1.
Irvine, North Ayrshire
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Irvine is an ancient settlement, in medieval times a royal burgh, and now a new town on the coast of the Firth of Clyde in North Ayrshire, Scotland. The 2011 Census recorded the population at 33,698 inhabitants. Irvine was the site of Scotlands 12th century Military Capital and former headquarters of the Lord High Constable of Scotland and it also served as the Capital of Cunninghame and was, at the time of David I, Robert II and Robert III one of the earliest capitals of Scotland. The town was once a haunt of Robert Burns, after two streets in the town are named, Burns Street and Burns Crescent. He is known to have worked in a mill on the Glasgow Vennel. Despite being classed as a new town, Irvine has had a history stretching back many centuries and was classed as a Royal Burgh. There are also conflicting rumours that Mary, Queen of Scots stayed briefly at Seagate Castle, to this day there is still a yearly festival, called Marymass, held in the town. Irvine is the birthplace of the present First Minister of Scotland and leader of the Scottish National Party, Nicola Sturgeon as well as the former First Minister of Scotland, the current Cabinet Secretary for Culture, Europe and External Affairs, Fiona Hyslop was also born in Irvine. Its twin town is Saint-Amand-les-Eaux in northern France just outside Lille, part of modern Irvine contains the oldest continually inhabited village in Europe. Dreghorn, formerly a village, appears to contain archaeological remains dating back to the first incursions of humanity into Scotland. Numerous ancient sites pepper the region, iron Age Hill forts are abundant. The Grannie Stane is visible when the water is low, the medieval parish of Irvine was one of the most important regions in Scotland. Originally the site of the Military Headquarters of the Lord High Constable of Scotland and one of the earliest Scottish Capitals, King John I of Scotland inherited the lordship of Irvine sometime in the mid-13th century. Robert the Bruce, in an attempt to seize Johns lands, from Bruce it passed to his grandson Robert the Steward, future King Robert II of Scotland. Bourtreehill, the only major Estate in the parish, was possessed by all three kings and possibly the Constables of Scotland before them. In December 2010, the writer A. J. Morton stated that Irvine was a Lost Medieval Capital and a likely candidate in the debate about the Stone of Destiny and its location before it was moved to Scone. Morton write, We cant be certain that Evonium actually existed, so we cant properly identify the Stones western home, what is certain is that the Irvine district was enormously important in the middle ages. The most intriguing evidence concerns Irvine’s links with early monarchs and officers of post-Norman Scotland, the loch was natural, sitting in a hollow created by glaciation
2.
Hymnodist
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A hymnodist is one who writes the text, music or both of hymns. Hymnodists have been in existence since at least the time of David, many hymnodists in the early Church gained prominence and achieved canonisation. Until the twelfth century, it was accepted only men served the Church in this role. Saint Hildegard of Bingen challenged this notion in the twelfth century, many leaders of the reformation, including Martin Luther himself, were hymnodists, Luthers work included A mighty fortress is our God and Christ Jesus lay in deaths strong bonds. Michael Praetorius, and Johann Crüger also gained renown as German Lutheran hymnodists of that era, in more recent times, hymns have been written throughout the English-speaking world by American and Australian hymnodists as well as British ones. Hymnodists born in the 1980s and 1990s, too, have made significant contributions in the twenty-first century. As a general practice, hymnodists celebrate the anniversary of the day became a hymnodist. The usual significant anniversaries such as 25th, 50th and 60th are popular, as well as the seventh, especially amongst Catholics. One of the oldest people to start as a hymnodist was the Australian Sylvia Romer, who was probably 62 years of age when she composed her first hymn in September 2001
3.
Moravian Church
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The modern Unitas Fratrum, with about 750,000 members worldwide, continues to draw on traditions established during the eighteenth century. The Moravians continue their tradition of missionary work, for example in the Caribbean. This is reflected in their global distribution. The Church places a value on ecumenism, personal piety, missions. The Church’s emblem is the Lamb of God with the flag of victory, surrounded by the Latin inscription, Vicit agnus noster, eum sequamur. The Hussite movement that was to become the Moravian Church was started by Jan Hus in early 15th century Bohemia, since these actions predate the Protestant Reformation by a century, some historians claim the Moravian Church was the first Protestant church. The movement gained support in the Crown of Bohemia, however, Hus was summoned to attend the Council of Constance, which decided that he was a heretic and had him burned at the stake on 6 July 1415. In 1434, an army of Utraquists and Catholics defeated the Taborites at the Battle of Lipany, the Utraquists signed the Compacts of Basel on 5 July 1436. Within fifty years of Hus death, a contingent of his followers had become independently organised as the Bohemian Brethren or Unity of the Brethren, a brother known as Gregory the Patriarch was very influential in forming the group, as well as the teachings of Peter Chelcicky. This group held to a strict obedience to the Sermon on the Mount, which included non-swearing of oaths, non-resistance, because of this, they considered themselves separate from the majority Hussites that did not hold those teachings. They received episcopal ordination through the Waldensians in 1467 and these were some of the earliest Protestants, rebelling against Rome some fifty years before Martin Luther. By the middle of the 16th century as many as 90 per cent of the inhabitants of the Bohemian Crown were Protestant, the majority of nobility was Protestant, the schools and printing-shops established by the Moravian Church were flourishing. Protestantism had an influence to the education of the population. Even in the middle of the 16th century there was not a town without a Protestant school in the Bohemian crown lands. With the University of Prague also firmly in hands of Protestants, therefore, the Jesuits were invited, with the backing of the Catholic Habsburg rulers, to come to the Bohemian Crown and establish a number of Catholic educational institutions. One of these is the university in the Moravian capital of Olomouc, in 1582 they forced closure of local Protestant schools. The Revolt started by unplanned second Defenestrations of Prague and was defeated in 1620 in the Battle of White Mountain near Prague, as consequence the local Protestant noblemen were either executed or expelled from the country while the Habsburgs placed Catholic nobility in their place. The war, plague, and subsequent disruption led to a decline in the population from over 3 million to some 800,000 people, by 1622 the entire education system was in the hands of Jesuits and all Protestant schools were closed
4.
Ayrshire
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Ayrshire is a historic county in south-west Scotland, located on the shores of the Firth of Clyde. It is also, under the name the County of Ayr and its principal towns include Ayr, Kilmarnock and Irvine. Like the other counties of Scotland, it currently has no function, instead being sub-divided into the council areas of North Ayrshire, South Ayrshire. It has a population of approximately 366,800, the three islands were part of the County of Bute until 1975 and are not always included when the term Ayrshire is applied to the region. The same area is known as Ayrshire and Arran in other contexts, Ayrshire is one of the most agriculturally fertile regions of Scotland. Ayrshire shares with Dumfries and Galloway some rugged hills country known as the Galloway Hills and these hill lie to the west of the A713 and they run south from the Loch Doon area almost to the Solway Firth. To the east of this route through the hills lie the Carsphairn and Scaur Hills which lie to the south east of Dalmellington, glen Afton runs deep into these hills. Glasgow Prestwick International Airport, serving Glasgow and the West of Scotland more generally, is located more than 30 miles away from Glasgow in Ayrshire. Moreover it has a niche in history as the only place in Britain visited by Elvis Presley. The area that today forms Ayrshire was part of the south of the Antonine Wall which was briefly occupied by the Romans during the reign of Emperor Antoninus Pius. It was inhabited by the Damnonii, who are presumed to have been Britons, later, it formed part of the British Kingdom of Strathclyde, which was incorporated into the Kingdom of Scotland during the 11th century. In 1263, the Scots successfully drove off of the Norwegian leidang-army in a known as the Battle of Largs. A notable historic building in Ayrshire is Turnberry Castle, which dates from the 13th century or earlier, the historic shire or sheriffdom of Ayr was divided into three districts or bailieries which later made up the county of Ayrshire. The three districts were, Carrick in the south and it was situated between the Doon and the wild district of Galloway in the adjoining Stewartries, an area that was little else than a vast tract of hills and mosses. Cunninghame in the north included the royal burgh of Irvine was that part of the county which lay north of the Irvine water. The area used to be heavily industrialised, with making, coal mining and in Kilmarnock numerous examples of production-line manufacturing. In more recent history, Digital Equipment had a manufacturing plant near Ayr from about 1976 until the company was taken over by Compaq in 1998. Some supplier companies grew up to service this site and the more distant IBM plant at Greenock in Renfrewshire, however, unemployment in the region is above the national average
5.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
6.
Fulneck School
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Fulneck School is an independent day and boarding school, situated in the Fulneck Moravian Settlement, in Pudsey, West Yorkshire, England. It provides education for pupils between the ages of 3 and 18, in 1753 and 1755, The Boys and Girls Schools were opened by the Moravian Church. In 1992 the two became one. The Moravian Brethren and Sisters communal houses are now, also, when Fulneck first opened the pupils would sleep at the top of the church. Now the school has boarding facilities for girls and boys, which are located on the upper floors of the main school building. Fulneck is a school with an inclusive admissions policy. Children of all abilities are stretched, challenged and supported, with high achievers gaining A*. The majority of students in the Sixth Form go on to study at university while some enter apprenticeships, some students take part in a Multiflight training scheme at Leeds Bradford airport and a number have gone on to pilot training at Oxford Aviation Academy
7.
