1.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
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National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
3.
Historic districts in the United States
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Buildings, structures, objects and sites within a historic district are normally divided into two categories, contributing and non-contributing. Districts greatly vary in size, some have hundreds of structures, the U. S. federal government designates historic districts through the United States Department of Interior under the auspices of the National Park Service. Federally designated historic districts are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, state-level historic districts may follow similar criteria or may require adherence to certain historic rehabilitation standards. Local historic district designation offers, by far, the most legal protection for historic properties because most land use decisions are made at the local level, local districts are generally administered by the county or municipal government. The first U. S. historic district was established in Charleston, South Carolina in 1931, Charleston city government designated an Old and Historic District by local ordinance and created a board of architectural review to oversee it. New Orleans followed in 1937, establishing the Vieux Carré Commission, other localities picked up on the concept, with the city of Philadelphia enacting its historic preservation ordinance in 1955. The Supreme Court case validated the protection of resources as an entirely permissible governmental goal. In 1966 the federal government created the National Register of Historic Places, conference of Mayors had stated Americans suffered from rootlessness. By the 1980s there were thousands of federally designated historic districts, Historic districts are generally two types of properties, contributing and non-contributing. In general, contributing properties are integral parts of the historic context, in addition to the two types of classification within historic districts, properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places are classified into five broad categories. They are, building, structure, site, district and object, all but the eponymous district category are also applied to historic districts listed on the National Register. A listing on the National Register of Historic Places is governmental acknowledgment of a historic district, however, the Register is an honorary status with some federal financial incentives. The National Register of Historic Places defines a historic district per U. S. federal law, a district may also comprise individual elements separated geographically but linked by association or history. Districts established under U. S. federal guidelines generally begin the process of designation through a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places, the National Register is the official recognition by the U. S. government of cultural resources worthy of preservation. While designation through the National Register does offer a district or property some protections, if the federal government is not involved, then the listing on the National Register provides the site, property or district no protections. If, however, company A was under federal contract the Smith House would be protected, a federal designation is little more than recognition by the government that the resource is worthy of preservation. Usually, the National Register does not list religious structures, moved structures, reconstructed structures, however, if a property falls into one of those categories and are integral parts of districts that do meet the criteria then an exception allowing their listing will be made. Historic district listings, like all National Register nominations, can be rejected on the basis of owner disapproval, in the case of historic districts, a majority of owners must object in order to nullify a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places
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Contributing property
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Government agencies, at the state, national, and local level in the United States, have differing definitions of what constitutes a contributing property but there are common characteristics. Local laws often regulate the changes that can be made to contributing structures within designated historic districts, the first local ordinances dealing with the alteration of buildings within historic districts was in Charleston, South Carolina in 1931. Properties within a district fall into one of two types of property, contributing and non-contributing. A contributing property, such as a 19th Century mansion, helps make a historic district historic, while a non-contributing property, such as a medical clinic. The contributing properties are key to a districts historic associations, historic architectural qualities. A property can change from contributing to non-contributing and vice versa if significant alterations take place, the ordinance declared that buildings in the district could not have changes made to their architectural features visible from the street. By the mid-1930s, other U. S. cities followed Charlestons lead, an amendment to the Louisiana Constitution led to the 1937 creation of the Vieux Carre Commission, which was charged with protecting and preserving the French Quarter in the city of New Orleans. The city then passed an ordinance that set standards regulating changes within the quarter. Other sources, such as the Columbia Law Review in 1963, the Columbia Law Review gave dates of 1925 for the New Orleans laws and 1924 for Charleston. The same publication claimed that two cities were the only cities with historic district zoning until Alexandria, Virginia adopted an ordinance in 1946. The National Park Service appears to refute this, in 1939, the city of San Antonio, Texas, enacted an ordinance that protected the area of La Villita, which was the citys original Mexican village marketplace. In 1941 the authority of local controls on buildings within historic districts was being challenged in court. In City of New Orleans vs Pergament Louisiana state appellate courts ruled that the design, beginning in the mid-1950s, controls that once applied to only historic districts were extended to individual landmark structures. The United States Congress adopted legislation that declared the Georgetown neighborhood in Washington, by 1965,51 American communities had adopted preservation ordinances. By 1998, more than 2,300 U. S. towns, contributing properties are defined through historic district or historic preservation zoning laws, usually at the local level. Zoning ordinances pertaining to historic districts are designed to maintain a historic character by controlling demolition and alteration to existing properties. It can be any property, structure or object that adds to the integrity or architectural qualities that make the historic district, either local or federal. Definitions vary but, in general, they maintain the same characteristics, another key aspect of a contributing property is historic integrity
5.
Summit Avenue (St. Paul)
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Summit Avenue is a street in Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States, known for having a number of historic houses, churches, synagogues, and schools. The street starts just west of downtown Saint Paul and continues four, other cities have similar streets, such as Prairie Avenue in Chicago, Euclid Avenue in Cleveland, and Fifth Avenue in New York City. Summit Avenue is part of two National Historic Districts and two City of Saint Paul Heritage Preservation Districts, most of the houses in this district are large, distinctive houses built between 1890 and 1920. Summit Avenue was named one of 10 great streets nationally by the American Planning Association in 2008, the history of Summit Avenue dates back to the early 1850s, when Saint Paul was in its infancy. Mansions were starting to appear on top of the hill in the earliest days of the city, an 1859 photograph by Joel Whitney shows six houses on the hill. Edward Duffield Neill owned the first house on Summit Avenue, in a location now occupied by the James J. Hill House. Continuing westward, the shows the houses of William and Angelina Noble, Henry F. Masterson, Henry Mower Rice, Henry Neill Paul. The Stuart house, at 312 Summit Avenue, is the one of these still standing, making it the oldest remaining house on Summit Avenue. Development was slow during the American Civil War and afterward, City water service was provided in 1884, and a cable car line built on Selby Avenue in 1887 provided improved access to downtown. In 1890, the citys first streetcars began operating on Grand Avenue, just south of Summit, the district began to decline in the 1930s as many old mansions either turned into rooming-houses or went vacant for many years. The housing stock was not decimated by commercial development pressure, as the bluffs separating the Summit Avenue area from downtown St. Paul made it difficult for downtown to expand into the area. The area began to turn around in the 1960s and 1970s, as young couples discovered that the Victorian homes could be purchased affordably, neighborhood associations also formed and helped with preservation efforts. The Hill District is again one of the most fashionable places to live in Saint Paul, Summit Avenue has the longest line of Victorian style housing in the nation. Frank Lloyd Wright, noted as the greatest American architect of all time by AIA, F. Scott Fitzgerald disliked Summit Avenue as well, stating that Summit Avenue is “a mausoleum of American architectural monstrosities. ”These buildings are listed in numerical address order. Three buildings on or near Summit Avenue are National Historic Landmarks, James J. Hill House,240 Summit Avenue F. Scott Fitzgerald House,599 Summit Avenue The Frank B. Kellogg House,633 Fairmount Avenue, is just south of Summit Avenue A number of buildings on Summit Avenue are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, Scott Fitzgerald, broadcast from Summit Avenue from C-SPANs American Writers
6.
Saint Paul, Minnesota
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Saint Paul is the capital and second-most populous city of the U. S. state of Minnesota. As of 2015, the estimated population was 300,851. Saint Paul is the county seat of Ramsey County, the smallest and most densely populated county in Minnesota. The city lies mostly on the east bank of the Mississippi River in the area surrounding its point of confluence with the Minnesota River, and adjoins Minneapolis, the states largest city. Known as the Twin Cities, the two form the core of Minneapolis–Saint Paul, the 16th-largest metropolitan area in the United States, with about 3.52 million residents. Founded near historic Native American settlements as a trading and transportation center, the Dakota name for Saint Paul is Imnizaska. Though Minneapolis is better-known nationally, Saint Paul contains the state government, regionally, the city is known for the Xcel Energy Center, home of the Minnesota Wild, and for the Science Museum of Minnesota. As a business hub of the Upper Midwest, it is the headquarters of such as Ecolab. Saint Paul, along with its Twin City, Minneapolis, is known for its literacy rate. It was the city in the United States with a population of 250,000 or more to see an increase in circulation of Sunday newspapers in 2007. The settlement originally began at present-day Lamberts Landing, but was known as Pigs Eye after Pierre Pigs Eye Parrant established a tavern there. Burial mounds in present-day Indian Mounds Park suggest that the area was inhabited by the Hopewell Native Americans about two thousand years ago. From the early 17th century until 1837, the Mdewakanton Dakota and they called the area I-mni-za ska dan for its exposed white sandstone cliffs. Following the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, a U. S. Army officer named Zebulon Pike negotiated approximately 100,000 acres of land from the local Dakota tribes in 1805 in order to establish a fort. The negotiated territory was located on banks of the Mississippi River, starting from Saint Anthony Falls in present-day Minneapolis, to its confluence with the Saint Croix River. Fort Snelling was built on the territory in 1819 at the confluence of the Mississippi and Minnesota Rivers, the 1837 Treaty with the Sioux ceded all local tribal land east of the Mississippi to the U. S. Government. Taoyateduta moved his band at Kaposia across the river to the south, fur traders, explorers, and missionaries came to the area for the forts protection. Many of the settlers were French-Canadians who lived nearby, however, as a whiskey trade flourished, military officers banned settlers from the fort-controlled lands
7.
