1.
Allan Ramsay (artist)
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Allan Ramsay was a prominent Scottish portrait-painter. Allan Ramsay was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, the eldest son of Allan Ramsay, poet and he later moved to London, where he was employed by the Duke of Bridgewater. His pleasant manners and varied culture, not less than his artistic skill and his only serious competitor was Thomas Hudson, with whom he shared a drapery painter, Joseph van Aken. In 1739 he married his first wife, Anne Bayne, the daughter of Alexander Bayne of Rires, Anne died on 4 February 1743, giving birth to their 3rd child, none of their children reached adulthood. One of his pupils was Margaret Lindsay, eldest daughter of Sir Alexander Lindsay of Evelick. He later eloped with her and on 1 March 1752 they married in the Canongate Kirk, Edinburgh, Ramsay already had to maintain a daughter from his previous marriage and his two surviving sisters, but told Sir Alexander that he could provide Margaret with an annual income of £100. Three children survived from their long and happy marriage, Amelia, Charlotte, Ramsay and his new wife spent 1754 to 1757 together in Italy, going to Rome, Florence, Naples and Tivoli, researching, painting and drawing old masters, antiquities and archaeological sites. He earned income painting Grand Tourists portraits and this and other trips to Italy involved more literary and antiquarian research than art. After their return, Ramsay in 1761 was appointed to succeed John Shackelton as Principal Painter in Ordinary to George III and he gave up painting in about 1770 to concentrate on literary pursuits. His health was shattered by a dislocation of the right arm. With unflinching pertinacity, he struggled until he had completed a likeness of the king upon which he was engaged at the time and he left a series of 50 royal portraits to be completed by his assistant Reinagle. For several years he lingered in the south, his constitution finally broken and he died at Dover on 10 August 1784. The portrait of his wife shows the influence of French art. The large collection of his sketches in the possession of the Royal Scottish Academy, Ramsay has paintings in the collection of a few British institutions including the National Gallery in London, Sheffield, Derby Art Gallery, Glasgow Museum and Newstead Abbey. Valdes suggests that copies of paintings were sent to the colonies to be used by abolitionists as a de facto support for their cause. Most historians question whether the 13th-century ancestor, referred to in various places as a Moor and Berber, was black African. In any event, they contend that the connection, nine and 15 generations removed, was too distant to consider Charlotte black in any cultural way, as her other ancestors were all European
2.
Scottish National Portrait Gallery
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The Scottish National Portrait Gallery is an art museum on Queen Street, Edinburgh. The gallery holds the collections of portraits, all of which are of. It also holds the Scottish National Photography Collection, the gallery reopened on 1 December 2011 after being closed since April 2009 for the first comprehensive refurbishment in its history, which was carried out by Page\Park Architects. The founder of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, David Erskine, 11th Earl of Buchan, formed a collection of Scottish portraits in the late 18th century, eventually John Ritchie Findlay stepped in and paid for the entire building, costing £50,000. The museum was established in 1882, before its new building was completed, the famous collection of portraits housed in the Vasari Corridor in Florence remains only accessible to the public on a limited basis. The work generally restores the gallery spaces to their layout, with areas set aside for education, the shop & café. In total the Portrait Gallery has 60% more gallery space after the changes, the cost of the refurbishment was £17.6 million. The museums collection totals some 3,000 paintings and sculptures,25,000 prints and drawings, in the 16th century most painted portraits are of royalty or the more important nobility, the oldest work in the collection is a portrait of James IV of Scotland from 1507. The gallery holds several works by Bronckhorst and his successor, Adrian Vanson, the first significant native Scot to be a portrait painter, George Jamesone only once got the chance to paint his monarch, when Charles I visited Edinburgh in 1633. The collection includes two Jamesone self-portraits and portraits of the Scottish aristocracy, as well as some imagined portraits of heroes of Scotlands past. There are three portraits by Jamesones talented pupil John Michael Wright and ten aristocratic portraits by Sir John Baptist Medina, also wearing tartan is Flora MacDonald, painted by Richard Wilson in London after her arrest for helping Bonnie Prince Charlie to escape after the 1745 Jacobite Rebellion. The museum owns the iconic portrait of Robert Burns by Alexander Nasmyth and his subjects include Adam Smith, James Beattie and Robert Adam. The later 19th century in Scotland had no such dominant figures, but many fine artists, and saw the beginning of photography
3.
Edinburgh
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Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls
4.
Ballencrieff, East Lothian
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Ballencrieff is a rural community in East Lothian, Scotland. It is located between the towns of Aberlady, Drem, Haddington and Longniddry and is approximately 20 miles from Edinburgh, the name comes from the Scottish Gaelic Baile na Craoibhe meaning Tree town. The village comprises typical rural housing, and some industry, including commercial pork farming, nearby Ballencrieff Castle was built in 1507. The nearby Ballencrief roundabout, on the commuter route between North Berwick and Edinburgh, has a reputation as an accident blackspot. List of places in East Lothian Ballencrieff Rare Breed Pigs Ballencrieff Castle for sale in 2006
5.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
6.
Battle, East Sussex
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Battle is a small town and civil parish in the local government district of Rother in East Sussex, England. It lies 55 miles south-south-east of London,32 miles east of Brighton and 24 miles east of Lewes, also nearby are Hastings to the south-east and Bexhill-on-Sea to the south. It was the site of the Battle of Hastings, where William, Duke of Normandy and it is situated in the heart in the designated High Weald Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The parish population was 6,048 according to the 2001 census and it has two senior schools, Claverham Community College and Battle Abbey. Battle Abbey was founded to commemorate the battle, and dedicated in 1095, the high altar of the Abbey church was reputedly on the spot where Harold died. The Abbey gateway is still the dominant feature of the end of the main street. The remaining cloisters, part of the west range, were leased to Battle Abbey School shortly after World War I, the abbey at Battle has been known for centuries as Battle Abbey. It and the church were initially dedicated to St Martin. The town of Battle was gradually built around the Abbey, in the mid-18th century, the town supported five watchmakers in the High Street. Today, Battle is known as a tourist destination, the local Battel Bonfire Boyes is claimed to be the oldest of the Sussex Bonfire Societies. The importance of Bonfire Night in Battle is that it is located in the wooded Weald of Sussex, most of the area was heavily wooded, which provided oak and other timbers for Navy shipyards, power for making cannons, cannonballs and gunpowder. Battle was the birthplace in 1799 of Eliza Acton, author of the pioneering Modern Cookery for Private Families This continued to sell well for the rest of the century. Its lists of ingredients, cooking times and other provided an model for the cookery section of the best-selling Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management. Battle was a refuge in World War I, and tunnels still exist, leading from various fields, however, they are deemed unsafe and are now closed. The first gunpowder mill in Battle was built in 1676 when John Hammond was granted permission to build a mill on land owned by the Abbey, a gunpowder works was located in Powdermill Lane – the remains of which have been converted into a hotel. In 1722 Daniel Defoe described the town as being remarkable for little now, but for making the finest gun-powder, Battle is governed at the lowest level by Battle Town Council, consisting of 17 elected councillors who meet on the third Tuesday of each month. The council is responsible for lighting, allotments and recreational areas. It provides a voice to the district and county councils
7.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
8.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
9.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
10.
East Yorkshire Regiment
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The East Yorkshire Regiment was a line infantry regiment of the British Army, first raised in 1685 as Sir William Cliftons Regiment of Foot and later renamed the 15th Regiment of Foot. It saw service for three centuries, before being amalgamated with the West Yorkshire Regiment to form the Prince of Waless Own Regiment of Yorkshire in 1958. Subsequently, the regiment amalgamated with the Green Howards and the Duke of Wellingtons Regiment to form the Yorkshire Regiment on 6 June 2006. Raised in 1685 in Nottingham by Sir William Clifton, 3rd Baronet and it took part in the Battle of Killiecrankie in July 1689 and the Battle of Cromdale in April 1690 during the Jacobite rising of 1689 to 1692. It went on to fight at the Battle of Ramillies in May 1706, the Battle of Oudenarde in July 1708 and it returned to England in 1714. It was sent to Scotland and took part in the Battle of Glen Shiel in June 1719 during Jacobite rising, the regiment was deployed to South America where it took part in the Battle of Cartagena de Indias in March 1741 during the War of Jenkins Ear. It also saw action at the Battle of Culloden in April 1746 during the next Jacobite rising, in 1751, when the numerical system of designation of Regiments of Foot was adopted, it became the 15th Regiment of Foot. The regiment went on to part in the capture of Île-dAix in 1757 and, having sailed for North America in 1758. In 1782 the regiment became the 15th Regiment of Foot, the regiment was sent to North America again in spring 1776 for service in the American Revolutionary War. It saw action at the Battle of Long Island in August 1776, the Battle of White Plains in October 1776 and it also took part in the Battle of Brandywine in September 1777, the Battle of Germantown in October 1777 and the Battle of White Marsh in December 1777. The regiment was deployed to the West Indies in 1795 for service in the French Revolutionary Wars and fought at attacks on Martinique and Guadeloupe before returning to England in 1796. The regiment returned to the West Indies in 1805 for service in the Napoleonic Wars and took part in the invasion of Martinique in January 1809, the regiment spent most of the 19th century on garrison duty, both at home and throughout the Empire. The 1st Battalion was shipped to New Brunswick in 1862 at the time of the Trent Affair, when Britain, under the reforms the regiment became The East Yorkshire Regiment on 1 July 1881. The 2nd Battalion fought in the Second Anglo-Afghan War and the Second Boer War, the 1st Battalion landed at Saint-Nazaire as part of the 18th Brigade in the 6th Division in September 1914 for service on the Western Front. The 1/4th Battalion landed at Boulogne-sur-Mer as part of the York, the 7th Battalion landed at Boulogne-sur-Mer as part of 50th Brigade in the 17th Division in July 1915 also for service on the Western Front. The 8th Battalion landed at Boulogne-sur-Mer as part of the 62nd Brigade in the 21st Division in September 1915 also for service on the Western Front, the 10th, 11th, 12th and 13th Battalions were raised in September 1914 from men volunteering in Hull. These units were additionally entitled 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th City of Hull battalions and they landed in Egypt as part of the 92nd Brigade in the 31st Division in December 1915 and then moved to France in March 1916 also for service on the Western Front. In 1935 the regiment was renamed The East Yorkshire Regiment, after its Colonel-in-Chief, in the Second World War, six hostilities-only battalions were raised
11.
