful alien presence called a vatch. When the Worm Weather attacks, the vatch decides to interfere, the captain, Goth, Vezzarn, and Hulik defeat Yango and his murderous giant spider-robot before taking off once again for space. The vatch is delighted in the cleverness, and sends him on the next leg of what it calls a game. As a ghost-like projection, the captain is sent to talk to Cheel, the captain learns that the computer wants to conquer all known space, using the Worms as its advance guard, and their only salvation is that mystery mass. The group is reunited when the vatch transports them all to Karres, the captain continues to refine his klatha powers, including how to grab and manipulate small amounts of the vatch’s black energy. When the Leewit shows up – thrown through space and time by the vatch – Goth, the two girls and the captain are transported by the vatch to the mad computer’s temple/throne room. There they use their powers to destroy the computer and its machine minions. Cheel then immerges to retake the Worm World space ship using the mystery mass and they arrive on the planet Emris in time to rejoice about the victory with the young witches’ parents. Testing shows that the captain does indeed possess klatha powers, two rare talents for now, with an overall capacity for future development
21.
Parapsychology
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It is identified as pseudoscience by the overwhelming majority of mainstream scientists. Parapsychology research is conducted by private institutions in several countries and funded through private donations. Most papers about parapsychology are published in a number of niche journals. Parapsychology has been criticised for continuing investigation despite being unable to provide convincing evidence for the existence of any psychic phenomena after more than a century of research and it has been noted that most academics do not take the claims of parapsychology seriously. Para is from Greek, and means beside, closely related to, the term parapsychology was coined in or around 1889 by philosopher Max Dessoir. Rhine in the 1930s as a replacement for the psychical research in order to indicate a significant shift toward experimental methodology. The term originates from the Greek, παρά para meaning alongside, in parapsychology, psi is the unknown factor in extrasensory perception and psychokinesis experiences that is not explained by known physical or biological mechanisms. The term is derived from the Greek ψ psi, 23rd letter of the Greek alphabet, the term was coined by biologist Berthold P. Wiesner, and first used by psychologist Robert Thouless in a 1942 article published in the British Journal of Psychology. The Parapsychological Association divides psi into two categories, psi-gamma for extrasensory perception and psi-kappa for psychokinesis. In popular culture, psi has become more and more synonymous with special psychic, mental, in 1853, the chemist Robert Hare conducted experiments with mediums and reported positive results. Other researchers such as Frank Podmore highlighted flaws in his experiments, agenor de Gasparin conducted early experiments into table-tipping. Over a period of five months in 1853 he declared the experiments a success being the result of an ectenic force, critics noted that the conditions were insufficient to prevent trickery. For example the knees of the sitters may have been employed to move the table and no experimenter was watching above, the German astrophysicist Johann Karl Friedrich Zöllner tested the medium Henry Slade in 1877. According to Zöllner some of the experiments were a success, however, flaws in the experiments were discovered and critics have suggested that Slade was a fraud who performed trickery in the experiments. The Society for Psychical Research was founded in London in 1882 and its formation was the first systematic effort to organize scientists and scholars to investigate paranormal phenomena. Early membership included philosophers, scholars, scientists, educators and politicians, such as Henry Sidgwick, Arthur Balfour, William Crookes, Rufus Osgood Mason and Nobel Laureate Charles Richet. Presidents of the Society included, in addition to Richet, Eleanor Sidgwick and William James, and subsequently Nobel Laureates Henri Bergson and Lord Rayleigh, and philosopher C. D. Broad. Areas of study included telepathy, hypnotism, Reichenbachs phenomena, apparitions, hauntings, in the 1880s the Society investigated apparitional experiences and hallucinations in the sane
22.
Slavery
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A slave is unable to withdraw unilaterally from such an arrangement and works without remuneration. Many scholars now use the chattel slavery to refer to this specific sense of legalised. In a broader sense, however, the word slavery may also refer to any situation in which an individual is de facto forced to work against his or her will. Scholars also use the generic terms such as unfree labour or forced labour. However – and especially under slavery in broader senses of the word – slaves may have some rights and/or protections, Slavery began to exist before written history, in many cultures. A person could become a slave from the time of their birth, capture, while slavery was institutionally recognized by most societies, it has now been outlawed in all recognized countries, the last being Mauritania in 2007. Nevertheless, there are still more slaves today than at any point in history. The most common form of the trade is now commonly referred to as human trafficking. Chattel slavery is still practiced by the Islamic State of Iraq. An older interpretation connected it to the Greek verb skyleúo to strip a slain enemy, there is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as unfree labourer or enslaved person, rather than slave, should be used when describing the victims of slavery. Chattel slavery, also called traditional slavery, is so named because people are treated as the chattel of the owner and are bought, although it dominated many societies in the past, this form of slavery has been formally abolished and is very rare today. Even when it can be said to survive, it is not upheld by the system of any internationally recognized government. Indenture, otherwise known as bonded labour or debt bondage is a form of labour under which a person pledges himself or herself against a loan. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their parents debt. It is the most widespread form of slavery today, debt bondage is most prevalent in South Asia. This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom, conscription, Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced into prostitution. And is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil, in 2007, Human Rights Watch estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 children served as soldiers in current conflicts. A forced marriage may be regarded as a form of slavery by one or more of the involved in the marriage
23.
Hugo Award
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The Hugo Awards are a set of awards given annually for the best science fiction or fantasy works and achievements of the previous year. The awards are named after Hugo Gernsback, the founder of the science fiction magazine Amazing Stories. Organized and overseen by the World Science Fiction Society, the awards are given each year at the annual World Science Fiction Convention as the focus of the event. They were first given in 1953, at the 11th World Science Fiction Convention, the Hugo Awards have been termed as among the highest honors bestowed in science fiction and fantasy writing. Works that have won have been published in collections. The 2016 awards were presented at the 74th Worldcon, MidAmeriCon II, in Kansas City, United States, the 2017 Hugos will be presented at the 75th Worldcon, Worldcon 75, in Helsinki, Finland, on August 12,2017. For lists of winners and nominees for each category, see the list of categories below. The World Science Fiction Society gives out the Hugo Awards each year for the best science fiction or fantasy works, the award is named after Hugo Gernsback, who founded the pioneering science fiction magazine Amazing Stories and who is considered one of the fathers of the science fiction genre. Works are eligible for an award if they were published in English in the calendar year. There are no rules as to which works qualify as science fiction or fantasy. Hugo Award nominees and winners are chosen by supporting or attending members of the annual World Science Fiction Convention, or Worldcon, the selection process is defined in the WSFS constitution as instant-runoff voting with five nominees per category, except in the case of a tie. The awards are split over more than a dozen categories, for each category of Hugo, the voter may rank No Award as one of their choices. Voters are instructed that they should do so if they feel that none of the nominees are worthy of the award, or if they feel the category should be abolished entirely. A vote for No Award other than as ones first choice signifies that the voter believes the nominee ranked higher than No Award are worthy of a Hugo in that category, while those ranked lower are not. The five works on the ballot for each category are the most-nominated by members that year, from 1953 to 1958 the awards did not include any recognition of runner-up novels, but since 1959 all of the candidates have been recorded. Worldcons are generally held near the start of September, and take place in a different city around the world each year, the idea of giving out awards at Worldcons was proposed by Harold Lynch for the 1953 convention. The idea was based on the Academy Awards, with the name Hugo being given by Robert A. Madle, the award trophy was created by Jack McKnight and Ben Jason in 1953, based on the design of hood ornaments of 1950s cars. It consisted of a rocket ship on a wooden base
24.
