1.
Sir
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Sir is an honorific address used in a number of situations in many anglophone cultures. The term can be used as a prefix, especially in the Commonwealth, for males who have been given certain honours or titles. The term is commonly used as a respectful way to address a man. Equivalent terms of address to females are maam or madam in most cases, or in the case of a woman, girl, or unmarried woman who prefers to be addressed as such. The equivalent term for a woman or baronetess is Dame. Sir derives from the Middle French honorific title sire, sire developed alongside the word seigneur, also used to refer to a feudal lord. Both derived from the Vulgar Latin senior, sire comes from the nominative case declension senior and seigneur, the prefix is used with the holders given name or full name, but never with the surname alone. For example, whilst Sir Alexander and Sir Alexander Fleming would be correct, the equivalent for a female who holds a knighthood or baronetcy in her own right is Dame, and follows the same usage customs as Sir. For example, while Lady Fiennes is correct, Lady Virginia, the widows of knights retain the style of wives of knights, however widows of baronets are either referred to as dowager, or use their forename before their courtesy style. For example, the widow of Sir Thomas Herbert Cochrane Troubridge, 4th Baronet, would either be known as Dowager Lady Troubridge or Laura, Lady Troubridge. Examples include, Admiral of the Fleet Sir Bruce Fraser, GCB, KBE Field Marshal Sir Thomas Blamey, GBE, KCB, CMG, DSO, ED This is also the case with academic titles, such as professor. For example, Patrick Bateson is both a professor and a bachelor, his correct title would be Professor Sir Patrick Bateson. The title of Doctor, however, is not used in combination with sir, knighted doctors are addressed as knights, though they may still use any post-nominal letters associated with their degrees. Church of England clergy who receive knighthoods do not use the title Sir, for example, the Reverend Dr John Polkinghorne, KBE is never referred to as Sir John Polkinghorne. Clergy of other denominations may use different conventions, peers who have been knighted are not addressed as Sir in the formal sense of the style, as their titles of nobility take precedence. Other male heirs of an earl who lack courtesy titles, and the heirs of a viscount or baron, do however use the style of Sir if knighted. Dual nationals holding a Commonwealth citizenship that recognise the British monarch as head of state are entitled to use the styling, the permissibility of using the style of Sir varies. Regular creation of new knights of the order ended in 1921 upon the formation of the Irish Free State, with the death of the last knight in 1974, the Order became dormant
2.
Order of the Bath
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The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the medieval ceremony for appointing a knight. The knights so created were known as Knights of the Bath, George I erected the Knights of the Bath into a regular Military Order. Prior to 1815, the order had only a class, Knight Companion. Recipients of the Order are now usually senior officers or senior civil servants. Commonwealth citizens who are not subjects of the Queen and foreign nationals may be made Honorary Members, in the Middle Ages, knighthood was often conferred with elaborate ceremonies. These usually involved the taking a bath during which he was instructed in the duties of knighthood by more senior knights. He was then put to bed to dry, clothed in a special robe, he was led with music to the chapel where he spent the night in a vigil. At dawn he made confession and attended Mass, then retired to his bed to sleep until it was fully daylight, in the early medieval period the difference seems to have been that the full ceremonies were used for men from more prominent families. Knights Bachelor continued to be created with the form of ceremony. The last occasion on which Knights of the Bath were created was the coronation of Charles II in 1661. From at least 1625, and possibly from the reign of James I, Knights of the Bath were using the motto Tria iuncta in uno, and wearing as a badge three crowns within a plain gold oval. These were both adopted by the Order of the Bath, a similar design of badge is still worn by members of the Civil Division. Their symbolism however is not entirely clear, the three joined in one may be a reference to the kingdoms of England, Scotland and either France or Ireland, which were held by English and, later, British monarchs. This would correspond to the three crowns in the badge, another explanation of the motto is that it refers to the Holy Trinity. The prime mover in the establishment of the Order of the Bath was John Anstis, Garter King of Arms, the Court remained the centre of the political world. The King was limited in that he had to choose Ministers who could command a majority in Parliament, the leader of an administration still had to command the Kings personal confidence and approval. A strong following in Parliament depended on being able to supply places, pensions, the attraction of the new Order for Walpole was that it would provide a source of such favours to strengthen his political position
3.
Lambeth
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Lambeth is a district in Central London, England, located in the London Borough of Lambeth. It is situated 1 mile south of Charing Cross, the population of Lambeth was 23,937 in 2011. The area experienced some growth in the medieval period as part of the manor of Lambeth Palace. By the Victorian era the area had seen significant development as London expanded, the changes brought by World War II altered much of the fabric of Lambeth. Subsequent development in the late 20th century and early 21st century has seen an increase in the number of high-rise buildings, the area is home to the International Maritime Organization. The origins of the name of Lambeth come from its first record in 1062 as Lambehitha, meaning landing place for lambs, in the Domesday Book, Lambeth is called Lanchei, likely in error. The name refers to a harbour where lambs were either shipped from or to and it is formed from the Old English lamb and hythe. South Lambeth is recorded as Sutlamehethe in 1241 and North Lambeth is recorded in 1319 as North Lamhuth, the manor of Lambeth is recorded as being under ownership of the Archbishop of Canterbury from at least 1190. The Archbishops led the development of much of the manor, with Archbishop Hubert Walter creating the residence of Lambeth Palace in 1197, Lambeth and the palace were the site of two important 13th century international treaties, the Treaty of Lambeth 1217 and the Treaty of Lambeth 1212. Edward, the Black Prince lived in Lambeth in the 14th century in an estate that incorporated the land not belonging to the Archbishops, which also included Kennington. As such, much of the land of Lambeth to this day remains under Royal ownership as part of the estate of the Duchy of Cornwall. The road names, Norfolk Place and Norfolk Row reflect the history, Lambeth Palace lies opposite the southern section of the Palace of Westminster on the Thames. The two were linked by a horse ferry across the river. Until the mid-18th century the north of Lambeth was marshland, crossed by a number of roads raised against floods, the marshland in the area, known as Lambeth Marshe, was drained in the 18th century but is remembered in the Lower Marsh street name. The subsequent growth in road and marine transport, along with the development of industry in the wake of the revolution brought great change to the area. The area grew with a population at this time, many of whom were considerably poor. As a result, Lambeth opened a workhouse in 1726. In 1777 a parliamentary report recorded a parish workhouse in operation accommodating up to 270 inmates and its operation was overseen by an elected Board of twenty Guardians
4.