War of the Austrian Succession
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The War of the Austrian Succession involved most of the powers of Europe over the question of Maria Theresas succession to the Habsburg Monarchy. The war included King Georges War in British America, the War of Jenkins Ear, the First Carnatic War in India, the Jacobite rising of 1745 in Scotland, and the First and Second Silesian Wars. Austria was supported by Great Britain and the Dutch Republic, the enemies of France, as well as the Kingdom of Sardinia. France and Prussia were allied with the Electorate of Bavaria, the war ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, by which Maria Theresa was confirmed as Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary, but Prussia retained control of Silesia. But the peace was soon to be shattered, when Austrias desire to recapture Silesia intertwined with the political changes in Europe. In 1740, after the death of her father, Charles VI, Maria Theresa succeeded him as Queen of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia, Archduchess of Austria and Duchess of Parma. The complications involved in a female Habsburg ruler had been long foreseen, problems began when King Frederick II of Prussia violated the Pragmatic Sanction and invaded Silesia on 16 December 1740, using the 1537 Treaty of Brieg as a pretext. For much of the century, France approached its wars in the same way. It would let its colonies defend themselves, or would offer only minimal help, similarly, several long land borders made an effective domestic army imperative for any ruler of France. At the end of the war, France gave back its European conquests, the British—by inclination as well as for pragmatic reasons—had tended to avoid large-scale commitments of troops on the Continent. For the War of the Austrian Succession, the British were allied with Austria, by the time of the Seven Years War, they were allied with its enemy, Prussia. In marked contrast to France, Britain strove to prosecute the war in the colonies once it became involved in the war. The British pursued a strategy of naval blockade and bombardment of enemy ports. They would harass enemy shipping and attack enemy outposts, frequently using colonists from nearby British colonies in the effort and this plan worked better in North America than in Europe, but set the stage for the Seven Years War. Prince Frederick had been only 28 years of age on 31 May 1740 when his father, Frederick William I died, neither Frederick nor his father had ever been fond of Austria and its various snubs against Prussia. Emperor Charles VI had made provision for the succession of his daughter, in support of his invasion of Silesia, Frederick also used a questionable interpretation of a treaty between the Hohenzollerns and the Piasts of Brieg as pretext. In particular, Frederick feared that Augustus III, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, was preparing to seize Silesia for himself to unite Saxony and Poland. The only recent combat experience of the Prussian Army was their participation in the War of the Polish Succession, accordingly, the Prussian Army had an uninspiring reputation and was counted as one of the many minor armies of the Holy Roman Empire
12.
Battle of Cartagena de Indias
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The Battle of Cartagena de Indias was an amphibious military engagement between the forces of Britain under Vice-Admiral Edward Vernon and those of Spain under Admiral Blas de Lezo. It took place at the city of Cartagena de Indias in March 1741, the battle was a significant episode of the War of Jenkins Ear and a large-scale naval campaign. The war later was subsumed into the conflict of the War of the Austrian Succession. The battle resulted in a defeat for the British Navy. The defeat caused heavy losses for the British, Disease, rather than deaths in combat, the War of Jenkins Ear was a conflict between Great Britain and Spain that lasted from 1739 to 1748. The Asiento allowed Britain a monopoly to supply 5,000 slaves a year to the Spanish colonies, the Navio de Permiso permitted a single yearly trading ship, the Annual Ship, which could carry 1000 tons of imports to the yearly trade fair in Porto Bello. Upon receiving these concessions from Spain, the British government granted a monopoly for both to the South Sea Company. The merchants and bankers in Britain, who were the force behind Britains international commerce and trading. In turn, the Spanish colonists desired British-made goods, so a black market of smuggled goods developed. By the terms of the treaty, the Spanish were permitted to board British vessels in Spanish waters, after one such boarding in 1731, Robert Jenkins, captain of the ship Rebecca, claimed that a Spanish coast guard officer had severed his ear. The legend that Jenkins exhibited his pickled ear to the House of Commons appears to have no basis in fact and this served to heighten the war fever developing against Spain, which was also driven by the British desire for commercial and military domination of the Atlantic basin. On November 22,1739 the British captured Portobelo in the Viceroyalty of New Granada, the British attack was part of an attempt to damage Spains finances. The poorly defended port was attacked by six ships of the line under Vice-Admiral Edward Vernon, the relative ease of this capture, although the city was abandoned immediately after its capture, caused jubilation in Britain. Vernon was given command of the large naval force, which was one quarter of the British Royal Navy, of a major land. Lord Cathcart died en route and it remained unclear who was in command overall, cathcarts untimely demise resulted in dissension in the British command, preventing the coordination needed for this complex operation. The Duke of Newcastle advocated the publics demands before Parliament, Vice-Admiral Vernon was an active and ardent supporter of war against Spain and advocated offensive action both in Parliament and before the Admiralty. The decision to mount a large West Indies expedition was reached in December 1739, Walpole, who opposed the war categorically, and Vernon, who favored small squadron actions, were dissatisfied with the situation. He feared, particularly, that a siege would lead to heavy attrition from disease
13.
War of Jenkins' Ear
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The War of Jenkins Ear was a conflict between Britain and Spain that lasted from 1739 to 1748, with major operations largely ended by 1742. Its unusual name, coined by Thomas Carlyle in 1858, refers to an ear severed from Robert Jenkins, despite stories to that effect, there is no evidence that the severed ear was exhibited before the British Parliament. The seeds of conflict began with the separation of an ear from Jenkins following the boarding of his vessel by Spanish coast guards in 1731, the war resulted in heavy British casualties in North America. After 1742, the war was subsumed by the wider War of the Austrian Succession, peace arrived with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. This provided British traders and smugglers potential inroads into the closed markets in Spanish America. But Britain and Spain were often at war during this period, fighting one another in the War of the Quadruple Alliance, the Blockade of Porto Bello and the Anglo-Spanish War. In the Treaty of Seville, following the Anglo-Spanish War, Britain had accorded Spanish warships the right to stop British traders, over time, the Spanish became suspicious that British traders were abusing the contract and began to board ships and confiscate their cargoes. After very strained relations between 1727 and 1732, the situation improved between 1732 and 1737, when Sir Robert Walpole supported Spain during the War of the Polish Succession. But the causes of the problems remained and, when the opposition against Walpole grew, Walpole gave in to the pressure and approved the sending of troops to the West Indies and a squadron to Gibraltar under Admiral Nicholas Haddock, provoking an immediate Spanish reaction. In response, King Philip V of Spain annulled the right and had all British ships in Spanish harbours confiscated. The Convention of Pardo, an attempt to mediate the dispute, on 14 August, Britain recalled its ambassador to Spain and officially declared war on 23 October 1739. Despite the Pacte de Famille, France remained neutral, Walpole was deeply reluctant to declare war and reportedly remarked of the jubilation in Britain they are ringing their bells, soon they will be wringing their hands. After boarding, Fandiño cut off the ear of the Rebeccas captain, Robert Jenkins. Fandiño told Jenkins, Go, and tell your King that I will do the same, in March 1738, Jenkins was ordered to testify before Parliament, presumably to repeat his story before a committee of the House of Commons. According to some accounts, he produced the severed ear as part of his presentation, the incident was considered alongside various other cases of Spanish Depredations upon the British Subjects, and was perceived as an insult to Britains honour and a clear casus belli. The conflict was named by essayist and historian Thomas Carlyle, in 1858, one hundred, Carlyle mentioned the ear in several passages of his History of Friedrich II, most notably in Book XI, chap VI, where he refers specifically to the War of Jenkinss Ear. More than one year later, all diplomatic means having been exhausted, on 20 July, Vice Admiral Edward Vernon and a fleet of warships departed Britain, bound for the West Indies, to attack Spanish ships and possessions. Waterhouse spotted several small vessels in the port of La Guaira and decided to attack, the governor of the Province of Venezuela, Brigadier Don Gabriel de Zuloaga had prepared the port defences, and Spanish troops were well-commanded by Captain Don Francisco Saucedo
14.
