1.
Oswaldtwistle
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Oswaldtwistle is a village within the Hyndburn borough of Lancashire, England. It lies on the course of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal,3 miles east-southeast of Blackburn and is contiguous with Accrington, the name is derived from Oswald and Twistle. The word twistle is an old English word meaning brooks meet, legend has it that Saint Oswald, King of Northumbria passed through, giving the area its full title of Oswalds Twistle, which in time came to be Oswaldtwistle. However, it is likely derived from the name of the Anglo-Saxon who farmed the land. Robert Peel was born at Peelfold in 1723, and laid the family fortunes by innovations in calico printing, a particularly successful pattern featured a sprig of parsley and Robert became known as Parsley Peel. The soubriquet helps distinguish him from his son also Robert Peel, who was born at Peelfold in 1750 and went on to become a cotton mill owner, a very rich man, an MP. Sir Roberts son, born at Bury was yet another Robert Peel and in due course Sir Robert Peel, he was a full-time politician, another historical figure associated with the textile industry was James Hargreaves, inventor of the Spinning Jenny. The people of Oswaldtwistle were involved in the power loom riots of 1826, the mechanisation of the textile industry resulted in redundancies, low wages, and starvation. On 26 April, a number of cotton workers attacked the factory in White Ash in Oswaldtwistle, about a mile from Hargreaves workshop, destroying looms. The riots went on for three days, extending to all towns in central Lancashire. It is important to note the contribution of Alfred N. Waterhouse in Oswaldtwistle, in the 1940s, he created what became Shopfitters Lancashire Ltd and in the 1950s, the firm moved from Accrington to Rhyddings Mill, Oswaldtwistle. He was a successful entrepreneur who manufactured the shopfittings. At its peak in the 1960s, Shopfitters Ltd employed over 80 salesmen nationally, the firm closed in the 1980s. There is also a Tesco Express, which opened in 2009, built on the site of the former retained fire station, a Spar is in the town, which opened in 1991. Other stores include an appliance repairs/sales, numerous takeaways, numerous barbers, estate agents, off licences, bakers, butchers, funeral directors, there are also groups of Boys Brigade/Girls Brigade in the town, along with groups for Scouts, Beavers and Cubs. Additionally, Hyndburn Comets, a group of majorettes, exists in the town and this became a civil parish in 1866. Between 1894 and 1974, the area was administered by an urban district and it has since become an unparished part of the borough of Hyndburn. In February 2016, the teacher of St. Andrews, Christina Wilkinson
2.
Nottingham
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Nottingham is a city and unitary authority area in Nottinghamshire, England, located 128 miles north of London, in the East Midlands. Nottingham has links to the legend of Robin Hood and to the lace-making, bicycle and it was granted its city charter in 1897 as part of Queen Victorias Diamond Jubilee celebrations. Nottingham is a tourist destination, in 2011, visitors spent over £1.5 billion - the thirteenth highest amount in Englands 111 statistical territories. In 2015, Nottingham had an population of 321,550 with the wider urban area. Its urban area is the largest in the east Midlands and the second largest in the Midlands, the population of the Nottingham/Derby metropolitan area is estimated to be 1,610,000. Its metropolitan economy is the seventh largest in the United Kingdom with a GDP of $50. 9bn, the city is also ranked as a sufficiency-level world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. It is also a sporting centre, and in October 2015 was named Home of English Sport. The city also has rugby, ice hockey and cricket teams, and the Aegon Nottingham Open. This accolade came just over a year after Nottingham was named as the UKs first City of Football, on 11 December 2015, Nottingham was named a Unesco City of Literature, joining Norwich, Melbourne, Prague and Barcelona as one of only a handful in the world. The title reflects Nottinghams literary heritage, with Lord Byron, DH Lawrence and it has two universities, the University of Nottingham and Nottingham Trent University, which are attended by over 70,610 students. In modern Welsh it is known poetically as Y Ty Ogofog, when it fell under the rule of a Saxon chieftain named Snot it became known as Snotingaham, the homestead of Snots people. Some authors derive Nottingham from Snottenga, caves, and ham, Nottingham Castle was constructed in 1068 on a sandstone outcrop by the River Leen. Following the Norman Conquest the Saxon settlement developed into the English Borough of Nottingham and housed a Town Hall, a settlement also developed around the castle on the hill opposite and was the French borough supporting the Normans in the castle. Eventually, the space between was built on as the town grew and the Old Market Square became the focus of Nottingham several centuries later, defences, consisted initially of a ditch and bank in the early 12th century. The ditch was later widened, in the mid 13th century, a short length of the wall survives, and is visible at the northern end of Maid Marian Way, and is protected as a Scheduled Monument. On the return of Richard the Lionheart from the Crusades, the Castle was occupied by supporters of Prince John and it was besieged by Richard and, after a sharp conflict, was captured. In the legends of Robin Hood, Nottingham Castle is the scene of the showdown between the Sheriff and the hero outlaw. By the 15th century Nottingham had established itself as a centre of an export trade in religious sculpture made from Nottingham Alabaster
3.
