1.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
2.
Chemist
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A chemist is a scientist trained in the study of chemistry. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties, chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms. Chemists carefully measure substance proportions, reaction rates, and other chemical properties, the word chemist is also used to address Pharmacists in Commonwealth English. Chemists may specialize in any number of subdisciplines of chemistry, materials scientists and metallurgists share much of the same education and skills with chemists. The roots of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of burning, fire was a mystical force that transformed one substance into another and thus was of primary interest to mankind. It was fire that led to the discovery of iron and glasses, after gold was discovered and became a precious metal, many people were interested to find a method that could convert other substances into gold. This led to the protoscience called alchemy, the word chemist is derived from the New Latin noun chimista, an abbreviation of alchimista. Alchemists discovered many chemical processes that led to the development of modern chemistry, Chemistry as we know it today, was invented by Antoine Lavoisier with his law of conservation of mass in 1783. The discoveries of the elements has a long history culminating in the creation of the periodic table by Dmitri Mendeleev. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry created in 1901 gives an excellent overview of chemical discovery since the start of the 20th century. Jobs for chemists usually require at least a degree, but many positions, especially those in research. At the Masters level and higher, students tend to specialize in a particular field, postdoctoral experience may be required for certain positions. Workers whose work involves chemistry, but not at a complexity requiring an education with a degree, are commonly referred to as chemical technicians. Such technicians commonly do such work as simpler, routine analyses for quality control or in clinical laboratories, there are also degrees specific to become a Chemical Technologist, which are somewhat distinct from those required when a student is interested in becoming a professional Chemist. A Chemical technologist is more involved in the management and operation of the equipment and they are part of the team of a chemical laboratory in which the quality of the raw material, intermediate products and finished products is analyzed. They also perform functions in the areas of quality control. The higher the level achieved in the field of Chemistry, the higher the responsibility given to that chemist. Chemistry, as a field, have so many applications that different tasks/objectives can be given to workers/scientists with these different levels of education and/or experience
3.
Industrialist
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A business magnate refers to an entrepreneur of great influence, importance, or standing in a particular enterprise or field of business. Such individuals may also be called czars, moguls, proprietors, tycoons, taipans, barons, the word magnate derives from the Latin magnates, meaning a great man or great nobleman. The word tycoon derives from the Japanese word taikun, which means great lord, the word entered the English language in 1857 with the return of Commodore Perry to the United States. U. S. President Abraham Lincoln was humorously referred to as the Tycoon by his aides John Nicolay, the term spread to the business community, where it has been used ever since. The word mogul is an English corruption of mughal, Persian or Arabic for Mongol and it alludes to emperors of the Mughal Empire in the Medieval India, who possessed great power and storied riches capable of producing wonders of opulence such as the Taj Mahal. Modern business magnates are entrepreneurs that amass on their own or wield substantial family fortunes in the process of building or running their own businesses and their dominance was known as the Second Industrial Revolution, the Gilded Age, or the Robber Baron Era. The Famous 15, Americas Most Fascinating Tycoons,25 Tycoons Who Run the World
4.
Lunar Society
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At first called the Lunar Circle, Lunar Society became the formal name by 1775. The name arose because the society would meet during the full moon, the members cheerfully referred to themselves as lunarticks, a pun on lunatics. Venues included Erasmus Darwins home in Lichfield, Matthew Boultons home, Soho House, Bowbridge House in Derbyshire, the Lunar Society evolved through various degrees of organisation over a period of up to fifty years, but was only ever an informal group. Historians therefore disagree on what qualifies as membership of the Lunar Society, who can be considered to have been members, and even when the society can be said to have existed. Josiah Wedgwood, for example, is described by commentators as being one of five principal members of the society. Dates given for the establishment of the society range from sometime before 1760 to 1775, some historians argue that it had ceased to exist by 1791, others that it was still operating as late as 1813. James Keir, Joseph Priestley, William Small, Jonathan Stokes, James Watt, Josiah Wedgwood, John Whitehurst and William Withering. These include Richard Kirwan, John Smeaton, Henry Moyes, John Michell, Pieter Camper, R. E. Raspe, John Baskerville, Thomas Beddoes, John Wyatt, William Thomson, Cyril V. All the world came to Soho to meet Boulton, Watt or Small and its essential sociability meant that any might be invited to attend its meetings. The origins of the Lunar Society lie in a pattern of friendships that emerged in the late 1750s, soon they were visiting each other regularly and conducting investigations into scientific subjects such as electricity, meteorology and geology. Although Michell seems to have withdrawn slightly from the group when he moved to Thornhill in 1767, there he had taught and been a major influence over Thomas Jefferson, and had formed the focus of a local group of intellectuals. In 1767 James Keir visited Darwin in Lichfield, where he was introduced to Boulton, Small, Wedgwood and Whitehurst, the Lunar Circle also attracted more distant involvement. Joseph Priestley, then living in Leeds and a friend of John Mitchell, became associated with the Society in 1767 when Darwin. In the same year James Watt visited Birmingham on the recommendation of his business patron John Roebuck, being shown around the Soho Manufactory by Small and Darwin in Boultons absence. By 1768 the core group of nine individuals who would form the nucleus of the Lunar Society had come together with Small at their heart. Small had been the key link between the members, and in his absence those remaining moved to place the group on an organised footing. Meetings were to be held on the Sunday nearest the full moon, the first was probably that held on 31 December 1775, and the Lunar name is first recorded in 1776. The era also saw significant changes in membership, William Withering – like Small a physician – was already an acquaintance of Darwin, Boulton and Wedgwood when he moved from Stafford to Birmingham and became a member of the Society in 1776
5.
Birmingham
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Birmingham is a major city and metropolitan borough of West Midlands, England lying on the River Rea, a small river that runs through Birmingham. It is the largest and most populous British city outside London, the city is in the West Midlands Built-up Area, the third most populous urban area in the United Kingdom, with a population of 2,440,986 at the 2011 census. Birminghams metropolitan area is the second most populous in the UK with a population of 3.8 million and this also makes Birmingham the 8th most populous metropolitan area in Europe. By 1791 it was being hailed as the first manufacturing town in the world, perhaps the most important invention in British history, the industrial steam engine, was invented in Birmingham. From the summer of 1940 to the spring of 1943, Birmingham was bombed heavily by the German Luftwaffe in what is known as the Birmingham Blitz. The damage done to the infrastructure, in addition to a deliberate policy of demolition and new building by planners, led to extensive demolition. Today Birminghams economy is dominated by the service sector and its metropolitan economy is the second largest in the United Kingdom with a GDP of $121. 1bn, and its six universities make it the largest centre of higher education in the country outside London. Birmingham is the fourth-most visited city in the UK by foreign visitors, Birminghams sporting heritage can be felt worldwide, with the concept of the Football League and lawn tennis both originating from the city. Its most successful football club Aston Villa has won seven league titles, people from Birmingham are called Brummies, a term derived from the citys nickname of Brum. This originates from the citys name, Brummagem, which may in turn have been derived from one of the citys earlier names. There is a distinctive Brummie accent and dialect, Birminghams early history is that of a remote and marginal area. The main centres of population, power and wealth in the pre-industrial English Midlands lay in the fertile and accessible river valleys of the Trent, the Severn and the Avon. The area of modern Birmingham lay in between, on the upland Birmingham Plateau and within the wooded and sparsely populated Forest of Arden. Birmingham as a settlement dates from the Anglo-Saxon era, within a century of the charter Birmingham had grown into a prosperous urban centre of merchants and craftsmen. By 1327 it was the third-largest town in Warwickshire, a position it would retain for the next 200 years, by 1700 Birminghams population had increased fifteenfold and the town was the fifth-largest in England and Wales. The importance of the manufacture of goods to Birminghams economy was recognised as early as 1538. Equally significant was the emerging role as a centre for the iron merchants who organised finance, supplied raw materials. The 18th century saw this tradition of free-thinking and collaboration blossom into the phenomenon now known as the Midlands Enlightenment
6.
Stirlingshire
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Stirlingshire or the County of Stirling is a historic county and registration county of Scotland, based in Stirling, the county town. See Registers of Scotland, Land Register Counties and it borders Perthshire to the north, Clackmannanshire and West Lothian to the east, Lanarkshire to the south, and Dunbartonshire to the south-west. Stirling and Falkirk are still covered by the same lieutenancy area, until the 1890s the county had two small exclaves, part of the parish of Logie, which was surrounded by Perthshire, and the parish of Alva, locally in Clackmannanshire. The Perthshire part of Logie was added to Stirlingshire, while Alva was annexed by Clackmannanshire, the County Council of Stirling was granted a coat of arms by Lord Lyon King of Arms on 29 September 1890. The design of the arms commemorated the Scottish victory at the Battle of Bannockburn in the county, on the silver saltire on blue of St Andrew was placed the rampant red lion from the royal arms of Scotland. Around this were placed two caltraps and two spur-rowels recalling the use of the weapons against the English cavalry, on the abolition of the Local Government council in 1975, the arms were regranted to the Local Government Stirling District Council. They were regranted a second time in 1996 to the present Local Government Stirling Council, in 1130 Stirling, one of the principal royal strongholds of the Kingdom of Scotland, was created a Royal burgh by King David I. On 22 July 1298 the Battle of Falkirk saw the defeat of William Wallace by King Edward I of England, in 1314 the Battle of Bannockburn, Bannockburn, was a significant Scottish victory in the Wars of Scottish Independence. It was one of the battles of the First War of Scottish Independence. On 11 June 1488 the Battle of Sauchieburn was fought at the side of Sauchie Burn, on 17 January 1746 the Battle of Falkirk Muir saw the Jacobites under Charles Edward Stuart defeat a government army commanded by Lieutenant General Henry Hawley. In 2001, according to the website of the General Register Office for Scotland, list of civil parishes in Scotland Civil parishes are still used for some statistical purposes, and separate census figures are published for them. As their areas have been unchanged since the 19th century this allows for comparison of population figures over an extended period of time. The remaining four burghs became small burghs, with limited powers, some Stirlingshire towns listed in the Registers of Scotland, Land Register Counties. In 1894 parish Local Government councils were established for the civil parishes, the Local Government parish councils were in turn superseded by Local Government district councils in 1930. In 1930 the parishes ceased to be used for government purposes. These Local Government districts were abolished in 1975, the Royal Burgh of Stirling formed part of the Stirling burghs constituency along with burghs in Fife and Perthshire. The Burgh of Falkirk formed part of Falkirk Burghs, along with burghs in Lanarkshire and Linlithgowshire, the remainder of the county returned a single member as the parliamentary county of Stirlingshire. The detached parish of Alva was annexed to the constituency of Clackmannanshire, in 1918 seats in the House of Commons were redistributed
7.