Siege of Ostend
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The Siege of Ostend was a three-year siege of the city of Ostend during the Eighty Years War and the Anglo–Spanish War. A Spanish force under Archduke Albrecht besieged the fortress being held initially by a Dutch force which was reinforced by English troops under Francis Vere who became the towns governor and it was said the Spanish assailed the unassailable, the Dutch defended the indefensible. The commitment of both sides in the dispute over the only Dutch ruled area in the province of Flanders and this resulted in one of the longest and bloodiest sieges in world history, more than 100,000 people were killed, wounded or succumbed to disease during the siege. Ostend was resupplied via the sea and as a result held out for three years, a garrison did a tour of duty before being replaced by fresh troops, normally 3,000 at a time keeping casualties and disease to a minimum. The siege consisted of a number of assaults by the Spanish, after suffering heavy losses the Spanish had replaced the Archduke with Ambrosio Spinola and the siege settled down to one of attrition with the strong points gradually being taken one at a time. Ostend was eventually captured by the Spanish on 20 September 1604, but the city was completely destroyed, in 1568, during the reign of Philip II of Spain, the Netherlands, until then under the rule of the Spanish Empire, took up arms against the Spanish crown. The first phase of the war began with two unsuccessful invasions of the provinces by mercenary armies under Prince William I of Orange and foreign-based raids by the Geuzen or Sea Beggars. By the end of 1573 the Beggars had captured the bulk of the provinces of Holland and Zeeland as well as converted the populace to Calvinism, the other provinces joined in the revolt in 1576, and a general union was formed. In 1579 the union was weakened by the defection of the Roman Catholic Walloon provinces. In 1599 the Archduke Albert of Austria and Isabel Clara Eugenia, by 1600 Maurice of Nassau was stadtholder and Johan van Oldenbarnevelt was Grand pensionary of the States General of the Netherlands. In 1601 Spain now under King Philip III with his favourite the Duke of Lerma despite maintaining its hegemony in the world, was weakened with war. Spain had also only just finished a costly and unsuccessful war with France, the wars were a great burden for the Spanish Empire and meant that financially Spain depended entirely on the treasure fleet brought from the colonies. Nevertheless, Philip pursued a highly aggressive set of policies, aiming to deliver a victory against both Holland and England. The situation of the United Provinces was similar, more than thirty years of war, the Dutch tried to relieve their precarious finances by commercially expanding into the East Indies with the birth of the Dutch East India Company. England were in the position and were fighting now in Ireland. Like the Dutch they too had just set up their own East India Company and this never happened however as disputes in the Dutch command meant that taking Spanish occupied cities in the rest of the Netherlands took over priority as the opportunity arose. Maurice concurred and had his forces evacuated by sea leaving Ostend to be preoccupied by the Spanish, founded five hundred years ago, the city of Ostend in the mid-16th century was a fishing village of about 3,000 inhabitants. In the view of the State of Flanders, Ostend in the hands of the Protestant Dutch, Ostend unlike other places in the Netherlands had never been taken by the Spanish and the garrison had even repelled an attack by Parma in 1583
15.
Raid on Lorient
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The Raid on Lorient was a British amphibious operation in the region around the town of Lorient from 29 September to 10 October 1746 during the War of the Austrian Succession. It was planned as an attempt to force the French to withdraw their forces from Flanders to reinforce their own coast. At the same time, as Lorient was used by the French East India Company as a base and supply depot, the British troops only arrived in the outskirts of the town on 3 October and negotiations for the towns surrender were ended on by the bombardment of 5–7 October. On 7 October the British force was ordered to retreat, the British engineers incompetence and losses to disease and fatigue forced the commander to stop his offensive. He made an offer on 7 October, shortly after the enemys departure. Following the capture of Louisbourg in 1745, the British government contemplated launching an attack on Quebec which would hand Britain control over Canada, the Duke of Bedford was the leading political supporter of a campaign. A force was prepared for this with troops under Lieutenant General James St Clair and it was ready to sail by June 1746. As it would be impossible to re-integrate the British force back into one, Thomas Pelham-Holles. George II of England heard about the proposal and asked the general if a plan had been prepared. The general told him there was not yet any such plan and that he did not know such a landing might be made. In a meeting with the king, Newcastle insisted that the plan be carried through, at Plymouth, St Clair received orders to sail for the French coast and attack Lorient, Rochefort, La Rochelle, Bordeaux or any other town as opportunity presented itself. In a letter of 29–30 August, he favoured an operation against Bordeaux, an area he already knew and he met St Clair and informed him that he knew the town of Lorient in southern Brittany was poorly fortified. It was therefore decided to send the force to identify possible landing or raiding sites along that coast. At the same time, Newcastle began to support a plan to land in Normandy which had been produced by major McDonald of the general staff, British tactics had evolved since the War of the League of Augsburg. Instead of bombarding ports and raiding the coast of Brittany as it had done during that conflict and he had at his disposal 16 ships of the line,8 frigates and 43 transport ships. Shortly before the departure the historian and philosopher David Hume became secretary to James St Clair. The commanders were doubtful as to whether Brittany was the best target for the raid, preferring Normandy. Brittany was not well-known to the British - St Clair could not acquire a map of the region and had to use a map of France instead
16.
French and Indian War
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The French and Indian War comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years War of 1754–1763. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 European settlers, the outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. Following months of localised conflict, the nations declared war on each other in 1756. The name French and Indian War, used mainly in the United States, British and European historians use the term the Seven Years War, as do English speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête or the Fourth Intercolonial War, fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, in 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the effort by Braddock proved a disaster, he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9,1755. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander-in-Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians, both captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty, were expelled. Native Americans were likewise driven off their land to make way for settlers from New England, after the disastrous 1757 British campaigns, the British government fell. France concentrated its forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theatre of the war, between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada. They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec, though the British later lost the Battle of Sainte-Foy west of Quebec, the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain, in compensation for Spains loss to Britain of Florida. Frances colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King Williams War or Queen Annes War. As there had already been a King Georges War in the 1740s, British colonists named the war in King Georges reign after their opponents
17.
Raid on Rochefort
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The Raid on Rochefort was a British amphibious attempt to capture the French Atlantic port of Rochefort in September 1757 during the Seven Years War. The raid pioneered a new tactic of descents on the French coast, after a number of delays the expedition reached the French coast, capturing the offshore island of Île dAix. With the army commander Sir John Mordaunt refusing to attempt a landing, the raid ended in failure, but it was followed by several similar operations in the subsequent years. In the wake of these losses, a new government including William Pitt came to office in July 1757. Pitt wanted a bold stroke that would force the French to detach large numbers of troops, planned to be used in their invasion of Germany and he also hoped to satisfy the public who clamoured for such a campaign. An urgent demand for such an expedition came from Britains only major ally Frederick the Great who saw it as vital to relieve pressure from an anticipated French offensive against Prussia. Frederick had suggested attacks on the French coast in the hope that it would provide relief to both his own armies and the Army of Observation under the Duke of Cumberland. Command of the forces was awarded to Sir John Mordaunt, with Edward Cornwallis. Edward Hawke was selected to command the naval contingent whose role was to escort Mordaunts force, land it on the French shore, james Wolfe was appointed as the expeditions Quartermaster General and the Armys chief of staff. The expedition was assembled on the Isle of Wight during July, there were soon a number of delays, which pushed back the departure date. Most of the spent their time in Newport. 8,000 troops were camped there, although all. On 7 September, a month after they had scheduled to depart. It arrived off Rochefort on the 20 September, but due to fog was unable to land for several days. Hawke and the officers were already extremely concerned about the worsening weather. Guided by Joseph Thierry, a Huguenot river pilot, two British warships approached the fort that dominated Île dAix, Wolfe observed the mainland from Ile dAix and he noted a battery of guns at Fort Fouras on the mainland, which guarded the mouth of the River Charente. The French were totally unprepared to resist an assault, and had been taken completely by surprise by the appearance of the British fleet. Wolfe advocated an immediate assault on Fort Fouras, and also a raid in the direction of nearby La Rochelle to confuse the French about the true intentions
18.
Siege of Louisbourg (1758)
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The British government realized that with the Fortress of Louisbourg under French control, there was no way that the Royal Navy could sail up the St. Lawrence River for an attack on Quebec unmolested. Pitt assigned the duty of capturing the fortress to Major General Jeffrey Amherst, amhersts brigadiers were Charles Lawrence, James Wolfe and Edward Whitmore, and command of naval operations was assigned to Admiral Edward Boscawen. As they had in 1757, the French planned to defend Louisbourg by a large naval build-up, however, the French fleet sailing from Toulon was blockaded in Cartagena by a British force, and a relief force was defeated at the Battle of Cartagena. After this the French abandoned their attempt to reinforce Louisbourg from the Mediterranean, British forces assembled at Halifax, Nova Scotia where army and navy units spent most of May training together as the massive invasion fleet came together. After a large gathering at the Great Pontack, on 29 May the Royal Navy fleet departed from Halifax for Louisbourg, the fleet consisted of 150 transport ships and 40 men-of-war. Housed in these ships were almost 14,000 soldiers, almost all of whom were regulars, the force was divided into three divisions, Red, commanded by James Wolfe, Blue, commanded by Charles Lawrence and White commanded by Edward Whitmore. On 2 June the British force anchored in Gabarus Bay,3 miles from Louisbourg, however, unlike the previous year, the French navy was unable to assemble in significant numbers, leaving the French squadron at Louisbourg outnumbered five to one by the British fleet. Drucour ordered trenches to be prepared and manned by some 2,000 French troops, along with other defences, such as an artillery battery, at Kennington Cove. Weather conditions in the first week of June made any landing impossible, however, conditions improved, and at daybreak on 8 June Amherst launched his assault using a flotilla of large boats, organized in 7 divisions, each commanded by one of his brigadiers. French defenses were successful and after heavy losses, Wolfe ordered a retreat. However, at the last minute, a boatload of light infantry in Wolfes division found a rocky inlet protected from French fire, Wolfe redirected the rest of his division to follow. Outflanked, the French retreated rapidly back to their fortress, continuing heavy seas and the difficulty inherent to moving siege equipment over boggy terrain delayed the commencement of the formal siege. In the meantime, Wolfe was sent with 1,220 picked men around the harbour to seize Lighthouse Point, after eleven days, on 19 June, the British artillery batteries were in position and the orders were given to open fire on the French. The British battery consisted of seventy cannons and mortars of all sizes, within hours, the guns had destroyed walls and damaged several buildings. On 21 July a mortar round from a British gun on Lighthouse Point struck a 74 gun French ship of the line, LEntreprenant, a stiff breeze fanned the fire, and shortly after the LEntreprenant caught fire, two other French ships had caught fire. LEntreprenant exploded later in the day, depriving the French of the largest ship in the Louisbourg fleet, the next major blow to French morale came on the evening of 23 July, at 10,00. A British hot shot set the Kings Bastion on fire, the Kings Bastion was the fortress headquarters and the largest building in North America in 1758. Its destruction eroded confidence and reduced morale in the French troops, most historians regard the British actions of 25 July as the straw that broke the camels back
19.
Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign (1758)
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Sir Charles Hardy and Brigadier-General James Wolfe were in command of the naval and military forces respectively. After the Siege of Louisbourg, Wolfe and Hardy led a force of 1500 troops in nine vessels to the Gaspé Bay arriving there on September 5, from there they dispatched troops to Miramichi Bay, Grande-Rivière, Quebec and Pabos, and Mont-Louis, Quebec. Over the following weeks, Sir Charles Hardy took 4 Sloops or Schooners, destroyed about 200 fishing vessels, the Siege of Port Royal happened in 1710. Over the next forty-five years some Acadians refused to sign an oath of allegiance to Britain. During this time period Acadians participated in militia operations against the British and maintained vital supply lines to the French Fortress of Louisbourg. During the Seven Years War, the British sought both to any military threat Acadians posed and to interrupt the vital supply lines provided to Louisbourg by deporting Acadians from Acadia. The first wave of deportations began in 1755 with the Bay of Fundy Campaign, during the expulsion, the St. John River valley became the center of Acadian and Algonkian resistance to the British military in the region. The leader of the resistance was French Officer Charles Deschamps de Boishébert et de Raffetot and he was stationed at Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas and from there issued orders for various raids such as the Raid on Lunenburg and the Battle of Petitcodiac. He was also responsible to locate the Acadian refugees along the St. John River, after the Siege of Louisbourg, the second wave of the Expulsion of the Acadians began. Moncton was sent on the St. John River Campaign and the Petitcodiac River Campaign, Commander Rollo accomplished the Ile Saint-Jean Campaign. Roger Morris conducted the Cape Sable Campaign, Wolfe was sent on the Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign. In the Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign, the British wanted to remove resources from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to prevent any interference with the anticipated Siege of Quebec. As well, the Gaspe Bay and Miramichi settlements were vital to Quebec, after participating in the Siege of Louisbourg, on September 5,1758, Wolfe arrived on the HMS Royal William at Gaspé Bay. At the beginning of the war the township had 300 inhabitants, by the time of the raid there were only 60. Sir Charles Hardy took possession of the site, the villagers fled to the woods. The summary report of the states that 15 houses, a saw mill. Of the sixty settlers, thirty-seven were taken on the British transports and returned to France, on September 15, dispatched by Wolfe at Gaspe Bay, Commander James Murray arrived under convoy of the Juno with 800 troops at the mouth of Miramichi Bay. Murray’s vessels got caught in the tide and had to wait until the tide rose before he could enter the Bay
20.
Battle of the Plains of Abraham
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The Battle of the Plains of Abraham, also known as the Battle of Quebec, was a pivotal battle in the Seven Years War. The culmination of a siege by the British, the battle lasted about 15 minutes. In the wake of the battle, the French evacuated the city, their military force in Canada. France ceded most of its possessions in eastern North America to Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris, the decisive success of the British forces and the subsequent capture of Quebec City formed part of what became known as the Annus Mirabilis in Great Britain. As the Seven Years War entered its later stages through 1758 and 1759, in 1758 after defeat in July at the Battle of Carillon, the British took Louisbourg in August, causing Atlantic Canada to fall into British hands, and opening the sea route to attack Quebec. Fort Frontenac fell to the British in the month, costing the French supplies for the Ohio Valley campaign. When some of the Indian supporters of the French made peace with the British, French leadership, specifically Governor de Vaudreuil and General Montcalm, were unsettled by the British successes. However, Quebec was still able to protect itself as the British prepared an attack for 1759. James Wolfe expected to lead 12,000 men, but was greeted by only approximately 7,000 regular troops,400 officers, Wolfes troops were supported by a fleet of 49 ships and 140 smaller craft led by Admiral Charles Saunders. In preparation for the approach to Quebec, James Cook surveyed a large portion of the river. Cooks ship was one of the first ships up the river, sounding the channel and guiding the fleet as it moved up, eventually landing Wolfe and his men on the Île dOrléans on 28 June. Despite an air of defeatism among the leadership, the professional French troops, prior to the arrival of the British, a small fleet of supply ships had arrived in Quebec with much needed supplies. Those supplies, along with 500 reinforcements, were likely behind the lengthened siege, in addition, a screen of trees along the Montmorency River made an approach on that route dangerous. On 31 July, the first serious attempt by Wolfes troops to land on the northern shore led to the Battle of Beauport, approximately 3,500 troops, supported by a heavy bombardment, attempted to land, but were caught under fire in the river shallows. Some French officers felt the Montmorency defeat would be the last British attack, Wolfe, I assure you, will make no progress… He contented himself with losing about five hundred of his best soldiers. He predicted another attack would come within days, others in the French camp felt the campaign was over. For the remainder of the summer, Wolfes focus changed, possibly due to frustration with Montcalms tactics and his troops, along with American Rangers, attacked and destroyed small French settlements along the St. Lawrence. An estimated 1,400 stone houses and manors were destroyed, the effort was likely an attempt to force Montcalms army out of its fortifications, but was unsuccessful
21.
Battle of Sainte-Foy
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The Battle of Sainte-Foy, sometimes called the Battle of Quebec, was fought on April 28,1760 near the British-held town of Quebec in the French province of Canada during the Seven Years War. It was a victory for the French under the Chevalier de Lévis over the British army under General Murray, the battle was notably bloodier than the Battle of the Plains of Abraham of the previous September, with 833 French casualties to 1,124 British casualties. It was the last French victory of the French and Indian War, at first the British had some success, but the advance masked their artillery, while the infantry became bogged down in the mud and melting snowdrifts of the late spring. New France had suffered significant setbacks in the 1758 campaigns of the French and its fortress at Louisbourg was lost in a siege by British forces, and Fort Duquesne was abandoned to another advancing British army. The French army regrouped in Montreal under General Chevalier de Lévis, in April 1760, Lévis returned to Quebec with an army of over 7,000 men, including Canadien militia and First Nations warriors. He hoped to besiege Quebec and force its surrender in the spring, General James Murray, left in command at Quebec, felt that his army was too small to adequately defend the walls of Quebec, which had not been improved since the British capture of the town. He therefore moved some 3,800 men into the field, all he could muster, along with over twenty cannon, rather than waiting for the French to advance, however, he took the gamble of going on the offensive. Lévis commanded 6,910 soldiers, including 3,889 in eight regular battalions, compagnies Franches de la Marine comprised two more battalions. The remainder of his army was made up of Canadien militia, of this force, approximately 5,000 and only three cannons were present on the field of Sainte-Foy. Murrays 3, 886-man force consisted of ten battalions, a converged light infantry battalion. In order to cover the plateau, the battalions were each drawn up in two ranks with three-foot gaps between files, instead of the normal elbow-to-elbow formation. There were 40-yard intervals between battalions, the light infantry covered the right flank. In order, from right to left, were the 48th Foot, 15th Foot, 58th Foot, 2nd battalion of the 60th Foot, 43rd Foot, 47th Foot, 78th Foot, the rangers and some volunteers covered the left flank. In reserve behind the right flank stood the 35th Foot, while the 3rd battalion of the 60th formed the left flank reserve, the infantry were supported by 20 cannons and two howitzers. One sergeant recorded that the British army was a poor pitiful handful of half starved scorbutic skeletons, observing that the French army was still deploying, Murray resolved to strike his enemies before they were ready. As the British advanced, Lévis pulled his three formed right wing brigades back into the Sillery Woods, at this time, the French left wing had not yet deployed. The British light infantry drove some French grenadiers out of a windmill on the right flank, pursuing, they soon ran into trouble. The French left wing troops aggressively attacked and scattered the light infantry, Murray committed the 35th Foot from his reserve and restored the right flank of the British line
22.