Koblenz
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Koblenz, also spelled Coblenz or Coblence, is a German city situated on both banks of the Rhine at its confluence with the Moselle, where the Deutsches Eck and its monument are situated. As Koblenz was one of the military posts established by Drusus about 8 BC, the name Koblenz originates from Latin confluentes, confluence or merging of rivers. Subsequently, it was Covelenz and Cobelenz, in the local dialect the name is Kowelenz. After Mainz and Ludwigshafen am Rhein, it is the third largest city in Rhineland-Palatinate, around 1000 BC, early fortifications were erected on the Festung Ehrenbreitstein hill on the opposite side of the Moselle. In 55 BC, Roman troops commanded by Julius Caesar reached the Rhine, about 9 BC, the Castellum apud Confluentes, was one of the military posts established by Drusus. Remains of a bridge built in 49 AD by the Romans are still visible. The Romans built two castles as protection for the bridge, one in 9 AD and another in the 2nd century, north of Koblenz was a temple of Mercury and Rosmerta, which remained in use up to the 5th century. With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the city was conquered by the Franks, after the division of Charlemagnes empire, it was included in the lands of his son Louis the Pious. In 860 and 922, Koblenz was the scene of ecclesiastical synods, at the first synod, held in the Liebfrauenkirche, the reconciliation of Louis the German with his half-brother Charles the Bald took place. The city was sacked and destroyed by the Norsemen in 882, in 925, it became part of the eastern German Kingdom, later the Holy Roman Empire. In 1018, the city was given by the emperor Henry II to the archbishop-elector of Trier after receiving a charter and it remained in the possession of his successors until the end of the 18th century, having been their main residence since the 17th century. Emperor Conrad II was elected here in 1138, in 1198, the battle between Philip of Swabia and Otto IV took place nearby. In 1216, prince-bishop Theoderich von Wied donated part of the lands of the basilica and the hospital to the Teutonic Knights, the city was a member of the league of the Rhenish cities which rose in the 13th century. The Teutonic Knights founded the Bailiwick of Koblenz in or around 1231, Koblenz attained great prosperity and it continued to advance until the disaster of the Thirty Years War brought about a rapid decline. After Philip Christopher, elector of Trier, surrendered Ehrenbreitstein to the French, however, this force was soon expelled by the Swedes, who in their turn handed the city over again to the French. Imperial forces finally succeeded in retaking it by storm in 1636, the city was the residence of the archbishop-electors of Trier from 1690 to 1801. In 1786, the last archbishop-elector of Trier, Clemens Wenceslaus of Saxony, greatly assisted the extension and improvement of the city, the archbishop-elector approved of this because he was the uncle of the persecuted king of France, Louis XVI. Among the many royalist French refugees who flooded into the city were Louis XVIs two younger brothers, the Comte de Provence and the Comte dArtois
5.
Kensal Green Cemetery
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Kensal Green Cemetery is in Kensal Green in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea in London, England. Inspired by the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, it was founded by the barrister George Frederick Carden, the cemetery opened in 1833 and comprises 72 acres of grounds, including two conservation areas, adjoining a canal. The cemetery is home to at least 33 species of bird and this distinctive cemetery has memorials ranging from large mausoleums housing the rich and famous to many distinctive smaller graves and includes special areas dedicated to the very young. It has three chapels, and serves all faiths, despite its Grecian-style buildings the cemetery is primarily Gothic in character, due to the high number of private Gothic monuments. Due to this atmosphere, the cemetery was the location of several scenes in movies. The cemetery is located in the London Borough of Kensington & Chelsea, the cemetery lies between Harrow Road and the Grand Union Canal. There is a set of gates set in the southern wall to the cemetery which is adjacent to the canal. Public meetings were held in June and July 1830 at the Freemasons Tavern, Paul, a partner in the London banking firm of Strahan, Paul, Paul and Bates, found and conditionally purchased the 54 acres of land at Kensal Green for £9,500. However, Paul and Carden were already embroiled in a dispute regarding the design of the cemetery, where Paul favoured the Grecian style and Carden the Gothic style. This attracted 46 entrants, and in March 1832 the premium was awarded, despite opposition, for a Gothic Revival design by Henry Edward Kendall. On 11 July 1832, the Act of Parliament establishing a General Cemetery Company for the interment of the Dead in the Neighbourhood of the Metropolis gained Royal Assent. The Act authorised it to raise up to £45,000 in shares, buy up to 80 acres of land and build a cemetery, Company directors appointed after the Bill received Royal Assent asserted their control and preference for a different style. Founded as the General Cemetery of All Souls, Kensal Green, Kensal Green Cemetery was consecrated on 24 January 1833 by the Bishop of London, receiving its first funeral the same month. The Treasury was sceptical that Chadwicks scheme would ever be financially viable, although the Metropolitan Interments Act 1850 authorised the scheme, it was abandoned in 1852. The overall layout is on an east-west axes, with a path leading to a raised chapel towards the west. The entrance is to the north-east and the largest monuments line the path to the chapel. The Church of England was allotted 39 acres and the remaining 15, clearly separated, acres were given over to Dissenters, originally there was a division between the Dissenters’ part of the cemetery and the Anglican section. This took the form of a fence from the canal to the gate piers on the path
6.