Baen Books
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Baen Books is an American publishing house for science fiction and fantasy. In science fiction, it emphasizes space opera, hard science fiction, the company was established in 1983 by science fiction publisher and editor Jim Baen. After his death in 2006, he was succeeded as publisher by long-time executive editor Toni Weisskopf, Baen Books was founded in 1983 out of a negotiated agreement between Jim Baen and Simon & Schuster. Simon & Schuster was undergoing massive reorganization and wanted to hire Baen to head, in 2005, Baen moved up to the eighth position in the total books published with 72 books published. Initially, the company invested resources in Baens Bar, its community service that provides a forum for customers, authors and editors to interact. In the early 2000s, a blogger wrote, Like every other publisher, but several of his authors and fan friends convinced him to put a chat client on his site. Since he was interested, and since several of those authors were very Internet savvy, the chat client grew into an incredibly vibrant community called Baens Bar. Beginning in mid-1999, Baen emphasized electronic publishing and Internet-focused promotions for its publications, the discussions on Baens bar convinced him to do so. Baen and his successors believe that DRM does more harm than good to a publisher, in addition to selling individual titles in electronic format, Baen has distributed serialized e-book versions of new books at reduced prices in monthly bundles. Originally called Webscriptions, these Monthly Baen Bundles are scheduled three months in advance of print publication, Webscription. net was implemented by Baens preferred website expert, Arnold Bailey, who also sold e-books for other publishers. At the start of 2012, the Webscription. net website was redesigned, renamed to Baen Ebooks, despite the new name, Baen Ebooks continues to sell e-books for other publishers, notably science fiction genre rival Night Shade Books. Baens standard setup is based on monthly bundles, each month, whichever books Baen has coming out in paper are bundled put together in a fixed price bundle regardless of a number of books. The Monthly Baen Bundles are released in installments beginning three months prior to physical publication, the first installment, released three months prior to paper publication includes roughly a half of every book in the bundle, with some books usually included in their entirety. The first two installments are available only as HTML, while the last includes all formats supported. Each bundle can only be bought until the 15th of the prior to official print publication. Another avenue for distribution that Baen uses for some of its new titles is the offering of electronic advance reader copies, or eARCs 3–5 months prior to actual publication. Marketed as a product for the fans who absolutely positively have to read it now, they are priced at $15 per single title. What it means is that some authors can get paid as many as three times for the book, the eARC, part of the monthly bundle
25.
Eric Flint
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Eric Flint is an American author, editor, and e-publisher. The majority of his works are alternate history science fiction. His works has been listed on the New York Times, Wall Street Journal, Washington Post and he was born in 1947 in Burbank, California, Flint worked on a Ph. D. in history specializing in southern African history. A long-time leftist political activist, Flint worked as a member of the Socialist Workers Party, after winning the 1993 Writers of the Future contest, he published his first novel in 1997 and moved to full-time writing in 1999. Shortly afterwards, he became the first librarian of the Baen Free Library and he has edited the works of several classic SF authors, repackaging their short stories into collections and fix-up novels. This project has met commercial success, and has returned several out-of-print authors to print, subsequently, Flint became editor of the new Jim Baens Universe science-fiction e-zine while concurrently remaining a creative writer bringing out three to five titles per year. After the death of Jim Baen due to a stroke and after completing the contract for the tenth Grantville Gazette, as of October 2007 he lives with his wife Lucille in East Chicago, Indiana. In 2008, he donated his archive to the department of Rare Books, Flint was the author guest of honor for the 2010 NASFiC, ReConStruction. He is also participating in The Stellar Guild series published by Phoenix Pick, the series pairs bestselling authors such as Flint with lesser known authors in science fiction and fantasy to help provide additional visibility to them. One early goal was to see if the release of free electronic content would increase the sales of their traditional print or electronic editions. As part of the phase, Flint has published a series of essays that in form have been part blog and part letters to the editor tracking the experiment. Financially, it seems to be working out for publisher Baen Books, usually eighty to a hundred titles are available in the Baen Free Library at any given time. In most cases, the involved are the early volumes in continuing series, appetite whetters. All new Baen Books can also be purchased as e-books in the same unencrypted formats as the library through Baen WebScriptions. As an added wrinkle one can purchase a collection of five bundled works in the release stage of publication at Baens. Once the bundle reaches four months from its release date in print, about half of the work is serialized. A month later, the quarter, followed by the last quarter. The last delivery contains the copyedited e-book version of the book, one can also purchase electronic Advanced Reader Copies which are not a part of the foregoing monthly bundle, but are individually available for purchase
26.
A. E. van Vogt
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Van Vogt was born on a farm in Edenburg. Until age four, van Vogt and his family only a dialect of Low German at home. Van Vogts father, a lawyer, moved his family several times and his son found these moves difficult, remarking in later life, Childhood was a terrible period for me. I was like a ship without anchor being swept along through darkness in a storm, again and again I sought shelter, only to be forced out of it by something new. After starting his career by writing for true-confession style pulp magazines such as True Story, van Vogt decided to switch to writing something he enjoyed. He was inspired by the August 1938 issue of Astounding Science Fiction, led him to write Vault of the Beast, which he submitted to that same magazine. It was rejected, but the rejection letter encouraged him to try again and he sent in a story called Black Destroyer, which was accepted. A rewritten version of Vault of the Beast would be published in 1940, van Vogts first SF publication was inspired by The Voyage of the Beagle by Charles Darwin. The Black Destroyer was published in July 1939 by John W. Campbell in Astounding Science Fiction and it featured a fierce, carnivorous alien, the coeurl, stalking the crew of an exploration spaceship. Discord in Scarlet was his story to be published, also appearing as the cover story. It was accompanied by interior illustrations created by Frank Kramer and Paul Orban, the former story served as the inspiration for multiple science fiction movies. In 1950, the two were combined with two stories as a fix-up novel, The Voyage of the Space Beagle, which was published in at least five European languages by 1955. Van Vogts first completed novel, and one of his most famous, is Slan, using what became one of van Vogts recurring themes, it told the story of a 9-year-old superman living in a world in which his kind are slain by Homo sapiens. In 1941, van Vogt decided to become a full-time writer, prolific for a few years, van Vogt wrote many short stories. In the 1950s, many of them were retrospectively patched together into novels, or fixups as he called them, when the original stories were related this was often successful. When not the disparate stories thrown together generally made for a coherent plot. In 1944, van Vogt moved to Hollywood, where his writing took on new dimensions after World War II. He subsequently wrote three novels merging these overarching themes, The World of Null-A and The Pawns of Null-A in the late 1940s, and Null-A Three in the early 1980s
27.