Leeds
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Leeds /liːdz/ is a city in West Yorkshire, England. Historically in Yorkshires West Riding, the history of Leeds can be traced to the 5th century when the name referred to an area of the Kingdom of Elmet. The name has applied to many administrative entities over the centuries. It changed from being the appellation of a small borough in the 13th century, through several incarnations. In the 17th and 18th centuries Leeds became a centre for the production. During the Industrial Revolution, Leeds developed into a mill town, wool was the dominant industry but flax, engineering, iron foundries, printing. From being a market town in the valley of the River Aire in the 16th century Leeds expanded and absorbed the surrounding villages to become a populous urban centre by the mid-20th century. The city has the third largest jobs total by local authority area with 480,000 in employment and self-employment at the beginning of 2015. Leeds is also ranked as a world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Leeds is served by four universities, and has the fourth largest student population in the country and has the fourth largest urban economy. After London, Leeds is the largest legal and financial centre in the UK, with over 30 national and international banks located in the city. Leeds is also the UKs third largest manufacturing centre with around 1,800 firms and 39,000 employees, the largest sub-sectors are engineering, printing and publishing, food and drink, chemicals and medical technology. Outside of London, Leeds has the third busiest railway station, Public transport, rail and road communications networks in the region are focused on Leeds and there are a number of twinning arrangements with towns and cities in other countries. The name Leeds derives from the old Brythonic word Ladenses meaning people of the fast-flowing river and this name originally referred to the forested area covering most of the Brythonic kingdom of Elmet, which existed during the 5th century into the early 7th century. An inhabitant of Leeds is locally known as a Loiner, a word of uncertain origin, the term Leodensian is also used, from the citys Latin name. Leeds developed as a town in the Middle Ages as part of the local agricultural economy. Before the Industrial Revolution it became a centre for the manufacture of woollen cloth. Leeds handled one sixth of Englands export trade in 1770, growth, initially in textiles, was accelerated by the building of the Aire and Calder Navigation in 1699 and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal in 1816
8.
West Indies
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Indigenous peoples were the first inhabitants of the West Indies. In 1492, Christopher Columbus became the first European to arrive at the islands, after the first of the voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas, Europeans began to use the term West Indies to distinguish the region from the East Indies of South Asia and Southeast Asia. In the late century, French, English and Dutch merchants and privateers began their operations in the Caribbean Sea, attacking Spanish and Portuguese shipping. These African slaves wrought a demographic revolution, replacing or joining with either the indigenous Caribs or the European settlers who were there as indentured servants. The Dutch, allied with the Caribs of the Orinoco would eventually carry the struggles deep into South America, first along the Orinoco and these interconnected commercial and diplomatic relations made up the Western Caribbean Zone which was in place in the early eighteenth century. In 1916, Denmark sold the Danish West Indies to the United States for US$25 million in gold, the Danish West Indies became an insular area of the US, called the United States Virgin Islands. Between 1958 and 1962, the United Kingdom re-organised all their West Indies island territories into the West Indies Federation and they hoped that the Federation would coalesce into a single, independent nation. West Indian is the term used by the U. S. government to refer to people of the West Indies. Tulane University professor Rosanne Adderly says he phrase West Indies distinguished the territories encountered by Columbus, … The term West Indies was eventually used by all European nations to describe their own acquired territories in the Americas. Despite the collapse of the Federation … the West Indies continues to field a joint cricket team for international competition, the West Indies cricket team includes participants from Guyana, which is geographically located in South America. More than Slaves and Sugar, Recent Historiography of the Trans-imperial Caribbean, a Concise History of the Caribbean. Martin, Tony, Caribbean History, From Pre-colonial Origins to the Present
9.
Mirfield
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Mirfield is a small town and civil parish in Kirklees, West Yorkshire, England. Historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, it is on the A644 road between Brighouse and Dewsbury, at the 2011 census it had a population of 19,563. The town is served by Mirfield railway station, from 1894 to 1974, Mirfield was an urban district in the West Riding of Yorkshire until it was merged into the Metropolitan Borough of Kirklees. In 1988 a parish council was formed, one of five in Kirklees, as a parish council an additional tax precept to the Kirklees Metropolitan Borough Council tax is levied on the towns residents. It is made up of 16 councillors who serve for a fixed four-year term, the members elect a town mayor, who serves for a fixed one-year term. Mirfield Show is an agricultural event held on the third Sunday in August at Mirfield showground. It is organised and run by the Mirfield Agricultural Society as a non-profit making event for the families of Mirfield, there are two secondary schools in Mirfield, Mirfield Free Grammar and Sixth Form and Castle Hall School. The 13th century St Marys Church was rebuilt in 1826 but proved too small for the population and was regarded as too minor for the growing district. A new church, designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott, was built a few yards to the northwest, on the site of Castle Hall, at Scotts suggestion, the tower of the earlier church, which retains some medieval work, was retained. The College of the Resurrection is a Church of England theological college, there, Rowan Williams, later the Archbishop of Canterbury, lectured from 1975 for two years and Archbishop Trevor Huddleston spent his last days. During the 18th century, a canal was constructed through the town linking the River Calder with other rivers in the area, the canal is part of the Calder and Hebble Navigation. Its construction resulted in many industries in Mirfield, such as the textiles, the canal is still in use for recreational users, with a high popularity of the past time duck feeding being present along the waters edge. Mirfield is the base of the Safe Anchor Trust, a charity founded in 1995 to provide canal trips for vulnerable. In 2012, Princess Anne commissioned a new boat for the Trust, náchod, Czech Republic Mirfield Reporter Mirfield Town Council homepage Mirfield in Pictures Mirfield to Low Moor railway line Kirklees Council Website, Mirfield Information page
10.
Wath-upon-Dearne
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It has a population of 16,787. It is twinned with Saint-Jean-de-Bournay, in France, Wath can trace its existence back to Norman times, having an entry in the Domesday Book as Wad. For hundreds of years it remained a rural settlement astride the junction of the old Doncaster-Barnsley and Rotherham-Pontefract roads. North of the town was the ford of the River Dearne by this road that gave the town its name, the origin of its name has been linked to the Latin vadum and the Old Norse vath. The town received its Royal Charter in 1312 –13 entitling it to hold a weekly Tuesday market and an annual two-day fair, the market was revived in 1814. There also was a pottery at Newhill, close to deposits of clay, around the turn of the 19th century the poet and newspaper editor James Montgomery, resident in Wath at that time, described it as the Queen of villages. This rural character was to change rapidly in the 19th and 20th century with the development of the mining industry. The town lies within the South Yorkshire Coalfield and high quality coal had been dug out of outcrops. Several high-grade coal seams are close to the surface in this area of South Yorkshire, including the prolific Barnsley, the industrial revolution and consequent massive increase in demand for coal led to a rapid industrialisation of the area in the 19th and early 20th century. The population of the area swelled and the infrastructure was developed for the coal industry. The local economy became reliant on this one single industry. The canal finally closed in 1961 after many years unused and in poor repair, much of the line of the canal in the town has since been used for new roads, one called Biscay Way. By the 20th century, heavy industry was evident in the area with many large, Wath Main and Manvers Main were the two usually associated with Wath. Rail took over from the canal as a means of transporting coal out of the area, one of the biggest and, for its time, most modern railway marshalling yards in the UK, the Wath marshalling yard was built north of the town in 1907. Wath once had three stations, – Wath Central on Moor Road, Wath and Wath North both on Station Road in order of distance from the town centre. This most distant station was the last to close in 1968 as a part of the Beeching Axe. The town no longer has a rail link, although there has been talk of opening a station on the Sheffield-Wakefield-Leeds line at Manvers. The local coal industry was at the forefront of the dramatic decline of the British coal mining industry
11.
Sheffield
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Sheffield is a city and metropolitan borough in South Yorkshire, England. Historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, its derives from the River Sheaf. With some of its southern suburbs annexed from Derbyshire, the city has grown from its industrial roots to encompass a wider economic base. The population of the City of Sheffield is 569,700, Sheffield is the third largest English district by population. The metropolitan population of Sheffield is 1,569,000, in the 19th century, Sheffield gained an international reputation for steel production. Known as the Steel City, many innovations were developed locally, including crucible and stainless steel, Sheffield received its municipal charter in 1843, becoming the City of Sheffield in 1893. International competition in iron and steel caused a decline in these industries in the 1970s and 1980s, the 21st century has seen extensive redevelopment in Sheffield along with other British cities. Sheffields gross value added has increased by 60% since 1997, standing at £9.2 billion in 2007, the economy has experienced steady growth averaging around 5% annually, greater than that of the broader region of Yorkshire and the Humber. The city is in the foothills of the Pennines, and the valleys of the River Don and its four tributaries, the Loxley, the Porter Brook, the Rivelin. 61% of Sheffields entire area is space, and a third of the city lies within the Peak District national park. The area now occupied by the City of Sheffield is believed to have inhabited since at least the late Upper Palaeolithic period. The earliest evidence of occupation in the Sheffield area was found at Creswell Crags to the east of the city. In the Iron Age the area became the southernmost territory of the Pennine tribe called the Brigantes and it is this tribe who are thought to have constructed several hill forts in and around Sheffield. Gradually, Anglian settlers pushed west from the kingdom of Deira, a Celtic presence within the Sheffield area is evidenced by two settlements called Wales and Waleswood close to Sheffield. The settlements that grew and merged to form Sheffield, however, date from the half of the first millennium. In Anglo-Saxon times, the Sheffield area straddled the border between the kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria, after the Norman conquest, Sheffield Castle was built to protect the local settlements, and a small town developed that is the nucleus of the modern city. By 1296, a market had been established at what is now known as Castle Square, from 1570 to 1584, Mary, Queen of Scots, was imprisoned in Sheffield Castle and Sheffield Manor. During the 1740s, a form of the steel process was discovered that allowed the manufacture of a better quality of steel than had previously been possible
12.