Minnesota
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Minnesota is a state in the midwestern and northern regions of the United States. Minnesota was admitted as the 32nd U. S. state on May 11,1858, the state has a large number of lakes, and is known by the slogan Land of 10,000 Lakes. Its official motto is LÉtoile du Nord, Minnesota is the 12th largest in area and the 21st most populous of the U. S. Minnesota is known for its progressive political orientation and its high rate of civic participation and voter turnout. Until European settlement, Minnesota was inhabited by the Dakota and Ojibwe/Anishinaabe, in recent decades, immigration from Asia, the Horn of Africa, and Latin America has broadened its historic demographic and cultural composition. Minnesotas standard of living index is among the highest in the United States, Native Americans demonstrated the name to early settlers by dropping milk into water and calling it mnisota. Many places in the state have similar names, such as Minnehaha Falls, Minneiska, Minneota, Minnetonka, Minnetrista, and Minneapolis, a combination of mni and polis, Minnesota is the second northernmost U. S. state. Its isolated Northwest Angle in Lake of the Woods county is the part of the 48 contiguous states lying north of the 49th parallel. The state is part of the U. S. region known as the Upper Midwest and it shares a Lake Superior water border with Michigan and a land and water border with Wisconsin to the east. Iowa is to the south, North Dakota and South Dakota are to the west, with 86,943 square miles, or approximately 2.25 percent of the United States, Minnesota is the 12th-largest state. Minnesota has some of the Earths oldest rocks, gneisses that are about 3.6 billion years old. About 2.7 billion years ago, basaltic lava poured out of cracks in the floor of the primordial ocean, the roots of these volcanic mountains and the action of Precambrian seas formed the Iron Range of northern Minnesota. Following a period of volcanism 1, in more recent times, massive ice sheets at least one kilometer thick ravaged the landscape of the state and sculpted its terrain. The Wisconsin glaciation left 12,000 years ago and these glaciers covered all of Minnesota except the far southeast, an area characterized by steep hills and streams that cut into the bedrock. This area is known as the Driftless Zone for its absence of glacial drift, much of the remainder of the state outside the northeast has 50 feet or more of glacial till left behind as the last glaciers retreated. Gigantic Lake Agassiz formed in the northwest 13,000 years ago and its bed created the fertile Red River valley, and its outflow, glacial River Warren, carved the valley of the Minnesota River and the Upper Mississippi downstream from Fort Snelling. Minnesota is geologically quiet today, it experiences earthquakes infrequently, the states high point is Eagle Mountain at 2,301 feet, which is only 13 miles away from the low of 601 feet at the shore of Lake Superior. Notwithstanding dramatic local differences in elevation, much of the state is a rolling peneplain. Two major drainage divides meet in Minnesotas northeast in rural Hibbing, forming a triple watershed, precipitation can follow the Mississippi River south to the Gulf of Mexico, the Saint Lawrence Seaway east to the Atlantic Ocean, or the Hudson Bay watershed to the Arctic Ocean
8.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
9.
Peabody and Stearns
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Peabody & Stearns was a premier architectural firm in the Eastern United States in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Based in Boston, Massachusetts, the firm consisted of Robert Swain Peabody and John Goddard Stearns, the firm worked on in a variety of designs but is closely associated with shingle style. With addition of Pierce P. Furber, presumably as partner, bayley House,16 Fairmont Ave. Newton Kragsyde,27 Smiths Point Rd. Manchester-by-the-Sea - Demolished 1929. Building,195 State St. Springfield U. S. Custom House Tower, unitarian Church of the Messiah,508 N. Garrison Ave. Turner Building,304 N. 8th St. St. Louis - Demolished 1902, St. Louis Club, T. E. Huntley Ave. George Blackman House,5843 Bartmer Ave, St. Louis Alvah Mansur House,3700 Lindell Blvd. St. Louis Charles F. Morse House,200 E. 36th St. Kansas City - Demolished, henry L. Newman House,21 Westmoreland Pl. Security Building,319 N. 4th St. St. Louis, St. Louis John T. Davis House,17 Westmoreland Pl. St. Louis James J. Hill House,240 Summit Ave, St. Paul - Peabody & Stearns were fired from the project in 1889. Union Depot,509 W. Michigan Ave. Duluth Elberon Casino, Lawrenceville School, Lawrenceville Central Railroad of New Jersey Terminal, Jersey City George W. Childs-Drexel House,1726 Locust St. Philadelphia Nathaniel Holmes House, Morewood & 5th Aves. Harvey Childs House,718 Devonshire St. Pittsburgh Sarah Drexel Fell House,1801 Walnut St. Philadelphia Durbin Horne House,7418 Penn Ave, Pittsburgh Joseph Horne & Co. Dept. Pittsburgh East Liberty Market,5900 Baum Blvd, Pittsburgh Remsen V. Messler House,651 Morewood Ave. Pittsburgh Laurento, Darby-Paoli Rd. Villanova - Demolished 1980s, penshurst, Conshohocken State Rd. Lower Merion - Demolished. Krisheim,7514 McCallum St. Philadelphia Westview, Westview Rd. Bryn Mawr - Demolished, frederick S. G. DHauteville House,489 Bellevue Ave. Nathan Matthews House,492 Bellevue Ave, Newport Grace W. Rives House,30 Red Cross Ave. Newport The Breakers,44 Ochre Point Ave, Newport - Burned 1892, later replaced. Newport Vinland, Newport - Now Salve Reginas Mcauley Hall, Newport Pavilion, Eastons Beach, Memorial Blvd. Newport - Destroyed 1938 Ocean Lawn,51 Cliff Ave, Newport Rough Point,680 Bellevue Ave
10.
Richardsonian Romanesque
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Richardson first used elements of the style in his Buffalo State Asylum for the Insane in Buffalo, New York, designed in 1870. This very free revival style incorporates 11th and 12th century southern French, Spanish, the style includes work by the generation of architects practicing in the 1880s before the influence of the Beaux-Arts styles. It is epitomised by the American Museum of Natural Historys original 77th Street building by J. Cleaveland Cady of Cady, Berg and See in New York City. It was seen in communities in this time period such as in St. Thomas, Ontarios city hall and Menomonie. Some of the practitioners who most faithfully followed Richardsons proportion, massing and detailing had worked in his office and these include, Alexander Wadsworth Longfellow and Frank Alden, George Shepley and Charles Coolidge, Herbert Burdett. Bate designed the Grays Armory in this style in Cleveland, Ohio, the style also influenced the Chicago school of architecture and architects Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright. In Finland, Eliel Saarinen was influenced by Richardson, research is underway to try to document the westward movement of the artisans and craftsmen, many of whom were immigrant Italians and Irish, who built in the Richardsonian Romanesque tradition. The style began in the East, in and around Boston, as the style was losing favor in the East, it was gaining popularity further west. Stone carvers and masons trained in the Richardsonian manner appear to have taken the style west, as an example, four small bank buildings were built in Richardsonian Romanesque style in Osage County, Oklahoma, during 1904–1911. For pictures of H. H. Richardson’s own designs and some of the details, with the exception of the Richardson Olmsted Complex, none of the following structures were designed by Richardson. They illustrate the strength of his personality on progressive North American architecture from 1885 to 1905. They are divided into categories denoting the various different uses of the buildings, civic Buildings Educational Institutions and Libraries Service-related buildings Churches and chapels Residences Henry Hobson Richardson H
11.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
12.
James J. Hill
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James Jerome Hill, was a Canadian-American railroad executive. He was the executive officer of a family of lines headed by the Great Northern Railway, which served a substantial area of the Upper Midwest, the northern Great Plains. Because of the size of this region and the economic dominance exerted by the Hill lines, Hill was born in Eramosa Township, Wellington County, Upper Canada. A childhood accident with a bow and arrow blinded him in the right eye and he had nine years of formal schooling. He attended the Rockwood Academy for a short while, where the head gave him free tuition and he was forced to leave school in 1852 due to the death of his father. By the time he had finished, he was adept at algebra, geometry, land surveying and his particular talents for English and mathematics would be critical later in his life. After working as a clerk in Kentucky, Hill decided to move to the United States and settled in St. Paul, Minnesota. His first job in St. Paul was with a steamboat company, by 1860, he was working for wholesale grocers, for whom he handled freight transfers, especially dealing with railroads and steamboats. Through this work, he learned all aspects of the freight, during this period, Hill began to work for himself for the first time. During the winter months when the Mississippi River was frozen and steamboats could not run, Hill started bidding on other contracts, because of his previous experiences in shipping and fuel supply, Hill was able to enter both the coal and steamboat businesses. In 1870, he and his partners started the Red River Transportation Company, by 1879 he had a local monopoly by merging. In 1867, Hill entered the business, and by 1879 it had expanded five times over. During this same period, Hill also entered banking and quickly managed to become member of several major banks boards of directors. He also bought out bankrupt businesses, built them up again, Hill noted that the secret to his success was work, hard work, intelligent work, and then more work. During the Panic of 1873, a number of railroads, including the St. Paul, the StP&P in particular was caught in an almost hopeless legal muddle. For James Hill it was a golden opportunity, for three years, Hill researched the StP&P and finally concluded that it would be possible to make a good deal of money off of the StP&P, provided that the initial capital could be found. Hill teamed up with Norman Kittson, Donald Smith, George Stephen, together they not only bought the railroad, they also vastly expanded it by bargaining for trackage rights with Northern Pacific Railway. In May 1879, the St. Paul, Minneapolis, and his first goal was to expand and upgrade even more
13.