Monster
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A monster is any creature, usually found in legends or horror fiction, that is often hideous and may produce fear or physical harm by its appearance or its actions. The word monster derives from Latin monstrum, meaning an aberrant occurrence, usually biological, the word usually connotes something wrong or evil, a monster is generally morally objectionable, physically or psychologically hideous, or a freak of nature. It can also be applied figuratively to a person with similar characteristics like a person or a person who does horrible things. The root of monstrum is monere—which does not only mean to warn but also to instruct, thus, the monster is also a sign or instruction. This benign interpretation was proposed by Saint Augustine, who did not see the monster as inherently evil, but as part of the design of the world. Well known monsters in fiction include Count Dracula, Frankensteins monster, werewolves, mummies, among newborn young and embryos of humans and most species of animals are found occasional individuals who are malformed in whole or in part. No sharp line separates these grades of malformation, all being due to various kinds, the study of these deviations forms the subject of teratology, a branch of morphology or embryology. A knowledge of the kinds of abnormalities and their causes may, like deliberate experiments, classic monsters spawn from legends and fictional stories. Well known monsters include Dracula, Frankensteins creation, werewolves, mummies, giants and dwarfs are often classed as monsters, probably because of the prominent places they occupy in mythology. Since in humans they generally result from growth, they cannot usually be recognised as abnormal at birth. In all these cases, abnormal characteristics are inherited together, cases where this type of dwarfism in a human family behaves as a simple hereditary characteristic have been reported. It may also be due to other causes, rudolf Virchow long ago noted the familial association of the chondrodystrophic type of monster with another type in which the limbs except for digits are nearly absent. It has since been shown by Walter Landauer that the fowl phocomelus and chondrodystrophia result from the same factor, the former representing the homozygote. Gigantism usually expresses itself during early growth, in humans it often arises from endocrine imbalance. It may declare itself at birth in greater size, and sometimes in lower animals, repetition or deficiency of single parts such as fingers or toes are frequent anomalies in humans and other mammals. Absence or abnormality of whole limbs is less common and includes besides club-foot and it is probable that endogenous abnormalities of the bone are more frequent causes of such amputations than are strangulations. Cases are recorded of human identical twins in both members have the same type of limb abnormality, suggesting an hereditary predisposition to this type of malformation. In other cases injury and malposition are probably responsible, in addition to monsters with rudimentary limbs, others are known with incomplete or underdeveloped extremities
28.
Xenophobia
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Xenophobia is the fear of that which is perceived to be foreign or strange. Xenophobia can also be exhibited in the form of an uncritical exaltation of another culture in which a culture is ascribed an unreal, stereotyped, the terms xenophobia and racism are sometimes confused and used interchangeably because people who share a national origin may also belong to the same race. Due to this, xenophobia is usually distinguished by opposition to foreign culture, Xenophobia is a political term and not a recognized medical phobia. Dictionary definitions of xenophobia include, deep-rooted fear towards foreigners, the word comes from the Ancient Greek words ξένος, meaning strange, foreigner, and φόβος, meaning fear. In other words, xenophobia arises when people feel that their entitlement to benefit from the government is being subverted by other peoples rights, in 2014, the state of Penang held a referendum that bans foreigners from cooking local cuisines. A well-known local chef, Redzuawan Ismail, criticised this law, Xenophobia in South Africa has been present in both the apartheid and post–apartheid eras. Hostility between the British and Boers exacerbated by the Second Boer War led to rebellion by poor Afrikaners who looted British-owned shops, the Township Franchise Ordinance of 1924 was intended to deprive Indians of municipal franchise. In 1994 and 1995, gangs of armed youth destroyed the homes of foreign nationals living in Johannesburg, in 2008, a widely documented spate of xenophobic attacks occurred in Johannesburg. It is estimated that tens of thousands of migrants were displaced, property, the death toll after the attack stood at 56. In 2015, another widely documented series of attacks occurred in South Africa. This followed remarks by Zulu King Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu stating that the migrants should pack their bags, as of 20 April 2015,7 people had died and more than 2000 foreigners had been displaced. The 2005 Cronulla riots resulted from strained relationsbetween white and Lebanese Australians, media related to Xenophobia at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to Xenophobia at Wikiquote
29.
John Clute
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John Frederick Clute is a Canadian-born author and critic specializing in science fiction and fantasy literature who has lived in both England and the United States since 1969. He has been described as an part of science fictions history and perhaps the foremost reader-critic of sf in our time. He was one of eight people who founded the English magazine Interzone in 1982, Clutes articles on speculative fiction have appeared in various publications since the 1960s. He earned the Pilgrim Award, bestowed by the Science Fiction Research Association for Lifetime Achievement in the field of science fiction scholarship, in 1994. Clute is also author of the collections of reviews and essays Strokes, Look at the Evidence, Essays and Reviews, Scores, Canary Fever and Pardon This Intrusion. His 2001 novel Appleseed, an opera, was noted for its combination of ideational fecundity. In 2006, Clute published the essay collection The Darkening Garden, the third edition of The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction was released online as a beta text in October 2011 and has since been greatly expanded, it won the Hugo Award for Best Related Work in 2012. The Encyclopedias statistics page reported that, as of March 24,2017 Clute had authored the majority of articles,6,421 solo and 1,219 in collaboration. The majority of these are Author entries, but there are also some Media entries, notably that for Star Wars, Clute was a Guest of Honour at Loncon 3, the 72nd World Science Fiction Convention, from 14 to 18 August 2014. Raised in Canada, Clute lived in the United States from 1956 until 1964 and he earned a Bachelor of Arts degree at New York University in 1962 while living with writer and artist Pamela Zoline. Clute married artist Judith Clute in 1964 and he also spends time each year in Maine with science fiction and fantasy author Elizabeth Hand. Clutes first professional publication was a long poem entitled Carcajou Lament. His first short story was A Man Must Die, which appeared in New Worlds in 1966. In 1960, he served as Associate Editor of Collage, a Chicago-based slick magazine which ran two issues, it published early work by Harlan Ellison and R. A. Lafferty. In 1977, Clute published his first novel, The Disinheriting Party, though not explicitly a fantasy, this story of a dysfunctional family has a fantasy feel, rather like much postmodern literature. Freer meets a man calling himself Johnny Appleseed, who rejoins Freer with his lost lover, meanwhile, a terrifying, data-destroying plaque is threatening the galaxys civilizations. Clute has proposed it as the first novel in a trilogy, Science fiction and fantasy author Paul Di Filippo called it a space opera for the 21st century. Keith Brooke suggested that Clute himself would be the best reviewer for this multilayered novel, Clutes first significant science fiction reviews appeared in the late 1960s in New Worlds
30.