Royal High School (Edinburgh)
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For the A-listed building on Calton Hill, see Old Royal High School, Edinburgh. The Royal High School of Edinburgh is a school administered by the City of Edinburgh Council. The school was founded in 1128 and is one of the oldest schools in Scotland and it serves 1,200 pupils drawn from four feeder primaries in the north-west of the city, Blackhall, Clermiston, Cramond and Davidsons Mains. The Royal High School was last inspected by HMIE in April 2007, the rector is Pauline Walker who replaced Jane Frith, the first woman to head the school. The Royal High School is, by one reckoning, the 18th-oldest school in the world, historians associate its birth with the flowering of the 12th century renaissance. It first enters the record as the seminary of Holyrood Abbey, founded for Alwin. In 1505 the school was described as a school, the first recorded use of this term in either Scotland or England. In 1584 the Town Council informed the rector, Hercules Rollock, as far as possible, instruction was carried out in Latin. The study of Greek began in 1614, and geography in 1742, the egalitarian spirit of Scotland and the classical tradition exerted a profound influence on the school culture and the Scottish Enlightenment. The historian William Ross notes, Walter Scott stood head and shoulders above his literary contemporaries, the Royal High School was used as a model for the first public high school in the United States, the English High School of Boston, in 1821. Learning Greek ceased to be compulsory in 1836, and the allotted to its study was reduced in 1839 as mathematics became recognised. In 1866 classical masters were confined to teaching Latin and Greek, a modern and commercial course was introduced in 1873. A school choir was instituted in 1895, the Jocks Lodge site is now the Royal High Primary, and is no longer associated with the secondary school. For many years the school maintained a facility for pupils from outside Edinburgh. The boarders ranged in age six to eighteen. The House, as it was known, was located at 24 Royal Terrace and in later years moved to 13 Royal Terrace. When the boarding house was closed the records of all boarders, the artefacts such as the board with the names of boys. The Royal High School moved to its current site at Barnton in 1968, in 1973 it became a co-educational state comprehensive
8.
University of Edinburgh
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The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582, is the sixth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands ancient universities. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city of Edinburgh, the University of Edinburgh was ranked 17th and 21st in the world by the 2014–15 and 2015-16 QS rankings. It is now ranked 19th in the according to 2016-17 QS Rankings. It is ranked 16th in the world in arts and humanities by the 2015–16 Times Higher Education Ranking and it is ranked the 23rd most employable university in the world by the 2015 Global Employability University Ranking. It is ranked as the 6th best university in Europe by the U. S. News Best Global Universities Ranking and it is a member of both the Russell Group, and the League of European Research Universities, a consortium of 21 research universities in Europe. It has the third largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, after the universities of Cambridge and it continues to have links to the British Royal Family, having had the Duke of Edinburgh as its Chancellor from 1953 to 2010 and Princess Anne since 2011. Edinburgh receives approximately 50,000 applications every year, making it the fourth most popular university in the UK by volume of applicants, after St Andrews, it is the most difficult university to gain admission into in Scotland, and 9th overall in the UK. This was a move at the time, as most universities were established through Papal bulls. Established as the Tounis College, it opened its doors to students in October 1583, instruction began under the charge of another St Andrews graduate Robert Rollock. It was the fourth Scottish university in a period when the more populous. It was renamed King Jamess College in 1617, by the 18th century, the university was a leading centre of the Scottish Enlightenment. The universitys first custom-built building was the Old College, now Edinburgh Law School and its first forte in teaching was anatomy and the developing science of surgery, from which it expanded into many other subjects. From the basement of a nearby house ran the anatomy tunnel corridor and it went under what was then North College Street, and under the university buildings until it reached the universitys anatomy lecture theatre, delivering bodies for dissection. It was from this tunnel the body of William Burke was taken after he had been hanged, towards the end of the 19th century, Old College was becoming overcrowded and Robert Rowand Anderson was commissioned to design new Medical School premises in 1875. The medical school was more or less built to his design and was completed by the addition of the McEwan Hall in the 1880s. The building now known as New College was originally built as a Free Church college in the 1840s and has been the home of divinity at the university since the 1920s. The two oldest schools – law and divinity – are both well-esteemed, with law being based in Old College and divinity in New College on the Mound and they are also represented by the Edinburgh University Sports Union which was founded in 1866. The medical school is renowned throughout the world and it was widely considered the best medical school in the English-speaking world throughout the 18th century and first half of the 19th century
9.
Erasmus Darwin
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Erasmus Darwin was an English physician. One of the key thinkers of the Midlands Enlightenment, he was also a philosopher, physiologist, slave-trade abolitionist, inventor. His poems included much natural history, including a statement of evolution and he was a member of the Darwin–Wedgwood family, which includes his grandsons Charles Darwin and Francis Galton. Darwin was a member of the Lunar Society of Birmingham. He turned down an invitation of George IIIs to become a physician to the King, Erasmus Darwin House, his home in Lichfield, is now a museum dedicated to Erasmus Darwin and his lifes work. A school in nearby Chasetown recently converted to Academy status and is now known as Erasmus Darwin Academy, Darwin was born at Elston Hall, Nottinghamshire near Newark-on-Trent, England, the youngest of seven children of Robert Darwin of Elston, a lawyer, and his wife Elizabeth Hill. The name Erasmus had been used by a number of his family and derives from his ancestor Erasmus Earle and he obtained his medical education at the University of Edinburgh Medical School. Whether Darwin ever obtained the degree of MD is not known. Darwin settled in 1756 as a physician at Nottingham, but met little success. A few weeks after his arrival, using a course of treatment. This ensured his success in the new locale, Darwin was a highly successful physician for more than fifty years in the Midlands. George III invited him to be Royal Physician, but Darwin declined, in Lichfield, Darwin wrote didactic poetry, developed his system of evolution, and invented amongst other things, a carriage steering mechanism, a manuscript copier and a speaking machine. Darwin married twice and had 14 children, including two daughters by an employee, and, possibly, at least one further illegitimate daughter. In 1757 he married Mary Howard, a governess, Mary Parker, was hired to look after Robert. In 1782, Mary Sr married Joseph Day, a Birmingham merchant, Darwin may have fathered another child, this time with a married woman. A Lucy Swift gave birth in 1771 to a baby, also named Lucy, who was christened a daughter of her mother and William Swift, Lucy Jr. married John Hardcastle in Derby in 1792 and their daughter, Mary, married Francis Boott, the physician. When Edward Pole died, Darwin married Elizabeth and moved to her home, Radbourne Hall, the hall and village are these days known as Radbourne. In 1782, they moved to Full Street, Derby, harriet Darwin, married Admiral Thomas James Maling Darwin died suddenly on 18 April 1802, weeks after having moved to Breadsall Priory, just north of Derby
10.
West Indies
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Indigenous peoples were the first inhabitants of the West Indies. In 1492, Christopher Columbus became the first European to arrive at the islands, after the first of the voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas, Europeans began to use the term West Indies to distinguish the region from the East Indies of South Asia and Southeast Asia. In the late century, French, English and Dutch merchants and privateers began their operations in the Caribbean Sea, attacking Spanish and Portuguese shipping. These African slaves wrought a demographic revolution, replacing or joining with either the indigenous Caribs or the European settlers who were there as indentured servants. The Dutch, allied with the Caribs of the Orinoco would eventually carry the struggles deep into South America, first along the Orinoco and these interconnected commercial and diplomatic relations made up the Western Caribbean Zone which was in place in the early eighteenth century. In 1916, Denmark sold the Danish West Indies to the United States for US$25 million in gold, the Danish West Indies became an insular area of the US, called the United States Virgin Islands. Between 1958 and 1962, the United Kingdom re-organised all their West Indies island territories into the West Indies Federation and they hoped that the Federation would coalesce into a single, independent nation. West Indian is the term used by the U. S. government to refer to people of the West Indies. Tulane University professor Rosanne Adderly says he phrase West Indies distinguished the territories encountered by Columbus, … The term West Indies was eventually used by all European nations to describe their own acquired territories in the Americas. Despite the collapse of the Federation … the West Indies continues to field a joint cricket team for international competition, the West Indies cricket team includes participants from Guyana, which is geographically located in South America. More than Slaves and Sugar, Recent Historiography of the Trans-imperial Caribbean, a Concise History of the Caribbean. Martin, Tony, Caribbean History, From Pre-colonial Origins to the Present
11.
Marquis of Granby
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Duke of Rutland is a title in the Peerage of England, derived from Rutland, a county in the East Midlands of England. Earldoms named after Rutland have been created twice in history, the title Earl of Rutland was created on 25 February 1390 for Edward of Norwich, son of Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York, and grandson of King Edward III. Upon the Dukes death in 1402 Edward became Duke of York, the title Earl of Rutland was created on 29 January 1446 for Edmund, second son of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York. Thomas Manners, son of the 11th Baron de Ros of Hamlake, Truibut and he was the great-grandson of Richard Plantagenet. The barony of de Ros of Hamlake, Truibut and Belvoir was created by Simon de Montfort with a writ of summons to the House of Lords for Robert de Ros in 1264, the 3rd Earl was succeeded as 4th Earl by his brother John. The barony of Ros was restored to the Manners family when Francis Manners, however, Francis died without male issue and the assumption of the courtesy title of Lord Ros for the eldest son of subsequent earls appears to have had no legal basis. On the death of the seventh Earl in 1641 the Earldom passed to his distant cousin John Manners of Haddon Hall, in 1703, the ninth Earl of Rutland was created Duke of Rutland and Marquess of Granby by Queen Anne. The most notable Marquess of Granby was John Manners, eldest son of the third Duke and he was an accomplished soldier and highly popular figure of his time, in 1745 he became a colonel, his military career flourished during the Seven Years War. At the Battle of Minden, although his role was small, in 1760, at the Battle of Warburg, he led a cavalry charge which routed the French, losing his hat and wig in the process. In recognition of this, soldiers of the Blues and Royals have the privilege in the British Army of being permitted to salute while not wearing headgear. Granbys losing his helmet and wig in the charge gave rise to the expression going bald-headed at something, in 1758, the King made him Colonel of the Royal Horse Guards and in 1766, as Lieutenant-General, he became Commander-in-Chief. His title was honoured by being used by a number of pubs throughout Britain. The towns of Granby, Quebec in Canada and Granby, Massachusetts in the United States as well as Granby Street in Norfolk, Virginia and he died before his father, and therefore did not become Duke. The subsidiary titles of the dukedom are, Marquess of Granby, Earl of Rutland, Baron Manners, of Haddon in the County of Derby, the title Baron Roos of Belvoir is in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, the remaining titles being in the Peerage of England. The most senior title, Marquess of Granby, is the courtesy title used by the Dukes eldest son. The Manners family own medieval Haddon Hall, Derbyshire and Belvoir Castle, Leicestershire that were successively extended, some rooms in both buildings are open to the public. They are Grade I in architecture, set in listed parks, woodland and gardens and span a central water feature, which acted as models for other landscaped estates. In 2009, to mark 500 years of the occupancy of Belvoir Castle by the two aircraft from RAF Cranwell, Lincolnshire, bore the Duke of Rutlands Coat of Arms
12.
