1.
United States Secretary of Energy
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The United States Secretary of Energy is the head of the U. S. Department of Energy, a member of the Cabinet of the United States, and fourteenth in the presidential line of succession. The position was formed on October 1,1977 with the creation of the Department of Energy when President Jimmy Carter signed the Department of Energy Organization Act, originally the post focused on energy production and regulation. The emphasis soon shifted to developing technology for better and more efficient energy sources as well as energy education, after the end of the Cold War, the departments attention also turned toward radioactive waste disposal and maintenance of environmental quality. Schlesinger is also the secretary to be dismissed from the post. Hazel OLeary, Bill Clintons first Secretary of Energy, was the first female, the first Hispanic to serve as Energy Secretary was Clintons second, Federico Peña. Spencer Abraham became the first Arab American to hold the position on November 15,2004, steven Chu became the first Asian American to hold the position on January 20,2009, serving under the administration of Barack Obama. He is also the longest-serving Secretary of Energy, parties Democratic Republican As of April 2017, there are ten living former Secretaries of Energy, the oldest being Charles Duncan, Jr. The most recent Secretary of Energy to die was James B, the most recently serving Secretary to die was James D. Watkins on July 26,2012. United States Secretary of Transportation White House Office of Energy and Climate Change Policy Official site of U. S. Department of Energy
2.
Jimmy Carter
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James Earl Jimmy Carter Jr. is an American politician who served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981. In 2002, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work with the Carter Center, Carter was a Democrat who was raised in rural Georgia. He was a farmer who served two terms as a Georgia State Senator from 1963 to 1967, and one as the Governor of Georgia from 1971 to 1975. He was elected President in 1976, defeating incumbent President Gerald Ford in a close election. On his second day in office, Carter pardoned all evaders of the Vietnam War drafts, during Carters term as President, two new cabinet-level departments, the Department of Energy and the Department of Education, were established. He established an energy policy that included conservation, price control. In foreign affairs, Carter pursued the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, the round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. On the economic front he confronted persistent stagflation, a combination of inflation, high unemployment. The end of his tenure was marked by the 1979–1981 Iran hostage crisis, the 1979 energy crisis, the Three Mile Island nuclear accident. In response to the Soviet move he ended détente, escalated the Cold War, Carter won the 1980 primary with 51. 13% of the vote but lost the general election in an electoral landslide to Republican nominee Ronald Reagan, who won 44 of 50 states. His presidency has drawn medium-low responses from historians, with many considering him to have accomplished more with his post-presidency work and he set up the Carter Center in 1982 as his base for advancing human rights. He has also traveled extensively to conduct negotiations, observe elections. Additionally, Carter is a key figure in the Habitat for Humanity project, since surpassing Herbert Hoover in September 2012, he has been the longest-retired president in American history. He is also the first president to mark the 40th anniversary of his election and inauguration, in reference to current political views, he has criticized some of Israels actions and policies in regards to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and has advocated for a two-state solution. James Earl Carter, Jr. was born on October 1,1924, at the Wise Sanitarium in Plains and he is a descendant of English immigrant Thomas Carter, who settled in Virginia in 1635. Numerous generations of Carters lived as farmers in Georgia. Carter is also a descendant of Thomas Cornell, an ancestor of Cornell Universitys founder and of Richard Nixon, Plains was a boomtown of 600 people at the time of Carters birth. His father, James Earl Carter, Sr. was a local businessman who ran a general store and had begun to invest in farmland
3.
Charles Duncan Jr.
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Charles William Duncan Jr. is an American entrepreneur, administrator, and statesman best known for serving as U. S. Secretary of Energy on the Cabinet of President Jimmy Carter from 1979 to 1981. He had previously served as Carters United States Deputy Secretary of Defense during the Iranian Revolution, earlier, Duncan had run the family business, Duncan Coffee Company of Houston, Texas, for seven years, until the Coca-Cola Company acquired it in 1964. After seven years on the Coke board, Duncan became the corporations president, a native of Houston, he served two years in the U. S. Army Air Corps and then graduated from Rice University in 1947 with a degree in chemical engineering. Duncan also pursued two years of work in business administration at the University of Texas and worked briefly as a roustabout and chemical engineer for Humble Oil. In 1957 Duncan joined his family’s coffee business, which had been founded by his uncle, Duncan Coffee’s early brands, notably Admiration and Bright & Early, had become grocery staples in Texas and surrounding states. Duncan rose steadily through the ranks and attained the presidency in 1958, under his leadership, the company expanded into the production of instant coffee—a new and popular beverage—by acquiring plants in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Duncan also acquired several brands of ground coffee, including Butternut Foods of Nebraska. Most importantly, he developed Maryland Club Coffee, which was marketed as a premier, the company’s print ads featured an elegantly dressed model, brunette Elsa Rosborough, who became known as Miss Maryland Club. On May 8,1964, Duncan Coffee merged with the Coca-Cola Company and he ran the newly formed Coca-Cola Foods Division, which included the coffee and citrus divisions of Coke. Three years later the company dispatched him to London to serve as chairman of Coca-Cola Europe, there Duncan supervised the operation and expansion of almost 300 Coca-Cola bottling plants throughout Europe and Asia, including ones in Eastern Europe, Southwest Asia, and North Africa. The first Eastern Europe introduction into Bulgaria made The Coca-Cola Company the first U. S. consumer marketing company to penetrate the Iron Curtain, in 1970 Duncan returned to Atlanta and the following year became Coca-Cola’s president. During his tenure from 1971 to 1974, the company enjoyed extensive growth, during this period Duncan bought, from Coca-Cola’s eminent R. W. Woodruff, the famous TE Ranch, southwest of Cody, Wyoming—a working cattle ranch established in 1895 by William F. In 1974 Duncan left Coca-Cola to head back to Houston, where he became the chairman of both Rotan Mosle Financial Corp. and Robertson Distribution Systems. In 1976, he received a call from newly elected President Jimmy Carter, Carter asked him to accept the position of Deputy Secretary of Defense. In January 1977 Duncan moved to Washington, where he worked with Defense Secretary Harold Brown, Duncan’s duties involved multiple trips to several countries, including Iran, some of which were undergoing considerable turmoil. Duncan’s military advisor was a colonel named Colin Powell, who considered Duncan a mentor. When Powell was promoted to general in 1979, Duncan pinned on Powells rank insignia. Duncan had a year in 1979
4.
United States Secretary of Defense
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The Secretary of Defense is the leader and chief executive officer of the Department of Defense, an Executive Department of the Government of the United States of America. The Secretary of Defenses power over the United States military is only to that of the President. This position corresponds to what is known as a Defense Minister in many other countries. The Secretary of Defense is appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate, Secretary of Defense is a statutory office, and the general provision in 10 U. S. C. This is also extended to the United States Coast Guard during any period of time in which its command, only the Secretary of Defense can authorize the transfer of operational control of forces between the three Military Departments and the nine Combatant Commands. The current Secretary of Defense is retired United States Marine Corps general James Mattis, the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps were established in 1775, in concurrence with the American Revolution. Based on the experiences of World War II, proposals were made on how to more effectively manage the large combined military establishment. The Army generally favored centralization while the Navy had institutional preferences for decentralization, the resulting National Security Act of 1947 was largely a compromise between these divergent viewpoints. The Act merged the Department of War with the Department of the Navy to form the National Military Establishment, the Act also separated the Army Air Forces from the Department of the Army to become its own branch of service, the Department of the Air Force. At first, each of the service secretaries maintained quasi-cabinet status, the position of the Deputy Secretary of Defense, the number two position in the department, was also created at this time. The last major revision of the framework concerning the position was done in the Goldwater–Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1986. In particular, it elevated the status of joint service for commissioned officers, making it in practice a requirement before appointments to general officer and flag officer grades could be made. Because the Constitution vests all military authority in Congress and the President, as the head of DoD, all officials, employees and service members are under the Secretary of Defense. All of these positions, civil and military, require Senate confirmation. Department of Defense Directive 5100.01 describes the relationships within the Department. The latest version, signed by former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates in December 2010, is the first major re-write since 1987, the name of the principally military staff organization, organized under the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, is the Joint Staff. In addition, there is the Joint Meritorious Unit Award, which is the ribbon and unit award issued to joint DoD activities. While the approval authority for DSSM, DMSM, JSCM, JSAM and JMUA is delegated to inferior DoD officials, Permanent Representative to NATO in recognition of U. S
5.
Richard Nixon
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Richard Milhous Nixon was an American politician who served as the 37th President of the United States from 1969 until 1974, when he became the only U. S. president to resign from office. He had previously served as a U. S, Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 under the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California, after completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife Pat moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government and he subsequently served on active duty in the U. S. Navy Reserve during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950 and his pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president and he waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962. In 1968, he ran for the presidency again and was elected by defeating incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey, Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home, and ended the military draft. His administration generally transferred power from Washington D. C. to the states and he imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days, enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency. Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing, which signaled the end of the moon race and he was reelected in one of the largest electoral landslides in U. S. history in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern. The year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo, gasoline rationing, the scandal escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support, and on August 9,1974, he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office. After his resignation, he was issued a pardon by his successor, in retirement, Nixons work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image. He suffered a stroke on April 18,1994. Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9,1913 in Yorba Linda, California and his parents were Hannah Nixon and Francis A. Nixon. His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith, Nixons upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. Nixon had four brothers, Harold, Donald, Arthur, four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England, Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart. Nixons early life was marked by hardship, and he quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood, We were poor. The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the moved to Whittier
6.