The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction
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The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction is an English language reference work on science fiction, first published in 1979. In October 2011, the edition was made available for free online. The first edition, edited by Peter Nicholls with John Clute, was published by Granada in 1979 and it was retitled The Science Fiction Encyclopedia when published by Doubleday in the United States. Accompanying its text were numerous black and white photographs illustrating authors, book and magazine covers, film and TV stills, a second edition, jointly edited by Nicholls and Clute, was published in 1993 by Orbit in the UK and St. Martins Press in the US. The second edition contained 1.3 million words, almost twice the 700,000 words of the 1979 edition, the paperback edition included an addendum. Unlike the first edition, the print versions did not contain illustrations, there was also a CD-ROM version in 1995, styled variously as The Multimedia Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Grolier Science Fiction. This contained text updates through 1995, hundreds of covers and author photos, a small number of old film trailers. The companion volume, published after the print edition and following its format closely, is The Encyclopedia of Fantasy edited by John Clute. All print and CD-ROM editions are out of print. The beta text of the third edition launched online on 2 October 2011, with editors John Clute, David Langford, Peter Nicholls, the encyclopedia is updated regularly by the editorial team with material written by themselves and contributed by science fiction academics and experts. It received the Hugo Award for Best Related Work in 2012, the online edition of The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction was released in October 2011 with 12,230 entries, totaling 3,200,000 words. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, An Illustrated A to Z, St Albans, Herts, UK, Granada Publishing Ltd. p.672. The Multimedia Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, Clute, John, Langford, David, Nicholls, Peter, Sleight, Graham
31.
Murray Leinster
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Murray Leinster was a nom de plume of William Fitzgerald Jenkins, an award-winning American writer of science fiction and alternate history literature. He wrote and published more than 1,500 short stories and articles,14 movie scripts, Leinster was born in Norfolk, Virginia, the son of George B. Jenkins and Mary L. Jenkins. Although both parents were born in Virginia, the family lived in Manhattan in 1910, according to the 1910 Federal Census, over the next three years, Leinster published ten more stories in the magazine. During and after World War I, he began appearing in magazines like Argosy, Snappy Stories. He continued to appear regularly in Argosy into the 1950s, in the 1930s, he published several science fiction stories and serials in Amazing and Astounding Stories. He continued to frequently in other genre pulps such as Detective Fiction Weekly and Smashing Western, as well as Colliers Weekly beginning in 1936. Leinster was a writer of parallel universe stories. Four years before Jack Williamsons The Legion of Time came out, Leinsters vision of extraordinary oscillations in time had a long-term impact on other authors, for example Isaac Asimovs Living Space, The Red Queens Race, and The End of Eternity. Leinsters 1945 novella First Contact is also credited as one of the first instances of a translator in science fiction. In 2000, Leinsters heirs sued Paramount Pictures over the film Star Trek, First Contact, the last story by Leinster in Analog was Quarantine World in the November 1966 issue, thirty-six years after his appearance in the premier January 1930 issue. Murray Leinsters 1946 short story A Logic Named Joe contains one of the first descriptions of a computer in fiction, in the story, Leinster was decades ahead of his time in imagining the Internet. During World War II, he served in the United States Office of War Information, Leinster continued publishing in the 1950s and 1960s, appearing in Galaxy Magazine and The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, as well as The Saturday Evening Post. He won a Hugo Award for his 1956 story Exploration Team, Leinster was also an inventor under his real name of William F. Jenkins, best known for the front projection process used in special effects. During World War I, Leinster served with the Committee of Public Information, in 1921, he married Mary Mandola, who was born in New York to Italian parents. Liberty Award for A Very Nice Family, first published in the January 2,1937 issue of Liberty Magazine, Hugo Award for Best Novelette for Exploration Team. Retro-Hugo for Best Novelette for First Contact, guest of Honor at Discon I, the 21st Worldcon in 1963. The Sidewise Award for Alternate History is named after Leinsters story Sidewise in Time, in the 1979 Italian film Starcrash, the spaceship in the opening sequence is called the Murray Leinster. In Virginia,27 June 2009 was designated Will F. Jenkins Day in honor of his achievements in science fiction, sword of Kings, John Long,1933
32.
E. E. Smith
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Edward Elmer Smith was an American food engineer and an early science-fiction author, best known for the Lensman and Skylark series. He is sometimes called the father of space opera, Edward Elmer Smith was born in Sheboygan, Wisconsin on May 2,1890, to Fred Jay Smith and Caroline Mills Smith, both staunch Presbyterians of British ancestry. His mother was a born in Michigan in February 1855, his father was a sailor. They moved to Spokane, Washington, the winter after Edward Elmer was born, in 1902, the family moved to Seneaquoteen, near the Pend Oreille River, in Kootenai County, Idaho. He had four siblings, Rachel M. born September 1882, Daniel M. born January 1884, Mary Elizabeth born February 1886, and Walter E. born July 1891 in Washington. In 1910, Fred and Caroline Smith and their son Walter were living in the Markham Precinct of Bonner County, Idaho, Smith worked primarily as a manual laborer until he injured his wrist, at the age of 19, while escaping from a fire. He attended the University of Idaho and he entered its prep school in 1907, and graduated with two degrees in chemical engineering in 1914. He was president of the Chemistry Club, the Chess Club, and the Mandolin and Guitar Club, whether the two were related is not known. On October 5,1915, in Boise, Idaho he married Jeanne Craig MacDougall, Jeanne MacDougall was born in Glasgow, Scotland, her parents were Donald Scott MacDougall, a violinist, and Jessica Craig MacLean. Her father had moved to Boise when the children were young, jeannes mother, who remarried businessman and retired politician John F. Kessler in 1914 worked at, and later owned, a boarding house on Ridenbaugh Street. The Smiths had three children, Roderick N. born June 3,1918, in the District of Columbia, was employed as an engineer at Lockheed Aircraft. Verna Jean, born August 25,1920, in Michigan, was his literary executor until her death in 1994, Robert A. Heinlein in part dedicated his 1982 novel Friday to Verna. Clarissa M. was born December 13,1921, in Michigan, after college, Smith was a junior chemist for the National Bureau of Standards in Washington, DC, developing standards for butter and for oysters. He may have served as a lieutenant in the U. S. Army during World War I, but details are unknown. His draft card, partly illegible, seems to show that Smith requested exemption from service, based on his wifes dependence. One evening in 1915, the Smiths were visiting a classmate from the University of Idaho, Dr. Carl Garby. He lived nearby in the Seaton Place Apartments with his wife, a long discussion about journeys into outer space ensued, and it was suggested that Smith should write down his ideas and speculations as a story about interstellar travel. Although he was interested, Smith believed that thought that some romantic elements would be required
33.