Polybius
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Polybius was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic period noted for his work, The Histories, which covered the period of 264–146 BC in detail. The work describes the rise of the Roman Republic to the status of dominance in the ancient Mediterranean world, Polybius was born around 200 BC in Megalopolis, Arcadia, when it was an active member of the Achaean League. His father, Lycortas, was a prominent, land-owning politician, consequently, Polybius was able to observe first hand the political and military affairs of Megalopolis. He developed an interest in riding and hunting, diversions that later commended him to his Roman captors. In 182 BC, he was quite an honor when he was chosen to carry the funeral urn of Philopoemen. In either 169 BC or 170 BC, Polybius was elected hipparchus and his early political career was devoted largely towards maintaining the independence of Megalopolis. Polybius’ father, Lycortas, was a prominent advocate of neutrality during the Roman war against Perseus of Macedon. Lycortas attracted the suspicion of the Romans, and Polybius subsequently was one of the 1,000 Achaean nobles who were transported to Rome as hostages in 167 BC, Polybius remained on cordial terms with his former pupil Scipio Aemilianus and was among the members of the Scipionic Circle. Polybius remained a counselor to Scipio when he defeated the Carthaginians in the Third Punic War, following the destruction of Carthage, Polybius likely journeyed along the Atlantic coast of Africa, as well as Spain. After the destruction of Corinth in the year, Polybius returned to Greece. Polybius was charged with the task of organizing the new form of government in the Greek cities. He apparently interviewed veterans to clarify details of the events he was recording and was given access to archival material. Little is known of Polybius later life, he most likely accompanied Scipio to Spain and he later wrote about this war in a lost monograph. Polybius probably returned to Greece later in his life, as evidenced by the many existent inscriptions, polybius’ Histories cover the period from 264 BC to 146 BC. Its main focus is the period from 220 BC to 167 BC, describing Romes efforts in subduing its arch-enemy, Carthage, in Book VI, Polybius describes the political, military, and moral institutions that allowed the Romans to succeed. He describes the First and Second Punic Wars, in Book XII, Polybius discusses the worth of Timaeus’ account of the same period of history. He asserts Timaeus point of view is inaccurate, invalid, therefore, Polybiuss Histories is also useful in analyzing the different Hellenistic versions of history and of use as a credible illustration of actual events during the Hellenistic period. In the seventh volume of his Histories, Polybius defines the historians job as the analysis of documentation, the review of relevant geographical information, and political experience
13.
West Bromwich
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West Bromwich /wɛst ˈbrɒmɪtʃ/ is a town in Sandwell, West Midlands, England. Historically in Staffordshire, it is in the Black Country,5 miles northwest of Birmingham, West Bromwich was first mentioned as Bromwic in the Domesday Book of 1086. It is believed that it may have originally been part of the Handsworth parish, a Benedictine priory existed in West Bromwich from the 12th century around which the settlement of Broomwich Heath grew. In 1727, the became a stop on the coaching road between London and Shrewsbury and its growth began. The prefix West serves to distinguish it from the village of Castle Bromwich, also in the West Midlands but the other side of Birmingham. In the 19th century, coal deposits were discovered, ensuring that the town rapidly as an industrial centre, with industries such as spring, gun. Well before the end of the 19th century, West Bromwich had established itself as a prominent area to match older neighbouring towns including Dudley, in 1888, West Bromwich became a county borough, incorporating the village of Great Barr. Charlemont Hall, built during the 1750s, stood on the west side of the present Charlemont Crescent, in the Charlemont, Charlemont Hall was described c.1800 as a lofty neat-looking house of brick, faced with stone, with iron palisades etc. in front. An east wing was added in 1855, the last occupant was the widow of Thomas Jones, town clerk of Wednesbury 1897–1921. The house was demolished in 1948, and is now covered by a number of detached homes. Much of the area was developed during the 1960s as the Charlemont Farm housing estate. West Bromwich suffered heavily in the Cholera epidemic of 1831 which spread northwards into the town, a temporary board of health was set up and a hospital opened in the former Revivalist chapel in Spon Lane. The natural gradual slope of the land provided drainage within the soil, however, urbanisation made this increasingly difficult, the West Bromwich Town Improvement Commissioners was established in 1854, and they tackled the drainage problem in the town. They appointed members to new titles and in the 1880s bought land in Friar Park for a sewerage farm. Under the Reform Act 1832, West Bromwich became part of the new division of Staffordshire. Under the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885, the borough of West Bromwich became a parliamentary borough returning one member, in 1918, it was won by Labour who have held it since, except for between 1931 and 1935 when it held by the National Unionists. After the end of the war, the council started building new homes to rehouse people from the rundown town centre. However, there are many late 19th century and early 20th century buildings around the centre of West Bromwich today
14.
Stourbridge
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Stourbridge /ˈstaʊərbrɪdʒ/ is a large town in the Metropolitan Borough of Dudley, in the West Midlands of England. Historically a part of Worcestershire, Stourbridge was a centre of glass making, the population, as recorded in the United Kingdom Census 2001, was 55,480, increasing to 63,298 at the 2011 Census. Stourbridge is included in the Stourbridge parliamentary constituency, currently held by Margot James of the Conservative Party, Stourbridge is a part of the West Midlands metropolitan county and conurbation, in the Metropolitan Borough of Dudley. Stourbridge is located about 13 miles west of Birmingham, at the edge of the industrial Midlands, much of the town consists of suburban streets, interspersed with green spaces. Stourbridge borders on green land, and is close to unspoiled countryside with rural Shropshire close by to the west. The Clent Hills, Kinver Edge and large areas of farmland lie to the south, the town and surrounding area is at the south western extremity of the Black Country and the majority of the working-class population retain the regions accent and dialect. Stourbridge was in the ancient parish of Oldswinford, Worcestershire, and this perhaps led to Stourbridge being a separate township for Poor Law and other purposes, distinct from Amblecote and the rest of Oldswinford. In 1834, the Stourbridge Union was formed consisting of Kingswinford, Amblecote, Stourbridge, Oldswinford, the town obtained a Board of Improvement Commissioners under an Act of 1825. A further Act of 1866 divided it into three wards and allowed the neighbouring hamlets of Amblecote, Wollaston and Lye to accede to the if they wished. The Improvement Commissioners were replaced by an Urban District Council in the 1890s, the town subsequently obtained a charter as a municipal borough. This later absorbed Lye and Wollescote Urban District Council, and in 1965 much of Amblecote, since 1974, it has been part of the Metropolitan Borough of Dudley. Stourbridge takes its name from the River Stour, which flows through the town, but the border was moved a couple of miles north in 1966, when Amblecote Urban District was incorporated into the Borough of Stourbridge. The town gives its name to local production, which has been manufactured since the early 1600s. The local glass proved particularly suitable for the industry, taken up predominantly after the immigration of French coal miners in the Huguenot diaspora, however, most of the glass industry was actually located in surrounding areas including Wordsley, Amblecote and Oldswinford. The rich natural resources of coal and fireclay for lining furnaces made it the location for the industry. Glass making peaked in the 19th century, encouraged by the famous glass-making family, the 1861 census identified that 1,032 residents of Stourbridge were involved in the glass trade in some way. Of these,541 were glass workers - an increase from 409 in 1851, the vast majority of those involved in the glass trade came from Staffordshire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire and Shropshire. 9% came from parts of England and 0. 2% had come from abroad
15.
Bewdley
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It lies on the River Severn, at the gateway of the Wyre Forest national nature reserve, and at the time of the 2011 census had a population of 9,470. Bewdley is home to the Severn Valley Railway and the West Midlands Safari Park, the main part of Bewdley town is situated on the western bank of the River Severn, including the main street — Load Street — whose name derives from lode, an old word for ferry. Load Street is notable for its width, this is because it also served as the towns market place. Most of Bewdleys shops and amenities are situated along Load Street, at the top of which lies St Annes Church, beyond the church, High Street leads off to the south towards Stourport along the B4194, a road known locally as the switchback because of its many undulations. Unlike in many English towns, High Street is so called not because of its importance, a high, sandy slope locally known as Bewdley Beach, on the northern side, is a public space with a 180° panorama. Bewdley has several pubs, cafés, houses, and restaurants along its facing riversides, on the other side of the church, Welch Gate climbs steeply up to the west, while a continuation of the B4194 leads northwest towards the Wyre Forest. To the northeast of the town is the hilltop of Wassel Wood in Trimpley. In the area between Stourport and Bewdley there are large country houses, among which Witley Court, Astley Hall. The settlement of Wribbenhall, on the side of the Severn. Bewdley was granted borough status, as well as a market, by King Edward IV in 1472. A parliamentary report of 1777 listed Bewdley as having a parish workhouse accommodating up to 80 inmates, during the Second World War, Ribbesford House in Bewdley was used as the headquarters for the Free French officer cadets. The cadets consisted of 200 teenagers who undertook military training at Ribbesford House until they joined with allied forces in the D Day invasion. Bewdley is now governed by three tiers of government, in increasing order of size, Bewdley town council, Wyre Forest district council. In 1983, the Kidderminster constituency itself was absorbed into the Wyre Forest constituency, the MP for Wyre Forest is Mark Garnier of the Conservative Party, who in 2010 unseated the incumbent, Richard Taylor of Independent Kidderminster Hospital and Health Concern, a local organisation. The Labour Party held the seat from 1997-2001, since the completion of the flood defences in 2006, a Civic Space has been introduced to replace the old bandstand. It is used on a variety of including the regular local Farmers markets. Bewdley was in the division of Doddingtree Hundred. The River Severn often used to burst its banks in winter, flooding many houses, however, after the 2000 floods, plans were made for flood defences on the western bank, and this work was completed in April 2006, costing £7 million
16.