Colonial Office
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It was headed by the Secretary of State for the Colonies, known as the Colonial Secretary. In 1768 the separate American or Colonial Department was established, in order to deal with affairs in British North America. With the loss of the American colonies, however, the department was abolished in 1782, responsibility for the remaining colonies was given to the Home Office, and subsequently transferred to the War Office. In 1801 the War Office was renamed the War and Colonial Office under a new Secretary of State for War, in 1825 a new post of Permanent Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies was created within this office. It was held by Robert William Hay initially and his successors were James Stephen, Herman Merivale, Frederic Rogers, Robert Herbert and Robert Henry Meade. In 1854 this office was divided two and a new Colonial Office was created to deal specifically with the needs of the colonies. The Colonial Office did not have responsibility for all British possessions overseas, in 1907 the Dominion Division of the Colonial Office was created, and from 1925 separate Secretaries of State for Dominion Affairs were appointed. After the independence of India in 1947, the Dominion Office was merged with the India Office to form the Commonwealth Relations Office, in 1966, the Commonwealth Relations Office re-merged with the Colonial Office, forming the Commonwealth Office. Two years later, this department was merged into the Foreign Office, establishing the modern Foreign. It later became known as the Commonwealth Relations Office Year Book, in addition to the official List published by the Colonial Office, an edited version was also produced by Waterlow and Sons. It can be difficult to distinguish between the two versions in library catalogue descriptions, but it is still edited by Sir W. H. Mercer, K. C. M. G. One of the Crown Agents for the Colonies, but it is printed by Waterlow and Sons and it comes as near to being an Official publication as possible, but well assume that it isnt. British Empire Colonial Service List of British Empire-related topics
7.
Slavery Abolition Act 1833
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The Slavery Abolition Act 1833 was an 1833 Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom abolishing slavery throughout the British Empire. The Act was repealed in 1998 as part of a rationalisation of English statute law. In May 1772, Lord Mansfields judgement in the Somersetts Case emancipated a slave in England, the case ruled that slavery was unsupported by law in England and no authority could be exercised on slaves entering English or Scottish soil. In 1785, English poet William Cowper wrote, We have no slaves at home – Then why abroad, slaves cannot breathe in England, if their lungs Receive our air, that moment they are free. They touch our country, and their shackles fall, thats noble, and bespeaks a nation proud. Spread it then, And let it circulate through every vein, by 1783, an anti-slavery movement to abolish the slave trade throughout the Empire had begun among the British public. In 1793 Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada John Graves Simcoe signed the Act Against Slavery, passed by the local Legislative Assembly, it was the first legislation to outlaw the slave trade in a part of the British Empire. In 1808, Parliament passed the Slave Trade Act of 1807, which outlawed the slave trade, the Royal Navy established the West Africa Squadron to suppress the Atlantic slave trade by patrolling the coast of West Africa. It did suppress the trade, but did not stop it entirely. Between 1808 and 1860, the West Africa Squadron captured 1,600 slave ships and they resettled many in Jamaica and the Bahamas. Britain also used its influence to other countries to agree treaties to end their slave trade. In 1823, the Anti-Slavery Society was founded in London, members included Joseph Sturge, Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce, Henry Brougham, Thomas Fowell Buxton, Elizabeth Heyrick, Mary Lloyd, Jane Smeal, Elizabeth Pease, and Anne Knight. William Wilberforce had prior written in his diary in 1787 that his purpose in life was to suppress the slave trade before waging a 20-year fight on the industry. During the Christmas holiday of 1831, a slave revolt in Jamaica, known as the Baptist War. It was organised originally as a strike by the Baptist minister Samuel Sharpe. The rebellion was suppressed by the militia of the Jamaican plantocracy, because of the loss of property and life in the 1831 rebellion, the British Parliament held two inquiries. The results of these contributed greatly to the abolition of slavery with the Slavery Abolition Act 1833. The Act had its third reading in the House of Commons on 26 July 1833 and it received the Royal Assent a month later, on 28 August, and came into force the following year, on 1 August 1834
8.
James Fitzjames Stephen
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Sir James Fitzjames Stephen, 1st Baronet was an English lawyer, judge and writer. Born in Kensington, London, he was the son of James Stephen, the brother of the author and critic Sir Leslie Stephen, the uncle of Virginia Woolf, and he was educated at Eton College, and for two years at Kings College London. In October 1847 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, although an outstanding student he did not win any prizes, mainly because he was uninterested in mathematics or classics, which formed the basis of the course. He was already acquainted with Sir Henry Maine, six years his senior, although their temperaments were very different, their acquaintance became a strong friendship, which ended only with Maines death in 1888. Stephen was introduced by Maine into the Cambridge society known as Cambridge Apostles, Stephen chose a legal career, which was on balance a notable one, He was a member of the Viceregal Council and later Professor of Common Law at the Inns of Court. He was largely occupied with work on codification, some of which were introduced as bills in the Westminster Parliament. He was, however, responsible for the Indian Evidence Act,1872, in 1879 he became a judge of the High Court. After leaving Cambridge, Stephen decided to go into law and he was called to the bar in 1854 by the Inner Temple. In his earlier years at the bar he supplemented his income from a successful and he contributed to the Saturday Review from the time it was founded in 1855. He was in company with Maine, Harcourt, G. S. Venables, Charles Bowen, both the first and the last books published by Stephen were selections from his papers in the Saturday Review. These volumes embodied the results of his studies of publicists and theologians, chiefly English and he never professed his essays to be more than the occasional products of an amateurs leisure, but they were well received. From 1858 to 1861, Stephen served as secretary to a Royal Commission on popular education, in 1859 he was appointed Recorder of Newark. The foundation of the Pall Mall Gazette in 1865 gave Stephen a new literary avenue and he continued to contribute until he became a judge. The decisive point of his career was in the summer of 1869 and his friend Maine was his immediate predecessor, Guided by Maines comprehensive talents, the government of India had entered a period of systematic legislation which was to last about twenty years. Stephen had the task of continuing work by conducting the Bills through the Legislative Council. The Native Marriages Act of 1872 was the result of deep consideration on both Maines and Stephens part, the Indian Contract Act had been framed in England by a learned commission, and the draft was materially altered in Stephens hands before, also in 1872, it became law. The Indian Evidence Act of the year, entirely Stephens own work, made the rules of evidence uniform for all residents of India, regardless of caste, social position. Stephen, mainly for reasons, came home in the spring of 1872
9.