Invasion of Minorca (1781)
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The ultimate result was the ceding of the island to Spain in the Treaty of Paris in 1783. At the eastern end of the island of Minorca is the port of Mahón, one of the best deep-water anchorages in the Mediterranean Sea. For a naval power with no Mediterranean coast, possession of Minorca, therefore, was of major strategic advantage, the narrow entrance to the port was guarded by a fort, known to the British as St. Although the French won that battle, they lost the Seven Years War in 1763, the Spanish government renewed its alliance with France against Britain by means of the Treaty of Aranjuez, with the recapture of Minorca as one of its main aims. An invasion of Minorca was therefore planned during the first few months of 1781, largely by Don Luis Berton de los Blats, Duque de Crillon. On 25 June 1781, a French force of about 20 warships, commanded by Admiral Guichen, left Brest on a coastal patrol, which happened to involve sailing into the Mediterranean. They were going to provide protection for the invasion fleet. The Spanish invasion fleet, departed Cadiz on 23 July 1781, initially heading westward to appear as if its destination was America, but turned in the night and passed Gibraltar on 25 July. Facing contrary winds in the Mediterranean, by 29 July the convoy was beginning to break up, at some time over the next few days the Spanish were discreetly joined by the French warships. The combined fleet left La Subida on 5 August, came within sight of Alicante on 14 August, then in the night of 17 August headed away from the Spanish coast and sailed parallel to Formentera. On 18 August, as it passed the island of Cabrera, south of Majorca. That night, the wind blew from the south-east, and the fleet had to take precautions to avoid being blown aground on Majorca, but Minorca was sighted the next morning. The Mesquida force was to move rapidly to the town of Mahón, the Alcaufar force was to block the road that led from the British residential suburb, Georgetown, to the fort of St. Philips Castle. At about the time, a third force was to land on Degollador beach at Ciudadela. Finally, a detachment would be landed at Fornells, to take the artillery fort there. This plan had one basic flaw – the assumption that the British would believe a vast convoy approaching Minorca had friendly intentions. So, about 10,30 am, the fleet rounded Aire island, at the south-east tip of Minorca, a little after 11,30, the leading vessel of the fleet, San Pascual passed St. Philips Castle, its crew at battle stations. Finally, around 1,00 pm, San Pascual arrived at Mesquida, and the rest of the fleet gradually caught up, at 6,00 pm, the Spanish flag was raised on the beach, and received a 23-gun salute
23.
Patrick Murray, 5th Lord Elibank
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Patrick Murray, 5th Lord Elibank was a Scottish soldier, lawyer, author and economist. He was the son of Alexander Murray, 4th Lord Elibank, and his wife Elizabeth, daughter of George Stirling of Keir, General James Murray was his younger brother. He was uncle of Major Patrick Ferguson killed at the Battle of Kings Mountain in 1780, with the latter regiment he served at the Battle of Cartagena de Indias in 1740. After the failure of that expedition Murray quit the army and he had married in 1735, and had succeeded his father as Lord Elibank the next year. Returning to Scotland, he associated chiefly with the members of the profession, among whom he had been brought up, and seems to have been very popular. He was long in intimate relations with Lord Kames and David Hume, and he was the early patron of Dr. Robertson, and of John Home the tragic poet, both of whom were at one time ministers of country parishes near his seat in East Lothian. Upon the accession of George III, Elibank, like many other Jacobites, rallied to the house of Hanover, and this plan was, however, foiled by a severely sarcastic article by Wilkes in the North Briton on his presumed services to the Pretender. Wilkes had been a candidate for the governorship of Canada when that office was conferred on Elibanks brother. When in Scotland in 1773, Dr. Johnson paid Elibank a visit at his house of Ballencrieff Castle and he was member of the Cocoa Tree Club and The Poker Club. His Edinburgh address in his final years is given as James Court on the Lawnmarket, Elibank died at Ballencrieff on 3 August 1778. Lady Elibanks jointure-house was Kirtling Park, Cambridgeshire, the ancient seat of the North family, now pulled down, Elibanks works were, Thoughts on Money Circulation and Paper Currency, Edinburgh,1758. Queries relating to the proposed Plan of altering the Entails in Scotland, letter to Lord Hailes on his Remarks on the History of Scotland, Edinburgh,1773. Considerations on the present State of the Peerage of Scotland, Edinburgh,1774, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Murray, Dudley Oliphant
24.
Patrick Ferguson
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Major Patrick Ferguson was a Scottish officer in the British Army, an early advocate of light infantry and the designer of the Ferguson rifle. Some dispute this characterization of Ferguson as showing pro-Patriot bias, however, ultimately, his activities led to a Patriot militia uprising against him, and he was killed in the Battle of Kings Mountain, at the border between the colonies of North and South Carolina. Leading a group of Loyalists whom he had recruited, he was the regular army officer participating on either side of the conflict. The victorious Patriot forces desecrated his body in the aftermath of the battle and he had numerous first cousins through his mothers family, these included Sir William Pulteney, 5th Baronet, Commodore George Johnstone, and Sir James Murray. In 1770 Ferguson purchased the Castara estate in Tobago, after Fergusons death the estate was inherited by his younger brother George who had managed it since the early 1770s and developed it into a successful enterprise. Exports of rum, sugar and molasses were made back to the UK from it, Ferguson began his military career in his teens, encouraged by his maternal uncle James Murray. He served briefly in the Holy Roman Empire with the Scots Greys during the Seven Years War, after recovering, now in peace-time, he served with his regiment on garrison duty. After returning home in 1772, he took part in infantry training, coming to the attention of General Howe. During this time, he developed the Ferguson rifle, a flintlock weapon based on Chaumettes earlier system. In 1777, Ferguson went to the colonies to serve in the American War of Independence with his rifle corps. However, after success, he was shot through the right elbow joint at the Battle of Brandywine on 11 September 1777 in Pennsylvania. A surgeon told Ferguson in the hospital that some American casualties had said that General Washington had been in the area at the time, Ferguson wrote that, even if the officer were the general, he did not regret his decision. The officers identity remains uncertain, historians suggest that the aide in hussar dress might indicate the officer was Count Casimir Pulaski. For some months after being wounded, Ferguson was at risk for amputation of his arm, during this time, he received news of his fathers death. Ferguson eventually recovered, although his arm was permanently crippled. Ferguson resumed his duties in May 1778, under the command of Sir Henry Clinton. In October 1778, Ferguson was assigned to lead a raid in southern New Jersey to suppress privateers who had been seizing British ships and they were based around the Little Egg Harbor River, which empties into the Great Bay. Ferguson attacked their base in what is known as the Battle of Chestnut Neck, Ferguson marched his troops to the site of Boses infantry outpost, which comprised fifty men and was a short distance from Pulaskis main encampment
25.
Quebec
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Quebec is the second-most populous province of Canada and the only one to have a predominantly French-speaking population, with French as the sole provincial official language. Quebec is Canadas largest province by area and its second-largest administrative division and it also shares maritime borders with Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. Quebec is Canadas second-most populous province, after Ontario, most inhabitants live in urban areas near the Saint Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City, the capital. Approximately half of Quebec residents live in the Greater Montreal Area, the Nord-du-Québec region, occupying the northern half of the province, is sparsely populated and inhabited primarily by Aboriginal peoples. Even in central Quebec at comparatively southerly latitudes winters are severe in inland areas, Quebec independence debates have played a large role in the politics of the province. Parti Québécois governments held referendums on sovereignty in 1980 and 1995, in 2006, the House of Commons of Canada passed a symbolic motion recognizing the Québécois as a nation within a united Canada. These many industries have all contributed to helping Quebec become an economically influential province within Canada, early variations in the spelling of the name included Québecq and Kébec. French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose the name Québec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the seat for the French colony of New France. The province is sometimes referred to as La belle province, the Province of Quebec was founded in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 after the Treaty of Paris formally transferred the French colony of Canada to Britain after the Seven Years War. The proclamation restricted the province to an area along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River, the Treaty of Versailles ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. After the Constitutional Act of 1791, the territory was divided between Lower Canada and Upper Canada, with each being granted an elected legislative assembly, in 1840, these become Canada East and Canada West after the British Parliament unified Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada. This territory was redivided into the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario at Confederation in 1867, each became one of the first four provinces. In 1898, the Canadian Parliament passed the first Quebec Boundary Extension Act that expanded the provincial boundaries northward to include the lands of the aboriginal peoples. This was followed by the addition of the District of Ungava through the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act of 1912 that added the northernmost lands of the Inuit to create the modern Province of Quebec. In 1927, the border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador was established by the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Located in the part of Canada, and part of Central Canada. Its topography is very different from one region to another due to the composition of the ground, the climate. The Saint Lawrence Lowland and the Canadian Shield are the two main regions, and are radically different
26.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
27.
Alexander Murray (British Army officer, died 1762)
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Alexander Murray was a British army officer who served in Father Le Loutres War and the French and Indian War in Nova Scotia. He was the brother of James Murray, Murray was in the 17th Foot on 17 July 1739 and was promoted lieutenant in the 6th Foot on 19 January 1740. He joined the 45th Foot on 19 April 1742 as a captain and was with the regiment when it arrived in Gibraltar on 17 June to take up garrison duties, Murray went to Louisbourg, Cape Breton Island, with the regiment in April 1746. When it was moved to Halifax in July 1749 he was in England and he remained with the regiment in the colony for almost ten years, during which time he built a house at Halifax. He and his troops relieved the Mikmaw and Acadian attack on Dartmouth, in the spring of 1755 he impounded the boats belonging to the Acadians of the Minas Basin, whom he suspected of violating Charles Lawrence’s embargo on the export of wheat. On orders from Lawrence, in June he confiscated their guns in case they might hinder Robert Monckton’s planned seizure of Fort Beauséjour. During the French and Indian War, following the decision of Lawrence and his council to expel the Acadians from Nova Scotia, during October 1755 he sent off 1,100 persons in four ships. Murray was promoted major in the 45th on 1 October 1755, along with his brother James under Wolfe, the regiment took part in Jeffery Amherst’s expedition against Louisbourg in June 1758. The following year he took part in Wolfe’s campaign against Quebec, then, on 19 November 1761 he took part in the campaign against Martinique. He suffered from an attack of fever shortly after his arrival on the island. Military history of Nova Scotia Humphreys, John, in Halpenny, Francess G. Dictionary of Canadian Biography. The Letters of Colonel Alexander Murray 1742–1759, nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Regiment, regimental annual 1938, Volumes 1921–1926, pp. 181–220. “Letters of Colonel Alexander Murray, ” Sherwood Foresters Regimental Annual,1926, 181–220,1927, 240–68
28.