Royal Society
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Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems
17.
George Fordyce
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George Fordyce was a distinguished Scottish physician, lecturer on medicine, and chemist, who was a Fellow of the Royal Society and a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. George Fordyce was born at Aberdeen in 1736, a time after the death of his father, George Fordyce, proprietor of a small landed estate called Broadford. He was taken from home at the age of two following his mothers remarriage and was sent to Foveran, Aberdeenshire, where he received his schooling, following that he attended the University of Aberdeen where he attained the degree of Master of Arts at the age of 14. Fordyce had decided to study medicine and was apprenticed to his uncle, Dr. John Fordyce, in Uppingham and he later returned to Edinburgh, where he took his degree of M. D. in 1758, his inaugural dissertation was on catarrh. From Edinburgh he went to Leyden, where he studied anatomy under the famous anatomist Bernhard Siegfried Albinus, in 1759 he returned to England, having decided to settle in London as a teacher and medical practitioner. Despite his relations disapproval, he persisted, and by the end of 1759 had commenced a course of lectures upon chemistry, in 1764, he also began to lecture upon Materia medica and the practice of physic. He delivered these lectures for nearly 30 years, in 1765 he became a licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians and in 1770 was elected physician to St Thomas Hospital. In 1774 he was chosen as a member of the Literary Club, in 1776 a Fellow of the Royal Society and this latter was chiefly to secure his assistance with a new edition of the Colleges Pharmacopoeia. He was Harveian Orator in 1791, in 1762 he married the daughter of Charles Stuart, Esq. conservator of Scottish privileges in the United Netherlands, by whom he had four children, two sons and two daughters. His daughter Sophia Fordyce married Samuel Bentham and he died in London in 1802 and was buried at St Annes, Soho. This was a collection of a course of lectures assembled by one of his listeners, Fordyce corrected the copy, and afterwards published it under this title. Elements of the practice of Physic and this was used by him as a textbook for a part of his course of lectures on that subject. A Treatise on the Digestion of Food and it was originally read before the College of Physicians, as the Guelstonian Lecture. A fifth, which completed the subject, was left by him in manuscript form, published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Of the Light produced by Inflammation. Examination of various Ores in the Museum of Dr W. Hunter, a New Method of assaying Copper Ores. An Account of some Experiments on the Loss of Weight in Bodies on being melted or heated, an Account of an Experiment on Heat. The Cronian Lecture on Muscular Motion, on the Cause of the additional Weight which Metals acquire on being calcined. Account of a New Pendulum, being the Bakerian Lecture, published in the Medical and Chirurgical Transactions, Observations on the Small-pox, and Causes of Fever
18.
Pierre Macquer
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Pierre-Joseph Macquer was an influential French chemist. He is known for his Dictionnaire de chymie and he was also involved in practical applications, to medicine and industry, such as the French development of porcelain. He was an opponent of Lavoisiers theories, the scholar Phillipe Macquer was his brother. In 1752 Macquer showed that the dye Prussian blue could be decomposed into an iron salt and a new acid
19.
Matthew Boulton
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Matthew Boulton FRS was an English manufacturer and business partner of Scottish engineer James Watt. Boulton applied modern techniques to the minting of coins, striking millions of pieces for Britain and other countries, born in Birmingham, he was the son of a Birmingham manufacturer of small metal products who died when Boulton was 31. By then Boulton had managed the business for years, and thereafter expanded it considerably, consolidating operations at the Soho Manufactory. At Soho, he adopted the latest techniques, branching into silver plate, ormolu and he became associated with James Watt when Watts business partner, John Roebuck, was unable to pay a debt to Boulton, who accepted Roebucks share of Watts patent as settlement. He then successfully lobbied Parliament to extend Watts patent for an additional 17 years, the firm installed hundreds of Boulton & Watt steam engines in Britain and abroad, initially in mines and then in factories. Boulton was a key member of the Lunar Society, a group of Birmingham-area men prominent in the arts, sciences, members included Watt, Erasmus Darwin, Josiah Wedgwood and Joseph Priestley. The Society met each month near the full moon, Boulton founded the Soho Mint, to which he soon adapted steam power. He sought to improve the state of Britains coinage. His cartwheel pieces were well-designed and difficult to counterfeit, and included the first striking of the large copper British penny and he retired in 1800, though continuing to run his mint, and died in 1809. His image appears alongside James Watt on the Bank of Englands new Series F £50 note, Birmingham had long been a centre of the ironworking industry. In the early 18th century the town entered a period of expansion as iron working became easier and cheaper with the transition from charcoal to coke as a means of smelting iron. Scarcity of wood in increasingly deforested England and discoveries of large quantities of coal in Birminghams county of Warwickshire, much of the iron was forged in small foundries near Birmingham, especially in the Black Country, including nearby towns such as Smethwick and West Bromwich. The resultant thin iron sheets were transported to factories in and around Birmingham, with the town far from the sea and great rivers and with canals not yet built, metalworkers concentrated on producing small, relatively valuable pieces, especially buttons and buckles. Frenchman Alexander Missen wrote that while he had seen excellent cane heads, snuff boxes and other objects in Milan. These small objects came to be known as toys, and their manufacturers as toymakers, Boulton was a descendant of families from around Lichfield, his great-great-great-great grandfather, Rev. Zachary Babington, having been Chancellor of Lichfield. Boultons father, also named Matthew and born in 1700, moved to Birmingham from Lichfield to serve an apprenticeship, the elder Boulton was a toymaker with a small workshop specialising in buckles. Matthew Boulton was born in 1728, their child and the second of that name. The elder Boultons business prospered after young Matthews birth, and the moved to the Snow Hill area of Birmingham
20.
James Watt
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While working as an instrument maker at the University of Glasgow, Watt became interested in the technology of steam engines. He realised that contemporary engine designs wasted a great deal of energy by repeatedly cooling and reheating the cylinder, Watt introduced a design enhancement, the separate condenser, which avoided this waste of energy and radically improved the power, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness of steam engines. Eventually he adapted his engine to produce rotary motion, greatly broadening its use beyond pumping water, Watt attempted to commercialise his invention, but experienced great financial difficulties until he entered a partnership with Matthew Boulton in 1775. The new firm of Boulton and Watt was eventually highly successful, in his retirement, Watt continued to develop new inventions though none was as significant as his steam engine work. He developed the concept of horsepower, and the SI unit of power, James Watt was born on 19 January 1736 in Greenock, Renfrewshire, a seaport on the Firth of Clyde. His father was a shipwright, ship owner and contractor, and served as the towns chief baillie, while his mother, Agnes Muirhead, both were Presbyterians and strong Covenanters. Watts grandfather, Thomas Watt, was a teacher and baillie to the Baron of Cartsburn. Despite being raised by parents, he later on became a deist. Watt did not attend regularly, initially he was mostly schooled at home by his mother but later he attended Greenock Grammar School. He exhibited great manual dexterity, engineering skills and an aptitude for mathematics, while Latin, when he was eighteen, his mother died and his fathers health began to fail. Watt travelled to London to study instrument-making for a year, then returned to Scotland and he made and repaired brass reflecting quadrants, parallel rulers, scales, parts for telescopes, and barometers, among other things. Because he had not served at least seven years as an apprentice, Watt was saved from this impasse by the arrival from Jamaica of astronomical instruments bequeathed by Alexander Macfarlane to the University of Glasgow, instruments that required expert attention. Watt restored them to working order and was remunerated and these instruments were eventually installed in the Macfarlane Observatory. Subsequently three professors offered him the opportunity to set up a workshop within the university. It was initiated in 1757 and two of the professors, the physicist and chemist Joseph Black as well as the famed Adam Smith, at first he worked on maintaining and repairing scientific instruments used in the university, helping with demonstrations, and expanding the production of quadrants. In 1759 he formed a partnership with John Craig, an architect and businessman, to manufacture and sell a line of products including musical instruments and this partnership lasted for the next six years, and employed up to sixteen workers. One employee, Alex Gardner, eventually took over the business, in 1764, Watt married his cousin Margaret Miller, with whom he had five children, two of whom lived to adulthood, James Jr. and Margaret. His wife died in childbirth in 1772, in 1777 he was married again, to Ann MacGregor, daughter of a Glasgow dye-maker, with whom he had two children, Gregory, who became a geologist and mineralogist, and Janet
21.
Soho Manufactory
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The Soho Manufactory was an early factory which pioneered mass production on the assembly line principle, in Soho, Birmingham, England, at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. It operated from 1766-1848 and was demolished in 1863, the factory was established by the toy manufacturer Matthew Boulton and his business partner John Fothergill. In 1761, they leased a site on Handsworth Heath, containing a cottage, the mill was replaced by a new factory, designed and built by the Wyatt family of Lichfield, and completed in 1766. The cottage was demolished and Boultons home was built on the site. Water was drawn from Hockley Brook, the Manufactory produced a wide range of goods from buttons, buckles and boxes to japanned ware, and later luxury products such as silverware and ormolu. In 1782, it became the first site with a Watt steam engine with a sun and it was also home to the first steam-powered mint, whose presses were subsequently used at the first Birmingham Mint. In later years, the Manufactory was served by canal at Soho Wharf, the manufactory was demolished in the middle of the 19th century and the site used for housing. In the 1990s the television archaeology programme Time Team excavated the foundations, the Manufactory is featured on the Bank of England £50 note along with Matthew Boulton, James Watt, and the Whitbread Engine
22.