Nottinghamshire
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Nottinghamshire is a county in the East Midlands of England, bordering South Yorkshire to the north-west, Lincolnshire to the east, Leicestershire to the south, and Derbyshire to the west. The traditional county town is Nottingham, though the county council is based in West Bridgford in the borough of Rushcliffe, the districts of Nottinghamshire are Ashfield, Bassetlaw, Broxtowe, Gedling, Mansfield, Newark and Sherwood, and Rushcliffe. The City of Nottingham was administratively part of Nottinghamshire between 1974 and 1998 but is now an authority, remaining part of Nottinghamshire for ceremonial purposes. In 2011 the county was estimated to have a population of 785,800, over half of the population of the county live in the Greater Nottingham conurbation. The conurbation has a population of about 650,000, though less than half live within the city boundaries. Nottinghamshire lies on the Roman Fosse Way, and there are Roman settlements in the county, for example at Mansfield, the county was settled by Angles around the 5th century, and became part of the Kingdom, and later Earldom, of Mercia. However, there is evidence of Saxon settlement at the Broxtowe Estate, Oxton, near Nottingham, the name first occurs in 1016, but until 1568 the county was administratively united with Derbyshire, under a single Sheriff. In Norman times the county developed malting and woollen industries, in the 18th and 19th centuries, mechanised deeper collieries opened and mining became an important economic sector, though these declined after the 1984–85 miners strike. Until 1610, Nottinghamshire was divided into eight Wapentakes, sometime between 1610 and 1719 they were reduced to six – Newark, Bassetlaw, Thurgarton, Rushcliffe, Broxtowe and Bingham, some of these names still being used for the modern districts. Oswaldbeck was absorbed in Bassetlaw, of which it forms the North Clay division, Nottinghamshire is famous for its involvement with the legend of Robin Hood. This is also the reason for the numbers of tourists who visit places like Sherwood Forest, City of Nottingham, to reinforce the Robin Hood connection, the University of Nottingham in 2010 has begun the Nottingham Caves Survey with the goal to increase the tourist potential of these sites. The project will use a 3D laser scanner to produce a three dimensional record of more than 450 sandstone caves around Nottingham. Nottinghamshire was mapped first by Christopher Saxton in 1576, the first fully surveyed map of the county was by John Chapman who produced Chapmans Map of Nottinghamshire in 1774. Nottinghamshire, like Derbyshire and South Yorkshire, sits on extensive coal measures, up to 900 metres thick, there is an oilfield near Eakring. These are overlaid by sandstones and limestones in the west and clay in the east, the north of the county is part of the Humberhead Levels lacustrine plain. The centre and south west of the county, around Sherwood Forest, principal rivers are the Trent, Idle, Erewash and Soar. The Trent, fed by the Soar and Erewash, and Idle, composed of many streams from Sherwood Forest, run through wide and flat valleys, the lowest is Peat Carr, east of Blaxton, at sea level, the Trent is tidal below Cromwell Lock. Nottinghamshire is sheltered by the Pennines to the west, so receives relatively low rainfall at 641–740 mm annually, the average temperature of the county is 8. 8–10.1 degrees Celsius
4.