Odd Fellows
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Odd Fellows or Oddfellows, also Odd Fellowship or Oddfellowship, is an international fraternity consisting of lodges first documented in 1730 in London. The first, Loyal Aristarcus Lodge No,9, connotes earlier ones in the 18th century. Notwithstanding, convivial meetings were held in much revelry and, often as not, names of several British pubs still today suggest past Odd Fellows affiliations. Early known Odd Fellows from the time include John Wilkes and Sir George Savile, 8th Baronet, advocating civil liberties and reliefs, political repressions such as the Unlawful Oaths Act and the Unlawful Societies Act, resulted in neutral amalgamation of the Grand United Order of Oddfellows in 1798. Henceforth, the fraternity has remained religiously and politically independent, George IV of the United Kingdom admitted in 1780, was the first documented of many Odd Fellows to also attend freemasonry, yet with both societies remaining mutually independent. In 1810, further instigations led to the establishment of the Independent Order of Oddfellows Manchester Unity in England, Odd Fellows spread overseas, including formally chartering the fraternity in the United States in 1819. Likewise, by the century, the Independent Order of Oddfellows Manchester Unity become the largest and richest fraternal organisation in the United Kingdom. To this day, beyond recreational activities, Odd Fellows promote philanthropy, in total, members of all international branches combined are estimated in the millions worldwide. Several theories aim to explain the background of the name Odd Fellows. In the 18th century United Kingdom, major trades were organised in guilds or other forms of syndicates, one theory has it that odd fellows, people who exercised unusual, miscellaneous odd trades, eventually joined together to form a larger group of odd fellows. The name was adopted at a time when the severance into sects and classes was so wide that persons aiming at social union. Possibly, it met a mixed reaction from the classes, who may have seen them as a source of revenue by taxes. Any suggestion of history before the 18th century is considered mere speculation, the Odd Fellows are one of the earliest and oldest fraternal societies, but their early history is obscure and largely undocumented. Due to increased trade during the Middle Ages, guilds came to make up a part of the urban culture, hence, people of an odd assortment of trades speculatively brought the background of the early history of Odd Fellows. When the English King Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church, the guilds were viewed by him as supporting the Pope, queen Elizabeth I took from the guilds the responsibility for training apprentices, and by the end of her reign, most guilds had been suppressed. Although some of these legends are at best dubious, the evolution from the guilds is more reliably documented, by the 13th century, the tradesmens guilds had become established and prosperous. During the 14th century, with the growth of trade, the guild Masters moved to protect their power by restricting access to the guilds, in response, the less experienced Fellows set up their own rival guilds. The exact origin of Oddfellowship is involved in obscurity and it must have had a beginning, but just when and where, no historian has ever been able to ascertain
13.
Quatrain
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A quatrain is a type of stanza, or a complete poem, consisting of four lines. Michel de Nostredame used the form to deliver his famous prophecies in the 16th century. There are fifteen possible rhyme schemes, but the most traditional and common are, AAAA, ABAB, the Rubai form of rhymed quatrain was favored by Omar Khayyám, among others. This work was an inspiration for Edward FitzGeralds Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. The rubai was a particularly widespread form, the form rubaiyat reflects the plural. The Midnight Songs poetry form is from Fourth Century China, consisting of regular five-character lines, the person matter involves the personal thoughts and feelings of a courtesan during the four seasons, into which the quatrains are individually assigned. Shairi is an AAAA rhyming form used mainly in The Knight in the Panthers Skin, the Shichigon-zekku form used on Classical Chinese poetry and Japanese poetry. This type of quatrain uses a seven characters length of line, both rhyme and rhythm are key elements, although the former is not restricted to falling at the end of the phrase. The thirty syllable, Celtic verse form Englyn from the Welsh language is another interesting variation of the quatrain, bell number Combination Enclosed rhyme Rhyme scheme http, //www. uni. edu/~gotera/CraftOfPoetry/quatrain. html
14.
Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
15.
Lord Byron
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George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron, FRS, commonly known simply as Lord Byron, was a British poet, peer, politician, and a leading figure in the Romantic movement. Among his best-known works are the narrative poems, Don Juan and Childe Harolds Pilgrimage. Byron is regarded as one of the greatest British poets and remains widely read and influential and he travelled extensively across Europe, especially in Italy, where he lived for seven years with the struggling poet Percy Bysshe Shelley. Later in his life, Byron joined the Greek War of Independence fighting the Ottoman Empire. He died in 1824 at the age of 36 from a fever contracted while in Missolonghi, ethel Colburn Mayne states that George Gordon Byron was born on 22 January 1788 in a house on 24 Holles Street in London. However, Robert Charles Dallas in his Recollections states that Byron was born in Dover and he was the son of Captain John Mad Jack Byron and his second wife, the former Catherine Gordon, a descendant of Cardinal Beaton and heiress of the Gight estate in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Byrons father had seduced the married Marchioness of Carmarthen and, after she divorced her husband. His treatment of her was described as brutal and vicious, in order to claim his second wifes estate in Scotland, Byrons father took the additional surname Gordon, becoming John Byron Gordon, and he was occasionally styled John Byron Gordon of Gight. Byron himself used this surname for a time and was registered at school in Aberdeen as George Byron Gordon, at the age of 10, he inherited the English Barony of Byron of Rochdale, becoming Lord Byron, and eventually dropped the double surname. Byrons paternal grandparents were Vice-Admiral the Hon. John Foulweather Jack Byron, vice Admiral John Byron had circumnavigated the globe, and was the younger brother of the 5th Baron Byron, known as the Wicked Lord. He was christened, at St Marylebone Parish Church, George Gordon Byron after his maternal grandfather George Gordon of Gight, a descendant of James I of Scotland, Mad Jack Byron married his second wife for the same reason that he married his first, her fortune. In a move to avoid his creditors, Catherine accompanied her husband to France in 1786. He was born on 22 January in lodgings at Holles Street in London, Catherine moved back to Aberdeenshire in 1790, where Byron spent his childhood. His father soon joined them in their lodgings in Queen Street, Catherine regularly experienced mood swings and bouts of melancholy, which could be partly explained by her husbands continuing to borrow money from her. As a result, she fell even further into debt to support his demands and it was one of these importunate loans that allowed him to travel to Valenciennes, France, where he died in 1791. When Byrons great-uncle, the wicked Lord Byron, died on 21 May 1798, described as a woman without judgment or self-command, Catherine either spoiled and indulged her son or vexed him with her capricious stubbornness. Her drinking disgusted him, and he often mocked her for being short and corpulent and she once retaliated and, in a fit of temper, referred to him as a lame brat. Langley-Moore questions the Galt claim that she over-indulged in alcohol, upon the death of Byrons mother-in-law Judith Noel, the Hon
16.
James Grahame
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Rev James Grahame was a Scottish poet. His principal work, The Sabbath, combines devotional feeling with vivid description of Scottish scenery and he was born in Glasgow, the son of Thomas Grahame, a successful lawyer. His elder brother was Robert Grahame of Whitehill, after completing his literary course at the University of Glasgow, Grahame went in 1784 to Edinburgh, where he worked as a legal clerk, and was called to the Scottish bar in 1795. However, he had wanted to go in for the Church, and when he was forty-four he took Anglican orders, and became a curate first at Shipton, Gloucestershire. His principal work, The Sabbath, a sacred and descriptive poem in blank verse, is characterized by devotional feeling, in the notes to his poems he expresses enlightened views on popular education, the criminal law and other public questions. He was emphatically a friend of humanity—a philanthropist as well as a poet, a satirical reference to Sepulchral Grahame is found in Lord Byrons English Bards and Scotch Reviewers. He was married to Ann Grahame, eldest daughter of Richard Grahame, Esq. and he died at Whitehill House, his brothers home, in Glasgow on 14 September 1811. A memorial to Grahame lies on the north wall of Glasgow Cathedral. Notes Sources This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
17.
Greenland
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Greenland is an autonomous constituent country within the Danish Realm between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe for more than a millennium. The majority of its residents are Inuit, whose ancestors began migrating from the Canadian mainland in the 13th century, Greenland is the worlds largest island. Three-quarters of Greenland is covered by the permanent ice sheet outside Antarctica. With a population of about 56,480, it is the least densely populated country in the world, the Arctic Umiaq Line ferry acts as a lifeline for western Greenland, connecting the various cities and settlements. Greenland has been inhabited off and on for at least the last 4,500 years by Arctic peoples whose forebears migrated there from what is now Canada, Norsemen settled the uninhabited southern part of Greenland beginning in the 10th century, and Inuit peoples arrived in the 13th century. The Norse colonies disappeared in the late 15th century, soon after their demise, beginning in 1499, the Portuguese briefly explored and claimed the island, naming it Terra do Lavrador. In the early 18th century, Scandinavian explorers reached Greenland again, to strengthen trading and power, Denmark-Norway affirmed sovereignty over the island. Greenland was settled by Vikings more than a thousand years ago, Vikings set sail from Greenland and Iceland, discovering North America nearly 500 years before Columbus reached Caribbean islands. Though under continuous influence of Norway and Norwegians, Greenland was not formally under the Norwegian crown until 1262, the Kingdom of Norway was extensive and a military power until the mid-14th century. Thus, the two kingdoms resources were directed at creating Copenhagen, Norway became the weaker part and lost sovereignty over Greenland in 1814 when the union was dissolved. Greenland became a Danish colony in 1814, and was made a part of the Danish Realm in 1953 under the Constitution of Denmark, in 1973, Greenland joined the European Economic Community with Denmark. However, in a referendum in 1982, a majority of the population voted for Greenland to withdraw from the EEC which was effected in 1985, Greenland contains the worlds largest and most northernly national park, Northeast Greenland National Park. Greenland is divided into four municipalities - Sermersooq, Kujalleq, Qaasuitsup and it also retains control of monetary policy, providing an initial annual subsidy of DKK3.4 billion, which is planned to diminish gradually over time. Greenland expects to grow its economy based on increased income from the extraction of natural resources, the capital, Nuuk, held the 2016 Arctic Winter Games. At 70%, Greenland has one of the highest shares of renewable energy in the world, the early Viking settlers named the island as Greenland. In the Icelandic sagas, the Norwegian-born Icelander Erik the Red was said to be exiled from Iceland for manslaughter, along with his extended family and his thralls, he set out in ships to explore an icy land known to lie to the northwest. After finding an area and settling there, he named it Grœnland
18.