Haddington, East Lothian
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The Royal Burgh of Haddington is a town in East Lothian, Scotland. It lies about 20 miles east of Edinburgh, the name Haddington is Anglo-Saxon, dating from the 6th or 7th century AD when the area was incorporated into the kingdom of Bernicia. The town, like the rest of the Lothian region, was ceded by King Edgar of England, Haddington received burghal status, one of the earliest to do so, during the reign of David I, giving it trading rights which encouraged its growth into a market town. Today Haddington is a town with a population of less than 9,000, although during the High Middle Ages it was the fourth biggest city in Scotland after Aberdeen. In the middle of the town is the Town House, built in 1748 according to a plan by William Adam. When first built, it inheld a council chamber, jail and sheriff court, to which assembly rooms were added in 1788, nearby is the Corn Exchange and the County Courthouse. Other nearby notable sites include the Jane Welsh Carlyle House, Haddington is located predominantly on the northeast bank of the River Tyne, and was once famous for its mills. It developed into the fourth largest town in Scotland during the High Middle Ages, as a result of this, more factories were established, these included the New Mills. This factory suffered during the Civil War with the loss of its cloth to General Monck, the Scots Courant reported in 1712 that New Mills was to be rouped. The property was sold on 16 February 1713 and the machinery, the lands of New Mills were purchased by Colonel Francis Charteris and he changed their name to Amisfield. As the county town of East Lothian Haddington is the seat of East Lothian Council and this building occupies the site of Haddingtons 12th century royal palace & adjoins the sheriff court complex. As such Haddington is the home to East Lothians administration, a boost to the status, retailers based in Haddington include Tesco, Subway, Boots, and Greggs, amongst others. Haddington is also home to the offices of the newspaper the East Lothian Courier. There is a market held on the last Saturday of the month in Court Street. Amisfield House was located east of Haddington, south of the River Tyne, John Henderson built the walled garden in 1783, and the castellated stable block in 1785. The park in front of the house, possibly landscaped by James Bowie, is today entirely ploughed, a victim of dry rot, the house was demolished in 1928. All that remains of Amisfield today are the house, walled garden, ice house, chapel. Lennoxlove House, a historic 13th-century house and estate, lies half a mile south of Haddington, built by the Giffards of Yester, it was originally named Lethington
29.
Selkirk, Scottish Borders
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The Royal Burgh of Selkirk is a town in the Scottish Borders Council district of southeastern Scotland. It lies on the Ettrick Water, a tributary of the River Tweed, the people of the town are known as Souters, which means cobblers. At the time of the 2011 census, Selkirks population was 5784, Selkirk was formerly the county town of Selkirkshire. Selkirk is one of the oldest Royal Burghs in Scotland and is the site of the earliest settlements in what is now the Scottish Borders, the towns name means church in the forest from the Old English sele and cirice. Selkirk is the site of the first Borders abbey, however the community of Tironensian monks moved to Kelso during the reign of King David I, in 1113, King David I granted Selkirk large amounts of land. William Wallace was declared guardian of Scotland in the town, bonnie Prince Charlie, the Marquess of Montrose and the Outlaw Murray all had connections with the town. Selkirk grew because of its industry, although now that industry has ceased. The town is best known for bannocks, a dry fruit cake and it has a museum and an art gallery. The town has associations with Mungo Park, James Hogg, a poet and writer, and Sir Walter Scott. It is also home to Scotlands oldest horse racing track, the Gala Rig and it was supposedly in the church at Selkirk, supported by nobles and clergy, that William Wallace was declared Guardian of the Kingdom of Scotland. However this is disputed, the old lands of Mauldslie near Rosebank are also reputed to be where Wallace was declared Guardian, Mauldslie Castle was built on the lands of Forest Kirk. Only one man, Fletcher, returned from the battle, bearing a blood-stained English flag belonging to the Macclesfield regiment, on his return he cast the captured English standard around his head before falling to his death. On the morning of 13 September 1645, an army led by Sir David Leslie attacked the royalist forces camped at Philiphaugh. Montrose arrived to find his army in disarray and had to the flee the field, the action at Philiphaugh is infamous for the massacre by the Covenanters of up to 500 surrendered Royalist troops and camp followers — including many women and children. Sir Walter Scott was appointed Sheriff Deputy of the County of Selkirk in 1799, the Sir Walter Scott Way from Moffat to Cockburnspath passes through Selkirk. The Selkirk Common Riding is a celebration of the history and traditions of the Royal, Selkirk still owns common land to the north and south of the town, but only the northern boundary of Linglie is ridden on the day. The Riding commemorates how, from the eighty men that left the town to fight in the Battle of Flodden, only one – Fletcher - returned, bearing a captured English flag. Legend has it that he cast the flag about his head to indicate that all the men of Selkirk had been cut down
30.
Cartagena, Colombia
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It is the fifth-largest city in Colombia and the second largest in the region, after Barranquilla. The urban area of Cartagena is also the fifth-largest urban area in the country, economic activities include the maritime and petrochemicals industries, as well as tourism. The city was founded on June 1,1533, and named after Cartagena, Spain, settlement in the region around Cartagena Bay by various indigenous people dates back to 4000 BC. During the Spanish colonial period Cartagena served a key role in administration and expansion of the Spanish empire and it was a center of political and economic activity due to the presence of royalty and wealthy viceroys. In 1984, Cartagenas colonial walled city and fortress were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, archaeologists estimate that around 4000 BC, the formative culture was located near the boundary between the present-day departments of Bolívar and Sucre. In this area, archaeologists have found the most ancient ceramic objects of the Americas, archaeological investigations date the decline of the Puerto Hormiga culture and its related settlements to around 3000 BC. The Monsú culture appears to have inherited the Puerto Hormiga cultures use of the art of pottery and also to have developed an economy of agriculture. The Monsú peoples diet was based mostly on shellfish and fresh, the development of the Sinú society in what is today the departments of Córdoba and Sucre, eclipsed these first developments around the Cartagena Bay area. Until the Spanish colonization, many derived from the Karib, Malibu. In the late pre-Columbian era, the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta was home to the Tayrona people, around 1500 the area was inhabited by different tribes of the Carib language family, more precisely the Mocanae sub-family. Among these, according to the earliest documents available, the Kalamari had preeminence, rodrigo de Bastidas traveled to the Pearl Coast and the Gulf of Uraba in 1500-01. On 14 Feb.1504, Ferdinand V contracted Juan de la Cosas voyage to Uraba, However, Juan de la Cosa died in 1510, after an armed confrontation with indigenous people, before he could get possession of the Gulf of Urabá area. They preferred the better known Hispaniola and Cuba, De Nicuesa and De Ojeda noted the existence of a big bay on the way from Santo Domingo to Urabá and the Panama isthmus, and that encouraged Bastidas to investigate. Under contract to Queen Joanna of Castile, Pedro de Heredia invaded the Bay of Cartagena with three ships,150 men, and 22 horses, on 14 Jan.1533 and he soon found the village of Calamari abandoned. Proceeding onwards to Turbaco, where Juan de la Cosa had been mortally wounded 13 years earlier, using India Catalina as a guide, Heredia embarked on a three month exploration expedition. He returned to Calamari in April 1533 with gold pieces, including a gold porcupine weighing 132 pounds. In later expeditions, Heredia raided the Sinú tombs and temples of gold and his rule as governor of Cartagena lasted 22 years, before perishing on his return to Spain in 1544. Cartagena was founded on June 1,1533 by the Spanish commander, Pedro de Heredia, the town was named after Cartagena, Spain, where most of Heredias sailors had resided
31.
Miramichi Bay
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Miramichi Bay is separated into the inner bay and the outer bay, with the division being a line of uninhabited barrier islands which are continually reshaped by ocean storms. The largest of these islands is the uninhabited Portage Island, which was broken in two during a violent storm in the 1950s, the islands provide some protection to the inner bay from ocean storms in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Miramichi Bay was named Golfe Saint Lunaire by Jacques Cartier in 1534, the Inner Miramichi Bay, and the lower portions of its tributary rivers, are parts of a drowned river valley system. Since deglaciation, sea level rise in Miramichi Bay has flooded the mouths of rivers with saltwater. The flooded, meandering, ancient Miramichi river channel forms a route through the Inner Bay for ocean-going ships entering the port at Miramichi. The inner bay measures only 4 m deep on average, with the navigation channel measuring only 6–10 m, since dredging maintenance of this channel has stopped, the port is now only accessible to ships with a shallow draft. The shallow inner bay warms rapidly during summer, the diurnal tide cycle ranges only 1 m on average. Continued sea level rise is very slowly inundating adjacent low-lying areas, the estuary is significant in that it is a highly productive ecosystem, despite its relatively small size. The estuary receives the discharge from the Miramichi River and its tributaries. Organic materials from the shorelines and inflowing rivers contribute, together with the warm water. Marine life includes seals, herring gulls, the common tern, the great blue heron, the common loon
32.
Burnt Church First Nation
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It covers two Indian reserves in Northumberland County and two reserves in Gloucester County. The population was 1,715 as of 2011, the Mikmaq called Burnt Church by the name of Eskĭnwŏbǔdĭch which meant a lookout. The lands at Burnt Church have long occupied by First Nations peoples. As William Francis Ganong notes, a map by Sieur IHermitte, shows there was a village here in 1727. Thus, Murray destroyed an Acadian community which had established at Burnt Church. Burnt Church was a resort of the Mikmaq and was, therefore. The reserve was officially established March 5,1805, with 2,058 acres, at the time of Ganongs writing it was still a favorite Micmac settlement, and much the largest in all New Brunswick. Following the Seven Years War, several Acadian families returned to lands adjoining the reserve and they were followed by a wave of new Scottish settlers. Thus, the Burnt Church name is now used in reference to both the local First Nation, and to the adjoining non-native community, list of communities in New Brunswick First Nations in New Brunswick
33.