Handsworth, West Midlands
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Handsworth is now an inner city, urban area of northwest Birmingham in the West Midlands. Handsworth lies just outside the Birmingham City Centre, the name Handsworth originates from its Saxon owner Hondes and the Old English word weorthing, meaning farm or estate. Historically in the county of Staffordshire, it remained a village from the 13th century to the 18th century. Accommodation was built for workers, the village quickly grew. In that year, work began to build St James Church, later St Michaels Church was built as a daughter church to St James. In the census of 1881, the town was recorded as having approx, by the census of 1911, this had more than doubled to 68,610. Handsworth has two grammar schools – Handsworth Grammar School and King Edward VI Handsworth School, St Andrews Church is a listed building in Oxhill Road which also held Sunday school classes in a small building on the corner of Oxhill Road and Church Lane. The 1901 Red Lion public house was grade II* listed in 1985, Handsworth parish was transferred from Staffordshire to Warwickshire, and became part of Birmingham, in 1911. The redbrick building with the clocktower in the photograph was originally the offices of the council on Soho Road. During World War II, West Indians had arrived as part of the war effort. In the post-war period, a rebuilding programme required much unskilled labour and Birminghams industrial base expanded, during this time, there was direct recruitment for workers from the Caribbean and the area became a centre for Birminghams Afro-Caribbean community. A tram depot was erected near Birmingham Road, next to the border with West Bromwich, during the 1880s, although it has since been demolished, a replica of the depot was created later in the 20th century at the Black Country Living Museum in Dudley. The West Indian population in Birmingham numbered over 17,000 by the 1961 census count, by the early 1960s, there was much racial tension in the country and a great deal of this was being felt in Handsworth. Matthew Boultons Soho Manufactory was set up on the edge of Handsworth. It operated from 1766-1848 and was demolished in 1863, boulton commissioned Samuel Wyatt to design his nearby house Soho House, which is now a museum. In 1790, Heathfield Hall, also designed by Wyatt, was built for Boultons business partner, Watt died in the house in 1819, and was buried at nearby St Marys Church. In the 1880s engineer George Tangye bought the hall and lived there until his death in 1920, from 1927 the hall was demolished and the lands redeveloped. What was the Heathfield Estate is now the land that comprises West Drive, watts workshop from the house was dismantled and rebuilt in the Science Museum, London
23.
Zinc
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Zinc is a chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is the first element in group 12 of the periodic table, in some respects zinc is chemically similar to magnesium, both elements exhibit only one normal oxidation state, and the Zn2+ and Mg2+ ions are of similar size. Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in Earths crust and has five stable isotopes, the most common zinc ore is sphalerite, a zinc sulfide mineral. The largest workable lodes are in Australia, Asia, and the United States, Zinc is refined by froth flotation of the ore, roasting, and final extraction using electricity. Zinc metal was not produced on a large scale until the 12th century in India and was unknown to Europe until the end of the 16th century, the mines of Rajasthan have given definite evidence of zinc production going back to the 6th century BC. To date, the oldest evidence of pure zinc comes from Zawar, in Rajasthan, alchemists burned zinc in air to form what they called philosophers wool or white snow. The element was named by the alchemist Paracelsus after the German word Zinke. German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is credited with discovering pure metallic zinc in 1746, work by Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta uncovered the electrochemical properties of zinc by 1800. Corrosion-resistant zinc plating of iron is the application for zinc. Other applications are in batteries, small non-structural castings. A variety of compounds are commonly used, such as zinc carbonate and zinc gluconate, zinc chloride, zinc pyrithione, zinc sulfide. Zinc is an essential mineral perceived by the public today as being of exceptional biologic and public health importance, Zinc deficiency affects about two billion people in the developing world and is associated with many diseases. In children, deficiency causes growth retardation, delayed sexual maturation, infection susceptibility, enzymes with a zinc atom in the reactive center are widespread in biochemistry, such as alcohol dehydrogenase in humans. Consumption of excess zinc can cause ataxia, lethargy and copper deficiency, Zinc is a bluish-white, lustrous, diamagnetic metal, though most common commercial grades of the metal have a dull finish.6 pm. The metal is hard and brittle at most temperatures but becomes malleable between 100 and 150 °C, above 210 °C, the metal becomes brittle again and can be pulverized by beating. Zinc is a conductor of electricity. For a metal, zinc has relatively low melting and boiling points, the melting point is the lowest of all the transition metals aside from mercury and cadmium. Many alloys contain zinc, including brass, Other metals long known to form binary alloys with zinc are aluminium, antimony, bismuth, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, tin, magnesium, cobalt, nickel, tellurium, and sodium
24.
Forge
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A forge is a type of hearth used for heating metals, or the workplace where such a hearth is located. The forge is used by the smith to heat a piece of metal to a temperature where it easier to shape by forging. The metal is transported to and from the forge using tongs, the slack tub also provides water to control the fire in the forge. A forge typically uses bituminous coal, industrial coke or charcoal as the fuel to heat metal, the designs of these forges have varied over time, but whether the fuel is coal, coke or charcoal the basic design has remained the same. The forge fire in this type of forge is controlled in three ways, amount of air, volume of fuel, and shape of the fuel/fire, traditionally hearths have been constructed of mud brick, fired brick, stone, or later, constructed of iron. During operation, fuel is placed in or on the hearth, a source of moving air, such as a fan or bellows, introduces additional air into the fire through the tuyere. With additional air, the fire more fuel and burns hotter (and cleaner - smoke can be thought of as escaped potential fuel. A blacksmith balances the fuel and air in the fire to suit particular kinds of work, often this involves adjusting and maintaining the shape of the fire. In a typical coal forge, a firepot will be centered in a flat hearth, the tuyere will enter the firepot at the bottom. In operation, the hot core of the fire will be a ball of burning coke in, the heart of the fire will be surrounded by a layer of hot but not burning coke. Around the unburnt coke will be a layer of coal being transformed into coke by the heat of the fire. If a larger fire is necessary, the smith increases the air flowing into the fire as well as feeding and deepening the coke heart, the smith can also adjust the length and width of the fire in such a forge to accommodate different shapes of work. The major variation from the forge and fire just described is a draft where there is no fire pot. Coke and charcoal may be burned in the forges that use coal, but since there is no need to convert the raw fuel at the heart of the fire. A gas forge typically uses propane or natural gas as the fuel, one common, efficient design uses a cylindrical forge chamber and a burner tube mounted at a right angle to the body. The chamber is lined with refractory materials such as a hard castable refractory ceramic or a soft ceramic thermal blanket. The burner mixes fuel and air which are ignited at the tip, the air pressure, and therefore heat, can be increased with a mechanical blower or by taking advantage of the Venturi effect. A small forge can even be carved out of a single soft firebrick, the primary advantage of a gas forge is ease of use, particularly for a novice
25.
Muntz metal
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Muntz metal is a form of alpha-beta brass with about 60% copper, 40% zinc and a trace of iron. It is named after George Fredrick Muntz, a metal-roller of Birmingham, England, known both as Muntz Metal and Yellow Metal, the alloy must be worked hot and is used today for corrosion resistant machine parts. Alpha-beta metals contain both the α and β phases, the α phase refers to a crystal structure that is face-centered cubic, while the β phase is body-centered cubic. Its original application was as a replacement for copper sheathing on the bottom of boats and it became the material of choice for this application and Muntz made his fortune. It was found that copper would gradually leach from the alloy in sea water, thus, it was also used to sheathe the piles of piers in tropical seas, as a protection against teredo shipworms, and in locomotive tubes. After successful experimentation with the sheathing Muntz also took out a patent for bolts of the same composition and these too proved a success as they not only were cheaper but also very strong and lasted longer. A notable use of Muntz Metal was in the hull of the Cutty Sark, Muntzs new metal contained more copper, less zinc, and a bit of iron not present in a similar 56,44 alloy patented by William Collins in 1800. Production began on Water Street, Birmingham, but moved to Swansea in 1837, in 1842 he bought the French Walls Works in Smethwick, formerly the site of James Watt Jr. s ironworks. The 4. 5-acre site soon proved inadequate, and in 1850 a further 6.5 acres were bought, on the side of the Birmingham. As an example of their success in entering the market,50 ships were metalled with Muntz Metal in 1837, over 100 in 1838, doubling in 1840 and doubling again by 1844. With Muntz successfully supervising the operations, by 1840 Muntz’s Patent Metal Company employed 30 men to smelt. Three years later the Company had over 200 men producing 3-4000 tons yearly at £8 per ton profit, by then the Grenfells had left the partnership, for the agreement with Pascoe Grenfell & Sons had been terminated with some acrimony in 1842. When Muntz’s patent expired in 1846, they and others began making fastenings, Muntz died in 1857, to be succeeded by his eldest son, also called George Fredrick, who sold it in 1864 to a joint stock company, Muntzs Metal Co. Ltd. In 1921 the company was bought by Elliotts Metal Company, which part of ICIs Imperial Metals division in 1928
26.
Tipton
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Tipton is a town in the borough of Sandwell, West Midlands, England, with a population of around 38,777 at the 2011 census. Tipton is located halfway between Birmingham and Wolverhampton. It is a part of the West Midlands conurbation and is a part of the Black Country, historically within Staffordshire, Tipton was an urban district until 1938, when it became a municipal borough. Along with the rest of West Bromwich and Warley, Tipton became part of the Sandwell Metropolitan Borough in 1974, the town of Tipton was originally called Tibintone and recorded as such in the Domesday Book, the oldest surviving public record that provides information about the 1086 Domesday survey. The present spelling of Tipton derives from the 16th century, until the 18th century, Tipton was a collection of small hamlets. Industrial growth started in the town when ironstone and coal were discovered in the 1770s, a number of canals were built through the town and later railways, which greatly accelerated the pace of industrialisation. James Watt built his first steam engine in or very near Tipton in the 1770s, in 1780, James Keir and Alexander Blair set up a chemical works there, making vast quantities of alkali and soap. From details of the 1801 census, it records 834 houses with 872 families living in Tipton, only 46 houses are stated as being empty. An adult population of 4,280 is also recorded with males numbered at 2,218, iron making and mining were the main employment for the population. Trades and manufacturing provided work for 1,740 people and other jobs totalled 2,484 and it is noted that between Tipton and Dudley there were a few farms listed which gave employment to 56 people. The massive expansion in iron and coal led to the population of Tipton expanding rapidly through the 19th century. Most of the industries which once dominated the town have since disappeared. The towpaths of the remaining canals today form a vital cycling, wildlife, the landscape of Tipton began to change further from the late 1920s when new housing estates were built by the towns council, in response to the growing need to replace slum housing. Private houses were built on smaller developments around the same time. However, the Lost City has since been integrated with the rest of Tipton as newer housing developments have sprung up around it, during World War II, there were a number of air raids on the town. On 17 May 1941, six died in an air raid in New Road. The Tipton Tavern and New Road Methodist Church was destroyed and a number of houses were damaged. Tipton Tavern landlord Roger Preece was trapped in the rubble but survived with minor injuries, the Tipton Tavern was rebuilt in the 1950s and became the Hallbridge Arms during the 1990s and more recently became the Pearl Girl, the worlds first licensed pearl bar
27.