Spinning jenny
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The spinning jenny is a multi-spindle spinning frame, and was one of the key developments in the industrialization of weaving during the early Industrial Revolution. It was invented in 1764 by James Hargreaves in Stanhill, Oswaldtwistle, the device reduced the amount of work needed to produce cloth, with a worker able to work eight or more spools at once. This grew to 120 as technology advanced, the yarn produced by the Jenny was not very strong until Richard Arkwright invented the water-powered Water Frame, which produced yarn harder and stronger than that of the initial Spinning Jenny. It ushered in the factory system, the spinning jenny was invented by James Hargreaves. He was born in Oswaldtwistle, near Blackburn, around 1720, Blackburn was a town with a population of about 5,000, known for the production of Blackburn greys, cloths of linen warp and cotton weft initially imported from India. They were usually sent to London to be printed, at the time, cotton production could not keep up with demand of the textile industry, and Hargreaves spent some time considering how to improve the process. The flying shuttle had increased demand by the weavers by doubling their productivity. The idea was developed by Hargreaves as a frame with eight wooden spindles at one end. A set of eight rovings was attached to a beam on that frame, the rovings when extended passed through two horizontal bars of wood that could be clasped together. These bars could be drawn along the top of the frame by the left hand thus extending the thread. The spinner used his hand to rapidly turn a wheel which caused all the spindles to revolve. When the bars were returned, the wound onto the spindle. A pressing wire was used to guide the threads onto the place on the spindle. In the 17th century, England was famous for its woollen and that industry was centred in the east and south in towns such as Norwich which jealously protected their product. Cotton processing was tiny, in 1701 only 1,985,868 pounds of cotton-wool was imported into England and this was due to commercial legislation to protect the woollen industry. Cheap calico prints, imported by the East India Company from Hindustan, in 1700 an Act of Parliament was passed to prevent the importation of dyed or printed calicoes from India, China or Persia. This caused grey cloth to be imported instead, and these were printed in southern England with popular patterns, Lancashire businessmen produced grey cloth with linen warp and cotton weft, which they sent to London to be finished. Cotton-wool imports recovered and by 1720 were almost back to 1701 levels, again the woollen manufacturers, in true protectionist style, claimed this was taking jobs from workers in Coventry
5.
Weaving
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Weaving is a method of textile production in which two distinct sets of yarns or threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric or cloth. Other methods are knitting, felting, and braiding or plaiting, the longitudinal threads are called the warp and the lateral threads are the weft or filling. The method in which these threads are inter woven affects the characteristics of the cloth, cloth is usually woven on a loom, a device that holds the warp threads in place while filling threads are woven through them. A fabric band which meets this definition of cloth can also be using other methods, including tablet weaving, back-strap. The way the warp and filling threads interlace with each other is called the weave, the majority of woven products are created with one of three basic weaves, plain weave, satin weave, or twill. Woven cloth can be plain, or can be woven in decorative or artistic design, in general, weaving involves using a loom to interlace two sets of threads at right angles to each other, the warp which runs longitudinally and the weft that crosses it. One warp thread is called an end and one weft thread is called a pick, the warp threads are held taut and in parallel to each other, typically in a loom. There are many types of looms, Weaving can be summarized as a repetition of these three actions, also called the primary motion of the loom. Beating-up or battening, where the weft is pushed up against the fell of the cloth by the reed. The warp is divided into two overlapping groups, or lines that run in two planes, one another, so the shuttle can be passed between them in a straight motion. Then, the group is lowered by the loom mechanism. Repeating these actions form a fabric mesh but without beating-up, the distance between the adjacent wefts would be irregular and far too large. The warp-beam is a wooden or metal cylinder on the back of the loom on which the warp is delivered, the threads of the warp extend in parallel order from the warp-beam to the front of the loom where they are attached to the cloth-roll. Each thread or group of threads of the passes through an opening in a heddle. The warp threads are separated by the heddles into two or more groups, each controlled and automatically drawn up and down by the motion of the heddles, where a complex design is required, the healds are raised by harness cords attached to a Jacquard machine. Every time the harness moves up or down, an opening is made between the threads of warp, through which the pick is inserted, traditionally the weft thread is inserted by a shuttle. On a conventional loom, the thread is carried on a pirn. A handloom weaver could propel the shuttle by throwing it from side to side with the aid of a picking stick, the picking΅ on a power loom is done by rapidly hitting the shuttle from each side using an overpick or underpick mechanism controlled by cams 80-250 times a minute
6.