Gerald Ford
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Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr. was an American politician who served as the 38th President of the United States from 1974 to 1977, following the resignation of Richard Nixon. Prior to this he served eight months as the 40th Vice President of the United States, before his appointment to the vice presidency, Ford served 25 years as U. S. Representative from Michigans 5th congressional district, the nine of them as the House Minority Leader. As President, Ford signed the Helsinki Accords, marking a move toward détente in the Cold War, with the conquest of South Vietnam by North Vietnam nine months into his presidency, U. S. involvement in Vietnam essentially ended. Domestically, Ford presided over the worst economy in the four decades since the Great Depression, with growing inflation, one of his most controversial acts was to grant a presidential pardon to President Richard Nixon for his role in the Watergate scandal. During Fords presidency, foreign policy was characterized in procedural terms by the increased role Congress began to play, in the Republican presidential primary campaign of 1976, Ford defeated former California Governor Ronald Reagan for the Republican nomination. Arthur not to be elected in his own right, following his years as President, Ford remained active in the Republican Party. After experiencing health problems, he died at home on December 26,2006, Ford lived longer than any other U. S. president –93 years and 165 days – while his 895-day presidency was the shortest of all presidents who did not die in office. Gerald Rudolph Ford was born Leslie Lynch King Jr. on July 14,1913, at 3202 Woolworth Avenue in Omaha, Nebraska, where his parents lived with his paternal grandparents. His mother was Dorothy Ayer Gardner and his father was Leslie Lynch King Sr. a wool trader, Dorothy separated from King just sixteen days after her sons birth. She took her son with her to the Oak Park, Illinois, home of her sister Tannisse and brother-in-law, from there, she moved to the home of her parents, Levi Addison Gardner and Adele Augusta Ayer, in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Dorothy and King divorced in December 1913, she gained custody of her son. Fords paternal grandfather Charles Henry King paid child support until shortly before his death in 1930, Ford later said his biological father had a history of hitting his mother. James M. Ford later told confidantes that his father had first hit his mother on their honeymoon for smiling at another man. After two and a half years with her parents, on February 1,1916, Dorothy married Gerald Rudolff Ford and they then called her son Gerald Rudolff Ford, Jr. The future president was never adopted, and did not legally change his name until December 3,1935. He was raised in Grand Rapids with his three half-brothers from his mothers marriage, Thomas Gardner Tom Ford, Richard Addison Dick Ford. Ford also had three half-siblings from the marriage of Leslie King, Sr. his biological father, Marjorie King, Leslie Henry King
7.
Elliot Richardson
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Elliot Lee Richardson was an American lawyer and politician who was a member of the cabinet of Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. As U. S. Attorney General, he was a prominent figure in the Watergate Scandal and that makes him one of only two individuals to have held four Cabinet positions within the United States government. Richardson was born in Boston, Massachusetts, the son of Clara Lee and Edward Peirson Richardson and he was a Boston Brahmin, descended from the earliest Puritan settlers in New England. In 1942, following Americas entry into World War II, Richardson became a medic in the U. S. 4th Infantry Division. He participated in the June 6,1944, Normandy Invasion as a platoon leader and he was among the first troops of the Big Ivy to come up Causeway No.2 from Utah Beach, which had been under fire from German artillery at Brécourt Manor. He was among the many who noticed the guns ceasing their firing after, after Stephen Ambroses book Band of Brothers was published, Richardson wrote to Winters and thanked him. He continued on in the war in Europe with the 4th Infantry Division and received the Bronze Star Medal and he was discharged in 1945 with the rank of first lieutenant. In 1947, he graduated from Harvard Law School, while at Harvard he became editor and president of the Harvard Law Review. Richardson then served as U. S. Attorney for Massachusetts from 1959 to 1961 and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1958. Richardsons older son, Henry S. Richardson, is a professor of philosophy at Georgetown University and he served three relatively uneventful years as the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare for a popular sitting President. In September 1970, Richardson was present at the funeral of Gamal Abdel Nasser and he secretly met with Anwar Sadat, Nassers successor to discuss a possible peace process with the United States. Richardson was appointed United States Secretary of Defense on January 30,1973, when President Nixon selected Richardson as Secretary, the press described him as an excellent manager and administrator, perhaps the best in the cabinet. In his confirmation hearing, Richardson expressed agreement with Nixons policies on issues as the adequacy of U. S. strategic forces, NATO and relationships with other allies. Although he promised to examine the budget carefully to identify areas for savings, similarly, he strongly supported continued military assistance at current levels. During his short tenure, Richardson spent much time testifying before congressional committees on the proposed FY1974 budget, Richardson would serve as Secretary of Defense for 4 months before becoming Nixons Attorney General, a move that would put him in the Watergate spotlight. In October 1973, after Richardson had served 5 months as Attorney General, Richardson had promised Congress he would not interfere with the Special Prosecutor, and, rather than disobey the President or break his promise, he resigned. President Nixon subsequently ordered Richardsons second-in-command, Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus and he too had promised not to interfere, and also tendered his resignation. Bork carried out the Presidents order, thus completing the events referred to as the Saturday Night Massacre
8.
Donald Rumsfeld
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Donald Henry Don Rumsfeld is an American politician and businessman. Rumsfeld served as the 13th Secretary of Defense from 1975 to 1977 under President Gerald Ford and he is both the youngest and the second oldest person to have served as Secretary of Defense. Additionally, Rumsfeld was a three-term U. S, Congressman from Illinois, Director of the Office of Economic Opportunity, Counsellor to the President, the United States Permanent Representative to NATO, and White House Chief of Staff. Born in Illinois, Rumsfeld attended Princeton University, graduating in 1954 with a degree in political science, after serving in the Navy for three years, he mounted a campaign for Congress in Illinois 13th Congressional District, winning in 1962 at the age of 30. He was a leading co-sponsor of the Freedom of Information Act, called back to Washington in August 1974, Rumsfeld was appointed Chief of Staff by President Ford. Rumsfeld recruited a young one-time staffer of his, Dick Cheney, when Ford lost the 1976 election, Rumsfeld returned to private business life, and was named president and CEO of the pharmaceutical corporation G. D. Searle & Company. He was later named CEO of General Instrument from 1990 to 1993, Rumsfeld was appointed Secretary of Defense for a second time in January 2001 by President George W. Bush. During his tenure he was one of the key responsible for the restructuring of the military in the new 21st century. Rumsfeld was crucial in planning the United States response to the September 11 attacks, Known in media circles for his outspokenness and candor, he gradually lost political support as the wars continued, and he resigned in late 2006. In his retirement years, he published an autobiography Known and Unknown, A Memoir as well as Rumsfelds Rules, Leadership Lessons in Business, Politics, War, and Life. He is involved with the Rumsfeld Foundations Fellowship program, which has advisors at dozens of universities across the United States, Donald Henry Rumsfeld was born on July 9,1932, in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Jeannette Kearsley and George Donald Rumsfeld. His father came from a German-American family that had emigrated in the 1870s, Living in Winnetka, his family attended a Congregational Church. From 1943–1945, Rumsfeld lived in Coronado, California while his father was stationed on a carrier in the Pacific in World War II. He was a ranger at Philmont Scout Ranch in 1949, Rumsfeld attended Baker Demonstration School, and later graduated from New Trier High School. He attended Princeton University on academic and NROTC partial scholarships and he graduated in 1954 with an A. B. in Political Science. During his time at Princeton, he was an amateur wrestler, becoming captain of the varsity wrestling team. His Princeton University senior thesis was titled The Steel Seizure Case of 1952, while at Princeton he was friends with another future Secretary of Defense, Frank Carlucci. Rumsfeld married Joyce P. Pierson on December 27,1954 and they have three children, six grandchildren, and one great grandchild
9.
Director of Central Intelligence
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The DCI then ran the Central Intelligence Group, a predecessor of the CIA. The office of DCI thus predates the establishment of the Central Intelligence Agency, the CIA was created by the National Security Act of 1947, which formally defined the duties of the Director of Central Intelligence. This 1947 Act also created the National Security Council, until April 2005, the DCI was often referred to colloquially as the CIA Director, even though he was head of both the CIA and the broader Intelligence Community. After the September 11,2001, terrorist attacks on the United States and the subsequent investigation by the 9/11 Commission and that movement prompted the passage of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act in December 2004, which split the DCIs duties among two new offices. The Office of the Director of National Intelligence would serve as head of the Intelligence Community, the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency would serve as chief administrator of the CIA. The reorganization took effect on April 21,2005, the 19th and last DCI, Porter J. Goss became the first director of the CIA, while John Negroponte became the first DNI. Status Rear Admiral Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter was the first Director of Central Intelligence who served as Director of the Central Intelligence Agency and those operations, however, were initially conducted by other agencies such as the Office of Policy Coordination. During the first years of its existence, other branches of the U. S. Federal government did not exercise very much supervision over the Central Intelligence Agency and those Soviet organizations also had domestic responsibilities. The rapid expansion of the CIA, and a sense of independence under the Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles exacerbated the problem of the U. S. Intelligence Communitys freedom from independent review, after the armed landing of Cuban exiles in the Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba in 1961, President Kennedy discharged and replaced Dulles. His autobiography is more noteworthy for giving insight into the mindset of key people in the field than it is in giving a description of the CIA. President John F. Kennedy exercised greater supervision, and he appointed a Republican with an engineering background. McCone, despite a lack of intelligence agency background, is considered one of the most competent DCIs. The agency stepped up its activity in Southeast Asia under President Lyndon Johnson, McCone resigned from his position of DCI in April 1965, believing himself to have been unappreciated by President Johnson. McCones final policy memorandum to Johnson argued that expansion of the War in Vietnam would arouse national and world discontent over the war, before it defeated the North Vietnamese regime. Raborn, a naval officer who directed the design and development of the entire Polaris ballistic missile submarine system, had a somewhat short. His background included no foreign relations experience, and intelligence experience only concerning naval operations, CIA historians have said Raborn did not take to the DCI job, in their opinion. Raborn resigned as the DCI on June 30,1966, having served for fourteen months
10.