Leslie Stephen
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Sir Leslie Stephen KCB was an English author, critic, historian, biographer, and mountaineer, and father of Virginia Woolf and Vanessa Bell. Stephen was born at Kensington Gore in London, and son of Sir James Stephen and his father was Colonial Undersecretary of State and a noted abolitionist. He was the fourth of five children, his siblings including James Fitzjames Stephen and his family had belonged to the Clapham Sect, the early 19th century group of mainly evangelical Christian social reformers. At his fathers house he saw a deal of the Macaulays, James Spedding, Sir Henry Taylor. He recounted some of his experiences in a chapter in his Life of Fawcett as well as in less formal Sketches from Cambridge. These sketches were reprinted from the Pall Mall Gazette, to the proprietor of which, George Murray Smith, the family connections included that of William Makepeace Thackeray. His brother, Fitzjames had been a friend of Thackerays and assisted in the disposition of his estate when he died in 1863 and his sister Caroline met Thackerays daughters, Anny and Minny when they were mutual guests of Julia Margaret Cameron. This led to an invitation to visit from Leslie Stephens mother, Lady Stephen and they also met at George Murray Smiths house at Hampstead. Minny and Leslie became engaged on December 4,1866 and married on June 19,1867. After the wedding they travelled to the Swiss Alps and northern Italy, and on return to England lived at the Thackeray sisters home at 16 Onslow Gardens with Anny, in the spring of 1868 Minny miscarried but recovered sufficiently for the couple to tour the eastern United States. Minny miscarried again in 1869, but became pregnant again in 1870 and on December 7 gave birth to their daughter, Laura was premature, weighing three pounds. In March 1873 Thackeray and the Stephens moved to 8 Southwell Gardens, the couple travelled extensively, and by 1875 Minny was pregnant again, but this time was in poor health. On November 27 she developed convulsions, and died the day of eclampsia. After Minnys death, Leslie Stephen continued to live with Anny, Leslie Stephen and his daughter were also cared for by his sister, the writer Caroline Emelia Stephen, although Leslie described her as Silly Milly and her books as little works. Meanwhile, Anny was falling in love with her younger cousin Richmond Ritchie, Ritchie became a constant visitor and they became engaged in May 1877, and were married on August 2. At the same time Leslie Stephen was seeing more and more of Julia Duckworth and his second marriage was to Julia Prinsep Duckworth. Julia had been born in India and after returning to England she became a model for Pre-Raphaelite painters such as Edward Burne-Jones, in 1867 she had married Herbert Duckworth by whom she had three children prior to his death in 1870. Leslie Stephen and Julia Duckworth were married on March 26,1878 and they had four children, Vanessa married Clive Bell Thoby Virginia married Leonard Woolf Adrian In May 1895, Julia died of influenza, leaving her husband with four young children aged 11 to 15
10.
Norfolk
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Norfolk /ˈnɔːrfək/ is a county in East Anglia in England. It borders Lincolnshire to the west and north-west, Cambridgeshire to the west and southwest and its northern and eastern boundaries are the North Sea and, to the north-west, The Wash. With an area of 2,074 square miles and a population of 859,400, of the countys population, 40% live in four major built up areas, Norwich, Great Yarmouth, Kings Lynn and Thetford. The Broads is a network of rivers and lakes in the east of the county, the area is not a National Park although it is marketed as such. It has similar status to a park, and is protected by the Broads Authority. Norfolk was settled in times, with camps along the higher land in the west. A Brythonic tribe, the Iceni, inhabited the county from the 1st century BC to the end of the 1st century AD, the Iceni revolted against the Roman invasion in AD47, and again in 60 led by Boudica. The crushing of the second opened the county to the Romans. During the Roman era roads and ports were constructed throughout the county, situated on the east coast, Norfolk was vulnerable to invasions from Scandinavia and Northern Europe, and forts were built to defend against the Angles and Saxons. Norfolk, Suffolk and several adjacent areas became the kingdom of East Anglia, the influence of the Early English settlers can be seen in the many place names ending in -ton and -ham. Endings such as -by and -thorpe are also common, indicating Danish place names, in the 9th century the region came under attack. In the centuries before the Norman Conquest the wetlands of the east of the county began to be converted to farmland, and settlements grew in these areas. Migration into East Anglia must have high, by the time of the Domesday Book survey it was one of the most densely populated parts of the British Isles. During the high and late Middle Ages the county developed arable agriculture, the economy was in decline by the time of the Black Death, which dramatically reduced the population in 1349. During the English Civil War Norfolk was largely Parliamentarian, the economy and agriculture of the region declined somewhat. During the Industrial Revolution Norfolk developed little industry except in Norwich which was an addition to the railway network. In the 20th century the county developed a role in aviation, during the Second World War agriculture rapidly intensified, and it has remained very intensive since, with the establishment of large fields for growing cereals and oilseed rape. Norfolks low-lying land and easily eroded cliffs, many of which are chalk and clay, make it vulnerable to the sea, the low-lying section of coast between Kelling and Lowestoft Ness in Suffolk is currently managed by the Environment Agency to protect the Broads from sea flooding
11.