Joseph Priestley
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He is usually credited with the discovery of oxygen, having isolated it in its gaseous state, although Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Antoine Lavoisier also have a claim to the discovery. However, Priestleys determination to defend phlogiston theory and to reject what would become the chemical revolution eventually left him isolated within the scientific community, Priestleys science was integral to his theology, and he consistently tried to fuse Enlightenment rationalism with Christian theism. In his metaphysical texts, Priestley attempted to combine theism, materialism, and determinism and he believed that a proper understanding of the natural world would promote human progress and eventually bring about the Christian Millennium. Priestley, who believed in the free and open exchange of ideas, advocated toleration and equal rights for religious Dissenters. He spent his last ten years in Northumberland County, Pennsylvania and these educational writings were among Priestleys most popular works. Priestley was born to an established English Dissenting family in Birstall and he was the oldest of six children born to Mary Swift and Jonas Priestley, a finisher of cloth. To ease his mothers burdens, Priestley was sent to live with his grandfather around the age of one and he returned home, five years later, after his mother died. When his father remarried in 1741, Priestley went to live with his aunt and uncle, during his youth, Priestley attended local schools where he learned Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. Around 1749, Priestley became seriously ill and believed he was dying, raised as a devout Calvinist, he believed a conversion experience was necessary for salvation, but doubted he had had one. This emotional distress eventually led him to question his upbringing, causing him to reject election. As a result, the elders of his church, the Independent Upper Chapel of Heckmondwike. Priestleys illness left him with a permanent stutter and he gave up any thoughts of entering the ministry at that time, in preparation for joining a relative in trade in Lisbon, he studied French, Italian, and German in addition to Aramaic, and Arabic. Priestley eventually decided to return to his studies and, in 1752, matriculated at Daventry. Because he had read widely, Priestley was allowed to skip the first two years of coursework. He continued his study, this, together with the liberal atmosphere of the school, shifted his theology further leftward. Abhorring dogma and religious mysticism, Rational Dissenters emphasised the rational analysis of the natural world, Priestley later wrote that the book that influenced him the most, save the Bible, was David Hartleys Observations on Man. Hartleys psychological, philosophical, and theological treatise postulated a theory of mind. Hartley aimed to construct a Christian philosophy in both religious and moral facts could be scientifically proven, a goal that would occupy Priestley for his entire life
28.
Phlogiston theory
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The phlogiston theory is a superseded scientific theory that postulated that a fire-like element called phlogiston is contained within combustible bodies and released during combustion. The name comes from the Ancient Greek φλογιστόν phlogistón, from φλόξ phlóx and it was first stated in 1667 by Johann Joachim Becher, and then put together more formally by Georg Ernst Stahl. The theory attempted to explain burning processes such as combustion and rusting, phlogisticated substances are substances that contain phlogiston and dephlogisticate when burned. Dephlogisticating is when the substance simply releases the phlogiston inside of it, growing plants then absorb this phlogiston, which is why air does not spontaneously combust and also why plant matter burns as well as it does. In the following quote, Becher described phlogiston as a process that explained combustion through a process that was opposite to that of oxygen. When air had become completely phlogisticated it would no longer serve to support combustion of any material, nor would a metal heated in it yield a calx, breathing was thought to take phlogiston out of the body. Joseph Blacks student Daniel Rutherford discovered nitrogen in 1772 and the pair used the theory to explain his results. The residue of air left after burning, in fact a mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide, was referred to as phlogisticated air. Conversely, when oxygen was first discovered, it was thought to be dephlogisticated air, capable of combining with more phlogiston and thus supporting combustion for longer than ordinary air. Empedocles had formulated the theory that there were four elements, water, earth, fire and air. Fire was thus thought of as a substance and burning was seen as a process of decomposition which applied only to compounds, however experience had shown that burning was not always accompanied by a loss of material and a better theory was needed to account for this. In 1667, Johann Joachim Becher published his book Physica subterranea, in his book, Becher eliminated fire, water, and air from the classical element model and replaced them with three forms of earth, terra lapidea, terra fluida, and terra pinguis. Terra pinguis was the element that imparted oily, sulphurous, or combustible properties, Becher believed that terra pinguis was a key feature of combustion and was released when combustible substances were burned. Becher did not have much to do with phlogiston theory as we know it now, bechers main contribution was the start of the theory itself, however much it was changed after him. Bechers idea was that combustible substances contain an ignitable matter, the terra pinguis, the term phlogiston itself was not something that Stahl invented. There is evidence that the word was used as early as 1606, the term was derived from a Greek word meaning to inflame. When the oxide was heated with a substance rich in phlogiston, such as charcoal, phlogiston was a definite substance, the same in all its combinations. Stahls first definition of phlogiston first appeared in his Zymotechnia fundamentalis and his most quoted definition was found in the treatise on chemistry entitled Fundamenta chymiae in 1723
29.
Tividale
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Tividale is an area of Sandwell, West Midlands. The village was in the parish of St Michael named after the church built there and it was created in 1878 as an extension of the town of Tipton in the county of Staffordshire, England. It was originally set around the main Dudley to Oldbury road, with several hundred terraced houses with shop fronts on the main road, as well as many more on the side streets running off. Rattlechain Brickworks were opened in about 1895 on a site near Sedgley Road East, since the late 1990s, there has been growing local concern over Rattlechain Lagoon, with numerous dead birds being found at the site. Their death was linked to poisoning from chemicals disposed of in the water, nearby residents, including those of a 2006 housing development by Barratt Homes, feared that the proximity of their homes to Rattlechain Lagoon could render them unsellable. Tividale began to expand during the 1930s and was developed beyond Tiptons borders into Dudley, namely with the Tividale Hall Estate, after the Second World War, further housing developments, mostly by the local authority, saw these two housing estates effectively merged. Construction of the Tividale Hall Estate by private builders was halted in about 1940 due to the war effort, Tividale Tram workshops opened along the main Tividale Road in 1907, and operated until 1930. On 19 November 1940, a landmine was dropped in City Road, four houses were completely reduced to rubble and several others suffered severe damage. The only surviving member of the family was the youngest son, also killed were a 17-year-old man and five-year-old boy, both from different families. According to one source, the bodies of some of the nine killed outright were never found. Two residents of one badly damaged house escaped injury despite standing on the doorstep of his house when it was demolished by the landmine. Several other people survived injuries in this attack, the wrecked houses were later rebuilt in the same style. On 21 December 1940, the Boat Inn on Dudley Road East was hit by a shell from Big Bertha. A 15-year-old boy, along with his 26-year-old brother a 36-year-old woman, 28-year-old man, a married couple, a 16-year-old girl died just after arriving at hospital, as did a 19-year-old man. A 30-year-old woman died in hospital from her injuries the next day, a 20-year-old man in a neighbouring house was also injured as a result of the explosion and died in hospital the next day. The Boat Inn was rebuilt several years afterwards but demolished in 2004. A total of 27 people died as a result of air raids at Tividale during the Second World War, the Netherton Tunnel runs under Tividale. Evidence of the tunnel is shown by the pepperpots that can be seen near the site of the former Hangsmans Tree site and in Aston Road, Regent Road, several quarries on the edge of the Tividale area were a source of stone known as the Rowley rag. Turners Hill, in neighbouring Rowley Regis, is the site of the only remaining quarry, in 1966, Tipton became part of West Bromwich County Borough, but the bulk of Tividale was split between the boroughs of West Bromwich and Warley
30.
Dudley
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Dudley is a large town in the West Midlands of England,6 miles south-east of Wolverhampton and 10.5 miles north-west of Birmingham. The town is the centre of the Metropolitan Borough of Dudley. The Metropolitan Borough, which includes the towns of Stourbridge and Halesowen, had a population of 312,900, Dudley is sometimes called the capital of the Black Country. Tourist attractions include Dudley Zoo, Dudley Castle, the Black Country Living Museum, working iron and mining for coal was in practice as early as the 13th century. The first mention of Dudleys status as a borough dates from the mid-13th century, an inquisition after his death further established the value and importance of the borough, with mentions to the towns growing coal industry. Following Dudleys death, the returned to the Sutton family. In 1605, conspirators of the Gunpowder Plot fled to Holbeche House in nearby Wall Heath and it is also from around this time that the oldest excavated condoms, found in the remains of Dudley Castle, were believed to have originated. Dudley had become an incredibly impoverished place during the 16th and 17th centuries, abraham Darby was descended from Dud Dudleys sister, Jane, and was the first person to produce iron commercially using coke instead of charcoal at his works in Coalbrookdale, Shropshire in 1709. Abraham Darby was born near Wrens Nest Hill near the town of Dudley, Dud Dudleys discovery, together with improvements to the local road network and the construction of the Dudley Canal, made Dudley into an important industrial and commercial centre. Dudleys population grew dramatically during the 18th and 19th centuries because of the increase in industry, with the main industries including coal, other industries included iron, steel, engineering, metallurgy, glass cutting, textiles and leatherworking. Following the Reform Act of 1832, Dudley returned one Member of Parliament, the town was re-incorporated as a Municipal Borough in 1865, later becoming a County Borough in 1889. Dudley Castle, which had fallen into ruin following a fire in 1750, was converted into a zoo in 1937 by the Earl of Dudley, a reported 250,000 people attempted to visit the site upon the first day of opening. In World War II, Dudley was bombed on several occasions, on 12 August 1941, four people were killed when another landmine was dropped in nearby Birch Crescent. These were the fatal air raids on Dudley. Most of this land had been held by the Lords of Dudley, in 1974, further reorganization led to the creation of the present-day metropolitan borough, which included the nearby towns of Stourbridge and Halesowen. The declining industry in Dudley has given rise to high unemployment, Dudley is the administrative centre of the Dudley Metropolitan Borough, and is governed by the Dudley Metropolitan Borough Council. The metropolitan borough, which includes the towns of Stourbridge, Halesowen. For many years the town formed part of an exclave of the county of Worcestershire, despite the more recent changes in county boundaries, the town and borough still remain part of the Anglican Diocese of Worcester
31.