Vernon A. Walters
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Vernon A. Walters was a United States Army officer and a diplomat. Walters rose to the rank of lieutenant general in the U. S. Army and is a member of the Military Intelligence Hall of Fame, Walters was born in New York City. His father was a British immigrant and insurance salesman, from age 6, Walters lived in Britain and France with his family. At 16, he returned to the United States and worked for his father as a claims adjuster. His formal education beyond elementary school consisted entirely of boarding school instruction at Stonyhurst College and he did not attend a university. In later years, he seemed to enjoy reflecting on the fact that he had fairly high. He was fluent in French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese as well as his native English and he also spoke German fluently but, as he joked, inaccurately, and knew the basics of several others. Walters joined the Army in 1941 and was soon commissioned and he served in Africa and Italy during World War II. He served as a link between the commands of Brazilian Expeditionary Force and U. S, fifth Army, earning medals for distinguished military and intelligence achievements. His served as an aide and interpreter for several Presidents and he was at President Harry S. Trumans side as an interpreter in key meetings with Americas Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking Latin American allies. In Europe in the 1950s, Walters served President Dwight Eisenhower and other top US officials as a translator, during this period he participated in the famous visit of Eisenhower to General Franco. He also worked in Paris at Marshall Plan headquarters and helped set up the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers in Europe and he was with then-Vice President Richard Nixon in 1958 when an anti-American crowd stoned their car in Caracas, Venezuela. Walters suffered facial cuts from flying glass, in the 1960s, Walters served as a U. S. military attaché in France, Italy, and Brazil. In 1961, he proposed an American military intervention in Italy if the Socialist Party had participated in the Government, two decades later he was a high-profile U. S. Ambassador to the U. N. From April 1989 until August 1991, during German Reunification, he was Ambassador to West Germany and he also served as a roving ambassador, performing sensitive diplomatic missions that included talks in Cuba, Syria, and elsewhere. He was sent to Morocco to meet discreetly with PLO officials, while serving as a military attaché in Paris from 1967 to 1972, Walters played a role in secret peace talks with North Vietnam. He arranged to smuggle National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger into France for secret meetings with a senior North Vietnamese official and he accomplished this by borrowing a private airplane from an old friend, French President Georges Pompidou. President Richard Nixon appointed Walters as Deputy Director for Central Intelligence in 1972, refused to involve the Agency, and bluntly informed the highest levels of the executive that further insistence from that quarter would result in his immediate resignation
11.
Richard Helms
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Richard McGarrah Helms served as the United States Director of Central Intelligence from June 1966 to February 1973. Helms began intelligence work with the Office of Strategic Services during World War II, following the 1947 creation of the Central Intelligence Agency he rose in its ranks during the Truman, Eisenhower, and Kennedy administrations. Helms then served as DCI under Presidents Johnson and Nixon, as a professional Helms highly valued information gathering and its analysis. Although a participant at planning such activities, he remained a skeptic about covert, Helms understood the bounds of his agency role as being able to express strong opinions over a decision under review, yet working as a team player once a course was set by the administration. He saw it as his duty to keep secrets from press scrutiny. While DCI, Helms managed the following the lead of his predecessor John McCone. In 1977, as a result of clandestine operations in Chile. His last post in government service was Ambassador to Iran, 1973–1977, yet he was a key witness before the Senate during its investigation of the CIA in the mid-1970s,1975 being called the Year of Intelligence. Helms began his career in intelligence by serving in the war-time Office of Strategic Services, following the allied victory Helms was stationed in Germany, serving under Allen Dulles and Frank Wisner. Then in late 1945 President Truman terminated the OSS, back in Washington, Helms continued in similar intelligence work as part of the Strategic Services Unit, which later became called the Office of Special Operations. Helms focused then on espionage in central Europe at the start of the Cold War, when the Central Intelligence Agency was founded in 1947, the OSO was incorporated into the new agency. In 1950 Truman appointed General Walter Bedell Smith as the fourth Director of Central Intelligence, the CIA became firmly established institutionally within the United States Intelligence Community. DCI Smith merged the OSO and the rapidly expanding Office of Policy Coordination under Wisner to form a new unit to be managed by the Deputy Director for Plans. Wisner led the Directorate for Plans, serving as DDP from 1952 to 1958, in 1953 Dulles became the fifth DCI under President Eisenhower. His brother John Foster Dulles was Eisenhowers Secretary of State, from Washington Helms oversaw the Berlin Tunnel, the 1953–1954 espionage operation which later made newspaper headlines. During the crises in Suez and Hungary in 1956 the DDP Wisner became distraught by what he saw as the disloyalty of allies, passing over Helms, the DCI Dulles appointed his rival as the new DDP, Richard Bissell, who had managed the U-2 spy plane. During the Kennedy presidency, Dulles selected Helms to testify before Congress on Soviet-made forgeries, following the 1961 Bay of Pigs fiasco, President Kennedy appointed John McCone as the new DCI, and Helms then became the DDP. Helms was assigned to manage the CIAs role in Kennedys multi-agency effort to dislodge Castro, after the 1963 coup in South Vietnam, Helms was privy to Kennedys anguish over the killing of President Diem
12.
United States Atomic Energy Commission
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President Harry S. Truman signed the McMahon/Atomic Energy Act on August 1,1946, transferring the control of atomic energy from military to civilian hands, effective from January 1,1947. This shift gave the first members of the AEC complete control of the plants, laboratories, equipment, during its initial establishment and subsequent operationalization, the AEC played a key role in the institutional development of Ecosystem ecology. Specifically, it provided financial resources, allowing for ecological research to take place. Perhaps even more importantly, it enabled ecologists with a range of groundbreaking techniques for the completion of their research. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the AEC also approved funding for numerous projects in the Arctic and near-Arctic. These projects were designed to examine the effects of energy upon the environment and were a part of the Commission’s attempt at creating peaceful applications of atomic energy. By 1974, the AECs regulatory programs had come under strong attack that Congress decided to abolish the agency. On August 4,1977, President Jimmy Carter signed into law The Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977, at the same time, the McMahon Act which created the AEC also gave it unprecedented powers of regulation over the entire field of nuclear science and technology. President Truman appointed David Lilienthal as the first Chairman of the AEC, Congress gave the new civilian Commission extraordinary power and considerable independence to carry out its mission. To provide the Commission exceptional freedom in hiring scientists and professionals, the National Laboratory system was established from the facilities created under the Manhattan Project. Argonne National Laboratory was one of the first laboratories authorized under this legislation as a facility dedicated to fulfilling the new Commissions mission. The Commissions first order of business was to inspect the scattered empire of plants, the AEC was furthermore in charge of developing the United States nuclear arsenal, taking over these responsibilities from the wartime Manhattan Project. It also implemented the program to develop the hydrogen bomb. It began a program of nuclear testing both in the Pacific Proving Grounds and at the continental Nevada Test Site. While it also supported much basic research, the vast majority of its budget was devoted to atomic weapons development. Within the AEC, high-level scientific and technical advice was provided by the General Advisory Committee, in its early years, the GAC provided a number of controversial decisions, notably its decision against building the hydrogen bomb in 1949. As a result, Senator Brien McMahon influenced the decision not to reappoint J. Robert Oppenheimer to the GAC in 1952 after his six-year statutory term expired. David Lilienthal, then AEC Chair, agreed with Oppenheimer and opposed a program to build the hydrogen bomb ahead of any other nation
13.
Glenn T. Seaborg
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Glenn Theodore Seaborg was an American chemist whose involvement in the synthesis, discovery and investigation of ten transuranium elements earned him a share of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. His work in this also led to his development of the actinide concept. He advised ten US Presidents – from Harry S, throughout his career, Seaborg worked for arms control. He was a signatory to the Franck Report and contributed to the Limited Test Ban Treaty, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and he was a well-known advocate of science education and federal funding for pure research. After sharing the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Edwin McMillan, he received approximately 50 honorary doctorates and numerous other awards, the list of things named after Seaborg ranges from his atomic element to an asteroid. He was an author, penning numerous books and 500 journal articles. He was once listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as the person with the longest entry in Whos Who in America, Glenn Theodore Seaborg was born in Ishpeming, Michigan, on April 19,1912, the son of Herman Theodore and Selma Olivia Erickson Seaborg. He had one sister, Jeanette, who was two years younger and his family spoke Swedish at home. When Glenn Seaborg was a boy, the moved to Los Angeles County, California, settling in a subdivision called Home Gardens, later annexed to the City of South Gate. About this time he changed the spelling of his first name from Glen to Glenn, Seaborg kept a daily journal from 1927 until he suffered a stroke in 1998. As a youth, Seaborg was both a sports fan and an avid movie buff. His mother encouraged him to become a bookkeeper as she felt his interests were impractical. He did not take an interest in science until his year when he was inspired by Dwight Logan Reid. Seaborg graduated from Jordan in 1929 at the top of his class and received a bachelor of degree in chemistry at the University of California, Los Angeles. He worked his way through school as a stevedore and an assistant at Firestone. Seaborg was a member of the chemistry fraternity Alpha Chi Sigma. As a graduate student in the 1930s Seaborg performed wet chemistry research for his advisor Gilbert Newton Lewis, and published three papers with him on the theory of acids and bases. Seaborg studied the text Applied Radiochemistry by Otto Hahn, of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin, for several years, Seaborg conducted important research in artificial radioactivity using the Lawrence cyclotron at UC Berkeley
14.
Dixy Lee Ray
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Dixy Lee Ray was an American scientist and politician who served as the 17th Governor of the U. S. state of Washington. A graduate of Mills College and Stanford University, where she earned a doctorate in biology and she was chief scientist aboard the schooner SS Te Vega during the International Indian Ocean Expedition. Under her guidance, the nearly bankrupt Pacific Science Center was transformed from a traditional, exhibit-oriented museum to a learning center. In 1973 Ray was appointed chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission by President Richard M. Nixon, under her leadership, research and development was separated from safety programs, and Milton Shaw, the head of the powerful reactor development division, was removed. To the surprise of many, Ray ran for election as Governor of Washington as a Democrat in 1976 and she won the election despite her blunt, sometimes confrontational, style. As governor, she approved allowing supertankers to dock in Puget Sound, championed support for unrestrained growth and development, on April 3,1980 she declared a state of emergency as a result of the volcanic eruption of Mount St. Helens. She retired after losing her bid for re-election in 1980 and she was born Marguerite Ray in Tacoma, Washington to Frances Adams Ray and Alvis Marion Ray, the second in a family of five girls. She joined the Girl Scouts and, at the age of 12, became the youngest girl, up to that time, in 1930, at age 16, she legally changed her name to Dixy Lee in homage to Robert E. Lee. Ray attended Tacomas Stadium High School and graduated as valedictorian from Mills College in Oakland, California in 1937, working her way through school as a waitress and she went on to earn a masters degree in 1938. Her thesis was titled A Comparative Study of the Life Habits of Some Species of Burrowing Eumalacostraca, Ray spent the next four years teaching science in the Oakland Unified School District. In 1942 a John Switzer Fellowship allowed her to enter a program in biology at Stanford University. In 1945 Ray returned to Washington to accept a position as an instructor in the department at the University of Washington. In 1957 she was made a professor at the University of Washington. During her time there, she served as chief scientist aboard the schooner SS Te Vega during the International Indian Ocean Expedition. Her reputation in the classroom swung between wild extremes, students either loved her or loathed her as did faculty members, one fellow professor reportedly described her as an intemperate, feeble-minded old bitch. Intrigued by her reputation as a person who could make science interesting, producers at KCTS-TV, Seattles PBS affiliate, the show, Animals of the Seashore, was a hit and helped propel her into the public eye beyond campus. Her growing popularity led to the Pacific Science Center extending an invitation to Ray to take over the science museum for an annual salary of $20,000. Ray jumped at the opportunity and immediately began an overhaul of the center
15.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
16.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
17.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
18.