Cathedral of Saint Paul (Minnesota)
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The Cathedral of Saint Paul is a Roman Catholic cathedral in the city of St. Paul, Minnesota. It is the Co-Cathedral of the Archdiocese of Saint Paul and Minneapolis, one of the most distinctive cathedrals in the United States, it sits on Cathedral Hill overlooking downtown St. Paul and features a distinctive copper-clad dome. It is the third largest completed church in the United States, and it is dedicated to Paul the Apostle, who is also the namesake of the City of St. Paul. The current building opened in 1915 as the cathedral of the archdiocese to bear this name. On March 25,2009, it was designated as the National Shrine of the Apostle Paul by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, the first church building in what became the Archdiocese was a small log chapel built at the urging of Father Lucien Galtier. He came to the area when the settlement was known as Pigs Eye. The chapel, measuring 25 feet by 18 feet, was dedicated on November 1,1841, crétin immediately started to build a larger church to serve the fast-growing population of St. Paul. The second building still proved to be too small for the needs of the diocese, so he started plans for a third cathedral in 1853. Construction of the building, at the corner of St. Peter and Sixth Streets in Downtown St. Paul, started in 1854 and was completed in 1858, having been delayed by the Panic of 1857 and Crétins death. The third cathedral was built of stone, measured 175 feet long and 100 feet wide, Thomas Grace was the bishop at the time the cathedral was completed. The building of the current cathedral was instigated by Archbishop John Ireland in 1904, the site was formerly occupied by the deteriorating mansion of entrepreneur Norman Kittson. Charles H. F. Smith and Alpheus Beede Stickney, two businessmen in St. Paul, purchased the land and donated it to the archdiocese, masquerays open design allows visitors unobstructed views of the altar and pulpit. Masqueray died in 1917, having completed only a few designs for the interior, the dome of the cathedral is 76 feet in diameter and 186 feet high. Warm-colored paint and gold leaf were added during a renovation of the dome in the 1950s. The exterior walls of the cathedral are Rockville granite from St. Cloud, the interior walls are American Travertine from Mankato, Minnesota. The interior columns are made of several types of marble, the interior is illuminated by twenty-four stained glass windows featuring angelic choirs. There is also a window in the transept designed by Charles Connick. Electric lighting was installed in 1940, heroic size marble statues of the four evangelists, sculpted by John Angel, are set into the niches of the piers in the four corners of the Church
14.
Minnesota Historical Society
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The Minnesota Historical Society is a nonprofit educational and cultural institution dedicated to preserving the history of the U. S. state of Minnesota. It was founded by the legislature in 1849, almost a decade before statehood. The Society is named in the Minnesota Constitution and it is headquartered in the Minnesota History Center in downtown St. Paul. Although its focus is on Minnesota history it is not constrained by it and its work on the North American fur trade has been recognized in Canada as well. The Minnesota Historical Society operates 31 historic sites and museums,26 of which are open to the public, MNHS manages 14 sites directly and 10 in partnerships where the society maintains the resources and provides funding. Five sites are being held for preservation but are closed to public access, seven of the sites are National Historic Landmarks and 16 others are on the National Register of Historic Places. Seven sites lie within Minnesota state parks, and three are elements of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area, journals and other documents of the Minnesota Historical Society. Minnesota Historical Society / Internet Archive
15.
Mississippi River
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The Mississippi River is the chief river of the largest drainage system on the North American continent. Flowing entirely in the United States, it rises in northern Minnesota, with its many tributaries, the Mississippis watershed drains all or parts of 31 U. S. states and 2 Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains. The Mississippi ranks as the fourth longest and fifteenth largest river in the world by discharge, the river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries, most were hunter-gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the way of life as first explorers, then settlers. The river served first as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and then as a vital transportation artery and communications link. Formed from thick layers of the silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country. In recent years, the river has shown a shift towards the Atchafalaya River channel in the Delta. The word itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe name for the river, see below in the History section for additional information. In addition to historical traditions shown by names, there are at least two measures of a rivers identity, one being the largest branch, and the other being the longest branch. Using the largest-branch criterion, the Ohio would be the branch of the Lower Mississippi. Using the longest-branch criterion, the Middle Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson-Beaverhead-Red Rock-Hellroaring Creek River would be the main branch and its length of at least 3,745 mi is exceeded only by the Nile, the Amazon, and perhaps the Yangtze River among the longest rivers in the world. The source of this waterway is at Browers Spring,8,800 feet above sea level in southwestern Montana and this is exemplified by the Gateway Arch in St. Louis and the phrase Trans-Mississippi as used in the name of the Trans-Mississippi Exposition. It is common to qualify a regionally superlative landmark in relation to it, the New Madrid Seismic Zone along the river is also noteworthy. These various basic geographical aspects of the river in turn underlie its human history and present uses of the waterway, the Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca,1,475 feet above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, however, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams. From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river
16.
Clarence H. Johnston Sr.
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Clarence Howard Johnston Sr. was an American architect who practiced in the State of Minnesota during the late 1800s and early 1900s. His work specialized in domestic, religious, and public architecture, johnstons parents, Alexander Johnston and Louise Johnston, moved to Waseca County, Minnesota in 1856, along with a few other families. They established a settlement named Okaman on the shores of Lake Elysian and their first son, John Buckhout Johnston, was born in 1858, and became a prominent manufacturer and businessman. Clarence Johnston was born August 26,1859, the family then moved to Wilton, which was then the county seat of Waseca County, and Alexander Johnston took over the publication of a local newspaper. In 1861 the family moved to Faribault and their third child, Grace, was born March 2,1862. They moved again, to Saint Paul, where their fourth child, after moving briefly to Hastings, the family returned to Saint Paul permanently in 1868. Alexander Johnston was then a reporter for the Saint Paul Daily Pioneer, Johnston started attending Saint Paul High School in 1872 and took on a job as a clerk at the law firm of Rogers and Rogers. His mother died May 8,1874, at the age of forty-two and that same year, Johnston quit his clerical job and began work at the firm of Abraham M. Radcliffe as a draughtsman. Radcliffes firm was a training ground for aspiring architects at the time. In September 1876, Cass Gilbert joined Radcliffes firm as an apprentice, in the fall of 1878, Gilbert and Johnston enrolled at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. There they met James Knox Taylor, who had grown up in Saint Paul. Gilbert and Johnston, along with Taylor, had opted to take the special course in architecture. However, Johnston was forced to drop out after one term due to financial reasons and he moved back to Saint Paul and worked briefly at the firm of Edward Bassford, where the firm was more conscious of costs to the client in the design and construction process. This influenced Johnston to view economic constraints as a challenge to be solved by inventiveness, during these years, Gilbert and Johnston kept in touch through a large number of letters. In January 1880, Cass Gilbert departed to Europe for an architectural tour, Gilbert wrote back to Johnston urging him to make a similar trip, but Johnston was preoccupied with a job offer from Herter Brothers in New York. One of the projects on which he worked during his tenure at Herter Brothers was J. P. Morgans brownstone house on Madison Avenue at 36th Street. In the summer of 1880, Cass Gilbert returned from Europe and settled in New York, working for the firm of McKim, Gilbert and Johnston, along with their MIT classmate Francis Bacon, shared rooms at 40 Irving Place. That same year Johnston, Gilbert, Bacon, Taylor, and William A. Bates founded the Sketch Club, accounts vary on which members were actually the founders of the club
17.
Cass Gilbert
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Not to be confused with American architect C. P. H. Gilbert Cass Gilbert was a prominent American architect and his public buildings in the Beaux Arts style reflect the optimistic American sense that the nation was heir to Greek democracy, Roman law and Renaissance humanism. Gilberts achievements were recognized in his lifetime, he served as president of the American Institute of Architects in 1908-09, Gilbert was a conservative who believed architecture should reflect historic traditions and the established social order. C. Gilbert was born in Zanesville, Ohio, the middle of three sons, and was named after the statesman Lewis Cass, to whom he was distantly related, Gilberts father was a surveyor for the United States Coast Survey. At the age of nine, Gilberts family moved to St. Paul, Minnesota and he attended preparatory school but dropped out of Macalester College. He began his career at age 17 by joining the Abraham M. Radcliffe office in St. Paul. In 1878, Gilbert enrolled in the program at MIT. Gilbert later worked for a time with the firm of McKim, Mead. He was commissioned to design a number of stations, including those in Anoka, Willmar. He won a series of house and office-building commissions in Minnesota, as a Minnesota architect he was best known for his design of the Minnesota State Capitol dome and the downtown St. Paul Endicott Building. His goal was to move to New York City and gain a national reputation, the completion of the Minnesota capitol gave Gilbert his national reputation and in 1898 he permanently moved his base to New York. His break-through commission was the design of the Alexander Hamilton U. S, custom House in New York City. Commission of Fine Arts from 1910 to 1916, in 1906 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, and became a full Academician in 1908. Gilbert served as President of the Academy from 1926 to 1933, modernists embraced his work, John Marin painted it several times, even Frank Lloyd Wright praised the lines of the building, though he decried the ornamentation. C. In particular, his Union Station in New Haven lacks the common of the Beaux-Arts period. Gilberts drawings and correspondence are preserved at the New-York Historical Society, the Minnesota Historical Society, the University of Minnesota, Saint Paul Seminary, Saint Paul, Minnesota. Cretin Hall, Loras Hall, the Service Center, a building, the refectory building, the administration building in 1894. Only Cretin, Loras, the Service Center, and Grace still stand, Minnesota State Capitol, Saint Paul, Minnesota, 1895–1905. Designed in High Renaissance style, the building is not merely a replica of the United States Capitol and its brick dome is held in hoops of steel
18.