Trinity Hall, Cambridge
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Trinity Hall is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge, England. It is the fifth-oldest college of the university, having founded in 1350 by William Bateman. Historically, Trinity Hall was known for teaching Law, today, it teaches the sciences, arts and this led the college to be particularly strong in legal studies, a tradition that has continued over the centuries. At first all colleges in Cambridge were known as Halls or Houses, however, when Henry VIII founded Trinity College, Cambridge next door, it became clear that Trinity Hall would continue being known as a Hall. This is also why it is incorrect to call it Trinity Hall College, although Trinity Hall college is, strictly speaking, interestingly a similar situation existed once before in the history of the University, when Henry VI founded Kings College despite the existence of Kings Hall. Kings Hall was later incorporated in the foundation of Trinity College in 1546, the chapel was licensed in 1352 and built in 1366, in the year that Pope Urban V granted the Master and Fellows permission to celebrate Mass in the college. In 1729, Sir Nathaniel Lloyd redecorated the chapel in what, despite subsequent enlargements, remains an intimate style, the painting in the chapel is Maso da San Frianos Salutation or Visitation, depicting Marys visit to Elizabeth, mother of John the Baptist. Like the chapel, the Hall of the college was rebuilt by Sir Nathaniel Lloyd and it also remains one of the smallest and most intimate halls in the University. The college library was built in the sixteenth century, probably during the mastership of Thomas Preston and is now principally used for the storage of manuscripts. The new Jerwood Library overlooking the river was opened by Lord Howe in 1999, the college also owns properties in the centre of Cambridge, on Bateman Street and Thompsons Lane, and on its Wychfield Site next to Fitzwilliam College. The current Master is the Revd Jeremy Morris and he took up the role on 1 October 2014 after Martin Daunton stepped down after ten years in post
12.
Lincoln's Inn
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The Honourable Society of Lincolns Inn is one of the four Inns of Court in London to which barristers of England and Wales belong and where they are called to the Bar. It is recognised to be one of the worlds most prestigious professional bodies of judges and it is the largest Inn and it covers 11 acres. The other three are Middle Temple, Inner Temple and Grays Inn, the Inn is believed to be named after Henry de Lacy, 3rd Earl of Lincoln. The Inn is also known for its large garden and library. The nearest tube station is Holborn tube station or Chancery Lane, Lincolns Inn does not declare a specific foundation date, as there is a tradition that none of the Inns of Court regards itself to be any older than the others. The Inn was home to influential people, including Prime Ministers, Chief Judges. During the 12th and 13th century, the law was taught in the City of London primarily by the clergy, as a result, the system of legal education fell apart. The common lawyers migrated to the hamlet of Holborn, the nearest place to the law courts at Westminster Hall that was outside the City, as with the other Inns of Court, the precise date of founding of Lincolns Inn is unknown. The third Earl of Lincoln had encouraged lawyers to move to Holborn and it is felt that Lincolns Inn became a formally organised Inn of Court soon after the Earls death in 1310. At some point before 1422, the part of Lincolns Inn, as they had become known, after the Earl, moved to the estate of Ralph Neville. They retained Thavies and Furnivals Inn, using them as training houses for young lawyers, in 1537, the land Lincolns Inn sat on was sold by Bishop Richard Sampson to a Bencher named William Suliard, and his son sold the land to Lincolns Inn in 1580. The Inn became formally organised as a place of legal education thanks to a decree in 1464, during the 15th century, the Inn was not a particularly prosperous one, and the Benchers, particularly John Fortescue, are credited with fixing this situation. Lincolns Inn had no constitution or fundamental form of governance, admissions were recorded in the black books and divided into two categories, Clerks who were admitted to Clerks Commons, and Fellows Socii who were admitted to Fellows Commons. By 1466, the Fellows were divided into Benchers, those at the Bar, by 1502, the extra barram Fellows were being referred to as inner barristers, in contrast to the utter or outer barristers. A Bencher, Benchsitter or Master of the Bench is a member of the Council, the term originally referred to one who sat on the benches in the main hall of the Inn, which were used for dining and during moots, and the term originally had no significance. In Lincolns Inn, the idea of a Bencher was believed to have far earlier than elsewhere, there are records of four Benchers being sworn in 1440. William Holdsworth and the editor of the Black Books both concluded that Benchers were, from the earliest times, the governors of the Inn, the Governors were elected to serve a year-long term, with between four and six sitting at any one time. By the late 15th century, the group were the Governors with assistance and advice from the other masters of the Bench
13.
Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst
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Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst KG PC was a High Tory, High Church Pittite from the end of the Second Empire. For thirty years an MP and whence ennobled one of the governments main stalwarts on Colonial policy. Not a good speaker in debates, he was nevertheless a competent administrator, a personal friend of William Pitt he became a broker of deals across cabinet factions during the volatile Napoleonic era. After the wars he was on the wing of the Liberal Tory party. Lord Bathurst was the son of Henry Bathurst, 2nd Earl Bathurst, by his wife Tryphena. He was educated at Eton from 1773 to 1778 and then up to Christ Church, the college was always considered the most academic, and he went up with his closest companions at Eton William Wyndham Greville, Richard, Lord Wellesley and Canon Bathurst, his cousin. The influences on his strong, but affable character were aristocratic, whiggish at the beginning of the industrial revolution, britain had lost the American colonies but gained a larger empire in the Far East. Affable man of character, learning and wit, Bathurst was known in society for a sense of humour. He was a book-lover, which he inherited from his parents, his fathers learning had acquired a library, while his mother was artistic. It was however his mother who was more business-like, and from her he learnt some cunning and he was a bad godfather to his religious charges, but a good father to his children. Not especially religious or church-going, Bathurst was worldly and intelligent, aged sixteen he matriculated at Christ Church on 22 April 1779. His father was overjoyed, and from 1790 he bought a living at Sapperton, where the family farmed the estate, then in 1781 he decided to embark on a Grand Tour of Europe. Without taking a degree he left Oxford for Germany where he travelled with Greville, from Switzerland he went to Italy, before moving north to Paris. On hearing that Shelburnes government was challenged by a Fox-North coalition he headed back to London in February 1783, the old enemy France had been defeated on every continent, and on every ocean. Immediately on entering politics he admired the patriotism and oratory of a youthful garrulous drinker William Pitt, Bathurst liked the young dissolute parliamentarian, but refused to join his frequent bouts. Pitt was tall and slender from a Navy family, but Bathurst was more self-restrained, the beauty aesthetic rendered Bathurst more sensitive, studious and scholarly towards departmental duties. The strongest quality he possessed was loyalty to his friends, he was the only society family that would entertain Lady Wellesley, later when appointed head of the Gloucestershire Militia and it embodied he owed it to Wellesley, a born soldier in 1798 who made his name in India. High Anglicanism meant antiquarian attitudes to assiduous recording of letters and correspondence and this was how he came to the conclusion that slavery was cruel, but was wary about voting for a franchise extension
14.
Church Mission Society
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Founded in 1799, CMS has attracted over nine thousand men and women to serve as mission partners during its 200-year history. The society has given its name CMS to a number of daughter organisations around the world. The Baptist Missionary Society was formed in 1792 and the London Missionary Society was formed in 1795 to represent various evangelical denominations and their number included Charles Simeon, Basil Woodd, Henry Thornton, Thomas Babington and William Wilberforce. Wilberforce was asked to be the first president of the society, the treasurer was Henry Thornton and the founding secretary was Thomas Scott, a biblical commentator. Many of the founders were involved in creating the Sierra Leone Company. In 1802 Josiah Pratt was appointed secretary, a position he held for until 1824, the first missionaries went out in 1804. They came from the Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Württemberg and had trained at the Berlin Seminary, the name Church Missionary Society began to be used and in 1812 the society was renamed The Church Missionary Society. The West Africa mission was extended to Sierra Leone, Samuel Ajayi Crowther, a Yoruba by birth, was selected to accompany the missionary James Schön on the Niger expedition of 1841. Crowther was the missionary to Yorubaland in 1844 and the Niger in 1857. West Indies, The CMS started work in Antigua and expanded to other islands, by 1838 the CMS had congregations of 8,000, with 13 ordained missionaries,23 lay teachers and 70 schools. In about 1848 a shortage of funds resulted in the CMS withdrawing from the West Indies, New Zealand, The Revd Samuel Marsden became the chaplain of the penal colony at Paramatta, Australia in 1874. India, William Carey, the founder of the Baptist Missionary Society was the pioneer of the Evangelical, the CMS Mission in India began in 1814 when 7 missionaries arrived, two were placed at Chennai, two at Bengal and three at Travancore. The Indian missions were extended in the years to a number of locations including Agra, Meerut district, Varanasi, Mumbai, Tirunelveli, Kolkata, Telugu Country. While the Revolt of 1857 resulted in damage to the missions in the North West Provinces, after the revolt the CMS expanded its missions to Oudh, Allahbad, the Santhal people, and to Kashmir. Sri Lanka, Four CMS missionaries were sent to Ceylon in 1817, in 1850 a mission station was established at Colombo. In 1822 the CMS appointed West to head the mission in what was known as the Red River Colony in what is now the province of Manitoba. He was succeeded in 1823 by the Revd David Jones who was joined by the Revd W. Cockram, the mission worked among the Cree, Ojibwe, Chippewa, and Gwichin of the upper west Great Plains. Egypt and Ethiopia, Five missionaries were sent to Egypt in 1825, the missionaries were expelled from Abyssinia in 1844 following the Siege of Khartoum and the death of General Gordon
15.
Board of Trade (Privy Council)
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The Board of Trade, originally the Lords of Trade and Plantations or Lords of Trade, is a committee of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom. It was first established as a committee of Englands Privy Council to advise on colonial questions in the early 17th century. Between 1696 and 1782 the Board of Trade, in partnership with the secretaries of state over that time, held responsible for colonial affairs. The Home Secretary held colonial responsibility until 1801 when the Secretary of State for War, the committee has been known as the Board of Trade since 1786, but this name was only officially adopted by an act of 1861. The new Boards first functions were consultative like earlier iterations, and its concern with plantations, in such as the approval of colonial laws. This department was merged with the Ministry of Technology in 1970 to form the Department of Trade, the Secretary of State for Trade and Industry was also President of the Board of Trade. The full Board has met only once since the mid-20th century, in 2016, the role of President of the Board of Trade was transferred to the Secretary of State for International Trade. This would be followed by a number of committees and councils to regulate the colonies. The Boards formal title remains The Lords of the Committee of the Privy Council appointed for the consideration of all matters relating to Trade, in 1634, Charles I appointed a new commission for regulating plantations. Soon after however, the English Civil Wars erupted and initiated a period of political instability in England. Between 1643 and 1648 the Long Parliament would establish a parliamentary Commission for Plantations to take the lead in colonial and commercial affairs and this period also saw the first regulation of Royal tonnage and poundage and begin the modernization of customs and excise as growing sources of government revenue. During the Interregnum and Commonwealth three acts of the Rump Parliament in 1650 and 1651 are notable in the development of Englands commercial and colonial programs. These include the first Commission of Trade to be established by an Act of Parliament on 1 August 1650. It was the Lords of Trade who, in 1675, originated the idea of transforming all of the colonies in America into Royal Colonies for the purpose of securing English trade against the French. In 1696, King William III appointed eight paid commissioners to promote trade in the American plantations, the board carried on this work but also had long periods of inactivity, devolving into chaos after 1761 and dissolved in 1782 by an act of Parliament by the Rockingham Whigs. William Pitt the Younger re-established the committee in 1784, and an Order in Council of 23 August 1786 provided the basis that still remains in force. A secretariat was established included the president, vice president. By 1793, the board remained in its old structure
16.