Baltimore
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Baltimore is the largest city in the U. S. state of Maryland, and the 29th-most populous city in the country. It was established by the Constitution of Maryland and is not part of any county, thus, it is the largest independent city in the United States, with a population of 621,849 as of 2015. As of 2010, the population of the Baltimore Metropolitan Area was 2.7 million, founded in 1729, Baltimore is the second largest seaport in the Mid-Atlantic. Baltimores Inner Harbor was once the leading port of entry for immigrants to the United States. With hundreds of identified districts, Baltimore has been dubbed a city of neighborhoods, in the War of 1812, Francis Scott Key wrote The Star-Spangled Banner, later the American national anthem, in Baltimore. More than 65,000 properties, or roughly one in three buildings in the city, are listed on the National Register, more than any city in the nation. The city has 289 properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the historical records of the government of Baltimore are located at the Baltimore City Archives. The city is named after Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, of the Irish House of Lords, Baltimore Manor was the name of the estate in County Longford on which the Calvert family lived in Ireland. Baltimore is an anglicization of the Irish name Baile an Tí Mhóir, in 1608, Captain John Smith traveled 210 miles from Jamestown to the uppermost Chesapeake Bay, leading the first European expedition to the Patapsco River. The name Patapsco is derived from pota-psk-ut, which translates to backwater or tide covered with froth in Algonquian dialect, a quarter century after John Smiths voyage, English colonists began to settle in Maryland. The area constituting the modern City of Baltimore and its area was first settled by David Jones in 1661. He claimed the area today as Harbor East on the east bank of the Jones Falls stream. In the early 1600s, the immediate Baltimore vicinity was populated, if at all. The Baltimore area had been inhabited by Native Americans since at least the 10th millennium BC, one Paleo-Indian site and several Archaic period and Woodland period archaeological sites have been identified in Baltimore, including four from the Late Woodland period. During the Late Woodland period, the culture that is called the Potomac Creek complex resided in the area from Baltimore to the Rappahannock River in Virginia. It was located on the Bush River on land that in 1773 became part of Harford County, in 1674, the General Assembly passed An Act for erecting a Court-house and Prison in each County within this Province. The site of the house and jail for Baltimore County was evidently Old Baltimore near the Bush River. In 1683, the General Assembly passed An Act for Advancement of Trade to establish towns, ports, one of the towns established by the act in Baltimore County was on Bush River, on Town Land, near the Court-House
19.
Maryland
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The states largest city is Baltimore, and its capital is Annapolis. Among its occasional nicknames are Old Line State, the Free State, the state is named after Henrietta Maria of France, the wife of Charles I of England. George Calvert was the first Lord of Baltimore and the first English proprietor of the colonial grant. Maryland was the state to ratify the United States Constitution. Maryland is one of the smallest U. S. states in terms of area, as well as one of the most densely populated, Maryland has an area of 12,406.68 square miles and is comparable in overall area with Belgium. It is the 42nd largest and 9th smallest state and is closest in size to the state of Hawaii, the next largest state, its neighbor West Virginia, is almost twice the size of Maryland. Maryland possesses a variety of topography within its borders, contributing to its nickname America in Miniature. The mid-portion of this border is interrupted by Washington, D. C. which sits on land that was part of Montgomery and Prince Georges counties and including the town of Georgetown. This land was ceded to the United States Federal Government in 1790 to form the District of Columbia, the Chesapeake Bay nearly bisects the state and the counties east of the bay are known collectively as the Eastern Shore. Close to the town of Hancock, in western Maryland, about two-thirds of the way across the state. This geographical curiosity makes Maryland the narrowest state, bordered by the Mason–Dixon line to the north, portions of Maryland are included in various official and unofficial geographic regions. Much of the Baltimore–Washington corridor lies just south of the Piedmont in the Coastal Plain, earthquakes in Maryland are infrequent and small due to the states distance from seismic/earthquake zones. The M5.8 Virginia earthquake in 2011 was felt moderately throughout Maryland, buildings in the state are not well-designed for earthquakes and can suffer damage easily. The lack of any glacial history accounts for the scarcity of Marylands natural lakes, laurel Oxbow Lake is an over one-hundred-year-old 55-acre natural lake two miles north of Maryland City and adjacent to Russett. Chews Lake is a natural lake two miles south-southeast of Upper Marlboro. There are numerous lakes, the largest of them being the Deep Creek Lake. Maryland has shale formations containing natural gas, where fracking is theoretically possible, as is typical of states on the East Coast, Marylands plant life is abundant and healthy. Middle Atlantic coastal forests, typical of the southeastern Atlantic coastal plain, grow around Chesapeake Bay, moving west, a mixture of Northeastern coastal forests and Southeastern mixed forests cover the central part of the state
20.
Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
21.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
22.
Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
23.
Doctor of Philosophy
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A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
24.
Watergate scandal
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When the conspiracy was discovered and investigated by the U. S. Congress, the Nixon administrations resistance to its probes led to a constitutional crisis. The term Watergate, by metonymy, has come to encompass an array of clandestine and those activities included such dirty tricks as bugging the offices of political opponents and people of whom Nixon or his officials were suspicious. The scandal also resulted in the indictment of 69 people, with trials or pleas resulting in 48 being found guilty, the affair began with the arrest of five men for breaking and entering into the DNC headquarters at the Watergate complex on Saturday, June 17,1972. In July 1973, evidence mounted against the Presidents staff, including testimony provided by staff members in an investigation conducted by the Senate Watergate Committee. The investigation revealed that President Nixon had a system in his offices. After a protracted series of court battles, the U. S. Supreme Court unanimously ruled that the president was obliged to release the tapes to government investigators. The tapes revealed that Nixon had attempted to cover up activities that took place after the break-in, facing virtually certain impeachment in the House of Representatives and equally certain conviction by the Senate, Nixon resigned the presidency on August 9,1974. On September 8,1974, his successor, Gerald Ford, the name Watergate and the suffix -gate have since become synonymous with political and non-political scandals in the United States. According to Dean, this marked the scene of the worst political scandal of the twentieth century. Mitchell viewed the plan as unrealistic, Liddy was nominally in charge of the operation, but has since insisted that he was duped by Dean and at least two of his subordinates. These included former CIA officers E. Howard Hunt and James McCord, in May, McCord assigned former FBI agent Alfred C. Baldwin III to carry out the wiretapping and monitor the telephone conversations afterward. McCord testified that he selected Baldwins name from a registry published by the Society of Former Special Agents of the FBI to work for the Committee to Re-elect the President, Baldwin first served as bodyguard to Martha Mitchell, the wife of John Mitchell, who was living in Washington. Baldwin accompanied Martha Mitchell to Chicago, Martha did not like Baldwin and described him as the gauchest character Ive ever met. The Committee replaced Baldwin with another security man, the room 419 was booked in the name of McCord’s company. At behest of G. Gordon Liddy and E. Howard Hunt, McCord and his team of burglars prepared for their first Watergate break-in, two phones inside the offices of the DNC headquarters were said to have been wiretapped. The FBI found no evidence that OBriens phone was bugged, however, it was determined that an effective listening device had been installed in Olivers phone. Despite the success in installing the devices, the Committee agents soon determined that they needed to be repaired. They planned a burglary in order to take care of this
25.
Watergate complex
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The Watergate complex is a group of five buildings in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D. C. in the United States. Covering a total of 10 acres next to the John F, the complex has been sold several times since the 1980s. In the 1990s, it was split up and its component buildings, the investigation into the burglary revealed that high officials in the Nixon administration had ordered the break-in and then tried to cover up their involvement. The ensuing Watergate scandal, named for the complex, led to Nixons resignation on August 9,1974, the name Watergate and the suffix -gate have since become synonymous with political scandals in the United States and elsewhere. The Watergate superblock is bounded on the north by Virginia Avenue, on the east by New Hampshire Avenue, on the south by F Street and it is in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood overlooking the Potomac River, next to the Kennedy Center and the embassy of Saudi Arabia. The nearest Metro station,0.4 miles distant, is Foggy Bottom-GWU, Gas production ceased at the site in 1947, and the plant was demolished shortly thereafter. C. The name Watergate relates to numerous aspects of its physical and historical context, the complex sits near the eastern terminus of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, which operated from 1831 to 1924 and is now a National Historical Park. A large wooden water gate marks the point where the canal meets the Potomac River, land once owned by the canal company was part of the 10-acre site purchased in 1960 by the projects developer, Rome-based Società Generale Immobiliare. Another namesake is the restaurant, the Water Gate Inn. Instead, beginning in 1935, the steps faced a floating stage on the Potomac River on which open-air concerts were held. Up to 12,000 people would sit on the steps and surrounding grass and listen to symphonies, military bands, the music venue was depicted in scenes in the motion pictures Houseboat and Born Yesterday. The barge concerts ended in 1965 when jet service began at National Airport. The Watergate complex was developed by the Italian firm SGI, the company purchased the 10 acres that belonged to the defunct Chesapeake and Ohio Canal in February 1960 for $10 million. The project was announced on October 21,1960, Italian Luigi Moretti of the University of Rome was the chief architect, and Milton Fischer of the D. C. -based firm of Corning, Moore, Elmore and Fischer the associate architect. The apartment buildings included two-story units on the first and second floors, the design for the entire complex also envisioned an electronic security system so extensive that the press claimed intruders will have difficulty getting onto the grounds undetected. Boris V. Timchenko, a noted D. C, landscape features such as planters would also be used to create privacy barriers between apartments. The complex was the first mixed-use development in the District of Columbia, the Watergate complex was intended to be a city within a city, and provide so many amenities that residents would not need to leave. At the time, it was also the largest renewal effort in the District of Columbia undertaken solely with private funds, the Watergates curved structures were designed to emulate two nearby elements
26.