Carpentry
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Carpentry in the United States is almost always done by men. With 98. 5% of carpenters being male, it was the fourth most male-dominated occupation in the country in 1999, Carpenters are usually the first tradesmen on a job and the last to leave. Carpenters normally framed post-and-beam buildings until the end of the 19th century and it is also common that the skill can be learned by gaining work experience other than a formal training program, which may be the case in many places. The word carpenter is the English rendering of the Old French word carpentier which is derived from the Latin carpentrius, the Middle English and Scots word was wright, which could be used in compound forms such as wheelwright or boatwright. An easy way to envisage this is that first fix work is all that is done before plastering takes place, second fix is done after plastering takes place. Second fix work, the construction of such as skirting boards, architraves. Carpentry is also used to construct the formwork into which concrete is poured during the building of such as roads. In the UK, the skill of making timber formwork for poured, or in situ, although the. work of a carpenter and joiner are often combined. Joiner is less common than the finish carpenter or cabinetmaker. The terms housewright and barnwright were used historically, now used by carpenters who work using traditional methods. Someone who builds custom concrete formwork is a form carpenter, wood is one of mankinds oldest building materials. The ability to shape wood improved with technological advances from the age to the bronze age to the iron age. The oldest surviving, complete text is Vitruvius ten books collectively titled De architectura which discusses some carpentry. By the 16th century sawmills were coming into use in Europe, the founding of America was partly based on a desire to extract resources from the new continent including wood for use in ships and buildings in Europe. In the 18th century part of the Industrial Revolution was the invention of the steam engine and these technologies combined with the invention of the circular saw led to the development of balloon framing which was the beginning of the decline of traditional timber framing. The 19th century saw the development of engineering and distribution which allowed the development of hand-held power tools, wire nails. In the 20th century portland cement came into use and concrete foundations allowed carpenters to do away with heavy timber sills. Also, drywall came into common use replacing lime plaster on wooden lath, plywood, engineered lumber and chemically treated lumber also came into use
7.
Richard Arkwright
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Sir Richard Arkwright was an English inventor and a leading entrepreneur during the early Industrial Revolution. Although his patents were overturned, he is credited with inventing the spinning frame. He also patented a rotary carding engine that transformed raw cotton into cotton lap, Arkwrights achievement was to combine power, machinery, semi-skilled labour and the new raw material of cotton to create mass-produced yarn. Later in his life Arkwright was known as the father of the industrial factory system. Richard Arkwright, the youngest of seven surviving children, was born in Preston, Lancashire and his father, Thomas, was a tailor and a Preston Guild burgess. The family is recorded in the Preston Guild Rolls now held by Lancashire Record Office, Richards parents, Sarah and Thomas, could not afford to send him to school and instead arranged for him to be taught to read and write by his cousin Ellen. Richard was apprenticed to a Mr Nicholson, a barber at nearby Kirkham and it was here that he invented a waterproof dye for use on the fashionable periwigs of the time, the income from which later funded his prototype cotton machinery. Arkwright married his first wife, Patience Holt, in 1755 and they had a son, Richard Arkwright Junior, who was born the same year. In 1756, Patience died of unspecified causes, Arkwright later married Margaret Biggins in 1761 at the age of 29 years. They had three children, of whom only Susanna survived to adulthood and it was only after the death of his first wife that he became an entrepreneur. He became interested in spinning and carding machinery that turned raw cotton into thread, in 1768, he and John Kay, a clockmaker, briefly returned to Preston renting rooms in a house on Stoneygate, now known as Arkwright House, where they worked on a spinning machine. In 1769 Arkwright patented the spinning frame, which known as the water-frame. Lewis Paul had invented a machine for carding in 1748, Arkwright and John Smalley set up a small horse-driven factory at Nottingham. Needing more capital to expand, Arkwright partnered with Jedediah Strutt and Samuel Need, wealthy hosiery manufacturers, in 1771, the partners built the worlds first water-powered mill at Cromford, employing 200 people mainly women and children. Arkwright spent £12,000 perfecting his machine, which contained the crank and he had mechanised all the preparatory and spinning processes, and he began to set up water-powered cotton mills as far away as Scotland. His success encouraged others to copy him, so he had great difficulty in enforcing the patent he was granted in 1775. Samuel Crompton was later to combine the two to form the spinning mule, in 1776 Arkwright built a second, larger mill at Cromford and, soon after, mills at Bakewell and Wirksworth. He was invited to Scotland where he helped David Dale establish the cotton mills at New Lanark, a large new mill at Birkacre, Lancashire, was destroyed, however, in the anti-machinery riots in 1779
8.