James Wolfe
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Major General James Wolfe was a British Army Officer, known for his training reforms but remembered chiefly for his victory over the French at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in Canada in 1759. The son of a general, Edward Wolfe, he had received his first commission at a young age. His service in Flanders and in Scotland, where he took part in the suppression of the Jacobite Rebellion, the advancement of his career was halted by the Peace Treaty of 1748 and he spent much of the next eight years on garrison duty in the Scottish Highlands. Already a brigade major at the age of eighteen, he was a lieutenant-colonel by the age of twenty-three, the outbreak of the Seven Years War in 1756 offered Wolfe fresh opportunities for advancement. His part in the raid on Rochefort in 1757 led William Pitt to appoint him second-in-command of an expedition to capture the Fortress of Louisbourg. Following the success of the Siege of Louisbourg he was commander of a force which sailed up the Saint Lawrence River to capture Quebec City. After a long siege Wolfe defeated a French force under Marquis de Montcalm allowing British forces to capture the city, Wolfe was killed at the height of the Battle of the Plains of Abraham due to injuries from three musket balls. Wolfes part in the taking of Quebec in 1759 earned him posthumous fame and he was depicted in the painting The Death of General Wolfe, which became famous around the world. James Wolfe was born at the vicarage on 2 January 1727 at Westerham, Kent. His uncle was Edward Thompson MP, a distinguished politician and his relatively humble birth marked him out from many army officers at the time, who were disproportionately drawn from the aristocracy or gentry. Wolfes childhood home in Westerham, known in his lifetime as Spiers, has preserved in his memory by the National Trust under the name Quebec House. The Wolfes were close to the Warde family, who lived at Squerryes Court in Westerham, Wolfes boyhood friend George Warde would later achieve fame as Commander-in-Chief in Ireland when he crushed the Irish rebellion of 1798, and repelled two attempted French invasions in 1796 and 1798. Around 1738, the moved to Greenwich, in London. From his earliest years, Wolfe was destined for a military career, illness prevented him from taking part in a large expedition against Spanish-held Cartagena in 1740, and his father sent him home a few months later. He was fortunate to miss what proved to be a disaster for the British forces at the Siege of Cartagena during the War of Jenkins Ear with most of the dying from disease. In 1740 the War of the Austrian Succession broke out in Europe, James Wolfe was given his first commission as a second lieutenant in his fathers regiment of Marines in 1741. Early in the year he transferred to the 12th Regiment of Foot, a British Army infantry regiment. Here, Wolfe was promoted to Lieutenant and made adjutant of his battalion and his first year on the continent was a frustrating one as, despite rumours of a British attack on Dunkirk, they remained inactive in Flanders
34.
Quebec City
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Quebec City, French, Ville de Québec, officially Québec) is the capital city of the Canadian province of Quebec. Founded in 1608 by Samuel de Champlain, Quebec City is one of the oldest cities in North America. The citys landmarks include the Château Frontenac, a hotel which dominates the skyline, and La Citadelle, the National Assembly of Quebec, the Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec, and the Musée de la civilisation are found within or near Vieux-Québec. Thus, Québec is officially spelled with an accented é in both Canadian English and French, although the accent is not used in common English usage. Quebec City is one of the oldest European settlements in North America, while many of the major cities in Latin America date from the sixteenth century, among cities in Canada and the U. S. few were created earlier than Quebec City. Also, Quebecs Old Town is the only North American fortified city north of Mexico whose walls still exist, French explorer Jacques Cartier built a fort at the site in 1535, where he stayed for the winter before going back to France in spring 1536. He came back in 1541 with the goal of building a permanent settlement, Quebec was founded by Samuel de Champlain, a French explorer and diplomat on 3 July 1608, and at the site of a long abandoned St. Lawrence Iroquoian settlement called Stadacona. Champlain, also called The Father of New France, served as its administrator for the rest of his life, the name Canada refers to this settlement. Although called the cradle of the Francophone population in North America, the place seemed favourable to the establishment of a permanent colony. In 1629 there was the surrender of Quebec, without battle, however, Samuel de Champlain argued that the English seizing of the lands was illegal as the war had already ended, he worked to have the lands returned to France. As part of the negotiations of their exit from the Anglo-French War. These terms were signed into law with the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the lands in Quebec and Acadia were returned to the French Company of One Hundred Associates. In 1665, there were 550 people in 70 houses living in the city, one-quarter of the people were members of religious orders, secular priests, Jesuits, Ursulines nuns and the order running the local hospital, Hotel-Dieu. Quebec City was the headquarters of many raids against New England during the four French, in the last war, the French and Indian War, Quebec City was captured by the British in 1759 and held until the end of the war in 1763. France ceded New France, including the city, to Britain in 1763, at the end of French rule in 1763, forests, villages, fields and pastures surrounded the town of 8,000 inhabitants. The town distinguished itself by its architecture, fortifications, affluent homes of masonry and shacks in the suburbs of Saint-Jean. Despite its urbanity and its status as capital, Quebec City remained a small city with close ties to its rural surroundings. Nearby inhabitants traded their farm surpluses and firewood for imported goods from France at the two city markets, during the American Revolution revolutionary troops from the southern colonies assaulted the British garrison in an attempt to liberate Quebec City, in a conflict now known as the Battle of Quebec
35.
James Ferguson, Lord Pitfour
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James Ferguson, Lord Pitfour was a Scottish advocate and second Laird of Pitfour, a large estate in Buchan. His flourishing law practice was sited opposite Parliament House in Edinburgh and he became Dean of the Faculty of Advocates in 1722 and was elevated to the bench, becoming Lord Pitfour, in 1764. Pitfour was described as one of the greatest lawyers in the country, however, by the time he became a judge he was past his prime intellectually and thus did not make as much of an impact in that role. A Jacobite sympathiser, he is best known for his defence of rebels standing trial at Carlisle after the Jacobite risings, Ferguson inherited the Pitfour estate on the death of his father, James Ferguson, 1st Laird of Pitfour. He purchased additional lands and expanded the estate, which known as the Blenheim of the North. A staunch Episcopalian, he had a private Qualified Chapel built on the estate and he also established a small village and arranged for plantations of Douglas firs near the mansion house. Ferguson was born at Pitfour in 1700 shortly after his father, fergusons father was the first Laird of Pitfour and previously had the honorific James Fergusson of Badifurrow. In 1733 Ferguson married Anne Murray, a sister of Patrick Murray, 5th Lord Elibank and James Murray, a British army officer who became Governor of Quebec. The eldest, James, became a politician, Patrick invented the Ferguson rifle, a flintlock weapon. Ferguson also had three daughters, Ann, Elizabeth and Jane, in his memoirs, John Ramsay of Ochtertyre described the first Laird was as having been an adventurer in the South Sea and that he would have been a ruined man, but for his sons exertions. Ferguson studied at the Marischal College in Aberdeen from 1711–1715 and he then studied law at Edinburgh University before completing his education at Groningen and Utrecht. He became a member of the Faculty of Advocates on his return to Edinburgh in early 1722 and he was appointed as Vice-Dean of the Faculty of Advocates in January 1759 and became Dean when Robert Dundas was elevated to Lord President of the Court of Session in June 1760. In 1764 the Earl of Mansfield successfully petitioned George III to allow Ferguson to be promoted to fill the vacant position of sitting in the Court of Session. Ferguson became a Senator of the College of Justice in June 1764 and this entitled him to thereafter be addressed as Lord Pitfour. The law practice was at one point based in a substantial seven-storey tenement house purchased by Ferguson at 333 High Street, Edinburgh, the law practice occupied the four upper floors of the building, shops were on the lower level. Pitfours legal services were in demand and he was able to charge twice the fees of his associates. His law practice had many clients, including Lord Braco. Pitfour was one of 15 advocates acting in a case raised by Alexander Fraser against Lord Fraser claiming the liferents to the Lovat estates, eventually a compromise was reached, Lovat retained the liferents and Fraser gained a monetary sum instead
36.