Presidency of Richard Nixon
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He was succeeded by Vice President Gerald Ford, who had become vice president nine months earlier, following Spiro Agnews resignation from office. A Republican, Nixon took office after the 1968 presidential election, in which he defeated Hubert Humphrey, four years later, in 1972, Nixon won reelection in a landslide victory over George McGovern. Overall, he won 60. 7% of the popular vote, Nixon, the 37th United States president, succeeded Lyndon B. Johnson, who had launched the Great Society, a set of domestic programs financed, in contrast, Nixon advocated a New Federalism domestic program model, one in which certain powers would devolve back to the states. Nixons primary focus while in office was on foreign affairs, Nixon pursued a detente with the Peoples Republic of China, taking advantage of the Sino-Soviet split and significantly altering the nature of the Cold War. Nixons many accomplishments as president were however, largely overshadowed by the scandals that enveloped his administration, regarding his lasting legacy, historian Stephen Ambrose wrote, Nixon wanted to be judged by what he accomplished. What he will be remembered for is the nightmare he put the country through in his second term, Nixon was inaugurated as president on January 20,1969, sworn in by his onetime political rival, Chief Justice Earl Warren. Pat Nixon held the family Bibles open at Isaiah 2,4, which reads, They shall beat their swords into plowshares, in his inaugural address, which received almost uniformly positive reviews, Nixon remarked that the greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker. Nixon made fifteen international trips during his presidency and his first was an eight-day European visit starting in Brussels on February 23,1969. He met with Britain’s Prime Minister Harold Wilson in London and Frances President Charles de Gaulle in Paris and he also stopped in Bonn, Berlin and Rome and met with Pope Paul VI in Vatican City. He also made groundbreaking trips to several Eastern European Communist nations, including, Romania, Yugoslavia, even those who hated Nixons presidency occasionally praise his work in China. The extent to which his visit had any consequences of note, however. Assisting him in this venture was his National Security Advisor and future Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, with whom the President worked closely, bypassing Cabinet officials. A breakthrough came in early 1971, when Chairman Mao invited a team of American table tennis players to visit China, Nixon followed up by sending Kissinger to China for clandestine meetings with Chinese officials. On July 15,1971, it was announced by Beijing. The secrecy allowed both sets of time to prepare the political climate in their countries for the contact. In February 1972, Nixon and his wife traveled to China, Kissinger briefed Nixon for over 40 hours in preparation. Upon touching down, the President and First Lady emerged from Air Force One, Nixon made a point of shaking Zhous hand, something which then-Secretary of State John Foster Dulles had refused to do in 1954 when the two met in Geneva
27.
Nixon White House tapes
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The system was subsequently expanded to include other rooms within the White House and Camp David. The recording system was turned off on July 18,1973, Nixon was not the first president to record his White House conversations, the practice was initiated by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940. Nixons refusal of a subpoena to release the tapes constituted an article of impeachment against Nixon. On August 19,2013, the Nixon Library and the National Archives, just prior to assuming office in January 1969, President Nixon learned that his predecessor, Lyndon Johnson, had installed a system to record his meetings and telephone calls. According to his Chief of Staff H. R, at Nixons request, Haldeman and his staff—including Deputy Assistant Alexander Butterfield—then worked with the United States Secret Service to install a recording system. On February 16,1971 a taping system was installed in two rooms in the White House, namely, the Oval Office and the Cabinet Room. The system was installed and monitored by the Secret Service, significant phone lines were tapped as well, including those in the Oval Office and the Lincoln Sitting Room, which was Nixons favorite room in the White House. All audio equipment was sound-activated, except in the Cabinet Room, by design, only very few individuals knew of the existence of the taping system, Butterfield, Haldemans assistant Lawrence Higby, and the Secret Service technicians who had installed it. The recordings were produced on as many as nine Sony TC-800B machines using very thin 0.5 mil tape at the slow speed of 15/16 inches per second. The tapes contain more than 3,000 hours of conversation, hundreds of hours are of discussions on foreign policy, including planning for the 1972 Nixon visit to China and subsequent visit to the Soviet Union. Only 200 hours of the 3,500 contain references to Watergate, the existence of the White House taping system was first confirmed by Senate Committee staff member Donald Sanders, on July 13,1973, in an interview with White House aide Alexander Butterfield. Three days later, it was made public during the testimony of Butterfield. On July 16,1973, Butterfield told the committee in a hearing that Nixon had ordered a taping system installed in the White House to automatically record all conversations. On October 19,1973, he offered a compromise, Nixon proposed that U. S, senator John C. Stennis review and summarize the tapes for accuracy and report his findings to the special prosecutors office. Special prosecutor Archibald Cox refused the compromise and on Saturday, October 20,1973, Richardson refused and resigned instead, then Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus was asked to dismiss Cox but refused and was subsequently fired. Solicitor General and acting head of the Justice Department Robert Bork discharged Cox, Nixon appointed Leon Jaworski special counsel on November 1,1973. While playing the tape on a Uher 5000, she answered a phone call, reaching for the Uher 5000 stop button, she said that she mistakenly hit the button next to it, the record button. For the duration of the call, about 5 minutes, she kept her foot on the devices pedal
28.
Operation Sandwedge
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Operation Sandwedge was a proposed clandestine intelligence-gathering operation against the political enemies of the Richard Nixon presidential administration. The proposals were put together by H. R. Haldeman, John Ehrlichman, the operation was planned to help Nixons 1972 re-election campaign. Operation Sandwedge included proposed surveillance of Nixons enemies to gather information on their status and sexual activities. Liddys plan eventually led to the downfall of Nixons presidency, which Caulfield believed would have been avoided had Sandwedge been acted upon. In 1968, Richard Nixon, the United States Republican Party nominee, won the presidential election, Nixon appointed H. R. Haldeman as his Chief of Staff, this position granted Haldeman a relatively large degree of control over the activities of the presidential administration. Haldeman had first worked for Nixon in 1956, during Nixons successful bid for the vice-presidency under Dwight D. Eisenhower, by 1971, Nixons staff were receiving a cursory intelligence report from Haldemans assistant, Gordon C. Strachan, Strachans reports essentially collated information about political rallies and campaign groups that had already gathered by the police. Muskie was a Democratic senator who had been Humphreys 1968 vice-presidential candidate, in late 1971, John Dean, the White House Counsel, pushed to expand the existing intelligence program ahead of the 1972 re-election campaign. Dean delegated the task to Jack Caulfield, a member of his staff who was a former New York police officer. John Ehrlichman, a friend of Haldeman, who had also served as White House Counsel, had been part of the operations inception. Caulfields work to this end had already resulted in two wiretaps on phone lines—one on Nixons brother Donald, and another on journalist Joseph Kraft, the investigations and surveillance would, in part, assess how the anti-Vietnam War movement could damage Nixons campaign. Kennedy, a Democrat and former Attorney General, Caulfield noted that this firm had the potential to employ formidable and sophisticated intelligence-gathering techniques, and Sandwedge was his attempt to create a Republican counterpart to it. The plan would involve black bag operations, targeting political enemies of the campaign, electronic surveillance was also an element of the proposal, with plans to scrutinize the private lives of the targets, including their tax records and sexual habits. Herb Kalmbach, Nixons own attorney, transferred $50,000 to Caulfield at the request of John N. Mitchell, Mitchell had served as Attorney General under Nixons first term, and directed the 1972 re-election campaign. Caulfield was also given responsibility for the salary of Tony Ulasewicz, however, Strachan, Dean and other staff members were frustrated at the pace of Caulfields development of the project. During this time, Caulfield recruited James W. McCord, Jr. a retired CIA officer, to protect the offices of the Republican National Convention, McCord would later be directly employed by CRP from January 1972. Caulfield also sent Ulasewicz to the offices of Paul McCloskey in New Hampshire. McCloskey was a Republican senator for California, who was running for the presidential nomination against Nixon on a platform opposing the Vietnam War
29.
Operation Gemstone
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The first meeting occurred in the Attorney Generals Washington, D. C. office at 11,00 a. m. on January 27,1972. Liddys proposals would cost approximately $1 million to enact, according to all four participants of the January 27 meeting, Attorney General Mitchell declared, with some evident sarcasm, Gordon, thats not quite what I had in mind. It was just an incredible thing, the second meeting occurred one week later, on February 4,1972, again at Mitchells office. The participants of this meeting were the four men as the first. Dean himself later testified that he arrived late to the meeting. Liddy, Magruder, and Mitchell all disputed this claim, at the February 4 meeting, Liddy proposed a scaled-down plan that would cost $500,000 to enact. Beginning in April 1973, as the Watergate scandal began to unravel, Magruder, for his part, Liddy remained silent until the publication of his memoir Will in April 1980. However, all four men have stated that the February 4 meeting adjourned without Mitchell having expressed any approval for any of Liddys plans
30.