Humphry Davy
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He also studied the forces involved in these separations, inventing the new field of electrochemistry. Berzelius called Davys 1806 Bakerian Lecture On Some Chemical Agencies of Electricity one of the best memoirs which has ever enriched the theory of chemistry and he was a Baronet, President of the Royal Society, Member of the Royal Irish Academy, and Fellow of the Geological Society. He also invented the Davy Lamp and an early form of incandescent light bulb. Davy was born in Penzance in Cornwall in England on 17 December 1778 and his family moved to Varfell, near Ludgvan, when he was nine, and in term-time Davy boarded with John Tonkin, his mothers godfather. Davy said, I consider it fortunate I was left much to myself as a child, after Davys father died in 1794, Tonkin apprenticed him to John Bingham Borlase, a surgeon with a practice in Penzance. Davys indenture is dated 10 February 1795, in the apothecarys dispensary, Davy became a chemist, and a garret in Tonkins house was where he conducted his earliest chemical experiments. Davys friends said, This boy Humphry is incorrigible and he will blow us all into the air. His elder sister complained of the ravages made on her dresses by corrosive substances, John Ayrton Paris remarked that poetry written by the young Davy bear the stamp of lofty genius. Davys first preserved poem entitled The Sons of Genius is dated 1795, other poems written in the following years, especially On the Mounts Bay and St Michaels Mount, are descriptive verses, showing sensibility but no true poetic imagination. Three of Davys paintings from around 1796 have been donated to the Penlee House museum at Penzance, one is of the view from above Gulval showing the church, Mounts Bay and the Mount, while the other two depict Loch Lomond in Scotland. While writing verses at the age of 17 in honour of his first love, he was discussing the question of the materiality of heat with his Quaker friend. Dunkin remarked, I tell thee what, Humphry, thou art the most quibbling hand at a dispute I ever met with in my life and it was a crude form of analogous experiment exhibited by Davy in the lecture-room of the Royal Institution that elicited considerable attention. As professor at the Royal Institution, Davy repeated many of the experiments he learned from his friend and mentor. Davies Giddy met Davy in Penzance carelessly swinging on the half-gate of Dr Borlases house and this led to an introduction to Dr Edwards, who lived at Hayle Copper House. Edwards was a lecturer in chemistry in the school of St. Bartholomews Hospital, galvanic corrosion was not understood at that time, but the phenomenon prepared Davys mind for subsequent experiments on ships copper sheathing. Gregory Watt, son of James Watt, visited Penzance for his healths sake, Davy was acquainted with the Wedgwood family, who spent a winter at Penzance. Thomas Beddoes and John Hailstone were engaged in a controversy on the rival merits of the Plutonian. They travelled together to examine the Cornish coast accompanied by Davies Gilbert, Beddoes, who had established at Bristol a Pneumatic Institution, needed an assistant to superintend the laboratory
32.
Charlemont and Grove Vale
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Charlemont with Grove Vale is a political ward in the Metropolitan Borough of Sandwell, in the English Midlands constituency of West Bromwich East. This Sandwell ward population as taken at the 2011 census was 11,964, the ward is made up of several neighbourhoods including, Charlemont Farm, Bustlehome Mill, Church Vale, and the leafier neighbourhoods of Charlemont, Bird End, Wigmore and Grove Vale. It also covers part of the Sandwell Valley, the ward has two Labour councillors and one Conservative councillor. The area became known as Charly Mount by c.1723 and was home to Charlemont Hall, the hall stood on the east side of the present day Charlemont Crescent until 1948. The ward was also home to Wigmore School, erected in 1872, for the maintenance and education of Children chargeable to the Walsall, the buildings, situated on a hill overlooking the Tame Valley, were erected in the Elizabethan style, and included an Infirmary. Following the Local Government Act 1929, all poor law responsibility was transferred to the Local Authority, from 1935, Wigmore became an Approved School which continued until the 1960s when it was transferred for use as Sandwell Council Offices. The building failed to get listed building status and despite local pressure was demolished by Sandwell Council in 2002, the Gatehouse is still in existence. With private and council residential developments growing in the 1920s, an infant school opened in the area in 1929 and was followed a year later by new junior and senior schools, the buildings were expanded in 1937, with the senior school becoming a secondary modern school in 1944. However, its popularity fell after the opening of nearby Churchfields High School in 1955, Bishop Asbury Cottage is located on the A4041 Newton Road on the Grove Vale/Great Barr border. The 18th century cottage, now a Grade II listed museum was the home of Francis Asbury. The ward is covered by the Diocese of Lichfield and the areas most historic church, there has been a church on this spot dating back to the Norman period. The current church was rebuilt, except the tower, in 1872 where it lost its Patronage which was originally St Clement. And also James Keir, a member of the Lunar Society who lived at Finchpath Hall at Hill Top from 1770 and was buried at All Saints in 1820. At about 1830, a pound, stocks, and whipping-post stood at the corner of Hollyhedge Road, All three were then moved to a site in front of the Ring of Bells at the junction of All Saints Street and Church Vale. The stocks and whipping-post were apparently taken away when the West Bromwich police force was established in 1840, in 1970, the pound still stood, and the stocks were preserved in the grounds of the Oak House. Much of the area around Charlemont and Grove Vale was developed for private, the author and countryside campaigner John Bainbridge spent his childhood at 15 Ray Hall Lane and was educated at Grove Vale School. Charlemont Farm was one of the largest housing developments in the area at its time and it was built in the 1960s to include houses, bungalows, low-rise flats and high-rise flats, many of which have since been demolished with new developments being built in their place. On March 32015, former Charlemont with Grove Vale councillor Tony Ward was made an alderman of Sandwell
33.
Geneva
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Geneva is the second most populous city in Switzerland and is the most populous city of Romandy, the French-speaking part of Switzerland. Situated where the Rhône exits Lake Geneva, it is the capital of the Republic, the municipality has a population of 198,072, and the canton has 484,736 residents. In 2014, the compact agglomération du Grand Genève had 946,000 inhabitants in 212 communities in both Switzerland and France, within Swiss territory, the commuter area named Métropole lémanique contains a population of 1.25 million. This area is essentially spread east from Geneva towards the Riviera area and north-east towards Yverdon-les-Bains, Geneva is the city that hosts the highest number of international organizations in the world. It is also the place where the Geneva Conventions were signed, Geneva was ranked as the worlds ninth most important financial centre for competitiveness by the Global Financial Centres Index, ahead of Frankfurt, and third in Europe behind London and Zürich. A2009 survey by Mercer found that Geneva has the third-highest quality of life of any city in the world, the city has been referred to as the worlds most compact metropolis and the Peace Capital. In 2009 and 2011, Geneva was ranked as, respectively, the city was mentioned in Latin texts, by Caesar, with the spelling Genava, probably from a Celtic toponym *genawa- from the stem *genu-, in the sense of a bending river or estuary. The medieval county of Geneva in Middle Latin was known as pagus major Genevensis or Comitatus Genevensis, the name takes various forms in modern languages, Geneva /dʒᵻˈniːvə/ in English, French, Genève, German, Genf, Italian, Ginevra, and Romansh, Genevra. The city in origin shares its name, *genawa estuary, with the Italian port city of Genoa, Geneva was an Allobrogian border town, fortified against the Helvetii tribe, when the Romans took it in 121 BC. It became Christian under the Late Roman Empire, and acquired its first bishop in the 5th century, having been connected to the bishopric of Vienne in the 4th. In the Middle Ages, Geneva was ruled by a count under the Holy Roman Empire until the late 14th century, around this time the House of Savoy came to dominate the city. In the 15th century, a republican government emerged with the creation of the Grand Council. In 1541, with Protestantism in the ascendancy, John Calvin, by the 18th century, however, Geneva had come under the influence of Catholic France, which cultivated the city as its own. France also tended to be at odds with the ordinary townsfolk, in 1798, revolutionary France under the Directory annexed Geneva. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, on 1 June 1814, in 1907, the separation of Church and State was adopted. Geneva flourished in the 19th and 20th centuries, becoming the seat of international organizations. Geneva is located at 46°12 North, 6°09 East, at the end of Lake Geneva. It is surrounded by two chains, the Alps and the Jura
34.
Abberley
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Abberley is a village and civil parish in north west Worcestershire, England. It is situated on the slopes of Abberley Hill, between the River Severn and River Teme. The village had a population of 830 in 2001, Abberley lies halfway between Worcester and Tenbury, at the junction with the road from Worcester to Cleobury Mortimer. The parish was described in 1905 as being six miles in length. At the latest census, it had the youngest population of any Worcestershire village, Abberley is a village of three distinct parts. The oldest part, known as The Village, clusters round the 12th century, between the village and the common, on the Cleobury road, are the Parochial VC primary school and the Village Hall. Overlooking the Village is the part of Abberley, The Hill, with scattered farms. On the opposite side of Abberley Hill to the village, to the south of the Worcester-Tenbury road, Abberley Hill forms part of the Abberley and Malvern Hills Geopark. The Hill lies on the path of the Worcestershire Way, a well-used long-distance hiking trail, Abberley has two churches, a primary school, a modern village hall, and nearby a country hotel and restaurant, The Elms. The name Abberley probably relates to the 6th century Saxon chief Eobald, by way of Eobaldelega, Abberley is recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086–7 as Edboldelege, when it was held by Ralph de Tosny. Eventually, cut off from their line, the Welsh withdrew. Abberley was in the division of Doddingtree Hundred. On 10 March 1803 Colonel Henry Bromley inherited the Manorship of Abberley, as he had no son, on his death in 1836, the manor was put up for sale by his executors and bought by John Lewis Moilliet of Geneva. He built a new house, Abberley Hall, but before it was completed he died in 1845, following the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 Abberley Parish ceased to be responsible for maintaining the poor in its parish. This responsibility was transferred to Martley Poor Law Union, a little to the north, across the Green from the village, is the large Victorian St. Marys church, built in between 1850 and 1852. Designed by John Jenkins Cole and enlarged by the architect in 1877 following a fire in January 1873. It was built to replace St. Michaels church when the fell into disrepair. Gilbert Ashton Headmaster of Abberley Hall School Henry Bromley MP for Worcester City and Lord of the Manor Parishes, Abberley, A History of the County of Worcester, volume 4, pp. 220–24
35.