Second-wave feminism
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Second-wave feminism is a period of feminist activity and thought that first began in the early 1960s in the United States, and eventually spread throughout the Western world and beyond. In the United States the movement lasted through the early 1980s and it later became a worldwide movement that was strong in Europe and parts of Asia, such as Turkey and Israel, where it began in the 1980s, and it began at other times in other countries. Second-wave feminism also drew attention to violence and marital rape issues, establishment of rape crisis and battered womens shelters. This life was illustrated by the media of the time, for example television shows such as Father Knows Best. Before the second there were some important events which laid the groundwork for it. French writer Simone de Beauvoir had in the 1940s examined the notion of women being perceived as other in the patriarchal society and this book was translated from French to English and published in America in 1953. In 1960 the Food and Drug Administration approved the combined oral contraceptive pill and this made it easier for women to have careers without having to leave due to unexpectedly becoming pregnant. The administration of President Kennedy made womens rights a key issue of the New Frontier, There were also notable actions by women in wider society, presaging their wider engagement in politics which would come with the second wave. In 1961,50,000 women in 60 cities, mobilized by Women Strike for Peace, protested above ground testing of nuclear bombs, in 1963 Betty Friedan, influenced by The Second Sex, wrote the bestselling book The Feminine Mystique. Discussing primarily white women, she objected to how women were depicted in the mainstream media. She had helped conduct an important survey using her old classmates from Smith College. This survey revealed that the women who played a role at home, the women who stayed home showed feelings of agitation and sadness. She concluded that many of these women had emerged themselves in the idea that they should not have any ambitions outside their home. Friedan described this as The Problem That Has No Name, the perfect nuclear family image depicted and strongly marketed at the time, she wrote, did not reflect happiness and was rather degrading for women. This book is credited with having begun second-wave feminism. Though it is accepted that the movement lasted from the 1960s into the early 1980s. Friedan was referencing a movement as early as 1964, the movement grew with legal victories such as the Equal Pay Act of 1963, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Griswold v. Connecticut Supreme Court ruling of 1965. In 1966 Friedan joined other women and men to found the National Organization for Women, Friedan stepped down as president in 1969
34.
Swashbuckler
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A swashbuckler is an heroic archetype in European adventure literature that is typified by the use of a sword and chivalric ideals. The archetype also became common as a film genre, a swashbuckler is a protagonist who is heroic and idealistic, he rescues damsels in distress, defends the downtrodden, and in general saves the day. Swashbucklers are not unrepentant brigands or pirates, although some may rise from such disreputable stations in redemption and his opponent is typically characterized as the dastardly villain. Swashbuckler is a compound of swash and buckler dating from the 16th century, the larger-than-life heroics portrayed in some film franchise adventures set in the modern era have been described as swashbuckling. Jeffrey Richards traces the swashbuckling novel to the rise of Romanticism, Medieval tales of chivalry, love and adventure rediscovered in the eighteenth century. This type of novel was further developed by Alexandre Dumas. John Galsworthy said of Robert Louis Stevensons 1888 swashbuckling romance, The Black Arrow, Anthony Hopes 1894, the The Prisoner of Zenda initiated an additional subset of the swashbuckling novel, the Ruritanian romance. Soon actors were taught to fence in an entertaining, dramatic manner, eventually fencing became an established part of a classical formation for actors. Consequently, when movie theaters mushroomed, ambitious actors took the chance to present their accordant skills on the screen. Since silent movies were no proper medium for long dialogues, the stories about heroes who would defend their honor with sword in hand were simplified. This was the birth of a new kind of film hero, four of the most famous instructors for swashbuckling swordplay are William Hobbs, Anthony De Longis, Bob Anderson and Peter Diamond. The genre has, apart from swordplay, always characterized by influences that can be traced back to the chivalry tales of Medieval Europe, such as the legends of Robin Hood. It soon created its own based on classic examples like The Mark of Zorro, The Three Musketeers. Some films did also use motifs of pirate stories, swashbucklers are one of the most flamboyant Hollywood film genres, unlike cinema verite or modern realistic filmmaking. The genre attracted large audiences who relished the blend of escapist adventure, historic romance, as a first variation of the classic swashbuckler there have also been female swashbucklers. Maureen OHara in Against All Flags and Jean Peters in Anne of the Indies were very early action film heroines, eventually the typical swashbuckler motifs were used up because they had so often been shown on TV screens. Later films such as The Princess Bride, the Pirates of the Caribbean series, television followed the films, especially in the UK, with The Adventures of Robin Hood, Sword of Freedom, The Buccaneers, and Willam Tell between 1955 and 1960. US TV produced two series of Zorro in 1957 and 1990, following the 1998 film The Mask of Zorro, a TV series about a female swashbuckler, the Queen of Swords, aired in 2000
35.
Outer space
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Outer space or just space, is the void that exists between celestial bodies, including Earth. The baseline temperature, as set by the radiation from the Big Bang, is 2.7 kelvins. In most galaxies, observations provide evidence that 90% of the mass is in a form, called dark matter. Data indicates that the majority of the mass-energy in the universe is a poorly understood vacuum energy of space which astronomers label dark energy. Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the Universe, there is no firm boundary where outer space starts. However the Kármán line, at an altitude of 100 km above sea level, is used as the start of outer space in space treaties. The framework for international law was established by the Outer Space Treaty. This treaty precludes any claims of sovereignty and permits all states to freely explore outer space. Despite the drafting of UN resolutions for the uses of outer space. Humans began the exploration of space during the 20th century with the advent of high-altitude balloon flights. Earth orbit was first achieved by Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union in 1961, due to the high cost of getting into space, manned spaceflight has been limited to low Earth orbit and the Moon. Outer space represents an environment for human exploration because of the dual hazards of vacuum. Microgravity also has an effect on human physiology that causes both muscle atrophy and bone loss. In addition to health and environmental issues, the economic cost of putting objects, including humans. In 350 BCE, Greek philosopher Aristotle suggested that nature abhors a vacuum and this concept built upon a 5th-century BCE ontological argument by the Greek philosopher Parmenides, who denied the possible existence of a void in space. Based on this idea that a vacuum could not exist, in the West it was held for many centuries that space could not be empty. As late as the 17th century, the French philosopher René Descartes argued that the entirety of space must be filled, in ancient China, there were various schools of thought concerning the nature of the heavens, some of which bear a resemblance to the modern understanding. In the 2nd century, astronomer Zhang Heng became convinced that space must be infinite, extending well beyond the mechanism that supported the Sun, the surviving books of the Hsüan Yeh school said that the heavens were boundless, empty and void of substance
36.