Sheffield Cathedral
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The Cathedral Church of St Peter and St Paul, Sheffield, usually called simply Sheffield Cathedral, is the cathedral church for the Church of England diocese of Sheffield, England. Originally a parish church, it was elevated to cathedral status when the diocese was created in 1914, Sheffield Cathedral is one of five Grade I listed buildings in the city, along with Town Hall, Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet, and the parish churches at Ecclesfield and Bradfield. It is located in the city centre on Church Street and served by Sheffield Supertrams Cathedral stop, the site of the cathedral has a long history of Christian use. The shaft of the 9th-century Sheffield Cross, believed to have formerly been sited here, is now held by the British Museum. It is probable that Sheffields parish church, a satellite of Worksop Priory, was constructed here in the 12th century by William de Lovetot at the end of the town to Sheffield Castle. This established the area of the parish of Sheffield, unchanged until the 19th century and this church was burnt down in 1266 during the Second Barons War against King Henry III. Another parish church was completed in 1280, but this church was mostly demolished, the Shrewsbury Chapel was added in the next century, and a vestry chapel was added in 1777. The north and south walls of the nave were rebuilt in 1790–93 and a restoration by Flockton & Gibbs. The parish of Sheffield was subdivided into parishes in 1848. The church is still the parish church for the smaller Parish of Sheffield, plans were drafted by Charles Nicholson to extend the church and reorient it on its axis, but due to World War II these were greatly scaled down. The resulting additions leave the church an awkward shape in plan, on Thursday 2 April 2015, the Royal Maundy service was held in Sheffield Cathedral. The Queen distributed specially-minted Maundy money to 89 men and 89 women, the east end of the current church is the oldest. In the east wall of the sanctuary there are stones from the 13th-century church, dating from the 15th century are the sanctuary and chancel. The 15th-century cruciform church also included lofts and a rood chapel and their scars can be seen on the walls. The chancel roof dates to the 16th century and is a hammerbeam roof with gilded angels. The outstretched wings are a gift from the 1960s by George Bailey. In the 1770s, rebuilding included the addition of tracery into the windows, the addition of the vestry chapel of St. Katherine destroyed the cruciform shape of the plan. The Shrewsbury Chapel was constructed in order to house the Tudor monuments of the Earls of Shrewsbury, the altarpiece in this chapel is considered medieval in date
19.
Blank verse
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Blank verse is poetry written with regular metrical but unrhymed lines, almost always in iambic pentameter. The first documented use of verse in the English language was by Henry Howard. He was possibly inspired by the Latin original, as classical Latin verse did not use rhyme, or he may have inspired by the Italian verse form of versi sciolti. The play Arden of Faversham is an example of end-stopped blank verse. The 1561 play Gorboduc by Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville was the first English play to use blank verse, christopher Marlowe was the first English author to make full use of the potential of blank verse. Miltonic blank verse was imitated in the 18th century by such poets as James Thomson. Romantic English poets such as William Wordsworth, Percy Bysshe Shelley, among American poets, Hart Crane and Wallace Stevens are notable for using blank verse in extended compositions at a time when many other poets were turning to free verse. Marlowe and then Shakespeare developed its potential greatly in the late 16th century, Shakespeare developed this feature, and also the potential of blank verse for abrupt and irregular speech. For example, in exchange from King John, one blank verse line is broken between two characters, My lord. Shakespeare also used enjambment increasingly often in his verse, and in his last plays was given to using feminine endings, all of this made his later blank verse extremely rich and varied. This very free treatment of blank verse was imitated by Shakespeares contemporaries, however, Shakespearean blank verse was used with some success by John Webster and Thomas Middleton in their plays. Ben Jonson, meanwhile, used a blank verse with less enjambment in his great comedies Volpone. Blank verse was not much used in the poetry of the 17th century until Paradise Lost, in which Milton used it with much license. What though the field be lost, All is not lost, the unconquerable Will, And study of revenge, immortal hate, And courage never to submit or yield, Milton also wrote Paradise Regained and parts of Samson Agonistes in blank verse. The best examples of verse from this time are probably John Drydens tragedy All for Love. An example notable as much for its failure with the public as for its subsequent influence on the form is John Dyers The Fleece. At the close of the 18th century, William Cowper ushered in a renewal of blank verse with his volume of kaleidoscopic meditations, The Task, published in 1784. After Shakespeare and Milton, Cowper was the influence on the next major poets in blank verse
20.
Blackwood's Magazine
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Blackwoods Magazine was a British magazine and miscellany printed between 1817 and 1980. It was founded by the publisher William Blackwood and was called the Edinburgh Monthly Magazine. The first number appeared in April 1817 under the editorship of Thomas Pringle, the journal was unsuccessful and Blackwood fired Pringle and Cleghorn and relaunched the journal as Blackwoods Edinburgh Magazine under his own editorship. The journal eventually adopted the name and from the relaunch often referred to itself as Maga. The title page bore the image of George Buchanan, a 16th-century Scottish historian, Blackwoods was conceived as a rival to the Whig-supporting Edinburgh Review. Compared to the rather staid tone of The Quarterly Review, the other main Tory work, Maga was ferocious and this is due primarily to the work of its principal writer John Wilson, who wrote under the pseudonym of Christopher North. Never trusted with the editorship, he wrote much of the magazine along with the other major contributors John Gibson Lockhart. Their mixture of satire, reviews and criticism both barbed and insightful was extremely popular and the magazine gained a large audience. For all its conservative credentials the magazine published the works of radicals of British romanticism such as Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Scott was shot and killed. By the mid-1820s Lockhart and Maginn had departed to London, the former to edit the Quarterly, after this, John Wilson was by far the most important writer for the magazine and gave it much of its tone, popularity and notoriety. By the 1840s when Wilson was contributing less, its circulation declined, the magazine never regained its early success but it still held a dedicated readership throughout the British Empire amongst those in the Colonial Service. One late nineteenth century triumph was the first publication of Joseph Conrads Heart of Darkness in the February, March, the magazine finally ceased publication in 1980, having remained for its entire history in the Blackwood family. Robert Macnish contributed under the epithet, Modern Pythagorean and it was an open secret that Charles Whibley contributed anonymously his Musings without Methods to the Magazine for over twenty-five years. T. S. Vera Brittain lists numerous copies of Blackwoods Magazine among her possessions in her description of her time as V. A. D. Nurse in Malta in her seminal work Testament of Youth, the Young Mens Magazine Blackwoods Edinburgh Magazine, Volume 100. Author–Publisher Relations in the Victorian Age, University Park, PA, Pennsylvania State University Press,2002. ISBN 978-0-271-02179-9 Finkelstein, David, Print Culture and the Blackwood Tradition 1805–1930, Toronto, University of Toronto Press,2006
21.
Psalm 23
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See Psalm 24 for Psalm 23 in Greek numbering. Psalm 23 is the 23rd psalm in the Old Testament Book of Psalms, the writer describes God as his shepherd. The text is alluded to in popular media and has been set to music many times. Psalm 23 portrays God as a shepherd, feeding and leading his flock. The rod and staff are also the implements of a shepherd, some commentators see the shepherd imagery pervading the entire psalm. It is known that the shepherd is to know each sheep by name, thus when God is given the analogy of a shepherd, he is not only a protector but also the caretaker. God, as the caretaker, leads the sheep to green pastures, thus, without its Shepherd, the sheep would die either by a predator or of starvation, since sheep are known for their helplessness without their shepherd. J. Douglas MacMillan argues that verse 5 refers to the old oriental shepherding practice of using little raised tables to feed sheep, similarly, Thou anointest my head with oil may refer to an ancient form of backliner – the oil is poured on wounds, and repels flies. MacMillan also notes that verse 6 reminds him of two loyal sheepdogs coming behind the flock, John Ellinwood argues that in verses 4 and 5 King David acknowledges Gods protection in expeditions and in battles. Thou preparest a table before me in the presence of mine enemies refers to the sober raucous dinner before major battles and these were raucous in order to demoralize hostiles camped within earshot, and the king ate from a table. Thou anointest my head with oil because tomorrow this ceremony might be impossible, after each victory there was no longer a need for sobriety, so my cup runneth over. The kings lyricist wisely shortened these military verses for balance, also in Psalm 18 David mentions Gods protection in battle. The first verse of the psalm as well as a long tradition ascribe authorship to King David, said in the Hebrew Scriptures to have been a field shepherd himself as a youth, Psalm 23 is traditionally sung by Jews in Hebrew at the third Shabbat meal on Saturday afternoon. It is also sung during the Yizkor service, sephardic and some Hassidic Jews also sing during Friday afternoon services and as part of the Sabbath night and day meals and before marital relations on Friday night. It is read at a funeral service instead of the traditional prayer during Jewish holidays. For Christians the image of God as a shepherd evokes connections not only with David but with Jesus, the phrase about the valley of the shadow of death is often taken as an allusion to the eternal life given by Jesus. Orthodox Christians typically include this Psalm in the prayers of preparation for receiving the Eucharist, the Reformation inspired widespread efforts in western Europe to make biblical texts available in vernacular languages. One of the most popular early English versions was the Geneva Bible, the most widely recognized version of the psalm in English today is undoubtedly the one drawn from the King James Bible
22.