Water frame
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The water frame is the name given to a water-powered spinning frame which was an easy way to create cotton thread. The first time the machine was used in 1768 and it was able to spin 128 threads at a time, which was an easier and faster method than ever before. It was developed by Richard Arkwright, who patented the technology in 1767, the design was partly based on a spinning machine built for Thomas Highs by clock maker John Kay, who was hired by Arkwright. Being run on power, it produced stronger and harder yarn than the then famous Spinning Jenny, thus. The water frame is the given to a spinning frame. Both are credited to Richard Arkwright who patented the technology in 1768 and it was based on an invention by Thomas Highs and the patent was later overturned. The water frame is derived from the use of a wheel to drive a number of spinning frames. The water wheel provided more power to the frame than human operators, reducing the amount of human labor needed. However, unlike the spinning jenny, the frame could spin only one thread at a time until Samuel Compton combined the two inventions into his spinning mule in 1779. The water frame was originally powered by horses at a factory built by Arkwright, in 1770 Arkwright and partners built a water powered mill in Cromford, Derbyshire. It was one of the first instances of the day being determined by the clock instead of the daylight hours. In its final form, combined with his machine, it was the first factory to use a continuous process from raw material to finished product in a series of operations. Arkwright played a significant part in the development of the system as he combined water power, the water frame
9.
Samuel Crompton
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Samuel Crompton was an English inventor and pioneer of the spinning industry. Building on the work of James Hargreaves and Richard Arkwright he invented the spinning mule, Samuel Crompton was born in 10 Firwood Fold, Bolton, Lancashire to George and Betty Crompton. His father was a caretaker at nearby Hall i th Wood, while he was a boy he lost his father and had to contribute to the family resources by spinning yarn, learning to spin on James Hargreavess spinning jenny. The deficiencies of the jenny imbued him with the idea of devising something better, the effort absorbed all his spare time and money, including that which he earned by playing the violin at the Bolton theatre. On 16 February 1780 at Bolton Parish Church, Crompton married Mary Pimlott and they had eight children including George Crompton, who followed in the family business. About 1779, Samuel Crompton succeeded in producing a mule-jenny, a machine which spun yarn suitable for use in the manufacture of muslin. It was known as the wheel or the Hall i th Woodwheel, from the name of the house in which he. The mule-jenny later became known as the spinning mule, there was a strong demand for the yarn which Crompton was making at Hall i th Wood but he lacked the means to take out a patent. The prying into his methods forced Crompton to choose between destroying his machine or making it public and he adopted the latter alternative after promises by a number of manufacturers to pay him for the use of the mule but all he received was about £60. He then resumed spinning on his own account, but with indifferent success, the mules importance was that it could spin thread better than could be done by hand, which led to ever finer thread. Coarse thread sold for 14 shillings per pound whilst spun on his sold at 42 shillings a pound. As the mule was unpatented others soon manufactured it, the machine was constructed in iron, power was applied to assist the inward motion in 1790 and by 1834 it was fully automatic or self-acting. A survey in 1812 showed there were between 4 and 5 million mule spindles in use, Crompton received no royalties for his invention. In 1811, he toured the districts of Lancashire and Scotland to collect evidence showing how extensively his mule was being used. With the aid of money, Crompton started a business as a bleacher and then as a cotton merchant and spinner. In 1824, some friends and members of Boltons Black Horse prosecution Club, Crompton died at his house in King Street, Bolton on 26 June 1827, and was buried at the parish church of St Peters. The Life and Times of Samuel Crompton, Inventor of the Spinning Machine Called the Mule, the Early English Cotton Industry, With Some Unpublished Letters of Samuel Crompton
10.