Robert A. Heinlein
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Robert Anson Heinlein was an American science-fiction writer. Often called the dean of science writers, his controversial works continue to have an influential effect on the genre. Heinlein became one of the first science-fiction writers to break into mainstream magazines such as The Saturday Evening Post in the late 1940s. He was one of the best-selling science-fiction novelists for many decades, and he, Isaac Asimov and he also speculated on the influence of space travel on human cultural practices. Heinlein was named the first Science Fiction Writers Grand Master in 1974 and he also anticipated mechanical Computer Aided Design with Drafting Dan and described a modern version of a waterbed in his novel The Door into Summer, though he never patented or built one. In the first chapter of the novel Space Cadet he anticipated the cell-phone,35 years before Motorola invented the technology, several of Heinleins works have been adapted for film and television. Heinlein was born on July 7,1907 to Rex Ivar Heinlein and Bam Lyle Heinlein, in Butler and he was a 6th-generation German-American, a family tradition had it that Heinleins fought in every American war starting with the War of Independence. His childhood was spent in Kansas City, Missouri, Heinleins experience in the U. S. Navy exerted a strong influence on his character and writing. He graduated from the U. S. Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland with the class of 1929 and he was assigned to the new aircraft carrier USS Lexington in 1931, where he worked in radio communications, then in its earlier phases, with the carriers aircraft. The captain of this carrier was Ernest J. King, who served as the Chief of Naval Operations and Commander-in-Chief. Heinlein was frequently interviewed during his later years by historians who asked him about Captain King. Heinlein also served aboard the destroyer USS Roper in 1933 and 1934, reaching the rank of lieutenant. His brother, Lawrence Heinlein, served in the U. S. Army, the U. S. Air Force, and the Missouri National Guard, in 1929, Heinlein married Elinor Curry of Kansas City in Los Angeles, and their marriage lasted about a year. His second marriage in 1932 to Leslyn MacDonald lasted for 15 years, in 1934, Heinlein was discharged from the Navy due to pulmonary tuberculosis. During a lengthy hospitalization, he developed a design for a waterbed, Heinlein supported himself at several occupations, including real estate sales and silver mining, but for some years found money in short supply. Heinlein was active in Upton Sinclairs socialist End Poverty in California movement in the early 1930s, when Sinclair gained the Democratic nomination for Governor of California in 1934, Heinlein worked actively in the campaign. Heinlein himself ran for the California State Assembly in 1938, but was unsuccessful, while not destitute after the campaign—he had a small disability pension from the Navy—Heinlein turned to writing in order to pay off his mortgage. His first published story, Life-Line, was printed in the August 1939 issue of Astounding Science-Fiction, originally written for a contest, it was instead sold to Astounding for significantly more than the contests first-prize payoff
37.
Joanna Russ
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Joanna Russ was an American writer, academic and radical feminist. She is best known for The Female Man, a novel combining utopian fiction and satire, Joanna Russ was born in The Bronx, New York City to Evarett I. and Bertha Russ, both teachers. She began creating works of fiction at an early age. Over the following years she filled countless notebooks with stories, poems, comics and illustrations, as a senior at William Howard Taft High School, Russ was selected as one of the top ten Westinghouse Science Talent Search winners. She graduated from Cornell University, where she studied with Vladimir Nabokov, in 1957, after teaching at several universities, including Cornell, she became a full professor at the University of Washington. Russ came to be noticed in the fiction world in the late 1960s. At the time, SF was a field dominated by authors, writing for a predominantly male audience. Russ, an out lesbian, was one of the most outspoken authors to challenge male dominance of the field and she was also one of the first major science fiction writers to take slash fiction and its cultural and literary implications seriously. Over the course of her life, she published over fifty short stories, Russ was associated with the American New Wave of science fiction. Her essays and articles have published in Womens Studies Quarterly, Signs, Frontiers, A Journal of Women Studies, Science Fiction Studies. Russ was a self-described socialist feminist, expressing admiration for the work. Both fiction and nonfiction, for Russ, were modes of engaging theory with the world, in particular. The short story, When It Changed, which became a part of the novel, explores the constraints of gender, Russs writing is characterized by anger interspersed with humor and irony. James Tiptree Jr, in a letter to her, wrote, Do you imagine that anyone with half a functional neuron can read your work and not have his fingers smoked by the bitter, multi-layered anger in it. It smells and smoulders like a volcano buried so long and deadly it is just beginning to wonder if it can explode, in a letter to Susan Koppelman, Russ asks of a young feminist critic where is her anger. And adds I think from now on, I will not trust anyone who isnt angry, for nearly 15 years she was an influential review columnist for The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction. Though by then she was no longer a member of science fiction fandom, she was interviewed by phone during Wiscon in 2006 by her friend and member of the same cohort. Her first SF story was Nor Custom Stale in F&SF and her fiction has been nominated for nine Nebula and three Hugo Awards, and her genre-related scholarly work was recognized with a Pilgrim Award in 1988
38.
James Tiptree Jr.