St Lawrence's Church, York
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St Lawrence Parish Church is an active Anglican church in York, England. It is situated in Lawrence Street, just outside Walmgate Bar and it is dedicated to St Lawrence, possibly in deliberate reference to the Basilica of Saint Lawrence outside the Walls, in Rome. The tower of the old church building remains in the churchyard – the doorway and this tower is now cared for by the Churches Conservation Trust. The oldest gravestones in the lie on the site of the demolished nave and chancel. The parish was united with that of St Nicholas after that church was destroyed in the Siege of York, St Lawrence was also severely damaged, but was rebuilt at the Restoration, and silver and furniture from c.1669 remain. Sir John Vanbrugh married Henrietta Maria Yarburgh here on a day in 1719. These monuments, together with the tower, are Grade I listed, the old church was demolished in 1881-3 in order to build a much larger building, the second-largest religious building in York after York Minster. It is the work of J. B. Hall of Canterbury. The spire was added in 1891-3, with a clock given in memory of his parents by Alderman Robert Fawcett. The church contains the elaborate c.1400 font, moved from the old church, much of the stained glass was produced by the Knowles family of Stonegate, including the recently restored east window. There is an unusual and large art deco First World War memorial window depicting the Somme battlefield, the city of York. The chancel area was remodelled by Robert Mousey Thompson of Kilburn as a Second World War memorial, the church has otherwise been little altered. The church was given a set of 8 bells hung for ringing in 1999, by the bellringers of York. They were all cast, and hung together, by John Taylor & Co and these are rung by the St Lawrence Society of Change Ringers. Four of the bells hung in Charringtons Brewery, London. The church has a large Community Hall, built on the site of a line of cottages belonging to the Vicars Choral of York Minster in 1935. The church maintains a robed choir and it currently holds three services every Sunday, using a mixture of Book of Common Prayer and Common Worship rites, and is one of only two York parish churches to still sing Evensong every Sunday. In early 2014, the east window of the church was damaged in high winds
23.
The Mount, Sheffield
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The Mount is a Grade II* listed building situated on Glossop Road in the Broomhill area of Sheffield in England. It stands just over 1.3 miles west of the city centre and it is a neoclassical building which was originally a terrace of eight houses but since the 1950s has been used for commercial office space for various businesses. The building is part of the Broomhill Conservation Area, which was set up in March 1977 through an agreement with local residents, the Mount was built by the local architect William Flockton in 1830–1832. At the time of its construction it stood in a situation and was nicknamed Flocktons Folly because it was thought to be too far out of town to attract potential buyers. The Mount consisted of eight apartments, described as genteel dwellings, Flockton had no doubt about the quality of The Mount and its location, calling it, a handsome Ionic edifice. Substantially built and in design and taste far exceeding any of the present erections in the neighbourhood of Sheffield, the Mount with its south-facing views over the Porter valley, became a fashionable location to live, attracting some of the upper echelon of Sheffield society. The most famous resident was the editor and poet James Montgomery who lived at number 4 from 1835 until his death in 1854. The Mount was purchased by the Sheffield department store John Walsh Ltd. in the years of the 20th century. The Mount was used as a retail outlet when Walsh’s store on High Street was destroyed in the Sheffield Blitz of December 1940. By the end of 1941 Walshs had moved back to the city centre, taking up short-term residences on Fargate, in 1958 The Mount was purchased by the United Steel Companies for offices, being converted by the Sheffield architects Mansell Jenkinson Partnership who also installed lifts in the building. In 1967 it became the headquarters of British Steel Corporation. In 1978 the building was purchased by the insurance company Norwich Union, in July 2009 the building was let out to A+ English, a Sheffield-based Language school who carried out an extensive refurbishment before opening for business in September 2009. The building has 1,385 square metres of space on three floors with an integrated basement car park. The Mount is owned by Aviva, the parent company of Norwich Union, the Mounts most striking architectural feature is its portico with six Ionic columns. The building is 17 bays in width, most of which have 12-pane sash windows, the end pavilions each have paired Ionic columns
24.
Sheffield General Cemetery
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The General Cemetery in the City of Sheffield, England opened in 1836 and closed for burial in 1978. It was the cemetery in Victorian Sheffield with over 87,000 burials. Today it is a listed Landscape on the English Heritage National Register of Historic Parks and it is also a Local Nature Reserve. It is owned by the City of Sheffield and managed on behalf the city by a community group. The General Cemetery is located just over a mile to the south-west of Sheffield city centre and it occupies a north-facing hillside site between Sharrow Vale and Sharrow Head. The Porter Brook runs along its north-west edge, and Cemetery Road forms the boundary to the south-east, the Gatehouse entrance is accessed from Cemetery Avenue off Eccelsall Road. The General Cemetery was one of the first commercial landscape cemeteries in Britain and its opening in 1836 as a Nonconformist cemetery was a response to the rapid growth of Sheffield and the relatively poor state of the towns churchyards. The cemetery, with its Greek Doric and Egyptian style buildings, was designed by Sheffield architect Samuel Worth on the site of a former quarry, robert Marnock who also designed Sheffield Botanical Gardens and Weston Park acted as a landscape consultant for this initial phase. The first burial was of Mary Ann Fish, a victim of tuberculosis, in 1980 the council got permission by Act of Parliament to clear 800 gravestones to make a recreation area. Through the 1980s and 1990s most of the rest of the cemetery was left untouched, becoming overgrown, unfortunately, many of the buildings also fell into disrepair. In early 2003 work began to restore the gatehouse and catacombs funded by a £500,000 grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund, the restored gatehouse now houses the offices of the Sheffield General Cemetery Trust. The Gatehouse is built directly over the Porter Brook in a Classical architectural style with Egyptian features, the gateway itself resembles a Roman arch. It was possibly built over the river so that entering the cemetery was symbolic of the crossing of the river Styx in Greek mythology, the Egyptian Gate forms the entrance to the cemetery on Cemetery Road. It is richly ornamented and possesses gates bearing ouroboros, two coiled snakes holding their tails in their mouths, the Nonconformist chapel is built in a classical style with Egyptian features. The sculpted panel above the shows a dove, representing the Holy Ghost or the Holy Spirit. Stone steps lead down to a wall with catacomb-like entrances, designed in the Neo-Gothic style by William Flockton. Unlike the other buildings in the cemetery, the chapel was built in Gothic style rather than Classical or Egyptian, the building is distinctive in style due to its ogival windows, the porte-cochere and the spire. The spire is indeed far too big for the rest of the building, there are two rows of catacombs built into the hillside, this method of burial was unpopular and only ten bodies were laid to rest in the catacombs in the first 10 years
25.
John Bell (sculptor)
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John Bell was a British sculptor, born in Bells Row, Great Yarmouth, Norfolk. His family home was Hopton Hall, Suffolk and his works were shown at the Great Exhibition of 1851, and he was responsible for the marble group representing America on the Albert Memorial in London. He was born in 1811, and educated at Catfield rectory and he studied sculpture in the Royal Academy schools, and exhibited his first work at the academy, a religious group, in 1832. The next year he exhibited A Girl at a Brook and John the Baptist at the academy, at the Royal Academy in 1836 he showed Psyche feeding a Swan and Youth, Spring, and Infancy. His Babes in the Wood was exhibited at the Royal Academy summer exhibition two years later, there are marble versions at Osborne House, and Norwich Castle. In 1844 Bell entered his Eagle Slayer and Jane Shore in the held for sculpture for the new Houses of Parliament. A cast-iron version of the Eagle Slayer - the first statue ever to be made from the material - was produced for The Great Exhibition of 1851 and it was later placed outside the South Kensington Museum, and is now in the V&A Museum of Childhood in Bethnal Green. He also exhibited a sculpture of Shakespeare at the 1851 exhibition and it was also used by John Leech as the centrepiece of his cartoon Dinner-time at the Crystal Palace, published in Punch. For Coalbrookdale he created the Deerhound hall table and Andromeda which was bought by Queen Victoria and is now a feature of the gardens at Osborne House. Una and the Lion, inspired by Edmund Spensers The Faerie Queene was also exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1851, the full-scale model was placed in the Crystal Palace which burned down in 1936. His best-known work is the Crimean war monument to the Brigade of Guards at the junction of Pall Mall and Waterloo Place, Bells 1862 sculpture of Oliver Cromwell originally designed for the 1862 International Exhibition was erected in 1899 in Warrington, Cheshire. Bell died on 14 March 1895 at 15 Douro Place, Kensington and his pupil Francis John Williamson also became a successful sculptor, reputed to have been Queen Victorias favourite. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Dodgson. Dictionary of National Biography,1901 supplement, yourarchives. nationalarchives. gov. uk myweb. tiscali. co. uk frontierpublishing. co. uk rsa. org. uk spencer. lib. ku. edu youricons. macrojuice. com museums. norfolk. gov. uk
26.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
27.
Sidney Lee
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Sir Sidney Lee was an English biographer, writer and critic. Lee was born Solomon Lazarus Lee in 1859 at 12 Keppel Street, Bloomsbury and he was educated at the City of London School and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he graduated in modern history in 1882. In 1883, Lee became assistant-editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, in 1890 he became joint editor, and on the retirement of Sir Leslie Stephen in 1891, succeeded him as editor. Lee wrote over 800 articles in the Dictionary, mainly on Elizabethan authors or statesmen and his sister Elizabeth Lee also contributed. While still at Balliol, Lee had written two articles on Shakespearean questions, which were printed in The Gentlemans Magazine, in 1884, he published a book about Stratford-on-Avon, with illustrations by Edward Hull. Lees article on Shakespeare in the 51st volume of the Dictionary of National Biography formed the basis of his Life of William Shakespeare, Lee received a knighthood in 1911. Between 1913 and 1924, he served as Professor of English Literature, there are personal letters from Lee, including those written during his final illness, in the T. F. Tout Collection of the John Rylands Library in Manchester, John Denham Parsons Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Lee, Sidney. Sidney Lee Dictionary of National Biography, Index and Epitome Works by Sidney Lee at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Sidney Lee at Internet Archive
28.