United States presidential election, 1972
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The United States presidential election of 1972, the 47th quadrennial presidential election was held on Tuesday, November 7,1972. Overall, he won 60. 7% of the popular vote, Johnson’s in 1964, but with a larger margin of victory in the popular vote, thus becoming the fourth largest in presidential election history. He received almost 18 million more votes than McGovern, the widest margin of any United States presidential election. McGovern only won the votes in Massachusetts and the District of Columbia. It was also the first time that Hawaii was carried by a Republican, together with the House and Senate elections of 1972, it was the first electoral event in which people aged 18 to 20 could vote in every state, according to the provisions of the 26th Amendment. It was also the first election in which California had the most votes in the electoral college, furthermore, the presidential term of 1973–1977 is notable for being the only one in American history in which both the original President and Vice President fail to complete the term. Ultimately, the 1973–77 term would see two different Presidents and three different Vice Presidents, as of 2016, this is the last time Minnesota voted for the Republican candidate. Overall, fifteen people declared their candidacy for the Democratic Party nomination, mcCarthy, former Senator from Minnesota Henry M. C. The favorite for the Democratic nomination then became Senator Ed Muskie, Muskie’s momentum collapsed just prior to the New Hampshire primary, when the so-called Canuck letter was published in the Manchester Union-Leader. Subsequently, the published an attack on the character of Muskie’s wife Jane, reporting that she drank. Muskie made a defense of his wife in a speech outside the newspaper’s offices during a snowstorm. Nearly two years before the election, South Dakota Senator George McGovern entered the race as an anti-war, McGovern was able to pull together support from the anti-war movement and other grassroots support to win the nomination in a primary system he had played a significant part in designing. On January 25,1972, New York Representative Shirley Chisholm announced she would run, Hawaii Representative Patsy Mink also announced she would run and became the first Asian American to run for the Democratic presidential nomination. On April 25, George McGovern won the Massachusetts primary, once middle America – Catholic middle America, in particular – finds this out, he’s dead. ”The label stuck and McGovern became known as the candidate of amnesty, abortion, and acid. It became Humphrey’s battle cry to stop McGovern—especially in the Nebraska primary, alabama Governor George Wallace, an anti-integrationist, did well in the South and among alienated and dissatisfied voters in the North. What might have become a campaign was cut short when Wallace was shot in an assassination attempt by Arthur Bremer on May 15. Wallace was struck by five bullets and left paralyzed from the waist down, the day after the assassination attempt, Wallace won the Michigan and Maryland primaries, but the shooting effectively ended his campaign and he pulled out in July. In the end, McGovern won the nomination by winning primaries through grassroots support in spite of establishment opposition, McGovern had led a commission to re-design the Democratic nomination system after the divisive nomination struggle and convention of 1968
31.
Saturday Night Massacre
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When Cox issued a subpoena to President Nixon, asking for copies of taped conversations recorded in the Oval Office and authorized by Nixon, the President initially refused to comply. Cox refused the compromise that evening and it was believed that there would be a short rest in the legal maneuvering while government offices were closed for the weekend. However, on the following day Nixon ordered Attorney General Richardson to fire Cox, Richardson refused, and resigned in protest. Nixon then ordered Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus to fire Cox, Nixon then ordered the Solicitor General, Robert Bork, to fire Cox. Both Richardson and Ruckelshaus had given assurances to Congressional oversight committees that they would not interfere. Although Bork later claimed that he believed Nixons order to be valid and appropriate, nevertheless, having been brought to the White House by limousine and sworn in as Acting Attorney General, Bork wrote the letter firing Cox. Congress was infuriated by the act, which was seen as an abuse of presidential power. The public sent in a large number of telegrams to both the White House and Congress. In the days followed, numerous resolutions of impeachment against the president were introduced in Congress. Nixon was compelled to allow Bork to appoint a new special prosecutor, Leon Jaworski, there was a question whether Jaworski would limit the investigation to the Watergate burglary alone, or follow Coxs lead and also look at broader corrupt activities, such as the White House Plumbers. As it turned out, Jaworski also looked at broader corrupt activities, while Nixon continued to refuse to turn over the actual tapes, he agreed to release transcripts of a large number of them. Nixon cited the fact that any audio pertinent to national security information would have to be redacted from the tapes, there was further controversy on November 7, when an 18½-minute portion of one tape was found to have been erased. Nixons personal secretary, Rose Mary Woods, said she had accidentally erased the tape by pushing the foot pedal on her tape player while answering the phone. Later forensic analysis determined that the tape had been erased in several segments—at least five, Nixons presidency succumbed to mounting pressure resulting from the Watergate scandal and its cover-up. In the face of certain removal from office through the impeachment process against him, the Ethics in Government Act of 1978 was a direct result of the Saturday Night Massacre. In his posthumously published memoirs, Bork stated that Nixon promised him the seat on the Supreme Court following Borks role in the firings. Nixon was unable to carry out the promise after his resignation, but Ronald Reagan nominated Bork for the Supreme Court in 1987, though he was rejected by the Senate
32.
White House horrors
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The revelation of their existence and scope is among the many events of the Watergate scandal. More than 70 people were convicted of related to Watergate. Here is a listing of much of the criminality involved, Breaking into Daniel Ellsbergs psychiatrists office, Mitchell gave approval to the break-in at the Watergate. Charles Colson proposed firebombing the Brookings Institution and seizing politically damaging documents the President wanted destroyed, E. Howard Hunt fabricated documents implicating John F. Kennedy in the assassination of South Vietnamese President Diem. John Ehrlichman ordered FBI Director L. Patrick Gray to take possession of the files in Hunts safe, Gray destroyed the evidence from Hunts safe. Watergate investigator Henry E. Petersen gave John Dean secret grand jury testimony, Gray at the FBI gave Dean access to all FBI investigation files. Creation of the White House Plumbers to plug leaks through the use of illegal wiretaps, operation Sandwedge, The Jack Caulfield operation designed to orchestrate a massive campaign to spy on the Democrats. Ehrlichman claimed he did not know in advance about the Ellsberg break-in, Gemstone, The Liddy operation to kidnap students who might disrupt the Republican convention in 1972, use prostitutes to compromise Democratic politicians. Attorney General Mitchell objected to the plan on the grounds it cost too much, Mitchell, Haldeman and Jeb Magruder approved of Gemstone. Hush money paid to Watergate break-in defendants, Nixon promised clemency to Watergate criminals. Caulfield sent to Chappaquiddick Island to pose as a reporter to dig up dirt on Ted Kennedy before all the leaks, charles Colson was guilty of offering clemency to Hunt at Nixons orders. Nixon told Petersen to stay out of the Ellsberg psychiatrists break-in on the grounds that an investigation would compromise national security, Nixon proposed to Alexander Haig and Fred Buzhardt that they fabricate evidence—a missing dictabelt tape—wanted by Judge John Sirica, both refused. Nixon ordered the IRS to audit the tax returns of Larry OBrien, Nixon ordered the IRS to stop an investigation of Howard Hughes. Huston Plan, In June 1970 Tom Huston persuaded the heads of the CIA, DIA, and NSA to approve a plan for black bag jobs against enemies of the Nixon administration
33.
United States v. Nixon
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United States v. Nixon,418 U. S. Issued on July 24,1974, the ruling was important to the stages of the Watergate scandal. United States v. Nixon is considered a crucial precedent limiting the power of any U. S. president to claim executive privilege. Burger wrote the opinion for a court, joined by Justices William O. Douglas, William J. Brennan, Potter Stewart, Byron White, Thurgood Marshall, Harry Blackmun. Burger, Blackmun and Powell were appointed to the Court by Nixon during his first term, associate Justice William Rehnquist, a Nixon appointee, recused himself as he had previously served in the Nixon administration as Assistant Attorney General. The Watergate scandal began during the 1972 Presidential campaign between Democratic Senator George McGovern of South Dakota and President Nixon. On June 17,1972, about five months before the election, five burglars broke into Democratic headquarters located in the Watergate building complex in Washington. In May 1973, Nixons Attorney General, Elliot Richardson, appointed Archibald Cox to the position of special prosecutor, in October 1973, Nixon arranged to have Cox fired in the Saturday Night Massacre. However, public outrage forced Nixon to appoint a new special prosecutor, Leon Jaworski, in April 1974, Jaworski obtained a subpoena ordering Nixon to release certain tapes and papers related to specific meetings between the President and those indicted by the grand jury. Those tapes and the conversations they revealed were believed to contain damaging evidence involving the indicted men, hoping Jaworski and the public would be satisfied, Nixon turned over edited transcripts of 43 conversations, including portions of twenty conversations demanded by the subpoena. St. Clair, Nixons attorney, then requested Judge John Sirica of the U. S. District Court for the District of Columbia to quash the subpoena. While arguing before Sirica, St. Sirica denied Nixons motion, both Nixon and Jaworski appealed directly to the Supreme Court which heard arguments on July 8. Nixons attorney argued the matter should not be subject to judicial resolution since the matter was a dispute within the executive branch, also, he claimed Special Prosecutor Jaworski had not proven the requested materials were absolutely necessary for the trial of the seven men. Besides, he claimed Nixon had an executive privilege to protect communications between high Government officials and those who advise and assist them in carrying out their duties. Less than three weeks after oral arguments, the Court issued its decision, the justices struggled to write an opinion that all eight could agree to. The stakes were so high, in that the tapes most likely contained evidence of wrongdoing by the President and his men. All contributed to the opinion and Chief Justice Burger delivered the unanimous decision, the Court rejected Nixons claim to an absolute, unqualified Presidential privilege of immunity from judicial process under all circumstances. Nixon was ordered to deliver the materials to the District Court
34.
Richard Nixon's resignation speech
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Richard Nixons resignation speech was an address made on August 8,1974, by President of the United States Richard Nixon to the American public. It was delivered in the White House Oval Office, the scandal had cost Nixon much of his political support, and at the time of his resignation he faced almost certain impeachment and removal from office. Nixon was the incumbent president not to complete the four-year term to which they had been elected since the presidency was established in 1789. He was however, the first to do so for an other than dying in office. His resignation remains the one in U. S. On the evening of August 7, Secretary of State Henry Kissinger informed Nixon that his thought he should resign “in the national interest. Nixon agreed to resign, so speechwriter Raymond K. Price wrote the speech for Nixon the same evening, at the Oval Office the next day, the speech was taped and then broadcast. The speech was also broadcast live on public radio, jack Nelson of the Los Angeles Times wrote that Nixons speech chose to look ahead, rather than focus on his term. The Times of London article Mr, in his book Nixon, Ruin and Recovery 1973-1990, Stephen Ambrose finds that response from United States media to Nixon’s speech was generally favorable. This book cites provides Roger Mudd of CBS News as an example of someone who disliked the speech, Mudd noted that Nixon re-framed his resignation speech to accent his accomplishments rather than to apologize for the Watergate scandal
35.