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Alice Bradley Sheldon was an American science fiction author better known as James Tiptree Jr. a pen name she used from 1967 to her death. She was most notable for breaking down the barriers between writing perceived as male or female—it was not publicly known until 1977 that James Tiptree Jr. was a woman. From 1974 to 1977 she also used the pen name Raccoona Sheldon, Tiptree was inducted by the Science Fiction Hall of Fame in 2012. Bradley came from a family in the enclave of Hyde Park. Her father was Herbert Bradley, a lawyer and naturalist, and her mother was Mary Hastings Bradley, a prolific writer of fiction and travel books. From an early age Bradley traveled with her parents, and in 1921–22, the Bradleys made their first trip to central Africa, which later contributed to Sheldon’s short story, The Women Men Dont See. Later on, Bradley became a graphic artist, a painter, and—under the name Alice Bradley Davey—an art critic for the Chicago Sun between 1941 and 1942. At age 19, she met and married William Davey, her first husband, under the compulsion that she felt it was her duty as a daughter, in 1942 she joined the United States Army Air Forces and worked in the Army Air Forces photo-intelligence group. She later was promoted to major, a rank for women at the time. In the army, she felt she was among free women for the first time, in 1945 she married her second husband, Huntington D. Sheldon, at the close of the war on her assignment in Paris. She was discharged from the military in 1946, at which time she set up a business in partnership with her husband. The same year her first story was published in the November 16,1946 issue of The New Yorker, in 1952 she and her husband were invited to join the CIA, which she accepted. However, she resigned her position in 1955 and returned to college and she studied for her Bachelor of Arts degree at American University, going on to achieve a doctorate at George Washington University in Experimental Psychology in 1967. She wrote her dissertation on the responses of animals to novel stimuli in differing environments. During this time, she wrote and submitted a few science fiction stories under the name James Tiptree Jr. in order to protect her academic reputation. As for her life, Sheldon had a complex sexual orientation. This statement, for example, is how she would have explained it at point, I like some men a lot. The Bradley family returned to Chicago from Africa in March 1922, after a second trip to Africa in 1924, the Bradleys returned to Chicago during the summer, and by fall that same year, ten-year-old Alice was sent to the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools
39.
Connie Willis
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Constance Elaine Trimmer Willis, commonly known as Connie Willis, is an American science fiction and fantasy writer. She has won eleven Hugo Awards and seven Nebula Awards for particular works—more major awards than any other writer—most recently the years Best Novel Hugo and Nebula Awards for Blackout/All Clear. She was inducted by the Science Fiction Hall of Fame in 2009, several of her works feature time travel by history students at a faculty of the future University of Oxford—sometimes called the Time Travel series. They are the short story Fire Watch, the novels Doomsday Book and To Say Nothing of the Dog, all four won the annual Hugo Award and all but To Say Nothing of the Dog won both the Hugo and Nebula Awards. Willis is a 1967 graduate of Colorado State College, now the University of Northern Colorado and she lives in Greeley, Colorado, with her husband Courtney Willis, a former professor of physics at the University of Northern Colorado. Williss first published story was The Secret of Santa Titicaca in Worlds of Fantasy, at least seven stories followed before her debut novel, Water Witch by Willis and Cynthia Felice, published by Ace Books in 1982. After receiving a National Endowment for the Arts grant that year, she left her teaching job, scholar Gary K. Willis is known for writing romantic screwball comedy in the manner of 1940s Hollywood movies. Willis is acclaimed as a writer, with much of her writing exploring the social sciences. She often weaves technology into her stories in order to prompt readers to question what impact it has on the world, for instance, Lincolns Dreams plumbs not just the psychology of dreams, but also their role as indicators of disease. The story portrays a young mans unrequited love for a woman who might or might not be experiencing reincarnation or precognition. Similarly Bellwether is almost exclusively concerned with human psychology, remake embraces old movies and the computer graphics revolution, as well as intellectual property, digital copyright issues, and the question of public domain. Other Willis stories explore the so-called hard sciences, following in the science fiction tradition. The Sidon in the Mirror harks back to the interplanetary and interstellar romanticism of the 1930s and 1940s, samaritan is another take on the theme of Heinleins Jerry Was a Man, while Blued Moon is similarly reminiscent of Heinleins The Year of the Jackpot. Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame, speech at 2004 National Book Festival Interview from 2000 by ActuSF Connie Willis at Library of Congress Authorities, with 19 catalog records
40.
Mercedes Lackey
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Mercedes Ritchie Lackey is an American writer of fantasy novels. Many of her novels and trilogies are interlinked and set in the world of Velgarth, mostly in and her Valdemar novels form a complex tapestry of interaction between human and non-human protagonists with many different cultures and social mores. Her other main world is one much like our own, but it includes clandestine populations of elves, mages, vampires, and other mythical beings. She has also published several novels re-working well-known fairy tales set in a mid-19th to early 20th century setting in which magic is real and these novels explore issues of ecology, social class, and gender roles. Lackey has published over 140 books and writes novels at a rate of 5.5 per year on average and she has been called one of the most prolific science fiction and fantasy writers of all time. Lackey was born in Chicago, an event that prevented her father from being called to serve in the Korean War. She places her meeting with science fiction at age 10 or 11 and she wrote for herself but without real direction or purpose until she attended Purdue University. Lackey graduated from Purdue in 1972, while at Purdue, she took a one-on-one class of English Literature Independent Studies with a professor who was a fellow science fiction fan. He helped her analyze books she enjoyed and then use that knowledge, Lackey then encountered fan fiction, which further encouraged her writing. She began publishing work in science fiction fanzines and then discovered filk and had some filk lyrics published by Off Centaur Publications and she submitted a story to Sword and Sorceress, then sold the rewritten story to Fantasy Book Magazine. Her first sale was to Friends of Darkover and she met C. J. Cherryh through filk, who mentored her during the writing of her Arrows series. During this time, Marion Zimmer Bradley included her short stories in an anthology, during this time, she claims to have been writing so much that she had no social life at all. She divorced Tony Lackey, and eventually married Larry Dixon, despite getting her own start as a fan fiction author, she and her agent strongly forbade fanfiction based on her own books for many years, whether distributed offline or online. Lackey stated on her website that this was due to the 1992 Marion Zimmer Bradley fan fiction affair, when a fan accused Bradley of copying the fans work, and demanded writing credit and remuneration. As of 2009 this policy appears to have changed per the official website. Lackey lives with her husband Larry Dixon outside of Tulsa, Oklahoma and she describes it as a 2½-story concrete dome with an octagonal wooden shell over it to make it look more like a normal house. Its round with curved walls, which makes placement of furniture kind of awkward. She and Dixon have in the past worked in raptor rehabilitation and she often refers to her various parrots as her feathered children
41.