Louis Comfort Tiffany
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Louis Comfort Tiffany was an American artist and designer who worked in the decorative arts and is best known for his work in stained glass. He is the American artist most associated with the Art Nouveau, Tiffany was affiliated with a prestigious collaborative of designers known as the Associated Artists, which included Lockwood de Forest, Candace Wheeler, and Samuel Colman. Tiffany designed stained glass windows and lamps, glass mosaics, blown glass, ceramics, jewelry, enamels and he was the first Design Director at his family company, Tiffany & Co. founded by his father Charles Lewis Tiffany. Louis Comfort Tiffany was born in New York City, the son of Charles Lewis Tiffany, founder of Tiffany and Company and he attended school at Pennsylvania Military Academy in West Chester, Pennsylvania, and Eagleswood Military Academy in Perth Amboy, New Jersey. His first artistic training was as a painter, studying under George Inness in Eagleswood, New Jersey and Samuel Colman in Irvington and he also studied at the National Academy of Design in New York City in 1866–67 and with salon painter Leon-Adolphe-Auguste Belly in 1868–69. Bellys landscape paintings had a influence on Tiffany. Tiffany started out as a painter, but became interested in glassmaking from about 1875, in 1879, he joined with Candace Wheeler, Samuel Colman and Lockwood de Forest to form Louis Comfort Tiffany and Associated American Artists. The business was short-lived, lasting four years. The group made designs for wallpaper, furniture, and textiles and he later opened his own glass factory in Corona, New York, determined to provide designs that improved the quality of contemporary glass. Tiffanys leadership and talent, as well as his fathers money and connections and he commissioned Tiffany, who had begun to make a name for himself in New York society for the firms interior design work, to redo the state rooms, which Arthur found charmless. The Tiffany screen and other Victorian additions were all removed in the Roosevelt renovations of 1902, a desire to concentrate on art in glass led to the breakup of the firm in 1885 when Tiffany chose to establish his own glassmaking firm that same year. The first Tiffany Glass Company was incorporated December 1,1885, in the beginning of his career, Tiffany used cheap jelly jars and bottles because they had the mineral impurities that finer glass lacked. When he was unable to convince fine glassmakers to leave the impurities in, Tiffany used opalescent glass in a variety of colors and textures to create a unique style of stained glass. Use of the glass itself to create stained glass pictures was motivated by the ideals of the Arts and Crafts movement. Tiffany, Duffner and Kimberly, along with La Farge, had learned their craft at the same glasshouses in Brooklyn in the late 1870s. In 1889 at the Paris Exposition, he is said to have been Overwhelmed by the work of Émile Gallé. He also met artist Alphonse Mucha, in 1893, his company also introduced the term Favrile in conjunction with his first production of blown glass at his new glass factory. Some early examples of his lamps were exhibited in the 1893 Worlds Fair in Chicago, at the Exposition Universelle in Paris, he won a gold medal with his stained glass windows The Four Seasons He trademarked Favrile on November 13,1894
19.
Stonemasonry
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The craft of stonemasonry has existed since humanity could use and make tools - creating buildings, structures, and sculpture using stone from the earth. These materials have been used to construct many of the long-lasting, ancient monuments, artifacts, cathedrals, quarrymen split veins, or sheets of rock, and extract the resulting blocks of stone from the ground. Sawyers cut these rough blocks into cuboids, to required size with diamond-tipped saws, the resulting block if ordered for a specific component is known as sawn six sides. Banker masons are workshop-based, and specialize in working the stones into the shapes required by a design, this set out on templets. They can produce anything from stones with simple chamfers to tracery windows, detailed mouldings and the more classical architectural building masonry. When working a stone from a block, the mason ensures that the stone is bedded in the right way. Occasionally though some stones need to be orientated correctly for the application, the basic tools, methods and skills of the banker mason have existed as a trade for thousands of years. Carvers cross the line from craft to art, and use their ability to carve stone into foliage, figures. Fixer masons specialize in the fixing of stones onto buildings, using lifting tackle, sometimes modern cements, mastics and epoxy resins are used, usually on specialist applications such as stone cladding. Metal fixings, from simple dowels and cramps to specialised single application fixings, are also used, the precise tolerances necessary make this a highly skilled job. Memorial masons or monumental masons carve gravestones and inscriptions, the modern stonemason undergoes comprehensive training, both in the classroom and in the working environment. Hands-on skill is complemented by intimate knowledge of each type, its application and best uses. The mason may be skilled and competent to carry out one or all of the branches of stonemasonry. In some areas the trend is towards specialization, in other areas towards adaptability, stonemasons use all types of natural stone, igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary, while some also use artificial stone as well. Igneous stones, Granite is one of the hardest stones, with great persistence, simple mouldings can and have been carved into granite, for example in many Cornish churches and the city of Aberdeen. Generally, however, it is used for purposes that require its strength and durability, such as kerbstones, countertops, flooring, igneous stone ranges from very soft rocks such as pumice and scoria to somewhat harder rocks such as tuff and hard rocks such as granite and basalt. Metamorphic, Marble is a fine stone easily workable, that comes in various colours and it has traditionally been used for carving statues, and for facing many Byzantine and Renaissance Italian buildings. Their work was preceded by older sculptors from Mesopotamia and Egypt, the famous Acropolis of Athens is said to be constructed using the Pentelicon marble
20.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
21.
Irving and Casson
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Irving & Casson was a Boston, Massachusetts, firm of interior designers and furniture makers, founded in 1875. Its specialty was interior woodwork and mantels, but it also made furniture, primarily in the styles of the 17th, 18th, in 1914 or 1916, the firm merged with A. H. Davenport Company, a furniture company also located in Boston. After the merger, the company executed a number of commissions for Gothic Revival churches, including the chapels at Duke University, the company’s last major design commission was for the interiors for the United Nations Headquarters in New York City, executed in the 1950s. H. Davenport Co. went out of business in 1974
22.
St. Paul Pioneer Press
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The St. Paul Pioneer Press is a newspaper based in Saint Paul, Minnesota, primarily serving the Twin Cities metropolitan area. Circulation is heaviest in the metro region, including Ramsey, Dakota. The papers main rival is the Star Tribune, based in neighboring Minneapolis, the Pioneer Press has been owned by MediaNews Group since April 2006. The Pioneer Press traces its history to both the Minnesota Pioneer, Minnesotas first daily newspaper, and the Saint Paul Dispatch, Ridder Publications acquired the Pioneer and the Dispatch in 1927. Ridder merged with Knight Publications to form Knight Ridder in 1974, the paper is sometimes called the Pi Press, just as Strib is used for the Star Tribune. From 1947 to 1949, the newspaper printed the comic strip Lil Folks and this comic introduced a number of characters who would later return in 1950 in the syndicated comic strip Peanuts, including Charlie Brown and a dog strongly resembling Snoopy. In 1952, the Dispatch began sponsoring a treasure hunt as part of the Saint Paul Winter Carnival. Clues to finding a medallion are printed in the paper, and the first person to find and return it with the clues, the prize started off at $1,000 and as of 2004 rose to $10,000. The paper has won three Pulitzer Prizes, in 1986,1988, and 2000, Dohrmann would win a Pulitzer Prize for beat reporting in 2000 for his reports on the scandal. Dohrmann and his editor prepared for hostile reactions to the newspaper from the local community, the McClatchy Company acquired the paper in June 2006 when it bought Knight Ridder. As owner of the Star Tribune, McClatchy had to sell the Pioneer Press because of antitrust concerns, the Pioneer Press was subsequently sold by McClatchy to MediaNews Group later in the year. Joseph H. Ball, who was a columnist for the Pioneer Press before becoming a Republican U. S, senator for Minnesota Jim Caple Nick Coleman Carole Nelson Douglas, author of a New York Times Notable Book of the Year and 62 other novels. George Dohrmann, winner of the 2000 Pulitzer Prize for beat reporting, dick Gordon Herb Greenberg Mark Kellogg, the first Associated Press correspondent to die in the line of duty when he was killed at the Battle of the Little Bighorn. Bob Sansevere, sports columnist and member of the KQRS-FM morning show with Tom Barnard, joe Soucheray, general columnist and host of the KSTP afternoon program, Garage Logic. Charley Walters, sports columnist Jacqui Banaszynski, writer, editor, bruce Orwall, writer and current editor at The Wall Street Journal. Deborah Howell, executive editor and vice president who died in 2010, city Pages Minnesota Daily Star Tribune Villager Official website Mobile
23.
Gas lighting
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Gas lighting is production of artificial light from combustion of a gaseous fuel, such as hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, propane, butane, acetylene, ethylene, or natural gas. Before electricity became widespread and economical to allow for general public use, gas was the most popular method of outdoor and indoor lighting in cities. Early gas lights were ignited manually, but many designs are self-igniting. In addition, some urban historical districts retain gas street lighting, early lighting fuels consisted of olive oil, beeswax, fish oil, whale oil, sesame oil, nut oil, and similar substances. These were the most commonly used fuels until the late 18th century, chinese records dating back 1,700 years note the use of natural gas in the home for light and heat via bamboo pipes to the dwellings. Public illumination preceded the discovery and adoption of gaslight by centuries, in 1417, Sir Henry Barton, Mayor of London, ordained lanterns with lights to be hung out on the winter evenings between Hallowtide and Candlemasse. Paris was first lit by an order issued in 1524, and, in the beginning of the 16th century, in coal mining, accumulating and escaping gases were known originally for their adverse effects rather than their useful qualities. Coal miners described two types of gases, one called the choke damp and the fire damp. In 1667, a paper detailing the effects of gases was entitled, A Description of a Well and Earth in Lancashire taking Fire. Imparted by Thomas Shirley, Esq an eye-witness, stephen Hales was the first person who procured a flammable fluid from the actual distillation of coal. His experiments with this object are related in the first volume of his Vegetable Statics and these results seemed to have passed without notice for several years. This paper contained some striking facts relating to the flammability and other properties of coal-gas, the principal properties of coal-gas were demonstrated to different members of the Royal Society, and showed that after keeping the gas some time, it still retained its flammability. The scientists of the time still saw no purpose for it. John Clayton, in an extract from a letter in the Philosophical Transactions for 1735, calls gas the spirit of coal and this spirit happened to catch fire, by coming in contact with a candle as it escaped from a fracture in one of his distillatory vessels. By preserving the gas in bladders, he entertained his friends, william Murdoch was the first to exploit the flammability of gas for the practical application of lighting. He worked for Matthew Boulton and James Watt at their Soho Foundry steam engine works in Birmingham and he first lit his own house in Redruth, Cornwall in 1792. In 1798, he used gas to light the building of the Soho Foundry and in 1802 lit the outside in a public display of gas lighting. One of the employees at the Soho Foundry, Samuel Clegg, Clegg left his job to set up his own gas lighting business, the Gas Lighting and Coke Company
24.