Inauguration of Gerald Ford
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The inauguration marked the commencement of Gerald Fords only term as President. Chief Justice Warren Burger administered the oath of office, the Bible upon which Ford recited the oath was held by his wife, Betty Ford, open to Proverbs 3, 5-6. Ford had become Vice President on December 6,1973, after the resignation of Spiro Agnew and he was the first person appointed to the vice presidency under the terms of the Twenty-fifth Amendment. Thus, when he succeeded Nixon, Ford became the first person to have both the office of Vice President and President without having been elected to either. At 9,00 am the morning, Nixon gave a farewell talk to an East Room assembly of White House staff and selected dignitaries, including the Cabinet. It was an event, with President Nixon nearly breaking down a number of times. The nuclear codes were left with Ford, nixons resignation was tendered to United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger at 11,35 am. At that moment, Ford became the 38th President of the United States, once the former President Nixon left the building, the White House staff began preparations for Fords swearing in. More chairs were added for the larger crowd of invited guests than was at the farewell. The oath was administered to Ford by Chief Justice Warren Burger in the White House East Room, Chief Justice Burger was traveling in the Netherlands at the time, and was flown back to Washington on an Air Force plane. And I hope that such prayers will also be the first of many, if you have not chosen me by secret ballot, neither have I gained office by any secret promises. I have not campaigned either for the Presidency or the Vice Presidency, I have not subscribed to any partisan platform. I am indebted to no man, and only to one woman—my dear wife and my fellow Americans, our long national nightmare is over. Our Constitution works, our great Republic is a government of laws, but there is a higher Power, by whatever name we honor Him, who ordains not only righteousness but love, not only justice but mercy. Immediately after the 850 word address was over, Ford introduced his new secretary, Jerald terHorst to the press corps. Ford asked Henry Kissinger to stay on as Secretary of State in the new Administration, later that day, Ford met with ambassadors of the NATO nations. Presidency of Gerald Ford Timeline of the presidency of Gerald Ford Watergate scandal Gerald Ford Inauguration on YouTube
36.
Bernard Barker
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Bernard Leon Barker was a Watergate burglar. He had a career as an undercover operative. Barker was born in Havana, to a Russian American father, therefore, Barker was a dual citizen of Cuba and the United States. At the age of 16, Barker joined the ABC, a group opposed to then president Gerardo Machado Morales. It was during this period that he acquired the nickname Macho, worried by these developments, Barkers father sent him to live in the United States. In 1935 Barker became an American citizen, but he returned to Cuba in order to study at the University of Havana, on his thirteenth combat mission, he was shot down on a bombing raid to Brunswick, Germany, February 10,1944. The Germans held him as a prisoner of war at Stalag Luft I in Barth, the Red Army liberated the camp on May 2,1945. After the war, Barker returned to Cuba and joined the police under Fulgencio Batista. He was later recruited by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and worked for them as an undercover agent and he also did work for the Central Intelligence Agency. He joined the 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion, some conspiracy theorists accused Barker as being involved in the 1963 assassination of John F. Kennedy. In September 1971, his former CIA superior, E. Howard Hunt, recruited him for the Plumbers and he was recruited by Hunt to find background information on Daniel Ellsberg. Ellsberg was under watch for leaking the Pentagon Papers, a series of articles featured in the New York Times in 1971 detailing U. S. government secrets concerning the Vietnam Wars history. Along with Hunt and G. Gordon Liddy, Barker broke into the office of Ellsbergs psychiatrist, Dr. Lewis J. Fielding, the missions purpose was to find discrediting information on Ellsberg. The mission was completed, but largely unsuccessful in finding any damaging information about Ellsberg, the others were Frank Sturgis, Virgilio Gonzalez, Eugenio Martinez and James McCord. On March 7,1974, Barker, along with Ehrlichman, Charles Colson, Liddy, Martinez, Barker was released pending appeal after serving one year of a two-and-a-half to six-year sentence. After Barkers release from prison, he worked as an inspector for the city of Miami, Florida. He chose early retirement in 1982 rather than fight proceedings seeking his dismissal for loafing on the job, president Jimmy Carter denied him a pardon. Barker died of cancer in his Miami home on June 5,2009
37.
Virgilio Gonzalez
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When the conspiracy was discovered and investigated by the U. S. Congress, the Nixon administrations resistance to its probes led to a constitutional crisis. The term Watergate, by metonymy, has come to encompass an array of clandestine and those activities included such dirty tricks as bugging the offices of political opponents and people of whom Nixon or his officials were suspicious. The scandal also resulted in the indictment of 69 people, with trials or pleas resulting in 48 being found guilty, the affair began with the arrest of five men for breaking and entering into the DNC headquarters at the Watergate complex on Saturday, June 17,1972. In July 1973, evidence mounted against the Presidents staff, including testimony provided by staff members in an investigation conducted by the Senate Watergate Committee. The investigation revealed that President Nixon had a system in his offices. After a protracted series of court battles, the U. S. Supreme Court unanimously ruled that the president was obliged to release the tapes to government investigators. The tapes revealed that Nixon had attempted to cover up activities that took place after the break-in, facing virtually certain impeachment in the House of Representatives and equally certain conviction by the Senate, Nixon resigned the presidency on August 9,1974. On September 8,1974, his successor, Gerald Ford, the name Watergate and the suffix -gate have since become synonymous with political and non-political scandals in the United States. According to Dean, this marked the scene of the worst political scandal of the twentieth century. Mitchell viewed the plan as unrealistic, Liddy was nominally in charge of the operation, but has since insisted that he was duped by Dean and at least two of his subordinates. These included former CIA officers E. Howard Hunt and James McCord, in May, McCord assigned former FBI agent Alfred C. Baldwin III to carry out the wiretapping and monitor the telephone conversations afterward. McCord testified that he selected Baldwins name from a registry published by the Society of Former Special Agents of the FBI to work for the Committee to Re-elect the President, Baldwin first served as bodyguard to Martha Mitchell, the wife of John Mitchell, who was living in Washington. Baldwin accompanied Martha Mitchell to Chicago, Martha did not like Baldwin and described him as the gauchest character Ive ever met. The Committee replaced Baldwin with another security man, the room 419 was booked in the name of McCord’s company. At behest of G. Gordon Liddy and E. Howard Hunt, McCord and his team of burglars prepared for their first Watergate break-in, two phones inside the offices of the DNC headquarters were said to have been wiretapped. The FBI found no evidence that OBriens phone was bugged, however, it was determined that an effective listening device had been installed in Olivers phone. Despite the success in installing the devices, the Committee agents soon determined that they needed to be repaired. They planned a burglary in order to take care of this
38.
James W. McCord Jr.
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James Walter McCord Jr. is a former CIA officer, later involved, as an electronics expert, in the burglaries which precipitated the Watergate scandal. McCord was born in Waurika, Oklahoma, briefly attended Baylor University, McCord worked for the Central Intelligence Agency. In 1961, and under his direction, a program was launched against the Fair Play for Cuba Committee. He also held the rank of lieutenant colonel in the U. S. Air Force Reserve, McCord was interviewed and then hired by Jack Caulfield in January 1972 for strict, solely defensive security work at the Republican National Committee and the Committee to Re-Elect the President. He and four accomplices were arrested during the second break-in to the Democratic National Committees headquarters at the Watergate complex on June 17,1972. The arrests led to the Watergate scandal and resignation of President Nixon, McCord was one of the first men convicted in the Watergate criminal trial, on eight counts of conspiracy, burglary and wiretapping. In a later letter, written to U. S. Mitchell, the letter implicated senior individuals in the Richard Nixon administration of covering up the conspiracy that led to the burglary. G. Gordon Liddy#White House undercover operative McCord wrote a book about his connection with the Watergate burglary, McCord, a piece of tape, the Watergate story, fact and fiction. All the Presidents Men by Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward
39.
Frank Sturgis
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Frank Anthony Sturgis, born Frank Angelo Fiorini, was one of the five Watergate burglars whose capture led to the end of the Presidency of Richard Nixon. He served in several branches of the United States military and in the Cuban Revolution of 1958, when still a child, his family moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Honorably discharged as a corporal in 1945, he enrolled at Virginia Polytechnic Institute but left college and he soon discovered a corrupt payoff system and brought it to the attention of his superiors, who told him to overlook the illegal activities. On October 5,1946 he had a confrontation with his sergeant, for the next 18 months, he managed the Havana-Madrid tavern in Norfolk that catered to foreigners, mostly Cuban merchant seamen. On November 9,1947, Fiorini joined the United States Naval Reserve at the Norfolk Naval Air Station and he was honorably discharged on August 30,1948 and joined the United States Army the next day. He was sent immediately to West Berlin, where the USSR had closed the land routes during the Berlin Blockade, two weeks after the USSR reopened the land routes on May 11,1949, Fiorini was honorably discharged. Fiorini started to believe Russia was a threat, and he became a lifelong militant. Returning to Norfolk in 1952, he took a job managing the Cafe Society tavern, then partnered with its owner, Milton Bass, to co-purchase and manage The Top Hat Nightclub in Virginia Beach. His new name resembled that of Hank Sturgis, the hero of E. Howard Hunts 1949 novel, Bimini Run. They were sending money to Mexico to support Fidel Castro, Prio asked Sturgis to go to Cuba to join up with Castro and to report back to the exiled powers in Miami. Sturgis met up with Castro and his 400 rebels in the Sierra Maestra mountains, Sturgis offered to train Castro’s troops in guerrilla warfare. Castro accepted the offer, but he also had an immediate need for guns and ammunition, so Sturgis became a gunrunner. Sturgis explained later that he chose to throw in with Castro rather than Prio because Fidel was a soldier, in March 1958, Sturgis opened a training camp in the Sierra Maestra mountains, where he taught Che Guevara and other 26th of July Movement rebel soldiers guerrilla warfare. Afterward, Fiorini was photographed holding a rifle on top of the mass grave. Castro then appointed Sturgis gambling czar and director of security and intelligence for the air force, Sturgis went to Miami on June 2,1959, with Alan McDonald while supervising the investigation of several American gamblers with criminal records that operate casinos in Havana. Sturgis defected the following month with Revolutionary Air Force chief Commandant Pedro Luis Diaz Lanz, the 1975 Rockefeller Commission report found that Frank Sturgis was not an employee or agent of the CIA either in 1963 or at any other time. The phone number of Hunt was found in books of the burglars. Reporters were able to link the break-in to the White House, the burglars had made an earlier successful entry to the same location several weeks earlier, but returned to fix a malfunctioning device and to photograph more documents
40.