Dictionary of National Biography
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The Dictionary of National Biography is a standard work of reference on notable figures from British history, published from 1885. The updated Oxford Dictionary of National Biography was published on 23 September 2004 in 60 volumes and he approached Leslie Stephen, then editor of the Cornhill Magazine, owned by Smith, to become editor. Stephen persuaded Smith that the work should focus on subjects from the UK and its present, an early working title was the Biographia Britannica, the name of an earlier eighteenth-century reference work. The first volume of the Dictionary of National Biography appeared on 1 January 1885, in May 1891 Leslie Stephen resigned and Sidney Lee, Stephens assistant editor from the beginning of the project, succeeded him as editor. While much of the dictionary was written in-house, the DNB also relied on external contributors, by 1900, more than 700 individuals had contributed to the work. Successive volumes appeared quarterly with complete punctuality until midsummer 1900, when the series closed with volume 63, the year of publication, the editor and the range of names in each volume is given below. The supplements brought the work up to the death of Queen Victoria on 22 January 1901. The dictionary was transferred from its original publishers, Smith, Elder & Co. to Oxford University Press in 1917, until 1996, Oxford University Press continued to add further supplements featuring articles on subjects who had died during the twentieth century. The supplements published between 1912 and 1996 added about 6,000 lives of people who died in the century to the 29,120 in the 63 volumes of the original DNB. In 1993 a volume containing missing biographies was published and this had an additional 1,000 lives, selected from over 100,000 suggestions. Consequently, the dictionary was becoming less and less useful as a reference work, in 1966, the University of London published a volume of corrections, cumulated from the Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research. There were various versions of the Concise Dictionary of National Biography, the last edition, in three volumes, covered everyone who died before 1986. In the early 1990s Oxford University Press committed itself to overhauling the DNB, the new dictionary would cover British history, broadly defined, up to 31 December 2000. The research project was conceived as a one, with in-house staff co-ordinating the work of nearly 10,000 contributors internationally. Following Matthews death in October 1999, he was succeeded as editor by another Oxford historian, Professor Brian Harrison, in January 2000. The new dictionary, now known as the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, was published on 23 September 2004 in 60 volumes in print at a price of £7500, most UK holders of a current library card can access it online free of charge. In subsequent years, the print edition has been able to be obtained new for a lower price. At publication, the 2004 edition had 50,113 biographical articles covering 54,922 lives, a small permanent staff remain in Oxford to update and extend the coverage of the online edition
29.
Internet Archive
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The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
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LibriVox
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On 6 August 2016, the project completed project number 10,000. Most releases are in the English language, but many works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, LibriVox is closely affiliated with Project Gutenberg from where the project gets some of its texts, and the Internet Archive that hosts their offerings. LibriVox was started in August 2005 by Montreal-based writer Hugh McGuire, who set up a blog, the first recorded book was The Secret Agent by Joseph Conrad. LibriVox is an invented word inspired by Latin words liber in its genitive form libri and vox, the word was also coined because of other connotations as liber also means child and free, independent, unrestricted. As the LibriVox forum says it, We like to think LibriVox might be interpreted as child of the voice, finally, the other link we like is library so you could imagine it to mean Library of Voice. There has been no decision or consensus by LibriVox founders or the community of volunteers for a single pronunciation of LibriVox and it is accepted that any audible pronunciation is accurate. LibriVox is a volunteer-run, free content, Public Domain project and it has no budget or legal personality. The development of projects is managed through an Internet forum, supported by an admin team, in early 2010, LibriVox ran a fundraising drive to raise $20,000 to cover hosting costs for the website of about $5, 000/year and improve front- and backend usability. Volunteers can choose new projects to start, either recording on their own or inviting others to join them, once a volunteer has recorded his or her contribution, it is uploaded to the site, and proof-listened by members of the LibriVox community. Finished audiobooks are available from the LibriVox website, and MP3, recordings are also available through other means, such as iTunes, and, being free of copyright, they are frequently distributed independently of LibriVox on the Internet and otherwise. LibriVox only records material that is in the domain in the United States. Because of copyright restrictions, LibriVox produces recordings of only a number of contemporary books. These have included, for example, the 9/11 Commission Report and it contains much popular classic fiction, but also includes less predictable texts, such as Immanuel Kants Critique of Pure Reason and a recording of the first 500 digits of pi. The collection also features poetry, plays, religious texts and non-fiction of various kinds, in January 2009, the catalogue contained approximately 55 percent fiction and drama,25 percent non-fiction and 20 percent poetry. By the end of 2016, the most viewed item was The Adventures of Tom Sawyer in a 2006 solo recording by John Greenman, around 90 percent of the catalogue is recorded in English, but recordings exist in 31 languages altogether. Chinese, French and German are the most popular languages other than English amongst volunteers, LibriVox has garnered significant interest, in particular from those interested in the promotion of volunteer-led content and alternative approaches to copyright ownership on the Internet. It has received support from the Internet Archive and Project Gutenberg, intellectual freedom and commons proponent Mike Linksvayer described it in 2008 as perhaps the most interesting collaborative culture project this side of Wikipedia
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New International Encyclopedia
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The New International Encyclopedia was an American encyclopedia first published in 1902 by Dodd, Mead and Company. It descended from the International Cyclopaedia and was updated in 1906,1914 and 1926, the New International Encyclopedia was the successor of the International Cyclopaedia. Initially, the International Cyclopaedia was largely a reprint of Aldens Library of Universal Knowledge, the local Cyclopaedia was much improved by editors Harry Thurston Peck and Selim Peabody. The title was changed to New International Encyclopedia in 1902, with editors Harry Thurston Peck, Daniel Coit Gilman, in 1906 the New International Encyclopedia was expanded from 17 volumes to 20. The 2nd edition appeared in 1914 in 24 volumes, set up from new type and it was very strong in biography. The 1926 material was printed in Cambridge, Massachusetts, by The University Press, boston Bookbinding Company of Cambridge produced the covers. Thirteen books enclosing twenty-three volumes comprise the encyclopedia, which includes a supplement after Volume 23, each book contains about 1600 pages. A great deal of material is recorded in the New International Encyclopedia. An early description of Adolf Hitler and his activities from 1920 to 1924 is in the supplement to the 1926 edition, many of the names used to describe the scientific identities of plants and animals are now obsolete. Numerous colorful maps which display the nations, states, colonies, the maps are valuable for their depictions of national and colonial borders in Europe, Asia, and Africa at the time of World War I. Drawings, illustrations, and photographs are plentiful, more than 500 men, and some women, submitted and composed the information contained in the New International Encyclopedia. Editors of the First Edition Daniel Coit Gilman, LL. D, President of Johns Hopkins University, President of Carnegie Institution. Frank Moore Colby, M. A. formerly Professor in New York University, editors of the Second Edition Frank Moore Colby, M. A. Talcott Williams, LL. D. Director of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, media related to New International Encyclopedia at Wikimedia Commons 1914 second ed
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John Pye-Smith
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The Rev Dr John Pye-Smith FRS, FGS was a Congregational theologian and tutor, associated with reconciling geological sciences with the Bible, repealing the Corn Laws and abolishing slavery. He was the author of many learned works, the son of a Sheffield bookseller, Pye-Smith was surrounded by books in his youth and was practically self-taught, he did take Latin lessons from Jehoiada Brewer. He became a Dissenting academic and author, and was the first Fellow of the Royal Society from a Nonconformist background, throughout his life he worked for the abolition of slavery. The Congregationalists 1833 abolition lecture, The Sinfulness of Colonial Slavery, was delivered at John Pye-Smiths Meeting House in Hackney by his former pupil, a committee of Nonconformist merchants and ministers, including Pye-Smith, founded Mill Hill School. For boys on 25 January 1807, Pye-Smith was the theological tutor at the Dissenting academy known as Homerton College near Hackney, London for forty-five years between 1805 and 1850. His pupils included Robert Halley, future Principal of New College, London, Samuel Dyer, the missionary, Pye-Smith was minister of the Old Gravel Pit Chapel in Chatham Place, Hackney for nearly as long, from 1811–50. He was the grandfather of Philip Henry Pye-Smith, John Pye Smith, On the relation between the Holy Scriptures and some parts of geological science at Google Books. Published 1840, London, Jackson and Walford, John Pye Smith, Four discourses on the sacrifice and priesthood of Jesus Christ, and the Atonement and Redemption thence accruing at Google Books. Published 1842, London, Jackson and Walford
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John Holland (poet)
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John Holland was an English poet and newspaper editor. Holland was born in a cottage in the grounds of the ancient Sheffield Manor in Yorkshire and he was however a bookish young man who taught himself Latin and soon began publishing poems of his own. In 1813 Holland had become a Sunday School teacher and turned his hand to composing religious poetry, some five years later he was appointed as a secretary of the Sheffield Sunday School Union. In 1825, Holland was appointed as editor of the Sheffield Iris by new owner John Blackwell, in 1835 he became co-editor of the Sheffield Mercury, serving until the paper was closed down by its new owner in 1848. Throughout his journalistic life, he wrote works on botany, geology, local history and topography, in addition to biographies. In 1819 Holland wrote a topographical poem on Sheffield Park. That year too he published the narrative poem The Cottage of Pella in imitation of Montgomerys The Wanderer of Switzerland, another strong influence on him at this time was the poet Thomas Campbell. Hollands poem The Rainbow, published at the time as one on the same subject by Campbell, was frequently anthologised as the latters. Following this, Holland took Campbells The Pleasures of Hope as the model for his own The Hopes of Matrimony, since he continued to write at length on all occasions, readers have to mine such gems as are there from among much that is derivative and diffuse. 1827, published a book with a long title. It was a compendium of many elements, History of shoes, writings of shoemakers, survey of the manufacture, etc of shoes. An energetic man, it would seem,1835, published The History and Description of Fossil Fuel, The Collieries and Coal Trade of Great Britain. The title page of that work further identifies him as the author of the Treatise on Manufactures In Metal said to be in three volumes as part of Lardners Cabinet Cyclopaedia. Is an erudite but readable comprehensive survey of many aspects of the industry up to 1835. In the preface he confesses he is neither a Geologist, a Collier, and prays for the readers indulgence, until a more qualified author can undertake a similar survey. Despite his self-deprecation, the work is a compendium of knowledge. This a sad proof how vainly man hath built Prides superstructure on a base of guilt, Of penal judgment this the unvarying mark, From far Potosis mines to Sheffield Park