Spinning mule
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The spinning mule is a machine used to spin cotton and other fibres in the mills of Lancashire and elsewhere. They were used extensively from the late 18th to the early 20th century, mules were worked in pairs by a minder, with the help of two boys, the little piecer and the big or side piecer. The carriage carried up to 1,320 spindles and could be 150 feet long and it was invented between 1775 and 1779 by Samuel Crompton. The self-acting mule was patented by Richard Roberts in 1825, at its peak there were 50,000,000 mule spindles in Lancashire alone. Modern versions are still in production and are used to spin woollen yarns from noble fibres such as cashmere, ultra-fine merino. The spinning mule spins textile fibres into yarn by an intermittent process, in the draw stroke, the roving is pulled through rollers and twisted, on the return it is wrapped onto the spindle. Its rival, the frame or ring frame uses a continuous process. The mule was the most common spinning machine from 1790 until about 1900 and was used for fine yarns until the early 1980s. In 1890, a cotton mill would have over 60 mules, each with 1,320 spindles. Before the 1770s, textile production was a cottage industry using flax, the children and women would card the fibre, which the women would spin into yarn, the male weaver would use a frame loom to weave this into cloth. This was then tentered in the sun to bleach it and these two wheels became the starting point of technological development. Businessmen such as Richard Arkwright employed inventors to find solutions that would increase the amount of yarn spun, the spinning jenny allowed a group of eight spindles to be operated together. It mirrored the simple wheel, the rovings were clamped and a frame moved forward stretching and thinning the roving, a wheel was rapidly turned as the frame was pushed back, and the spindles rotated, twisted the rovings into yarn and collecting it on the spindles. Eight or sixteen of these were mounted in parallel on a static frame driven usually by a water wheel and it was ideas from these two system that inspired the spinning mule. It was the frame that inspired the ring frame. The increased supply of muslin inspired developments in design such as Edmund Cartwrights power loom. Some spinners and handloom weavers opposed the perceived threat to their livelihood, there were frame-breaking riots and, in 1811–13, the preparatory and associated tasks allowed many children to be employed until this was regulated. The hand-operated mule was a breakthrough in production and the machines were copied by Samuel Slater
11.
Spindle (textiles)
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A spindle is a straight spike usually made from wood used for spinning, twisting fibers such as wool, flax, hemp, cotton into yarn. The spindle may also have a hook, groove, or notch at the top to guide the yarn, spindles come in many different sizes and weights depending on the thickness of the yarn one desires to spin. The origin of the first wooden spindle is lost to history because the materials did not survive, whorl-weighted spindles date back at least to Neolithic times, spindle whorls have been found in archaeological digs around the world. A spindle is part of traditional spinning wheels where it is horizontal, such as the Indian charkha. In industrial yarn production, spindles are used as well, see spinning jenny, spinning mule, modern hand spindles fall into two basic categories, drop spindles, and supported spindles. In both, the spindle is vertical and they also permit the spinner to move around while spinning, going about their day. However, there are limits to their size/weight. Drop spindles are commonly available in high-whorl, low-whorl, and centre-whorl versions, in a high-whorl spindle, the whorl sits very close to the top of the shaft which allows the spindle to spin very fast. A hook is placed on the top of the shaft to secure the yarn. In a low-whorl spindle, the whorl sits near the bottom of the shaft, which makes it slower, but more steadily. The newly spun yarn is wound around the shaft just above the whorl, in centre-whorl spindles the cop is usually built above the whorl. Most supported spindles continue to rest with the tip on ones thigh, on the ground, on a table, french spindles are twiddled between the fingers of one hand instead. A familiar sight from history books is a used in conjunction with a distaff. There are many methods for controlling the pre-spun fibre, such as coiling it around ones lower arm, or through a bracelet. Spindles can also be used for plying, intertwining two or more strands of yarn together in order to create a stronger, more balanced. The spindle is closely associated with goddesses, including the Germanic Holda, Norse Frigg and Freya, Egyptian Isis, Greek Artemis. It is often connected with fate, as the Greek Fates, because the spinning wheel was not in common use before the 16th century in Europe, the older stories are certainly referring to hand spinning done on a spindle. Supported spindles spin on such as bowls that are usually ceramic or wooden
12.