Master list of Nixon's political opponents
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A master list of Nixon political opponents was compiled to supplement the original Nixons Enemies List of 20 key people considered opponents of President Richard Nixon. The master list was compiled by Charles Colsons office and sent in memorandum form to John Dean, Dean later provided to the Senate Watergate Committee this updated master list of political opponents. The original list split out Black Congressmen, listing all of the Black congressmen, carol Channing stated that inclusion on the list was her greatest accomplishment. Talk show host and journalist Lou Gordon, who was also on the list, likewise, Tony Randall found it something he was extremely proud of, according to Jack Klugman in his memoir on Randall. Carl Djerassis autobiography The Pill, Pigmy Chimps, and Degas Horse stated that President Nixon awarded him the National Medal of Science when he was on the Enemies List, djerassi attributed his inclusion to the fact that he was an opponent of the Vietnam War. Black Congressmen and Congresswomen Records of the Watergate Special Prosecution Force 1971 to 1977 via National Archives and Records Administration
41.
Nixon's Enemies List
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The list was part of a campaign officially known as Opponents List and Political Enemies Project. The list became public knowledge on June 27,1973, when Dean mentioned during hearings with the Senate Watergate Committee that a list existed containing those whom the president did not like. Journalist Daniel Schorr, who happened to be on the list, a longer second list was made public by Dean on December 20,1973, during a hearing with the Congressional Joint Committee on Internal Revenue Taxation. In a memorandum from John Dean to Lawrence Higby, Dean explained the purpose of the list, The IRS commissioner, Alexander, refused to launch audits of the people on the list. The 20 names in the memo in order were as follows, arnold Picker Alexander E. Barkan Edwin Guthman Maxwell Dane Charles Dyson Howard Stein Allard Lowenstein Morton Halperin Leonard Woodcock S. On December 20,1973, the Congressional Joint Committee on Internal Revenue Taxation concluded that people on the Enemies list had not been subjected to a number of tax audits. The Washington Post printed the entire list the day. Newsman Daniel Schorr and actor Paul Newman stated, separately, that inclusion on the list was their greatest accomplishment, when this list was released, Schorr read it live on television, not realizing that he was on the list until he came to his own name. Author Hunter S. Thompson remarked he was disappointed he was not on it, in the United States, the term enemies list has come to be used in contexts not associated with Richard Nixon. It includes Jane Fonda and the Black Panthers who were on the real-life expanded master list, The Berrigans, moe promptly adds Barney to the list for his insolence. In Futuramas first episode, Space Pilot 3000, Fry and Bender walk through a room of live preserved heads of famous people, when Fry knocks over Nixons jar, Nixon says, Thats it, you just made my list. In a 2nd-season episode called The Shot, BoJack Horseman and Todd visit the Nixon Presidential Library with the intent of stealing a scaled-down replica of the library, mounted on the walls are Nixons Enemy and Frenemy Lists. Walt Disney is included on the Enemy List, Nixon, President of the United States of America, Book VIII, Internal Revenue Service, May-June 1974 via the Internet Archive
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Watergate Babies
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Watergate Babies are Democrats first elected to the United States Congress in 1974, following President Richard Nixons resignation over the Watergate scandal, on August 9,1974. Tom Downey was the youngest among the babies, being aged 25 upon his election and this is the minimum age at which one may serve. Future Senator Chris Dodd was also elected to Congress in this election cycle, in November 1974, Democrats picked up 49 seats in the House and 5 in the Senate. This group greatly increased the strength of Northerners and liberals in the House Democratic Caucus, Democrats made substantial state legislative gains in a large number of states in 1974, the Watergate election, the political scientist Malcolm Jewell wrote. Numerous states passed sweeping ethics and public disclosure reforms in the aftermath of the Watergate scandal, the Center for Public Integrity has compiled a state by state account of governmental political corruption watchdogs, many with roots in the post-Watergate era. A prominent Watergate baby of 1974 now serving again as Governor of California is Jerry Brown, Watergate Babies has also been used to apply to journalists who entered journalism because of their fascination with the Watergate scandal. Watergate, David Baumann wrote, also created a generation of journalists who were not willing to accept politicians at their word. If the journalists who helped uncover the scandal, Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, could expose the crimes of a president and those journalists believed in investigative reporting and became watchdogs who attempted to keep politicians honest. Rebels of 94 and Watergate Babies Similar In Class Size, Sense of Zeal at All Politics CNN
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Watergate Seven
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The grand jury also named Nixon an unindicted conspirator. The indictments marked the first time in U. S. history that a president was so named, the period leading up to the trial of the first Watergate Seven began on January 8,1973. The term Watergate Seven was coined a few later, in April 1973, by American lawyer, politician, and political commentator Ed Koch. Ehrlichman was convicted of conspiracy, obstruction of justice, perjury and other charges and he was sentenced to 1 to 3 years of prison and fined $5,000, Colson served seven months. Strachan – White House aide to Haldeman, faced a maximum of 15 years in prison, charges against him were dropped before trial. Robert Mardian – aide to Mitchell and counsel to the Committee to Re-elect the President in 1972, faced 5 years in prison and his conviction was overturned on appeal. Kenneth Parkinson – counsel for the Committee to Re-elect the President, faced 10 years in prison, although Parkinson was a lawyer, G. Gordon Liddy was in fact counsel for the Committee to Re-elect the President
44.
White House Plumbers
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The White House Plumbers, sometimes simply called the Plumbers, was a covert White House Special Investigations Unit, established July 24,1971, during the presidency of Richard Nixon. Its task was to stop the leaking of classified information, such as the Pentagon Papers and its members branched into illegal activities while working for the Committee to Re-elect the President, including the Watergate break-in and the ensuing Watergate scandal. On Thanksgiving evening of 1972, David Young arrived home from his planning at the Special Investigative Unit, to which he replied, I am helping the president stop some leaks. She replied, with astonishment, Oh, youre a plumber, Young, Liddy and Hunt then put up a sign on their office with the title, The Plumbers. Soon it was taken down, because their operations were supposed to be top secret. The Plumbers came to include several Watergate figures, E. Howard Hunt was recommended by Charles Colson, and G. Gordon Liddy was recommended by Egil Krogh. Liddy coined his own sensitivity indicator for the group in the form of ODESSA, another member of the group was its liaison to the CIA, John Paisley. In recent years, Paisleys involvement has led to speculation how the CIA had a far greater hand in the operations of the Plumbers than originally thought at the time. What is known is Paisley was assigned to the CIAs Office of Security, on August 9,1971, David Youngs memo indicates he met with Paisley and OS Director Howard Osborn, in which Paisley provided a list of objectives for the Special Investigations Unit. The operation was unsuccessful in finding Ellsbergs file and was so reported to the White House. However, Fielding himself stated the file was in his office, he found it on the floor on the morning after the burglary and quite clearly, someone had gone through it. In a September 1971 conversation, John Ehrlichman advised Nixon, “We had one operation, it’s been aborted out in Los Angeles which. Eventually, the case against Ellsberg was dismissed due to government misconduct, aside from the Fielding burglary, there are few other activities the Plumbers were known to have been engaged in. Hunt reportedly looked into the Ted Kennedy-Chappaquiddick incident and Liddy reported purported Kennedy administration involvement in the assassination of South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem, Liddy involved Hunt in the operations which would later include the Watergate burglary. The Watergate Files presented by The Gerald R. Ford Museum & Library G. Gordon Liddy deposition in Maureen K. Dean, united States District Court for the District of Columbia. Case No.921807, December 6,1996
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Committee for the Re-Election of the President
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The Committee for the Re-Election of the President, abbreviated CRP, but often mocked by the acronym CREEP, was a fundraising organization of United States President Richard Nixons administration. Planning began in late 1970 and an office opened in the spring of 1971, besides its re-election activities, CRP employed money laundering and slush funds and was directly and actively involved in the Watergate scandal. This act helped turn the burglary into a political scandal. The burglars, as well as G. Gordon Liddy, E. Howard Hunt, John N. Mitchell, the CRP was also connected, e. g. via personnel overlap, to the earlier group called the White House Plumbers. John N. Mitchell, Director and former United States Attorney General, jeb Stuart Magruder, Deputy Director Fred Malek, Manager and former Deputy Undersecretary of Health, Education, and Welfare. Francis L. Dale, Chairman, publisher of The Cincinnati Enquirer and owner of the Cincinnati Reds, maurice Stans, Finance Chairman and former United States Secretary of Commerce. Herbert W. Kalmbach, Deputy Finance Chairman and the Presidents personal attorney, kenneth H. Dahlberg, Midwest Finance Chairman and developer of the Miracle-Ear hearing aid. Judy Hoback Miller, Bookkeeper Hugh W. Sloan, Jr. Treasurer and former aide to White House Chief of Staff H. R. Haldeman, security Coordinator and former director of security at the Central Intelligence Agency. G. Gordon Liddy, Finance Counsel and former aide to John Ehrlichman, E. Howard Hunt, Consultant to the White House and retired CIA operative. Fred LaRue, Deputy Director and aide to John Mitchell Charles Colson, Special Counsel to the President DeVan L. Shumway, Spokesman Roger Stone, political operative