Electric light
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An electric light is a device that produces visible light by the flow of electric current. It is the most common form of lighting and is essential to modern society, providing interior lighting for buildings and exterior light for evening. In technical usage, a component that produces light from electricity is called a lamp. Compact lamps are commonly called light bulbs, for example, the incandescent light bulb, lamps usually have a base made of ceramic, metal, glass or plastic, which secures the lamp in the socket of a light fixture. The electrical connection to the socket may be made with a screw-thread base, before electric lighting became common in the early 20th century, people used candles, gas lights, oil lamps, and fires. Humphry Davy developed the first incandescent light in 1802, followed by the first practical electric arc light in 1806, by the 1870s, Davys arc lamp had been successfully commercialized, and was used to light many public spaces. The energy efficiency of electric lighting has increased radically since the first demonstration of arc lamps, modern electric light sources come in a profusion of types and sizes adapted to myriad applications. Most modern electric lighting is powered by centrally generated electric power, battery-powered light is often reserved for when and where stationary lights fail, often in the form of flashlights, electric lanterns, and in vehicles. *Color temperature is defined as the temperature of a body emitting a similar spectrum. The most efficient source of light is the low-pressure sodium lamp. It produces, for all purposes, a monochromatic orange/yellow light. For this reason, it is reserved for outdoor public lighting usages. Low-pressure sodium lights are favoured for public lighting by astronomers, since the pollution that they generate can be easily filtered. The modern incandescent light bulb, with a filament of tungsten, was commercialized in the 1920s developed from the carbon filament lamp introduced in about 1880. Sri Lanka has already banned importing filament bulbs because of use of electricity. Less than 3% of the energy is converted into usable light. Nearly all of the energy ends up as heat that, in warm climates, must then be removed from the building by ventilation or air conditioning. In colder climates where heating and lighting is required during the cold and dark winter months, halogen lamps are usually much smaller than standard incandescents, because for successful operation a bulb temperature over 200 °C is generally necessary
25.
Great Northern Railway (U.S.)
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The Great Northern Railway was an American Class I railroad. Running from Saint Paul, Minnesota, to Seattle, Washington, the Great Northerns route was the northernmost transcontinental railroad route in the U. S. The Great Northern was the privately funded – and successfully built – transcontinental railroad in U. S. history. No federal land grants were used during its construction, unlike all other transcontinental railroads, the Great Northern was built in stages, slowly to create profitable lines, before extending the road further into the undeveloped Western territories. In a series of the earliest public relations campaigns, contests were held to promote interest in the railroad, fred J. Adams used promotional incentives such as feed and seed donations to farmers getting started along the line. Contests were all-inclusive, from largest farm animals to largest freight carload capacity and were promoted heavily to immigrants & newcomers from the East. The earliest predecessor railroad to the GN was the St. Paul & Pacific Railroad, James Jerome Hill convinced John S. Kennedy, Norman Kittson, Donald Smith, George Stephen, and others to invest $5.5 million in purchasing the railroad. On March 13,1878, the roads creditors formally signed an agreement transferring their bonds, on September 18,1889, Hill changed the name of the Minneapolis and St. Cloud Railway to the Great Northern Railway. On February 1,1890, he transferred ownership of the StPM&M, Montana Central Railway, the Great Northern had branches that ran north to the Canada–US border in Minnesota, North Dakota, and Montana. It also had branches that ran to Superior, Wisconsin, and Butte, Montana, connecting with the mining fields of Minnesota. In 1898 Hill purchased control of parts of the Messabe Range iron mining district in Minnesota. The Great Northern began large-scale shipment of ore to the mills of the Midwest. At its height, Great Northern operated over 8,000 miles, the railroad’s best known engineer,1889 to 1903, was John Frank Stevens. Stevens earned wide acclaim in 1889 when he explored Marias Pass, Montana, Stevens was an efficient administrator with remarkable technical skills and imagination. He discovered Stevens Pass through the Cascade Mountains, set railroad construction standards in the Mesabi Range of northern Minnesota and he then became the chief engineer in charge of building the Panama Canal. The logo of the railroad, a Rocky Mountain goat, was based on a goat William Kenney, the mainline began at Saint Paul, Minnesota, heading west and topping the bluffs of the Mississippi River, crossing the river to Minneapolis on a massive multi-piered stone bridge. The Stone Arch Bridge stands in Minneapolis, near the Saint Anthony Falls, the mainline headed northwest from the Twin Cities, across North Dakota and eastern Montana. The line then crossed the Rocky Mountains at Marias Pass, and then followed the Flathead River and then Kootenai River to Athol, Idaho and Spokane, the main line west of Marias Pass has been relocated twice
26.
United States Department of the Interior
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The United States Department of the Interior is the United States federal executive department of the U. S. About 75% of federal land is managed by the department. The Department is administered by the United States Secretary of the Interior, the current Secretary is Ryan Zinke. The Inspector General position is vacant, with Mary Kendall serving as acting Inspector General. Despite its name, the Department of the Interior has a different role from that of the ministries of other nations. In the United States, national security and immigration functions are performed by the Department of Homeland Security primarily, the Department of the Interior has often been humorously called The Department of Everything Else because of its broad range of responsibilities. A department for domestic concern was first considered by the 1st United States Congress in 1789, the idea of a separate domestic department continued to percolate for a half-century and was supported by Presidents from James Madison to James Polk. The 1846–48 Mexican–American War gave the new steam as the responsibilities of federal government grew. Polks Secretary of the Treasury, Robert J. Walker, became a champion of creating the new department. In 1849, Walker stated in his report that several federal offices were placed in departments with which they had little to do. Walker argued that these and other bureaus should be together in a new Department of the Interior. A bill authorizing its creation of the Department passed the House of Representatives on February 15,1849, the Department was established on March 3,1849, the eve of President Zachary Taylors inauguration, when the Senate voted 31 to 25 to create the Department. Its passage was delayed by Democrats in Congress who were reluctant to create more patronage posts for the incoming Whig administration to fill, the first Secretary of the Interior was Thomas Ewing. Many of the concerns the Department originally dealt with were gradually transferred to other Departments. Other agencies became separate Departments, such as the Bureau of Agriculture, however, land and natural resource management, American Indian affairs, wildlife conservation, and territorial affairs remain the responsibilities of the Department of the Interior. As of mid-2004, the Department managed 507 million acres of surface land, energy projects on federally managed lands and offshore areas supply about 28% of the nations energy production. Within the Interior Department, the Bureau of Indian Affairs handles some federal relations with Native Americans, the current acting Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs is Lawrence S. Roberts, an enrolled member of the Oneida Tribe in Wisconsin. Several cases have sought accounting of such funds from the departments of Interior, in addition, some Native American nations have sued the government over water-rights issues and their treaties with the US
27.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
28.
Charles A. Lindbergh State Park
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Charles A. Lindbergh State Park is a 569-acre Minnesota state park on the outskirts of Little Falls. The park was once the farm of Congressman Charles August Lindbergh and his son Charles Lindbergh and their restored 1906 house and two other farm buildings are within the park boundaries. The house, a National Historic Landmark, and an adjacent museum are operated by the Minnesota Historical Society, three buildings and three structures built by the Works Progress Administration in the 1930s were named to the National Register of Historic Places. These buildings include a shelter and a water tower, built in the Rustic Style from local stone and logs. Charles August Lindbergh, known as C. A. was a prominent lawyer, in March 1901 he married Evangeline Lodge Land, the college-educated descendant of two notable Detroit medical families, who had come to Little Falls the previous autumn as a teacher. She, C. A. and his two daughters from a previous marriage moved to a property, which C. A. had purchased for a farm three years earlier. They had a house built on the bluff overlooking the Mississippi River. A tenants house was built across the road for the farm workers, Charles Augustus Lindbergh was born in 1902, and would be the couples only child. A barn was later that year, and the farm was populated with cattle, goats, hogs, sheep, chickens. On August 5,1905 a fire started for unknown reasons on the third floor, the house burned down to its stone foundation, but the Lindberghs and their servants escaped injury and managed to save many of the household items. The Lindberghs had a new house built on the foundation of the first, however it was much smaller, due to C. A. s overextended finances and a growing strain in the marriage. The new house fit awkwardly onto the footprint of the old, the basement, intended as a library for C. A. and the upper floor was never finished. Instead, C. A. entered politics and in 1907 began serving the first of five terms in the U. S. House of Representatives. For the next decade the younger Charles spent much of each year in Detroit and Washington, however, Charles would credit his time spent on the farm and playing along the Mississippi for his strength and self-reliance. The unfinished upper floor became Charles exclusive play area, and upon hearing an unusually loud engine one day in 1911 he climbed out onto the roof and saw his first airplane. Evangelines relationship with C. A. and his daughters worsened, Charles continued sleeping in his bedroom, which was really a screened-in porch, on all but the very coldest winter nights. He began overseeing the farm and was an early adopter of mechanization technology, Charles left in 1920 to attend college and returned only once, in 1923, arriving in his Curtiss JN-4 plane and landing in a field on the west side of the property. In the next two years the barn burned down and C. A. died, and the farm was largely neglected, after Charles Lindbergh became famous in 1927, souvenir seekers frequently broke into the empty house and caused extensive damage
29.