Wyandot people
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By the 15th century, the pre-contact Wyandots settled in the large area from the north shores of most of present-day Lake Ontario, northwards up to Georgian Bay. They were located in the part of what is now the Canadian province of Ontario around Georgian Bay. Drastically reduced in number by epidemic diseases after 1634, they were dispersed by war in 1649 from the Iroquois, today the Wyandot have a First Nations reserve in Quebec, Canada. They also have three major settlements in the United States, two of which have independently governed, federally recognized tribes, due to differing development of the groups, they speak distinct forms of Wendat and Wyandot languages. Early theories placed Huron origin in the St. Lawrence Valley, with some arguing for a presence near Montreal, in 1975 and 1978, archeologists excavated a large 15th-century Huron village, now called the Draper Site, in Pickering, Ontario near Lake Ontario. In 2003 a larger village was discovered five kilometres away in Whitchurch-Stouffville, the sites each were surrounded by a palisade, as was typical of Iroquoian cultures. The Mantle Site had more than 70 multi-family longhouses, subsequently they moved from there to their historic territory on Georgian Bay, where they were encountered by Champlain in 1615. In the early 17th century, this Iroquoian people called themselves the Wendat, the Wendat historic territory was bordered on three sides, by the waters of Georgian Bay and Lake Simcoe. Early French explorers referred to these natives as the Huron, either from the French huron, according to tradition, French sailors thought that the bristly hairstyle of Wendat warriors resembled that of a boar. However, these negative etymological meanings conflict with the bon Iroquois attitude held by the French fur traders and explorers, an alternate etymology is from the Algonquin words ronon, or Irri-ronon. It was pronounced Hirri-ronon by the French, eventually shortened to Hirr-on, other etymological possibilities come from the Algonquin words ka-ron or tu-ron. The Wendat were not a tribe, but a confederacy of four or more tribes with mutually intelligible languages, according to tradition, this Wendat Confederacy was initiated by the Attignawantans and the Attigneenongnahacs, who made their alliance in the 15th century. They were joined by the Arendarhonons about 1590, and the Tahontaenrats around 1610, a fifth group, the Ataronchronons, may not have attained full membership in the confederacy, and may have been a division of the Attignawantan. The largest Wendat settlement, and capital of the confederacy, was located at Ossossane, near modern-day Elmvale and they called their traditional territory Wendake. Closely related to the people of the Huron Confederacy were the Tionontate and they lived further south and were divided into two groups, the Deer and the Wolves. Considering that they formed the nucleus of the later known as the Wyandot. Tuberculosis was endemic among the Huron, aggravated by the close, despite this, the Huron on the whole were healthy, the Jesuits wrote that the Huron effectively employed natural remedies and were more healthy than we. The earliest written accounts of the Huron were made by the French, news of the Europeans reached the Huron, particularly when Samuel de Champlain explored the Saint Lawrence River in the early 17th century
37.
Supreme Court of Canada
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The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court of Canada, the final court of appeals in the Canadian justice system. The court grants permission to between 40 and 75 litigants each year to appeal decisions rendered by provincial, territorial and federal appellate courts, the creation of the court was provided for by the British North America Act,1867, renamed in 1982 the Constitution Act,1867. The first bills for the creation of a supreme court, introduced in the Parliament of Canada in 1869. It was not until 8 April 1875 that a bill was passed providing for the creation of a Supreme Court of Canada. Prior to 1949, however, the Supreme Court did not constitute the court of last resort, as well, some cases could bypass the court and go directly to the Judicial Committee from the provincial courts of appeal. The Supreme Court of Canada formally became the Court of last resort for criminal appeals in 1933, the last decisions of the Judicial Committee on cases from Canada were made in the mid-1950s, as a result of their being heard in a court of first instance prior to 1949. The increase in the importance of the court was mirrored by the numbers of its members, the court was established first with six judges, and these were augmented by an additional member in 1927. It was in 1949 that the bench reached its current composition, prior to 1949, most of the appointees to the Supreme Court of Canada owed their position to political patronage. Each judge had strong ties to the party in power at the time of their appointment, in 1973, the appointment of a constitutional law professor, Bora Laskin, as chief justice represented a major turning point for the court. Increasingly in this period, appointees either came from backgrounds or were well-respected practitioners with several years experience in appellate courts. Laskins federalist and liberal views were shared by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, the evolution from the Dickson court through to the Lamer court witnessed a continuing vigour in the protection of civil liberties. Lamers criminal law background proved an influence on the number of cases heard by the court during his time as chief justice. Nonetheless, the Lamer court was more conservative with charter rights, the appointment of Beverly McLachlin as chief justice in 2000 has resulted in a more centrist and unified court. Dissenting and concurring opinions are fewer than during the Dickson and Lamer Courts, with the 2005 appointments of Justices Louise Charron and Rosalie Abella, the court became the worlds most gender-balanced national high court, four of its nine members being female. Justice Marie Deschamps retirement on 7 August 2012 caused the number to fall to three, the appointment of Suzanne Côté on 1 December 2014 restored the number of female justices to four. At the next level are the provinces and territories superior courts, judgments from the superior courts may be appealed to a still higher level, the provincial or territorial courts of appeal. Several federal courts also exist, the Tax Court of Canada, the Federal Court, the Federal Court of Appeal, unlike the provincial superior courts, which exercise inherent or general jurisdiction, the federal courts jurisdiction is limited by statute. In all there are over 1,000 federally appointed judges at various levels across Canada, the Supreme Court of Canada rests at the apex of the judicial pyramid
38.
French Canadians
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French Canadians are an ethnic group who trace their ancestry to French colonists who settled in Canada from the 17th century onward. Today, French Canadians constitute the main French-speaking population in Canada, today, French Canadians live across North America. The province of Quebec has the largest population of French-Canadian descent, though smaller communities exist throughout Canada, between 1840 and 1930, roughly 900,000 French Canadians emigrated to the United States, mostly to the New England region. Other terms for French Canadians who continue to reside in the province of Quebec, are Quebecers or Québécois, the other major group of French Canadians are the Acadians who reside in the Maritime Provinces. In total, those who identify as French Canadian, French, Québécois, the French Canadians get their name from Canada, the most developed and densely populated region of New France during the period of French colonization in the 17th and 18th century. The original use of the term Canada referred to the area along the St. From 1535 to the 1690s, the French word Canadien had referred to the First Nations the French had encountered in the St. Lawrence River valley at Stadacona, at the end of the 17th century, Canadien became an ethnonym distinguishing the inhabitants of Canada from those of France. French Canadians living in Canada express their identity using a number of terms. The Ethnic Diversity Survey of the 2006 Canadian census found that French-speaking Canadians identified their ethnicity most often as French, French Canadians, Québécois, the latter three were grouped together by Jantzen as French New World ancestries because they originate in Canada. Canadien was used to refer to the French-speaking residents of New France beginning in the last half of the 17th century, the English-speaking residents who arrived later from Great Britain were called Anglais. This usage continued until Canadian Confederation in 1867 and those reporting French New World ancestries overwhelmingly had ancestors that went back at least four generations in Canada. Fourth generation Canadiens and Québécois showed considerable attachment to their group, with 70% and 61%, respectively. The generational profile and strength of identity of French New World ancestries contrast with those of British or Canadian ancestries, which represent the largest ethnic identities in Canada. As a result, their identification with their ethnicity is weaker, for example, only 50% of third generation Canadians strongly identify as such, bringing down the overall average. The survey report notes that 80% of Canadians whose families had been in Canada for three or more generations reported Canadian and provincial or regional ethnic identities and these identities include French New World ancestries such as Québécois, Acadian. Since the 1960s, French Canadians in Quebec have generally used Québécois or Québécoise to express their cultural and national identity, rather than Canadien français, francophones who self-identify as Québécois and do not have French-Canadian ancestry may not identify as French Canadian. Those who do have French or French-Canadian ancestry, but who support Quebec sovereignty and this is a reflection of the strong social, cultural, and political ties that most Quebeckers of French-Canadian origin, who constitute a majority of francophone Quebecers, maintain within Quebec. French Canadians outside Quebec are more likely to self-identify as French Canadian, identification with provincial groupings varies from province to province, with Franco-Ontarians, for example, using their provincial label far more frequently than Franco-Columbians do
39.
Quebec Act
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The Quebec Act of 1774, formally known as the British North America Act 1774, was an act of the Parliament of Great Britain setting procedures of governance in the Province of Quebec. Reference to the Protestant faith was removed from the oath of allegiance and it guaranteed free practice of the Catholic faith. It restored the use of the French civil law for matters of law, except that in accordance with the English common law. It maintained English common law for matters of law, including administrative appeals, court procedure. It restored the Catholic Churchs right to impose tithes, the 1774 Act had wide-ranging effects, in Quebec itself, as well as in the Thirteen Colonies. In Quebec, English-speaking immigrants from Britain and the southern colonies objected to a variety of its provisions, Canadiens varied in their reaction, the land-owning seigneurs and ecclesiastics for example were generally happy with its provisions. The provisions of the Quebec Act were seen by the colonists as a new model for British colonial administration and it seemed to void the land claims of the colonies by granting most of the Ohio Country to the province of Quebec. After the Seven Years War, a victorious Great Britain and a defeated France formalized the peace with the 1763 Treaty of Paris. Under the terms of the treaty, the Kingdom of France ceded New France to Britain, choosing instead to keep the islands of Guadeloupe, Canada was considered less valuable, as its only significant commercial product at the time was beaver pelts. The territory found along the St. Lawrence River, called Canada by the French, was renamed Quebec by the British, non-military administration of the territories acquired by the British in the war was defined in the Royal Proclamation of 1763. Under the terms of the treaty, Canadiens who did not choose to leave became British subjects. In order for them to serve in offices, they were required to swear an oath to the King that contained specific provisions rejecting the Catholic faith. Since many of the predominantly Roman Catholic Canadiens were unwilling to take such an oath, with unrest growing in the colonies to the south, which would one day grow into the American Revolution, the British were worried that the Canadiens might also support the growing rebellion. At that time, Canadiens formed the vast majority of the population of the province of Quebec. To secure the allegiance of the approximately 90,000 Canadiens to the British crown, first Governor James Murray, there was also a need to compromise between the conflicting demands of the Canadien subjects and those of newly arrived British subjects. These efforts by the governors eventually resulted in the enactment of the Quebec Act of 1774. Territory, The boundaries of the province were defined by the Act and this increased the size of the province threefold over the size of the French province. This enabled, for the first time, French Canadians to legally participate in the affairs of the government without formally renouncing their faith
Kingdom of Great Britain
British Army
Chichester, Henry Manners (1894). "Murray, James (1725-1794)". In Lee, Sidney. Dictionary of National Biography. 39. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
Chichester, Henry Manners (1894). "