Yarn
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Yarn is a long continuous length of interlocked fibres, suitable for use in the production of textiles, sewing, crocheting, knitting, weaving, embroidery, and ropemaking. Thread is a type of yarn intended for sewing by hand or machine, modern manufactured sewing threads may be finished with wax or other lubricants to withstand the stresses involved in sewing. Embroidery threads are yarns specifically designed for hand or machine embroidery, the word yarn comes from Middle English, from the Old English gearn, akin to Old High Germans garn yarn, Greeks chordē string, and Sanskrits hira band. Yarn can be made from a number of natural or synthetic fibers, many types of yarn are made differently though. There are two types of yarn, spun and filament. The most common plant fiber is cotton, which is spun into fine yarn for mechanical weaving or knitting into cloth. Cotton and polyester are the most commonly spun fibers in the world, cotton is grown throughout the world, harvested, ginned, and prepared for yarn spinning. Polyester is extruded from polymers derived from gas and oil. Synthetic fibers are generally extruded in continuous strands of gel-state materials and these strands are drawn, annealed, and cured to obtain properties desirable for later processing. Synthetic fibers come in three forms, staple, tow, and filament. Staple is cut fibers, generally sold in lengths up to 120mm, tow is a continuous rope of fibers consisting of many filaments loosely joined side-to-side. Filament is a continuous strand consisting of anything from 1 filament to many, synthetic fiber is most often measured in a weight per linear measurement basis, along with cut length. Denier and Dtex are the most common weight to length measures, cut-length only applies to staple fiber. Filament extrusion is sometimes referred to as spinning but most people equate spinning with spun yarn production, the most commonly spun animal fiber is wool harvested from sheep. For hand knitting and hobby knitting, thick, wool and acrylic yarns are frequently used, other animal fibers used include alpaca, angora, mohair, llama, cashmere, and silk. More rarely, yarn may be spun from camel, yak, possum, musk ox, cat, dog, wolf, rabbit, or buffalo hair, and even turkey or ostrich feathers. Natural fibers such as these have the advantage of being slightly elastic and very breathable, while trapping a great deal of air, other natural fibers that can be used for yarn include linen and cotton. These tend to be much less elastic, and retain less warmth than the animal-hair yarns, the finished product will also look rather different from the woollen yarns
13.
Hosiery
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Hosiery, also referred to as legwear, describes garments worn directly on the feet and legs. The term originated as the term for products of which a maker or seller is termed a hosier. The term is used for all types of knitted fabric. Lower denier measurements of 5 to 15 describe a hose which may be sheer in appearance, whereas styles of 40 and above are dense, with little to no light able to come through on 100 denier items. The first references to hosiery can be found in works of Hesiod, even the Egyptians are speculated to have used hosiery as socks have been found in certain tombs. Most hosiery garments are made by knitting methods, modern hosiery is usually tight-fitting by virtue of stretchy fabrics and meshes. Older forms include binding to achieve a tight fit, due to its close fit, most hosiery can be worn as an undergarment, but it is more commonly worn as a combined under/outer garment. Hosiery garments are the product of hosiery fabric produced from hosiery yarn, unlike the yarn used for making woven fabric, hosiery yarn comes from a separate spinning process, and is used with circular knitting machines to form fabric. One or more hosiery yarn is used to make knitted or hosiery fabric, and garments produced out of this are generally referred to as hosiery garments
14.
Hockley, Nottingham
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Hockley is an area near the centre of Nottingham, England. Hockley lies adjacent to the Lace Market, many well-preserved Victorian buildings, there has been a mercantile presence on the land since at least the 13th century. With many bars, restaurants and trendy shops, it is a vibrant, modern section of the city. The area was originally called Walker Gate, from the practice of walking or stamping upon cloth to make it softer after weaving. Up until the 20th century Nottinghams fortunes have been tied to the rag trade, hockley is home to many design, fashion, New Age and record shops, and galleries, bars and cafés. It was known for the film festival it once held. This apparently came to be after the cinema was the first in the UK to show Pulp Fiction, creative Quarter, Nottingham Broadway Cinema The Screen Room
15.