F. Scott Fitzgerald House
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The F. Scott Fitzgerald House, also known as Summit Terrace, in Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States, is part of a rowhouse designed by William H. Willcox and Clarence H. Johnston, Sr. The house, at 599 Summit Avenue, is listed as a National Historic Landmark for its association with author F. Scott Fitzgerald, the design of the rowhouse was called the New York Style, where each unit was given a distinctive character similar to rowhouses in eastern cities. Architecture critic Larry Millett describes it as A brownstone row house that leaves no Victorian style unaccounted for, although the general flavor is Romanesque Revival. The Fitzgerald house is a two bays wide, with a polygonal two-story window bay on the right, and the entrance, recessed under a round arch that is flush with the bay front. At the mansarded roof level there is a gable with two windows and decorative finials. Fitzgeralds parents, Edward and Mollie, moved back to St. Paul in 1914 while F. Scott Fitzgerald was a student at Princeton University and they lived in the unit at 593 Summit Avenue for a while, then moved to the 599 Summit Avenue unit in 1918. In July and August 1919, Fitzgerald rewrote the manuscript became his first novel. He lived here until January 1920, writing stories. Of the several places the Fitzgeralds lived, this one is most closely associated with his literary fame and it was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1971. It is also a property to the Historic Hill District. F. Scott Fitzgerald was noted for disliking Summit Avenue, stating that Summit Avenue is “a mausoleum of American architectural monstrosities. ”List of National Historic Landmarks in Minnesota National Register of Historic Places listings in Ramsey County, Minnesota Lavoie, C. and Lowe, Jet. F. Scott Fitzgerald House, MN0133, HABS MN-83, Historic American Buildings Survey, National Park Service via Library of Congress. CS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list
30.
Frank B. Kellogg House
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Kellogg House is a historic house at 633 Fairmount Avenue in Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States. It is listed as a National Historic Landmark for its association with Nobel Peace Prize-winner Frank B, Kellogg, co-author of the Kellogg–Briand Pact. Kellogg Boulevard in downtown Saint Paul is also named for him, the house was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976. It is also a property to the Historic Hill District. The house is a large 2-1/2 story structure, built out of a variety of stone, including granite, sandstone. The original rectangular block was designed by William H. Willcox and completed in 1890, in 1923 Kellogg added a large addition, designed by Allen H. Stem was constructed on the north-east side of the house, reorienting the front from Fairmount Avenue to Dale Street. This addition was called the Coolidge Wing, although it is not clear whether it was built before or after President Calvin Coolidge visited Kellogg here in 1923, the house is one of two surviving structures closely associated with Kellogg, the other is in Washington, DC. From 1889 until his death, this was the permanent residence of Frank B, Kellogg, lawyer, U. S. Senator, and diplomat. As Secretary of State from 1925–29, he negotiated the 1928 Kellogg–Briand Pact—for which he received the Nobel Peace Prize—and shifted foreign policy away from interventionism and he died at home in 1937, on the eve of his 81st birthday from pneumonia, following a stroke. List of National Historic Landmarks in Minnesota National Register of Historic Places listings in Ramsey County, Minnesota
31.
Thorstein Veblen Farmstead
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The Thorstein Veblen Farmstead is a National Historic Landmark near Nerstrand in rural Rice County, Minnesota, United States. The property is significant as the childhood home of Thorstein B. Veblen, an economist, social scientist, and critic of American culture probably best known for Theory of the Leisure Class, the Veblen farmstead stands east of Nerstrand in far eastern Rice County, off Goodhue Avenue north of Minnesota State Highway 246. Now reduced to 10 acres, the property includes a house, chicken coop, granary, the house, granary, and barn, were all built by Thomas Veblen, in the 1870s and 1880s. The house is a frame structure, with a side gable roof. A single-story porch extends across the front, supported by square posts, the granary is a small two-story clapboarded frame building, measuring about 25 by 30 feet. The barn is two stories, and has a gabled roof, Thorstein Veblen, born in Wisconsin in 1857, lived on this farm as a youth and returned often as an adult, due in part to his inability to land a job, despite college degrees. The product of an austere agrarian upbringing, Veblen has often called one of Americas most creative. He coined the term conspicuous consumption, the propertys simple vernacular styling illustrates early influences on Veblens life as the son of immigrants, growing up in a tightly knit Norwegian-American community. His book, Theory of the Leisure Class is distinguished by economic, social, the Veblens sold the property in 1893 and it continued to be an active farm until 1970, when the buildings fell into disrepair. The house has now been restored and the Preservation Alliance of Minnesota holds a preservation easement on the property. List of National Historic Landmarks in Minnesota National Register of Historic Places listings in Rice County, Minnesota NHL Summary
32.
O. E. Rolvaag House
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The O. E. Rølvaag House was the home of Ole Edvart Rølvaag, Norwegian-American novelist and professor at St. Olaf College. The home is located at 311 Manitou Street in Northfield, Minnesota, Rølvaag wrote most of his works in this house, which is near St. Olaf College, where he taught. Rølvaag was born in Norway in 1876, and emigrated to the United States in 1896 and he graduated from St. Olaf College in 1905, and got a position there teaching Norwegian and writing. Rølvaag was the first novelist to describe the psychological cost of pioneering on the American frontier, rølvaags famous trilogy—Giants in the Earth, Peder Victorious, and Their Fathers God —assesses the adjustments immigrant farmers had to make to prosper in the American Midwest. The house stands on the west side of Manitou Street, between Greenvale and Summit Avenues, just east of the St. Olaf College campus and it is a 1-1/2 story wood frame structure, with a stuccoed first floor and a clapboarded half story. It has a side gable roof, with a pair of large gable dormers projecting to the front. The eaves of the roof and dormers are extended, with exposed rafter ends. The roof extends downward to shelter a porch extending across the front. The house was built for Rølvaag in 1912, and remained his home until his death in 1931, principal alterations during his occupancy were the enclosing of the front porch, and the development of a garden in the rear. Some of the interior finishes have been preserved, including oak trim in the public spaces downstairs, list of National Historic Landmarks in Minnesota National Register of Historic Places listings in Rice County, Minnesota
33.
Oliver H. Kelley Homestead
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The Oliver H. Kelley Farm is a historic farmstead in Elk River, Minnesota. It was once owned by Oliver Hudson Kelley, one of the founders of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry, the farmstead is a U. S. National Historic Landmark, which also places it on the National Register of Historic Places. The farm is operated as a living history museum by the Minnesota Historical Society. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1964, Oliver Kelley moved to Minnesota in 1849, the year that Minnesota Territory was formed. Although he knew little about farming, he taught himself using agricultural journals and he became an expert on farming in Minnesota, and he learned how adverse events such as bad weather, debt, insect pests, and crop failures could devastate a farmers fortunes. In 1864, he became a clerk in the United States Department of Agriculture, after the end of the American Civil War, he toured the agricultural resources of the Southern states. When he returned to Washington, he was convinced that farmers fortunes could be improved through cooperative associations with other farmers, along with several other associates, he founded the National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry in 1867. He later returned to Minnesota with the hope of organizing local Granges, the farm remained in the ownership of the Kelley family until 1901. The National Grange bought the farm in 1935 and donated it to the Minnesota Historical Society in 1961, today, the farm offers tours by guides in period costume, who invite visitors to help out with farm chores such as picking vegetables, churning butter, and making soap. In 2003, state budget shortfalls threatened closure for the historical site, in response, the group Friends of the Kelley Farm was organized to help raise money to close the funding gap. The Friends group also supports the goals of the site
34.
Sinclair Lewis Boyhood Home
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The Sinclair Lewis Boyhood Home is a historic house museum and National Historic Landmark located at 812 Sinclair Lewis Avenue, formerly South 3rd Street, in Sauk Centre, Minnesota, United States. The house was the home of Nobel prize-winning author Sinclair Lewis. His most famous book, Main Street was inspired by his town of Sauk Centre as he perceived it from this home. The house is open for tours between Memorial Day and Labor Day, or by appointment, the Lewis House is located on the north side of Sinclair Lewis Avenue, between Walnut and Maple Streets. It is an L-shaped wood frame structure, 1-1/2 stories in height, an open porch extends across the front, supported by slender square paneled posts, with decorative brackets and entablature. During part of the 20th century the house had been converted to a duplex, partitioning the interior, a period carriage barn stands behind the house. Sinclair Lewis was born across the street, and the family moved here when he was a few months old and his father, Edwin J. Lewis, was a physician and conducted his medical practice out of this house, as was common in that time. Lewis began to write here as a man, and his experiences growing up in Sauk Centre were the inspiration for Main Street. He was the first American awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, given in 1930
35.
Andrew John Volstead House
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The Andrew John Volstead House is the historic house in Granite Falls, Minnesota of ten-term United States Congressman Andrew Volstead. It is now managed as a museum and the headquarters of the Granite Falls Historical Society. Volstead was a progressive who coauthored the Capper–Volstead Act in 1922. The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974 for having national significance in the areas of agriculture, politics/government, two years later the house was declared a National Historical Landmark. The 1878 home is a structure with a large two-story stairwell tower that was added on by Volstead shortly after he purchased the property in 1894. During Volsteads time, the first floor had a large screened porch, the interior is adorned with oak woodwork and stained glass. Volstead moved to a new home in Granite Falls in 1930, the first Volstead House remained privately owned until 1974, when it was listed on the National Register and converted into a historic house museum. Five years later it was donated to the city
36.