Thomas Day
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Thomas Day was a British author and abolitionist. He was well known for the book The History of Sandford, Day was born on 22 June 1748 in London, the only child of Thomas and Jane Day. His father died when he was about an old. He first attended a school in Stoke Newington, Middlesex, and he subsequently attended Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he became a master debater and developed a close friendship with William Jones, he did not graduate and left the college in 1767. Day moved back to his estate at Barehill, Berkshire. There he met the progressive educator Richard Lovell Edgeworth, from whom he became almost inseparable, together they resolved to educate Edgeworths son, Dick, in the style of Jean-Jacques Rousseaus Emile. Edgeworth and the project converted Day to Rousseauism and he declared in 1769 that the two books he would save, were all the worlds books to be destroyed, would be the Bible and Emile. He, Edgeworth and Dick visited Rousseau in France, because of his connection with Edgeworth, Day was able to join the Lunar Society in Lichfield and meet and converse with Erasmus Darwin as well as Anna Seward. After this education project, Day undertook a second, he tried to train a wife, after failing to find the perfect wife, he decided to adopt two foundlings from orphanages and, using Rousseaus maxims, educate them to be the perfect wife. He adopted a 12-year-old and an 11-year-old whom he renamed Sabrina Sidney and Lucretia, the girls became ill, and quarrelled. Day decided to give up on Lucretia, who he did not think could satisfy him intellectually, Sabrina he felt was still a possibility, but her character had to be further strengthened. After dropping hot wax on her arms and hearing her scream, though, Day decided to study the law and in 1776 was admitted to Lincolns Inn, he rarely practised. In 1773, Day published his first work—The Dying Negro—a poem he had written with John Bicknell and it tells the story of a runaway slave, and sold well. Day argued for the rights of the American colonists in his poem The Devoted Legions and his speeches were also published as pamphlets. But it was as a writer for children that Day made his reputation, the History of Little Jack was extremely popular, but it could not match the sales of The History of Sandford and Merton which was a bestseller for over a hundred years. Embracing Rousseaus dictates in many ways, it narrates the story of the rich, noble but spoiled Tommy Merton and his poor, through trials and stories, Harry and the boys tutor teach Tommy the importance of labor and the evils of the idle rich. He met Esther Milnes, an heiress from Chesterfield, and they were married on 7 August 1778, the couple subsequently moved to a small estate at Stapleford Abbotts, near Abridge in Essex. They lived an ascetic lifestyle and Esther was not allowed to contact her family
36.
Priestley Riots
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The riots started with an attack on Birminghams Royal Hotel – the site of a banquet organized in sympathy with the French Revolution. Then, beginning with Priestleys church and home, the rioters attacked or burned four Dissenting chapels, twenty-seven houses, many of them became intoxicated by liquor that they found while looting, or with which they were bribed to stop burning homes. A small core could not be bribed, however, and remained sober, the rioters burned not only the homes and chapels of Dissenters, but also the homes of people they associated with Dissenters, such as members of the scientific Lunar Society. While the riots were not initiated by Prime Minister William Pitts administration, local Birmingham officials seem to have been involved in the planning of the riots, and they were later reluctant to prosecute any ringleaders. Industrialist James Watt wrote that the riots divided into two parties who hate one another mortally and those who had been attacked gradually left, leaving Birmingham a more conservative city than it had been throughout the eighteenth century. Over the course of the century, Birmingham became notorious for its riots. During the anti-Catholic Gordon Riots in 1780, large crowds assembled in Birmingham, in 1766,1782,1795, and 1800 mobs protested high food prices. One contemporary described Birmingham rioters as the bunting, beggarly, brass-making, brazen-faced, brazen-hearted, blackguard, bustling, up until the late 1780s, religious divisions did not affect Birminghams elite. They stood united against what they viewed as the threat posed by unruly plebeians, Priestley revealed that disputes over the local library, Sunday Schools, and church attendance had divided Dissenters from Anglicans. Once Birmingham Dissenters started to agitate for the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, which restricted Dissenters civil rights, unitarians such as Priestley were at the forefront of the repeal campaign, and orthodox Anglicans grew nervous and angry. After 1787, the emergence of Dissenting groups formed for the purpose of overturning these laws began to divide the community, however, the repeal efforts failed in 1787,1789. Priestleys support of the repeal and his religious views, which were widely published, inflamed the populace. Dissenters by and large supported the French Revolution and its efforts to question the monarchy should play in government. One month before the riots, Priestley attempted to found a society, the Warwickshire Constitutional Society. Although this effort failed, the efforts to such a society increased tensions in Birmingham. In addition to religious and political differences, both the lower-class rioters and their upper-class Anglican leaders had economic complaints against the middle-class Dissenters. They envied the ever-increasing prosperity of these industrialists as well as the power came with that economic success. Rose refers to these industrialists as belonging to an elite of magnates
37.
Lunar Society Moonstones
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The Moonstones are a set of nine carved sandstone memorials to various members of the Lunar Society. Made in 1998, and unveiled in March 1999, they can be viewed in the grounds of the Asda supermarket in Queslett, Great Barr, Birmingham, England. They are visible from the highway, when travelling from Aldridge Road into Queslett Road, toward the Scott Arms, the designs are by Steve Field and were executed by two stonemasons, Malcolm Sier and Michael Scheurmann. The rear of the Watt stone includes a carved panel crediting the artists, Great Barr Hall, Galtons home and a venue for meetings of the Lunar Society, is nearby. Science and invention in Birmingham Photos of the Moonstones on Flickr
38.
Dictionary of National Biography
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The Dictionary of National Biography is a standard work of reference on notable figures from British history, published from 1885. The updated Oxford Dictionary of National Biography was published on 23 September 2004 in 60 volumes and he approached Leslie Stephen, then editor of the Cornhill Magazine, owned by Smith, to become editor. Stephen persuaded Smith that the work should focus on subjects from the UK and its present, an early working title was the Biographia Britannica, the name of an earlier eighteenth-century reference work. The first volume of the Dictionary of National Biography appeared on 1 January 1885, in May 1891 Leslie Stephen resigned and Sidney Lee, Stephens assistant editor from the beginning of the project, succeeded him as editor. While much of the dictionary was written in-house, the DNB also relied on external contributors, by 1900, more than 700 individuals had contributed to the work. Successive volumes appeared quarterly with complete punctuality until midsummer 1900, when the series closed with volume 63, the year of publication, the editor and the range of names in each volume is given below. The supplements brought the work up to the death of Queen Victoria on 22 January 1901. The dictionary was transferred from its original publishers, Smith, Elder & Co. to Oxford University Press in 1917, until 1996, Oxford University Press continued to add further supplements featuring articles on subjects who had died during the twentieth century. The supplements published between 1912 and 1996 added about 6,000 lives of people who died in the century to the 29,120 in the 63 volumes of the original DNB. In 1993 a volume containing missing biographies was published and this had an additional 1,000 lives, selected from over 100,000 suggestions. Consequently, the dictionary was becoming less and less useful as a reference work, in 1966, the University of London published a volume of corrections, cumulated from the Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research. There were various versions of the Concise Dictionary of National Biography, the last edition, in three volumes, covered everyone who died before 1986. In the early 1990s Oxford University Press committed itself to overhauling the DNB, the new dictionary would cover British history, broadly defined, up to 31 December 2000. The research project was conceived as a one, with in-house staff co-ordinating the work of nearly 10,000 contributors internationally. Following Matthews death in October 1999, he was succeeded as editor by another Oxford historian, Professor Brian Harrison, in January 2000. The new dictionary, now known as the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, was published on 23 September 2004 in 60 volumes in print at a price of £7500, most UK holders of a current library card can access it online free of charge. In subsequent years, the print edition has been able to be obtained new for a lower price. At publication, the 2004 edition had 50,113 biographical articles covering 54,922 lives, a small permanent staff remain in Oxford to update and extend the coverage of the online edition
39.
Soho House
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Soho House is a Grade II* listed 18th-century house in Handsworth, England. It was the home of entrepreneur Matthew Boulton from 1766 until his death in 1809, Matthew Boulton, one of the 18th centurys greatest entrepreneurs, acquired the lease of the five-year-old Soho Mill in 1761 and developed it into Soho Manufactory. He expanded the next to it into Soho House, changing it several times. It is faced with sheets of painted slate to give the appearance of stone blocks. Boulton moved into Soho House when the Manufactory was completed, the Soho Manufactory was demolished in 1863. In 1766 Boulton became one of the founders of the Lunar Society, in 1789, Boulton commissioned Samuel Wyatt to extend the buildings and fully revamp it and the gardens. Work on extending the building was completed in 1796 following the submission of designs by James Wyatt, Samuels brother, Wyatt was also responsible for the large dining room, the regular venue for meetings of the Lunar Society. It is a Grade II* listed building, after Boultons death, in the house, it passed to his son Matthew Robinson Boulton and later his grandson, Matthew Piers Watt Boulton, who eventually sold it in 1850. Soho House has been restored, retaining its 18th-century appearance, with collections of ormolu, silver, furniture. Of particular note are the displays of silver and ormolu which were made in the manufactory, there is a Blue Plaque commemorating Matthew Boulton on the house. The garden, once over 100 acres in size but now less than half an acre, contains a walk with sphinxes, part of the garden has been recreated using Boulton’s original planting notes. Soho House is a Heritage Site and branch museum of the Birmingham Museums & Art Gallery, since April 2012 the Heritage Sites and all other museums formerly run by Birmingham City Council have been run by Birmingham Museums Trust. It hosts exhibitions of local and community interest, previously free, since April 2011 admission charges apply for entry to the house. It remains free to under 16s, Gardens, grounds and visitor facilities are free to all visitors. Artists-in-residence at the house have included Vanley Burke and Pauline Bailey, ballard, Phillada, Loggie, Val, Mason, Shena. Lost Landscape, Matthew Boultons Gardens at Soho, remaking Birmingham, The Visual Culture of Urban Regeneration. Quickenden, Kenneth, Baggott, Sally, Dick, Malcolm, Matthew Boulton, Enterprising Industrialist of the Enlightenment. The Lunar Society of Birmingham, a history of provincial science
40.
Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
41.
Sidney Lee
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Sir Sidney Lee was an English biographer, writer and critic. Lee was born Solomon Lazarus Lee in 1859 at 12 Keppel Street, Bloomsbury and he was educated at the City of London School and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he graduated in modern history in 1882. In 1883, Lee became assistant-editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, in 1890 he became joint editor, and on the retirement of Sir Leslie Stephen in 1891, succeeded him as editor. Lee wrote over 800 articles in the Dictionary, mainly on Elizabethan authors or statesmen and his sister Elizabeth Lee also contributed. While still at Balliol, Lee had written two articles on Shakespearean questions, which were printed in The Gentlemans Magazine, in 1884, he published a book about Stratford-on-Avon, with illustrations by Edward Hull. Lees article on Shakespeare in the 51st volume of the Dictionary of National Biography formed the basis of his Life of William Shakespeare, Lee received a knighthood in 1911. Between 1913 and 1924, he served as Professor of English Literature, there are personal letters from Lee, including those written during his final illness, in the T. F. Tout Collection of the John Rylands Library in Manchester, John Denham Parsons Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Lee, Sidney. Sidney Lee Dictionary of National Biography, Index and Epitome Works by Sidney Lee at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Sidney Lee at Internet Archive
42.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
"Keir, James". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900. Much of this article is taken from there.
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Lee, Sidney, ed. (1892). "Keir, James". Dictionary of National Biography. 30. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