Thomas Highs
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Thomas Highs, of Leigh, Lancashire, was a reed-maker and manufacturer of cotton carding and spinning engines in the 1780s, during the Industrial Revolution. It is said he was a reed maker, the reed is a comb-like strip attached to the batten of a loom, which keeps the warp threads apart and helps the weaver pack the weft threads tightly on the newly-woven cloth. He married Sarah Moss on 23 February 1747, at Leigh Parish Church, between 1766 and 1767 he discovered the method of spinning by rollers similar to that patented by Lewis Paul and John Wyatt and employed John Kay to help him with the construction of the mechanism. It is undisputed that he invented a perpetual carding engine in 1773, Richard Guest, claimed that Thomas Highs was the actual inventor of both Hargreaves spinning jenny, and Arkwrights rollers, the feature of the water frame. This had been tested in court, baines wrote History of the cotton manufacture in Great Britain, it was published in 1835. In 1775 Arkwright patented a variety of machinery that performed all the processes of manufacture, in 1781, Arkwright went to court to protect his patents but the move rebounded when his patents were overturned. Four years later, after seeing his patents restored temporarily a court battle of 1785 in London made a determination, Arkwright applied for at least 5 patents relating to spinning. They related to a feeder, a cylinder, a roving can. The July 1781 and February 1785 cases were based on intelligibility, not being sufficiently described, Highs was a witness at the February 1785 trial, and in his evidence claimed he had made fluted rollers. No mention was made by him of the spinning jenny, but it was mentioned as a statement of fact in Arkwrights submission and it is alleged that Highs knew the jennys limitations. It could produce only thread that was suitable for weft and its output was too soft to be used for warp, which still had to be manufactured from linen. While Hargreaves worked on the spinning jenny, Highs, it is alleged, constructed a machine using rollers, similar to a machine later called the water frame. The second set were rotating at five times the speed of the first, so the thread was stretched to five times its original length, before being given its vital twist by a bobbin. The machine produced stronger thread than the jenny and this thread that was suitable for warp. It is alleged that Highs gave clockmaker Kay a wooden model of his rollers, Kay did so before returning to live a few miles away in his native Warrington. Richard Arkwright met Kay on his business travels, gained his confidence, Highs, Kay, Kays wife and the widow of James Hargreaves all testified that Arkwright had stolen their inventions. Arkwrights patents were laid aside, and this judgement was later interpreted to mean as he was not the inventor, Highs movements in between 1767 and his death in 1803 were detailed by Guest. He used them to show that Highs had been in close proximity to the acknowledged inventors, about 1767 or 8, Highs moved to a house in Bradshawgate, Leigh, where he kept a special room to house his roller-frame in secret
16.
The Journal of Economic History
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The Journal of Economic History is an academic journal of economic history which has been published since 1941. Many of its articles are quantitative, often following the approaches that have been called cliometrics or the new economic history to make statistical estimates. The journal is published on behalf of the Economic History Association by Cambridge University Press and its editors are Ann Carlos at the University of Colorado and William Collins at Vanderbilt University. Its 2015 impact factor is 0.742
17.
Cambridge University Press
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Cambridge University Press is the publishing business of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by Henry VIII in 1534, it is the worlds oldest publishing house and it also holds letters patent as the Queens Printer. The Presss mission is To further the Universitys mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, Cambridge University Press is a department of the University of Cambridge and is both an academic and educational publisher. With a global presence, publishing hubs, and offices in more than 40 countries. Its publishing includes journals, monographs, reference works, textbooks. Cambridge University Press is an enterprise that transfers part of its annual surplus back to the university. Cambridge University Press is both the oldest publishing house in the world and the oldest university press and it originated from Letters Patent granted to the University of Cambridge by Henry VIII in 1534, and has been producing books continuously since the first University Press book was printed. Cambridge is one of the two privileged presses, authors published by Cambridge have included John Milton, William Harvey, Isaac Newton, Bertrand Russell, and Stephen Hawking. In 1591, Thomass successor, John Legate, printed the first Cambridge Bible, the London Stationers objected strenuously, claiming that they had the monopoly on Bible printing. The universitys response was to point out the provision in its charter to print all manner of books. In July 1697 the Duke of Somerset made a loan of £200 to the university towards the house and presse and James Halman, Registrary of the University. It was in Bentleys time, in 1698, that a body of scholars was appointed to be responsible to the university for the Presss affairs. The Press Syndicates publishing committee still meets regularly, and its role still includes the review, John Baskerville became University Printer in the mid-eighteenth century. Baskervilles concern was the production of the finest possible books using his own type-design, a technological breakthrough was badly needed, and it came when Lord Stanhope perfected the making of stereotype plates. This involved making a mould of the surface of a page of type. The Press was the first to use this technique, and in 1805 produced the technically successful, under the stewardship of C. J. Clay, who was University Printer from 1854 to 1882, the Press increased the size and scale of its academic and educational publishing operation. An important factor in this increase was the inauguration of its list of schoolbooks, during Clays administration, the Press also undertook a sizable co-publishing venture with Oxford, the Revised Version of the Bible, which was begun in 1870 and completed in 1885. It was Wright who devised the plan for one of the most distinctive Cambridge contributions to publishing—the Cambridge Histories, the Cambridge Modern History was published between 1902 and 1912
18.
JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
19.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
20.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
21.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