Pillsbury A-Mill
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The Pillsbury A-Mill, situated along Saint Anthony Falls on the Mississippi River in Minneapolis, Minnesota, held the title of largest flour mill in the world for 40 years. Completed in 1881, it was owned by Pillsbury and operated two of the most powerful direct-drive waterwheels ever built, each generating 1,200 horsepower, the mill still stands today on the east side of the Mississippi River and has been converted into resident artist lofts. In 1879, after five years of planning, Charles Alfred Pillsbury announced to the public that he would build the largest and most advanced mill the world had ever seen. He had traveled to all over the world, searching for the best technique for milling flour on a large scale. Despite the convention of the time, Pillsbury decided that he wanted his new mill to be designed by an architect in order to make the building visually appealing, architect LeRoy S. Buffington, with the loose advice of several engineers, carried out the design. Construction started in 1880 and was finished in 1881 under a contractor named George McMullen, the mill was built to put out 5,000 barrels a day when at a time when a 500-barrel mill was considered large. For some years the mill was not run at its intended capacity, part of the building was used as a warehouse and other purposes. Due to vibrations of milling machines and poor design in 1905 the mill was fortified, to this day, the walls bow inward 22 inches on the top. Unlike other similarly large mills in the area, most notably the Washburn A Mill, as a result, it still contains its original wood frame. The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966 and is a National Historic Landmark, on the outside the Pillsbury A Mill is a rectangular structure 175 feet by 115 feet. The foundations are of Platteville limestone, the exterior wall thickness varies from 8’-0” thick at the basement to 2’-0” thick at the top of the building. The outside walls are of load bearing stone with timber framing on the interior. There are six chimneys on the flat, gravel roof of the building, when it was still in use, the seven floors and the basement of the mill all had specific purposes. The basement held a transformer vault, water inlets, and an electrical room, on the first floor there was a small floor-mounted sifter, a larger ceiling-hung sifter, and a pressure tank. On the second there were conveyor belts and a staff lunchroom. The third floor contained more belts and bins and the fourth floor held a dust collector, centrifugal machine, gyration shifter, grinder, scale, the fifth floor held a sifter, separator, and a centrifugal machine. The sixth floor held flour bins and the floor was an electrical room. In 2003, production in the mill ceased and the mill lay empty, the building was then acquired by local developer Shafer Richardson
37.
Mill City Museum
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Mill City Museum is a Minnesota Historical Society museum in Minneapolis. It opened in 2003 built in the ruins of the Washburn A Mill next to Mill Ruins Park on the banks of the Mississippi River. The museum focuses on the founding and growth of Minneapolis, especially flour milling, the mill complex, dating from the 1870s, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It is part of the St. Anthony Falls Historic District and within the National Park Services Mississippi National River, the museum features exhibits about the history of Minneapolis, flour milling machinery, a water lab and a baking lab. Voices of people who worked in the Washburn A Mill are heard throughout the show, visitors exit on the 8th floor, where extant equipment is interpreted by staff, and are then led to the ninth-floor observation deck to view St. Anthony Falls. The Gold Medal Flour sign still shines at night atop the grain elevator. Across the river, the former competitor Pillsbury A Mill is topped with a sign reading Pillsburys Best Flour, the work of local artists is featured throughout the building. Pieces by JoAnn Verburg, Tom Maakestad, Kim Lawler, Kathleen Richert, Paul Wrench and Becky Schurmann include murals, an art glass collage, a 15-foot Bisquick box, Mill City Museum began an outdoor concert series named Mill City Live in the summer of 2004. The concerts are held in the museums Ruin courtyard and feature Twin Cities bands of various genres. Mill City Live was originally held on the first and third Thursdays of June, July, August, and September, as of 2016, the concerts are held every Wednesday night in August. The first Washburn A Mill, built by Cadwallader C. Washburn in 1874, was declared the largest flour mill in the world upon its completion, and contributed to the development of Minneapolis. On May 2,1878, a spark ignited airborne flour dust within the mill, creating an explosion demolished the Washburn A. The ensuing fire resulted in the deaths of four people, destroyed five other mills. Known as the Great Mill Disaster, the explosion made national news, in order to prevent the buildup of combustible flour dust, ventilation systems and other precautionary devices were installed in mills throughout the country. At the peak of the Washburn A Mills production, it could grind over 100 boxcars of wheat into almost 2,000,000 pounds of flour per day, an ad from the 1870s advertised, Forty-one Runs of Stone. This is the largest and most complete Mill in the United States, advertising hyperbole aside, the mill, along with the Pillsbury A Mill and other flour mills powered by St. Anthony Falls, contributed greatly to Minneapoliss development. The mill was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1983 for its technological innovations, Washburn later teamed up with John Crosby to form the Washburn-Crosby Company, which later became General Mills. After World War I, flour production in Minneapolis began to decline as flour milling technology no longer depended on water power, other cities, such as Buffalo, New York, became more prominent in the milling industry
38.
Plummer Building
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The Plummer Building in Rochester, Minnesota is one of the many architecturally significant buildings on the Mayo Clinic campus. This new Mayo Clinic building, opened in 1927, added much needed space to the ever expanding Mayo practice, the architect of record is Ellerbe & Co. now Ellerbe Becket. It was the building designed by the firm for the Mayo Clinic. The early design collaboration between Henry Stanley Plummer and Franklin Ellerbe established the model for generations of new clinic. The new 1928 Mayo Clinic building was the manifestation of the early Mayo partners desire to create the first integrated private group practice. It is topped by a distinctive terra-cotta trimmed tower which contains a 56-bell carillon, songs are played from it several times a week, which can be heard throughout downtown. The tower is lit by floodlights every night, and it is a centerpiece of the citys skyline, ray Corwin, of Ellerbe and Round, designed the buildings decorative elements. Ray Corwin also was responsible for the design of the elements found in the Chateau Theatre. The Plummer Building is among the more than 200 structures designed by the Ellerbe firm in Rochester and its 4000-pound ornamental bronze doors nearly always stand open, symbolizing eternal willingness to accept those in medical need. They have been closed only to commemorate events in Mayo or national history
39.
Mountain Iron Mine
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By 1893 the Merritts had claims on a significant portion of the Mesabi Iron Range and had built the Duluth, Missabe & Northern Railway DM&IR. Financial conditions forced them sell their shares to John D. Rockefeller who later sold to Andrew Carnegie, the early development was as an underground mine, but open cast mining soon proved to be a better choice because of the soft, shallow ore deposits. The Mesabi Range and nearby Vermilion Range led Minnesota to become the nations largest producer of iron ore and this capacity is considered to have been a major factor in Americas ability to contribute to World War II. It also played a role in the financial success of Andrew Carnegie. Carnegie returned some of his fortune to the communities by funding 2500 public Carnegie Libraries across the country, the extraction of ore in the region also contributed to the tiny port city of Duluth thriving and becoming the leading port in the United States in the early 20th century. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and further designated as a U. S. National Historic Landmark in 1968, list of National Historic Landmarks in Minnesota National Register of Historic Places listings in St. Louis County, Minnesota Theodore Jones. Carnegie Libraries Across America, A Public Legacy
40.
Soudan Underground Mine State Park
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The Soudan Underground Mine State Park is a Minnesota state park at the site of the Soudan Underground Mine, on the south shore of Lake Vermilion, in the Vermilion Range. The mine is known as Minnesotas oldest, deepest, and richest iron mine, as the Soudan Iron Mine, it has been designated a U. S. National Historic Landmark. In the late 19th century, prospectors searching for gold in northern Minnesota discovered extremely rich veins of hematite at this site, an open pit mine began operation in 1882, and moved to underground mining by 1900 for safety reasons. From 1901 until the end of mining in 1962, the Soudan Mine was owned by the United States Steel Corporations Oliver Iron Mining division. By 1912 the mine was at a depth of 1,250 feet, when the mine closed, level 27 was being developed at 2,341 feet below the surface and the entire underground workings consisted of more than fifty miles of drifts, adits, and raises. In 1965, US Steel donated the Soudan Mine to the State of Minnesota to use for educational purposes, the primary underground mining method used was known as cut and fill. This involved mining the ceiling and using Ely Greenstone and other waste rock to artificially raise the floor at the rate as the ceiling was being mined out. As a result, the floor and ceiling were always 10–20 feet apart and this technique was particularly suited to the Soudan Mine due to the strength of the hematite formations and the weakness of the encasing Greenstone. This method was not possible in the mines in Ely because the iron formations there were fractured. The park is in Breitung Township, on the shore of Lake Vermilion in northern Minnesotas Vermilion Range and it has become a popular tourist site, often visited on the way to and from Ely and the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness. The state park is operated under the Department of Natural Resources and it is a National Historic Landmark, meaning that it is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The surface buildings are open to the public, and during the summer there are daily tours of the mine. Visitors are lowered in an 80-year-old electric mine hoist to level 27, two tours are open to the public, one that explores the historic mining facilities, and another that focuses on the currently active underground physics laboratory. The mine was originally home to the Soudan 1 proton decay experiment and its successor, low-background materials screening facilities are in use and continuing development. The mine was proposed as one site for a U. S. Deep Underground Science and Engineering Laboratory, but that project has since awarded to the Homestake Mine. A fire broke out late Thursday, March 17,2011 in the shaft at the 25 level. The fire was smothered using 70,000 gallons of foam, the Underground Laboratory lost power but remained safe
41.