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Moravian Church in North America
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The Moravian Church in North America is part of the worldwide Moravian Church Unity. It dates from the arrival of the first Moravian missionaries to the United States in 1735 and they came to minister to the scattered German immigrants, to the Native Americans and to enslaved Africans. They founded communities to serve as bases for these missions. The missionary messengers were financially supported by the work of the laborers in these settlements, currently, there are more than 60,000 members. Eager to learn more, the Mahican chiefs Tschoop and Shabash invited Rauch to visit their village to teach them, in September 1740, they led him to Shekomeko, where he established a Moravian mission. The two Indian chiefs converted to the Christian faith, by summer 1742, Shekomeko was established as the first native Christian congregation in the present-day United States. Over the next two years, the Moravians endeavored to reconcile the ancient Indian traditions with the new ways of the western society and they made a center for missions to the native peoples. Within the next two years, several more missionaries along with their wives began to settle in the area, among these were Gottlob Buettner and his wife, Anna Margaret Bechtel, daughter of a minister. Meanwhile, European settlers who opposed the Moravians defense of Native Americans spread rumors that they were secret Catholic Jesuits allied with the French, such settlers finally were successful in persuading the colonial governor Clinton to restrict the missionaries efforts. Buettner died at Shekomeko early in 1745, and the colony dwindled away soon after, the Moravians were more successful in Pennsylvania, where the charter of the colony provided religious freedom. The towns of Bethlehem, Nazareth, Emmaus, and Lititz, graceham, Maryland was founded as a Moravian Community on October 8,1758, organized by Bishop Matthew Hehl. Later, colonies were founded in North Carolina, where Moravians led by Bishop August Gottlieb Spangenberg purchased 98,985 acres from John Carteret. This large tract of land was named die Wachau, or Wachovia, other early settlements included Bethabara, Bethania and Salem. Bethlehem emerged as the headquarters of the church, and Winston-Salem became the headquarters of the southern church. The Moravian denomination continues in America to this day, with congregations in 18 states, the highest concentrations of Moravians exist in Bethlehem and Winston-Salem. The denomination is organized into four provinces in North America, Northern, Southern, Alaska, Northern Province,1021 Center Street, Bethlehem, PA18018 Southern Province,529 S. Philips • Trinity • Union Cross South Carolina Spartanburg, The Palmetto Moravian Fellowship Virginia Ararat, Willow Hill Cana, the Moravian emphasis on openness and tolerance, combined with the conversion experience of new birth, undermined ethnic homogeneity and provided a source of communal cohesion. The primary intermingling and intermarriage was between Germans and English, but 12 nations and territories were represented in the population of Wachovia by the early 19th century
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British Province of the Moravian Church
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The British Province of the Moravian Church is part of the worldwide Moravian Church Unity. Moravian Church House, 5–7 Muswell Hill, London N10 3TJ, irish District, Ballinderry, Belfast, Cliftonville, Belfast, University Road, Gracehill, Kilwarlin. Lancashire District, Dukinfield, Fairfield, Salem, Royton, Wheler Street, Western District, Bath, Coronation Avenue, Bath, Weston, Brockweir, Kingswood, Leominster, Malmesbury, Swindon, Tytherton. Yorkshire District, Baildon, Fulneck, Gomersal, Horton, Wellhouse, all text in this section is taken from. In 1999, there were 2,914 members, There exists an informative interactive map. Stoke Newington – associated with Hornsey congregation, chepstow – associated with Brockweir congregation. Leeds – associated with Fulneck congregation, all text in this section is taken from. The diaspora work in the British Province seeks to link non-resident and former members of the Moravian Church with each other, from the outset, the Moravian Church has placed a strong emphasis on congregational hymn singing as a form of both worship and learning. One of its early Bishops, Luke of Prague, also encouraged the Church to use Hussite, Zinzendorf, who renewed the church in the 1720s, has been described as the most original liturgist of Protestant Christianity. The Moravian Church in Britain has continued to be a church while at the same time allowing free worship as the occasion demands. The Moravian Liturgy 1960 is currently the main authorised book of services, the liturgy of the Word is contained in six Orders of Worship, each one of which produces a service lasting about one hour. The words of introduction consist of texts from Scripture with a response from the congregation, confession and absolution also follow Scripture closely and in some Orders feature the Ten Commandments, the Lord’s Summary of the Law or the Beatitudes. There is provision for the chanting of psalms and canticles such as the Magnificat, among the canticles is a festal doxology from the 1759 Moravian Liturgy. Many prayers are taken from Anglican, Scottish and Free Church texts, the First Order is grounded in the Litany compiled by Martin Luther and printed in the Brethrens Hymn Book of 1566. The Sixth Order includes the Christ Litany composed by Zinzendorf, the Liturgy also includes the Apostles and Nicene creeds and five confessions of faith. The first of the dates from the early days of the Moravian renewal in Germany in the 1720s. This is usually used in the Easter dawn service, commonly held in burial grounds, linyard and Tovey do not attach much importance to this but it appears that Zinzendorf accepted the Greek claim that the ‘filioque’ was a relatively late Western addition. The liturgy for the Lords Supper or holy communion shows a Moravian characteristic in that prayers are addressed not to God the Father, the communion prayer is a combination of Anglican and Presbyterian material
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Unity of the Brethren
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For the Moravian Church, see Unitas Fratrum. Hus was executed, but his preaching and writings were instrumental in the formation of the Hussite movement, the Hussite movement broke into several strands, one of which became known as the Unity of the Brethren. The roots of radical and pacifistic stream within the early Hussite movement go back to Petr Chelčický. The original theological foundation for the future Unity of the Brethren was laid by Petr Chelčický and Brother Řehoř, lukáš Pražský, whose theological ideas strongly shaped the movement after the passing of Chelčický and Řehoř, provided later leadership. Another important leader was Jan Augusta, who spent many years in horrible imprisonment, the last bishop of Unity of the Brethren, Comenius is known for his reforms in education. During the second half of the 16th century, members of the Unity of the Brethren translated the Bible from the languages into the Czech. After 1620, due to a counter-reformation by the Roman Catholic Church and they formed the church which is now known as the Moravian Church, Jednota bratrská and the Unity of Brethren. During the Thirty-Years War, the Unity of Brethren churches were severely persecuted and those who stayed in Bohemia and Moravia practiced their beliefs in secret and privately passed their beliefs from one generation to the next. Even after Emperor Joseph II proclaimed toleration in 1781, only Lutherans, many of the Brethren united with the Lutherans and Calvinists around that time. After the end of World War I and the formation of Czechoslovakia in 1918, Czech Lutherans, after the imperial edict of 1861, which granted legal rights to Reformed churches, Unity of the Brethren missionaries from Germany were able to restore the church to its original Czech homeland. The first congregations was founded in 1870 in Potštejn, and in Dube in 1872, before the First World War, eight other churches had been planted. The Unity of the Brethren in the Czech Republic worked among the Czechs and the Germans, started orphanages in Čermná and Duba, the Czech-originated Unity of the Brethren should not be confused with the Unity of the Brethren Baptists, a Baptist organization in the Czech and Slovak Republics. From about the middle of the 19th century until the outbreak of the First World War, in most of the US they formed Czech churches within the Presbyterian Church. Those who settled as farmers in the state of Texas in the United States decided to form their own denomination, jindřich Juren came to Texas in 1876, and from 1881 through 1888 was the only minister to these Brethren congregations. Representatives of these congregations met in 1903 and formed the Evangelical Unity of the Bohemian-Moravian Brethren in North America, the early churches reflected their origin and worshipped in the Czech language. By the 1940s, most of the churches reflected assimilation into the surrounding culture, in 1959, the name Unity of the Brethren was adopted. This body accepts the Apostles Creed as an expression of their beliefs. The Unity practices two sacraments—water baptism and holy communion, Christian parents present their infant children for baptism
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Jamaica Province of the Moravian Church
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The Jamaica Province of the Moravian Church is part of the worldwide Moravian Church Unity. They landed on the coast of St. Elizabeth, deliberately shunning the towns and their first base was on the Bogue estate. During the first couple of years they had success in their work, then, in 1755 Br Gottlieb Haberecht died and on 1756-12-24 his replacements Christian Rauch and. Schulz arrived from America where Rauch had spent fifteen years working amongst Native Americans, the new arrivals disagreed with Caries and Shallcross about the conditions to be met before a slave could be baptised. The disagreement lost them the respect of many and caused confusion amongst those awaiting baptism, as a result, numbers attending services started to fall and did not recover until 1764 when a Br Schlegel arrived. The revival continued until he died in 1770, thereafter, little progress was made until 1809. The work now prospered, particularly after the close of Old Carmel estate in 1823, with membership growing dramatically during apprenticeship and after emancipation on 1838-08-01. By the centenary, membership had reached 13,129 including 4,249 communicants while there were 43 schools teaching 1,728 boys and 1,280 girls, the 250th anniversary was celebrated in 2004. As part of the celebrations the Jamaican Post Office issued a set of three stamps depicting pioneering Jamaican leaders of the church, the current Bishops are the Rt. Rev Stanley G. Clarke and the Rt, Rev Devon O. Anglin The Rev. Dr. Paul Gardner is the president of the PEC. Rev. Dr. Gardner was elected president of the World-Wide Moravian Church in 2008, marriages performed by Moravian ministers were legally recognised from 1835. Full legal recognition dates from Law 10 of 1884 entitled The Corporation of the Church of The Unity of the Brethren in Jamaica, during the first 100 years,193 European brethren and sisters took part in the work in Jamaica. Of these,64 died there,98 returned home or went to serve in other islands and 31 were still in service at the centenary, of the 64 who died, As can be seen, average life expectancy was low at the start of the work. It improved later as an effect of moving the work to cool hilly areas which reduced the incidence of tropical diseases. Nonetheless, many died from these diseases. One enduring consequence is that most congregations today are found in Westmoreland, St. Elizabeth, the first building used exclusively as a church was erected in 1820 at New Eden. Prior to that, services were held in the hall of the dwelling house or under trees. Another eleven followed over the thirty years,1826 Fairfield