Henry Taylor (dramatist)
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Sir Henry Taylor KCMG was an English dramatist and poet, official, and well-connected man of letters. Taylor was born on 18 October 1800 in Bishop Middleham, the son of George Taylor and Eleanor Ashworth. His mother died when he was an infant and his father married Jane Mills in 1818, and the family then moved to Witton-le-Wear. George Taylors friend Charles Arbuthnot found positions in London for Henry Taylor and George and they went to London in 1817 with the second brother, William, a medical student, but soon afterwards they all caught typhus fever. William and George died in a fortnight, Henry Taylor then took up post in Barbados. Taylors place was abolished in 1820, and he returned to his fathers house, Taylor had been introduced to Henry Holland, and through him obtained a clerkship in the Colonial Office. There he worked from 1824 until 1872, serving under the permanent secretary Robert William Hay in particular and he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George in the 1869 Birthday Honours. Hays successors were James Stephen, Herman Merivale and Frederic Rogers, Hay, Stephen, Taylor and James Spedding, who also worked in the Office, each brought forward reforming proposals. Taylor and Stephen were allies of Viscount Howick in his abolitionist efforts of the early 1830s, Hay was unhelpful, and was eventually ousted in favour of the efficient Stephen. Taylor died on 27 March 1886, Taylor wrote Byronic poems and an article on Thomas Moore, which in 1822 was accepted for the Quarterly Review by William Gifford. Returning to London in October 1823, he found that Gifford had printed another article of his, Taylor had also contributed to the London Magazine, and had an offer of the editorship. His father George was a friend of William Wordsworth, in 1823, on a visit to the Lake District, Henry Taylor made the acquaintance of Robert Southey, and they became friends. Jane Taylor had a first cousin Isabella Fenwick, and Henry Taylor introduced her to the Wordsworth family and she became a close friend of Wordsworth in later life, as she had been of Taylor up to the time of his marriage. Taylors work also brought him literary friends, the circle of Thomas Hyde Villiers, through Villiers he became acquainted with Charles Austin, John Stuart Mill, and some of the Benthamites. He made speeches in opposition to their views, in the debating society documented by Mill and he also invited them to personal meetings with Wordsworth and Southey. Mill introduced Taylor to Thomas Carlyle in November 1831, initiating a long friendship, carlyles opinion of the marked veracity of Taylor was printed wrongly by the editor James Anthony Froude as morbid vivacity. Taylor aspired to become the biographer of Southey. The family row over Southeys second marriage, to Caroline Anne Bowles, found him with the Wordsworths and he did become Southeys literary executor
17.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
18.
Brighton
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Brighton /ˈbraɪtən/ is a seaside resort on the south coast of England. It is part of the county of East Sussex, within the historic county of Sussex. Archaeological evidence of settlement in the dates back to the Bronze Age, Roman. The ancient settlement of Brighthelmstone was documented in the Domesday Book, Brighton began to attract more visitors following improved road transport to London and becoming a boarding point for boats travelling to France. The town also developed in popularity as a resort for sea bathing as a purported cure for illnesses. Brighton continued to grow as a centre of tourism following the arrival of the railways in 1841. Many of the attractions were built in the Victorian era, including the Grand Hotel, the West Pier. Brighton attracted 7.5 million day visitors in 2015/16 and 4.9 million overnight visitors, Brighton has also been called the UKs hippest city, and the happiest place to live in the UK. Brightons earliest name was Bristelmestune, recorded in the Domesday Book, although more than 40 variations have been documented, Brighthelmstone was the standard rendering between the 14th and 18th centuries. Brighton was originally a shortened form, first seen in 1660, it gradually supplanted the longer name. Brighthelmstone was the official name until 1810, though. The name is of Anglo-Saxon origin, most scholars believe that it derives from Beorthelm + tūn—the homestead of Beorthelm, a common Old English name associated with villages elsewhere in England. The tūn element is common in Sussex, especially on the coast, an alternative etymology taken from the Old English words for stony valley is sometimes given but has less acceptance. Brighthelm gives its name to, among other things, a church, the town was originally split in half by the Wellesbourne, a winterbourne which was culverted and buried in the 18th century. Poet Horace Smith called it The Queen of Watering Places, which is widely used. Novelist William Makepeace Thackeray referred to Doctor Brighton, calling the one of the best of Physicians. London-by-Sea is well-known, reflecting Brightons popularity with Londoners as a resort, a commuter dormitory. The Queen of Slaughtering Places, a pun on Smiths description, the mid 19th-century nickname School Town referred to the remarkable number of boarding, charity and church schools in the town at the time
19.
Windsor, Berkshire
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Windsor is a historic market town and unparished area in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in Berkshire, England. It is widely known as the site of Windsor Castle, one of the residences of the British Royal Family. The town is situated 23 miles west of Charing Cross, London,7 miles south east of Maidenhead and it is immediately south of the River Thames, which forms its boundary with its ancient twin town of Eton. Windlesora is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the name originates from old English Windles-ore or winch by the riverside. By the late 12th century the settlement at Windelsora was renamed Old Windsor, the early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conqueror had a timber motte and bailey castle constructed. The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, from about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the sites link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, after the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Book under the entry for Clewer, although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century, King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century,1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephens reign. At about the time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. It had a merchant guild from the early 13th century and, under patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277. Somewhat unusually, this gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor. Windsors position as town of Berkshire was short-lived, however. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century, as a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century. New Windsor was a significant town in the Middle Ages. Its prosperity came from its association with the royal household
20.