National Farmer's Bank of Owatonna
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The National Farmers Bank of Owatonna, Minnesota is a historic bank building at Broadway and Cedar Streets. It was designed by Louis Sullivan with decorative elements by George Elmslie and it was built in 1908, and was the first of Sullivans jewel boxes. The building is clad in red brick with terra cotta bands. Single-story wings, originally housing offices, extend along each side. All of these rooms were decorated, with custom furniture. The bank was remodeled in 1940, and many of the architectural elements were destroyed. Subsequent work in 1958 and from 1976 to 1981 restored it to its original grandeur, on January 7,1976 it was recognized as a National Historic Landmark for its architectural significance. The building now houses a branch of the Wells Fargo bank and it is also a contributing property to the Owatonna Commercial Historic District
42.
St. Croix Boom Site
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The St. Croix Boom Site is a historic and scenic wayside on the St. Croix River in Stillwater Township, Minnesota, United States. It commemorates the location of a log boom where, from 1856 to 1914. The site was developed as a park along Minnesota State Highway 95 in the 1930s. In 1966 it was designated a National Historic Landmark for its significance in the theme of industry. It was nominated for being the earliest, most important, and longest serving of the log storage, virtually no traces remain of the sites original buildings and structures. The vast white pine forests of the St. Croix River Valley became a target for logging in the mid-19th century. The St. Croix and its tributaries provided easy transport downstream, since multiple logging companies sent their timber down the same waterway, each company had a distinctive timber mark or owners mark they stamped into the bottom of each log. In the 1830s and 40s the St. Croix harvest was collected and sorted downstream on an honor system, in 1851 the Minnesota Legislature chartered the St. The Boom Companys leadership was composed of men from Marine, Taylors Falls. However there were two problems with this. One was that this was upstream from the mouth of the Apple River, the other was that Stillwater was already becoming the regions primary lumber town, and mills there had to pay extra to have their logs timber rafted 21 miles downstream. In 1856 the Boom Company ran into trouble, so a syndicate of Stillwater-based lumbermen led by Isaac Staples seized their opportunity to purchase. Staples, familiar with log booms from his native Maine, picked a site for the new boom. It was 3 miles north of Stillwater in a stretch of the river that was narrow, high-banked, the St. Croix Log Boom used a series of booms—logs chained end-to-end across the river—to catch timber as it floated downstream. Workers called boom rats moved among the booms on catwalks, noting the timber marks stamped on the incoming logs, when enough of one brand were gathered, the boom workers would form them into a timber raft, which a fitting-up crew would steer downstream to the correct mill. Some receiving mills were as far south as St. Louis, the boom operation was designed in such a way that it could handle both heavy and light volumes efficiently. In mid-summer logs could be backed up for 15 miles above the boom, however in slow times the whole operation could run with a skeleton crew, leading to considerable labor savings. In 1890 the Boom Company completed the Nevers Dam 11 miles upstream from Taylors Falls to control the flow of logs even further
43.
Fort Snelling
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Fort Snelling, originally known as Fort Saint Anthony, was a military fortification located at the confluence of Minnesota and Mississippi Rivers in Hennepin County, Minnesota. Mississippi National River and Recreation Area, a National Park Service unit, Fort Snelling also refers to an unorganized territory in Hennepin County, Minnesota, containing the former fortification. The Census in 2000 enumerated a population of 442. The Minnesota Historical Society now runs the fort, located atop a bluff along the river, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources runs Fort Snelling State Park, protecting the land at the bottom of the bluff. Fort Snelling once encompassed both parcels, the fort is a National Historic Landmark and has been named a national treasure by the National Trust for Historic Preservation. Lieutenant Zebulon Pike in 1805 acquired Pikes Purchase for the United States, significant settlement began in the late 1810s. Following the War of 1812, the United States Department of War built a chain of forts and these forts primarily protected the northwestern territories from Canadian and British encroachment. The Army founded Fort Saint Anthony in 1819, colonel Josiah Snelling commanded the 5th Infantry Regiment. Its soldiers constructed the original Fort Saint Anthony from 1820 to 1824, during construction, most soldiers lived at Camp Coldwater, which provided drinking water to the fort throughout the 19th century. The post surgeon began recording meteorological observations at Fort Saint Anthony in January 1820, upon its completion in 1825, the Army renamed the fort as Fort Snelling in honor of its commander and architect. At Fort Snelling, the garrison attempted to keep the peace between the Dakota people. Colonel Snelling suffered from dysentery, and bouts of the illness made him susceptible to anger. Recalled to Washington, he left Fort Snelling in September 1827, colonel Snelling died in summer 1828 from complications due to dysentery and a brain fever. John Marsh, a native of Danvers, Massachusetts, came to the fort during the early 1820s, at the fort, he set up the first school for children of the officers. He also developed a relationship with the local Sioux tribe. He had been studying medicine at Harvard for two years before deciding to leave school without earning a degree and he used this opportunity to read medicine under the tutelage of the post physician, Dr. Purcell. The physician died before Marsh completed the course, so he still had no medical degree. In 1830 Fort Snelling was the birthplace of John Taylor Wood, John Emerson purchased the slave Dred Scott in Saint Louis, Missouri, but he later worked and lived at Fort Snelling during much of the 1830s, having brought Dred and his wife Harriet Scott with him
44.
New Deal
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The New Deal was a series of programs, including, most notably, Social Security, that were enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1938, and a few that came later. They included both laws passed by Congress as well as executive orders during the first term of the Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Republicans were split, with opposing the entire New Deal as an enemy of business and growth. By 1936 the term liberal typically was used for supporters of the New Deal, from 1934 to 1938, Roosevelt was assisted in his endeavours by a pro-spender majority in Congress. In the 1938 midterm elections, however, Roosevelt and his supporters lost control of Congress to the bipartisan conservative coalition. Many historians distinguish between a First New Deal and a Second New Deal, with the one more liberal. The First New Deal dealt with the banking crises through the Emergency Banking Act. The Securities Act of 1933 was enacted to prevent a repeated stock market crash, the controversial work of the National Recovery Administration was also part of the First New Deal. The economic downturn of 1937–38, and the split between the AFL and CIO labor unions led to major Republican gains in Congress in 1938. Conservative Republicans and Democrats in Congress joined in the informal Conservative Coalition, by 1942–43 they shut down relief programs such as the WPA and Civilian Conservation Corps and blocked major liberal proposals. Roosevelt himself turned his attention to the war effort, and won reelection in 1940 and 1944, the Supreme Court declared the National Recovery Administration and the first version of the Agricultural Adjustment Act unconstitutional, however the AAA was rewritten and then upheld. As the first Republican president elected after Franklin D. Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower left the New Deal largely intact, Johnsons Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs, which Republican Richard M. Nixon generally retained. After 1974, however, the call for deregulation of the economy gained bipartisan support, the New Deal regulation of banking was suspended in the 1990s. The largest programs still in existence today are the Social Security System, the phrase New Deal was coined by an adviser to Roosevelt, Stuart Chase. Although the term was used by Mark Twain in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court. From 1929 to 1933 manufacturing output decreased by one third, prices fell by 20%, causing deflation that made repaying debts much harder. Unemployment in the U. S. increased from 4% to 25%, additionally, one-third of all employed persons were downgraded to working part-time on much smaller paychecks. In the aggregate, almost 50% of the nations human work-power was going unused, before the New Deal, there was no insurance on deposits at banks
45.
Rabideau CCC Camp
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The Rabideau CCC Camp was a Civilian Conservation Corps camp in the Chippewa National Forest in northern Minnesota, United States. It is located off Beltrami County Highway 39, in Taylor Township, a National Historic Landmark, it now serves as an educational center. The camp was established in 1935 as a project of Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal program, the camp, one of 2650 nationwide, was home to about 300 men aged 17–21. Like most CCC camps, the Rabideau camp was established to work to those unemployed as a result of the Great Depression. Like most other CCC projects, the Rabideau camp was built for temporary occupation, most CCC camps were abandoned when the United States entered World War II, and most of them fell into disuse. The Rabideau camp survived because the University of Illinois used the buildings for its engineering, unfortunately, the buildings, being mostly prefabricated and having insubstantial foundations, continued to deteriorate. Rolf Anderson and the Preservation Alliance of Minnesota became involved with the site in 1991 and he visited the camp and said, I knew it was a significant and rare place. Its a remarkable survivor from the New Deal and it has national, not just local and it is a picturesque setting and the visual image is something that most people havent experienced. The CCC was one of the greatest conservation programs in the history of the United States and it left a lasting legacy that we still benefit from and this is a great opportunity to preserve the site. The vast majority of camps were either torn down or burnt to the ground. Those that had a pre-fab style were disassembled and removed from their sites after the depression and this camp is so rare, it speaks volumes about this countrys history. Thirteen of the original 25 buildings remain, including the hall, five barracks. In 1999, the United States Forest Service began an effort to stabilize. A contractor placed a foundation under the building, replaced the roof, throughout the next two years, a staff of 26 volunteers from the Forest Services Passport in Time program spent nearly 1000 hours with general interior repairs. The camp was designated a National Historic Landmark on February 17,2006, as one of the best surviving examples of a CCC camp focusing on forest management and conservation. The camp was recently repurposed as the Rabideau Conservation Academy and Learning Center, the project was sponsored by the Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe to provide learning opportunities, bolster self-confidence, and provide a path to jobs and higher education. List of National Historic Landmarks in Minnesota National Register of Historic Places listings in Beltrami County, mN-147, Rabideau Civilian Conservation Corps Camp, County Road 39, Blackduck, Beltrami County, MN,12 photos,28 data pages,2 photo caption pages HABS No. MN-147-A, Rabideau CCC Camp, Forest Service Officers Quarters,4 photos,3 data pages,1 photo caption page HABS No, mN-147-B, Rabideau CCC Camp, Barracks,4 photos,3 data pages,1 photo caption page HABS No