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Moravian Academy
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Moravian Academy, located in historic Bethlehem, Pennsylvania in the United States, is a prekindergarten through 12th grade coeducational college preparatory school. It predominantly serves students from the Lehigh Valley region of Pennsylvania, Moravian Academy is an independent school, but traces its origins to the Moravians, who settled Bethlehem, Pennsylvania in 1741. The Academy descends from the first school for girls founded in the American colonies, Moravian Seminary and it is the ninth oldest independent school in the United States. In 1971, Moravian Seminary for Girls and Moravian Preparatory School merged and it was formerly a boarding school, but is now for day students only. Moravian Academy has a heritage in the Moravian Church, but now refers to itself as a church-related school, welcoming students from diverse religious. The school holds weekly interfaith chapel services for students that both celebrate the religious traditions of the school community and honor the schools Moravian heritage. Moravian is made up of three divisions, The Upper, Middle and Lower Schools, the Upper School is located on the Merle-Smith Campus, and the Lower and Middle Schools are located in downtown Bethlehem on the Church Street Campus. The Middle School is based in the Devey Building, dedicated to Mr. Devey & Mrs. Devey, a headmaster and his wife, and the 7 East Market Street Building. The Lower School comprises Primer through 5th grade, the Middle School comprises 6th through 8th, in May 1742, Moravian Seminary was founded by Countess Benigna von Zinzendorf, daughter of Moravian Leader Count Nicolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf. The school was founded as a Moravian girls school in Germantown, Philadelphia, soon afterwards, a separate Moravian boys school was founded. The two schools changed locations frequently in their days, following the Moravian missionaries around as they fulfilled their vows to preach to the Native Americans in the region. In order to give the schools more stability, Moravian Bishop Joseph Spangenberg turned them into boarding schools to house, after a while, the boarding schools began charging large fees for tuition and board which caused many to leave for cheaper schools in the area. During the time of the American Revolution, Moravian schools opened up enrollment to non-Moravians with permission from the church leaders, many people wanted to give their children the skills and education that the Moravians had cherished for a long time. The schools became so popular that they were unable to house the large amount of students wanted to join the school. In the 1830s, the Moravian day schools became public schools, in 1850s, a co-ed Moravian Parochial School broke away from the public school system. This Moravian Parochial School went on to set up a preparatory program to prepare students for nearby Lehigh University in 1885. They used this program as an excuse to nearly double tuition prices, the Moravian Parochial School was later renamed to Moravian Preparatory School. Meanwhile, Moravian Seminary was facing hard times at the same time that teachers were demanding higher pay
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Moravian College
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Moravian College a private liberal arts college, and the associated Moravian Theological Seminary are located in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, United States, in the Lehigh Valley region. The College traces its roots to the Bethlehem Female Seminary, which was founded in 1742, the Female Seminary was incorporated by the Pennsylvania State Legislature in 1863 and became the womans college, the Moravian Seminary and College for Women in 1913. The College also traces its roots to the founding of two schools, established in 1742 and 1743, which merged to become Nazareth Hall in 1759. It was located in the town of Nazareth, Nazareth Hall became, in part, Moravian College & Theological Seminary in 1807. It was later incorporated by the Pennsylvania State Legislature as Moravian College & Theological Seminary in 1863 as a baccalaureate granting institution. The mens Moravian College & Theological Seminary then settled in the end of the city as a result of a donation from the Bethlehem Congregation of the Moravian Church in 1888. The first buildings constructed at North Campus, Comenius Hall and Zinzendorf Hall, were completed in 1892, the farmhouse was later named Hamilton Hall and still exists today. In 1954, the two combined to form the single, coeducational, modern institution of Moravian College. The merger of the two combined the North Campus and the South Campus into a single collegiate campus. The distance between the North and South campuses is about 0.8 miles of Main Street, called the Moravian Mile, first year students traditionally walk the Moravian Mile as part of their orientation activities. Although the college is one of the oldest educational institutions in the United States, it is not considered one of the nine original Colonial Colleges, Moravian College and Theological Seminary, as well as the Bethlehem Female Seminary did not start granting baccalaureate degrees until 1863. Moravian College currently enrolls ~1600 full-time undergraduate students in a variety of majors. The Seminary enrolls over 100 full-time students in its graduate divinity programs, during most semesters at least 14 denominations are represented in the Seminary student body. The Colleges varied and highly regarded music programs grow from the Moravian Churchs musical traditions, Moravian Colleges student newspaper is The Comenian, which is printed biweekly throughout the school year. Every year the student body elects representatives to the United Student Government, USG was officially recognized in 1968. A somewhat unusual facet of college governance is the existence of two elected student members of Moravian Colleges Board of Trustees, both are full, voting members and serve two-year terms, the College also has evening undergraduate programs for adults seeking continuing undergraduate education and graduate degrees. The seminary has accreditation from the Association of Theological Schools in the United States, students of the College have received a number of national awards over its history. Between 2000-2007, seven students were selected as Fulbright Scholars, overall, nine of the Colleges students have received the Fulbright Scholarship
40.
Ockbrook School
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Ockbrook School is an independent coeducational day and boarding school for children aged 2–18 years situated in beautiful rural Derbyshire between the cities of Nottingham and Derby. Boarding is for boys and girls from age 11–18 years, Ockbrook was founded by the Moravian Church and its Christian heritage is evidenced by its school emblem, which features the Agnus Dei, and the school motto, which is also the motto of the Church. Ockbrook was founded in 1799 by the Moravian Church and still maintains a Christian ethos, the school was originally a ladies school and the boys school did not open until 1813. It became a school in 1915. The primary section became coeducational, although this is now being extended throughout the school. The Church is still responsible for the school but responsibility is now exercised largely through the local board of governors. A history of the school was published in 2000 as part of the bicentenary celebrations, in March 2012 the board of governors announced the decision to extend the 11+ intake to boys beginning in September 2013 as a step towards coeducation. The school is now fully coeducational, the main school also provides form rooms for years 7–13. The Grange is a building located near to the main school, next to the Birtill Hall The Mount is a further primary building, housing nursery and years 1. Pupils move over to The Grange for years 3,4,5 and 6, the school also has a Sports Complex, Arts and Technology complex, Music block, Lecture Theatre and Science complex. Alex Hamilton - BBC Presenter and weather presenter Kate Oates - British television producer, known for her work on the soap operas The Archers, Emmerdale, and Coronation Street. For more information and event about OSLA, please refer to http, //www. ockbrooksch. co. uk/osla/ Ockbrook School Ockbrook School at WikiMapia Profile on the ISC website ISI Inspection Reports
41.
Salem Academy
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Salem Academy is a boarding and day school for high school girls in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. It shares its campus with Salem College, located near historic Old Salem, Salem Academy is one of the oldest girls boarding schools in the United States. Salem was founded in 1772 by early Moravian settlers who held the view that girls deserved an education comparable to that afforded boys, among the towns early residents were 16 girls and women who walked more than 500 miles from Bethlehem, Pennsylvania to join the new community. One of them was 17-year-old Elisabeth Oesterlein, who would be the first teacher of what is now Salem Academy, there were very few girls schools at the time, particularly in the South, word spread about the girls school, and the school accepted boarding students in 1802. The school grew throughout the 19th century both in size and course offerings, with college-level courses being offered in the 1860s. As the college-level curriculum expanded, the school became known as Salem Academy. Despite such travails as the American Civil War and an epidemic in the 1800s. Founded by the Moravian Church, Salem Academy is now an independent institution that retains some of the traditions of the church, Salems mission is shaped by the Moravian beliefs that have stressed the importance of education and learning as central to their mission for centuries. Other Moravian traditions still practiced at the school include the senior vespers held at the end of every fall term, Salem Academy is a member of the National Association of Independent Schools and is fully accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. All applicants are required to send middle school transcripts and teacher recommendations, applicants are also required to undergo an interview before receiving admission. Salem accepts students from all over the United States as well as around the world, the student-faculty relationship is central to the academic experience at Salem. Small class size, averaging 13-14 students per class, and low student teacher ratio allows Salems superb faculty to all their students due to the intimate learning environment. Salems small classes characterized by lively discussions and debates, each girl has the opportunity to be known and this relationship with the faculty is supported by Salems advising program. While an advisor has many duties, foremost is that of being the students friend—the adult who talks with her, helps her, and is her advocate. Jan Term is a three-week mini-term that gives opportunities to pursue internships, enroll in special classes. The school schedules trips each year that are organized and led by faculty members from different departments, for the first two years most students spend January Term on campus in focused classes or programs that allow each student to further explore her interests. Juniors and Seniors pursue internships outside of Salem where they can gain first hand knowledge of topics, Salem Academy has 13 athletic teams. The schools sports mascot is the saber, and the colors are purple
Garnett, Richard (1894). "Montgomery, James (1771-1854)". In Lee, Sidney. Dictionary of National Biography. 38. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
Garnett, Richard (1894). "