Science-Fiction Plus
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Science-Fiction Plus was a U. S. science fiction magazine published by Hugo Gernsback for seven issues in 1953. In 1926 Gernsback had launched Amazing Stories, the first science magazine, but he had not been involved in the genre since 1936. Science-Fiction Plus was initially in slick format, meaning that it was large-size, Gernsback had always believed in the educational power of science fiction, and he continued to advocate his views in the new magazines editorials. Combined with Gernsbacks earnest editorials, the use of early writers gave the magazine an anachronistic feel. Sales were initially good, but soon fell, for the last two issues Gernsback switched the magazine to cheaper pulp paper, but the magazine remained unprofitable. The final issue was dated December 1953 and he also published several new writers, but only one, Anne McCaffrey, went on to a successful career in the field. Science fiction historians consider the magazine a failed attempt to reproduce the early days of the science fiction pulps, the first science fiction magazine, Amazing Stories, was launched in 1926 by Hugo Gernsback at the height of the pulp magazine era. The two magazines were combined as Wonder Stories, which lasted until 1936, when Gernsback sold it to Ned Pines of Beacon Magazines. Gernsback remained in the business as proprietor of several profitable magazines, but he did not return to the sf field for nearly seventeen years. The first issue produced for sale was dated March 1953, the price,35 cents, was also competitive. Sales were initially good, and Science-Fiction Plus remained on a schedule until June, but when the circulation began to slip. In October Gernsback cut costs by switching to cheaper pulp paper, during Gernsbacks long absence from sf publishing, from 1936 to 1953, the field evolved away from his focus on facts and education. And he stated his preference for truly scientific, prophetic Science-Fiction with the accent on SCIENCE. The managing editor, Sam Moskowitz, also had a history in the field. Lawler agrees, describing the magazine as an anachronism, and dull from first to last, as part of Gernsbacks attempt to encourage stories that contained plausible scientific predictions, he created a symbol made up of a sphere labeled SF, with a five-pointed star atop it. He placed the first of these awards on a story of his own, Exploration of Mars, in the first issue, Lawler describes Simaks story, Spacebred Generations, as a gem, and cites Farmers Strange Compulsion as the high point in story quality for the entire run. Ashley praises the same two stories, and considers Nightmare Planet, by Murray Leinster, from the June 1953 issue, as equal in quality. Moskowitz attempted to find and develop new writers, and published the first story by Anne McCaffrey, Freedom of the Race, however, none of Moskowitzs other new writers lasted in the field, and he rejected McCaffreys subsequent submissions
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If (magazine)
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If was an American science fiction magazine launched in March 1952 by Quinn Publications, owned by James L. Quinn. The magazine was successful, though it was never considered to be in the first tier of science fiction magazines. It achieved its greatest success under editor Frederik Pohl, winning the Hugo Award for best professional magazine three years running from 1966 to 1968. If published many award-winning stories over its 22 years, including Robert A. Heinleins novel The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress, the most prominent writer to make his first sale to If was Larry Niven, whose story The Coldest Place appeared in the December 1964 issue. If was merged into Galaxy Science Fiction after the December 1974 issue, by the end of the 1930s the field was undergoing its first boom, but World War II and its attendant paper shortages led to the demise of several titles. By the late 1940s the market began to recover again, from a low of eight active magazines in 1946, the field expanded to 20 in 1950, and a further 22 had commenced publication by 1954. If was launched in the middle of this publishing boom. Ifs origins can be traced to 1948 and 1949, when Raymond Palmer founded two magazines while working at Ziff-Davis in Chicago, Fate and Other Worlds, Fate published articles about occult and supernatural events, while Other Worlds was a science fiction magazine. The two were successful to attract the notice of James L. Quinn, a New York publisher. One was a magazine entitled Strange, the other was If. By the time the issue reached the news stands, the disappointing sales figures for the first issue were in. Quinn persevered with himself as editor and his first issue was dated July 1952, and he continued as editor on the masthead for some years. Quinn brought in Ed Valigursky as the art editor, he designed striking covers, including some wraparound artwork—an unusual feature—which helped improve circulation. Quinn began searching for a replacement editor, writer Lester del Rey turned down the job but Quinn was able to engage Larry T. Shaw, Shaw joined in May 1953 as associate editor and soon began writing editorials and assisting with story selection. The magazines quality quickly improved and soon Quinn felt able to switch to a monthly schedule, Shaw left after only a year, and Quinn resumed full editorial responsibilities. In late 1953, Quinn decided to run a competition for short fiction from new writers, the competition was only open to college students who had not sold a story before. The first prize was $1,000, the second prize $500, the only other one of the seven announced winners who had a career as a science fiction writer was Leo P. Kelley. Quinn decided to move If to a schedule with the March 1954 issue
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The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction
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The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction is a US fantasy and science fiction magazine first published in 1949 by Fantasy House, a subsidiary of Lawrence Spivaks Mercury Press. Editors Anthony Boucher and J. Francis McComas had approached Spivak in the mid-1940s about creating a fantasy companion to Spivaks existing mystery title, Ellery Queens Mystery Magazine. The first issue was titled The Magazine of Fantasy, but the decision was made to include science fiction as well as fantasy. F&SF quickly became one of the magazines in the science fiction and fantasy field, with a reputation for publishing literary material. Mills was responsible for publishing Flowers for Algernon by Daniel Keyes, Rogue Moon by Algis Budrys, Starship Troopers by Robert Heinlein, and the first of Brian Aldisss Hothouse stories. The first few issues featured cover art by George Salter, Mercury Presss art director, but other artists soon began to appear, including Chesley Bonestell, Kelly Freas. In 1962, Mills was succeeded as editor by Avram Davidson, at the start of 1966 Edward Ferman was listed as editor, and four years later he acquired the magazine from his father and moved the editorial offices to his house in Connecticut. In 1991 he turned the editorship over to Kristine Kathryn Rusch, in the mid-1990s circulation began to decline, most magazines were losing subscribers and F&SF was no exception. Gordon Van Gelder replaced Rusch in 1997, and bought the magazine from Ferman in 2001, but circulation continued to fall, charles Coleman Finlay took over from Van Gelder as editor in 2015. The first magazine dedicated to fantasy, Weird Tales, appeared in 1923, it was followed in 1926 by Amazing Stories, by the end of the 1930s, the genre was flourishing in the United States, nearly twenty new sf and fantasy titles appearing between 1938 and 1941. These were all pulp magazines, which meant that despite the occasional high-quality story, in 1941, Ellery Queens Mystery Magazine appeared, edited by Fred Dannay and focusing on detective fiction. The magazine was published in digest format, rather than pulp, Dannay attempted to avoid the sensationalist fiction appearing in the pulps, and soon made the magazine a success. In the early 1940s Anthony Boucher, a writer of fantasy and sf and also of mystery stories. Boucher also knew J. Francis McComas, an editor who shared his interest in fantasy, by 1944 McComas and Boucher became interested in the idea of a fantasy companion to Ellery Queens Mystery Magazine, and spoke to Dannay about it. Dannay was interested in the idea, but paper was scarce because of World War II, in January 1946, Boucher and McComas went to New York and met with Spivak, who let them know later in the year that he wanted to go ahead. At Spivaks request they began acquiring material for the new magazine, including a new story by Raymond Chandler, lovecraft, John Dickson Carr, and Robert Bloch. Spivak initially planned the first issue for early 1947, but repeatedly delayed the launch because of poor sales of digest magazines. He also suggested that it should be priced at 35 cents an issue, in May 1949 Spivak suggested a new title, The Magazine of Fantasy, and in August a press release announced that the magazine would appear in October