Eton College
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Eton College /iːtən/ is an English independent boarding school for boys in Eton, Berkshire, near Windsor. It educates more than 1,300 pupils, aged 13 to 18 years and it was founded in 1440 by King Henry VI as The Kings College of Our Lady of Eton besides Wyndsor, making it the 18th oldest Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference school. Eton is one of the seven public schools as defined by the Public Schools Act 1868. Eton has educated 19 British prime ministers and generations of the aristocracy and has referred to as the chief nurse of Englands statesmen. The school is headed by a Provost and Fellows, who appoint the Head Master and it contains 25 boys houses, each headed by a housemaster, selected from the more senior members of the teaching staff, which numbers some 155. Almost all of the pupils go on to universities, about a third of them to Oxford or Cambridge. The Head Master is a member of the Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference, Eton has a long list of distinguished former pupils. David Cameron was the 19th British prime minister to have attended the school, about 20% of pupils at Eton receive financial support, through a range of bursaries and scholarships. In early 2014, this figure had risen to 263 pupils receiving the equivalent of around 60% of school fee assistance, Eton has been described as the most famous public school in the world, and been referred to as the chief nurse of Englands statesmen. The Good Schools Guide called the school the number one public school, adding that The teaching. The school is a member of the G20 Schools Group, Eton today is a larger school than it has been for much of its history. In 1678, there were 207 boys, in the late 18th century, there were about 300, while today, the total has risen to over 1,300. Eton College was founded by King Henry VI as a charity school to free education to 70 poor boys who would then go on to Kings College, Cambridge. Henry took Winchester College as his model, visiting on many occasions, borrowing its Statutes and removing its Headmaster, when Henry VI founded the school, he granted it a large number of endowments, including much valuable land. He persuaded the then Pope, Eugene IV, to grant him a privilege unparalleled anywhere in England, the school also came into possession of one of Englands Apocalypse manuscripts. Legend has it that Edwards mistress, Jane Shore, intervened on the schools behalf and she was able to save a good part of the school, although the royal bequest and the number of staff were much reduced. Construction of the chapel, originally intended to be slightly over twice as long, only the Quire of the intended building was completed. Etons first Headmaster, William Waynflete, founder of Magdalen College, Oxford and previously Head Master of Winchester College, as the school suffered reduced income while still under construction, the completion and further development of the school has since depended to some extent on wealthy benefactors
21.
Dresden
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Dresden is the capital city and, after Leipzig, the second-largest city of the Free State of Saxony in Germany. It is situated in a valley on the River Elbe, near the border with the Czech Republic, Dresden has a long history as the capital and royal residence for the Electors and Kings of Saxony, who for centuries furnished the city with cultural and artistic splendour. The city was known as the Jewel Box, because of its baroque, the controversial American and British bombing of Dresden in World War II towards the end of the war killed approximately 25,000, many of whom were civilians, and destroyed the entire city centre. After the war restoration work has helped to reconstruct parts of the inner city, including the Katholische Hofkirche, the Zwinger. Since German reunification in 1990 Dresden is again a cultural, educational and political centre of Germany, the Dresden University of Technology is one of the 10 largest universities in Germany and part of the German Universities Excellence Initiative. The economy of Dresden and its agglomeration is one of the most dynamic in Germany and it is dominated by high-tech branches, often called as “Silicon Saxony”. The city is one of the most visited in Germany with 4,3 million overnight stays per year. The royal buildings are among the most impressive buildings in Europe, main sights are also the nearby National Park of Saxon Switzerland, the Ore Mountains and the countryside around Elbe Valley and Moritzburg Castle. The most prominent building in the city of Dresden is the Frauenkirche, built in the 18th century, the church was destroyed during World War II. The remaining ruins were left for 50 years as a war memorial, the church was rebuilt from 1994 to 2005. Although Dresden is a relatively recent city of Germanic origin followed by settlement of Slavic people, Dresdens founding and early growth is associated with the eastward expansion of Germanic peoples, mining in the nearby Ore Mountains, and the establishment of the Margraviate of Meissen. Its name etymologically derives from Old Sorbian Drežďany, meaning people of the forest, Dresden later evolved into the capital of Saxony. Around the late 12th century, a Slavic settlement called Drežďany had developed on the southern bank, another settlement existed on the northern bank, but its Slavic name is unknown. It was known as Antiqua Dresdin by 1350, and later as Altendresden, dietrich, Margrave of Meissen, chose Dresden as his interim residence in 1206, as documented in a record calling the place Civitas Dresdene. After 1270, Dresden became the capital of the margraviate and it was given to Friedrich Clem after death of Henry the Illustrious in 1288. It was taken by the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1316 and was restored to the Wettin dynasty after the death of Valdemar the Great in 1319, from 1485, it was the seat of the dukes of Saxony, and from 1547 the electors as well. The Elector and ruler of Saxony Frederick Augustus I became King Augustus II the Strong of Poland in personal union and he gathered many of the best musicians, architects and painters from all over Europe to the newly named Royal-Polish Residential City of Dresden. His reign marked the beginning of Dresdens emergence as a leading European city for technology, during the reign of Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland the Zwinger Royal Palace, the Hofkirche and the Frauenkirche were built
22.
Privy Council of the United Kingdom
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Her Majestys Most Honourable Privy Council, usually known simply as the Privy Council, is a formal body of advisers to the Sovereign of the United Kingdom. Its membership mainly comprises senior politicians, who are present or former members of either the House of Commons or the House of Lords, the Council also holds the delegated authority to issue Orders of Council, mostly used to regulate certain public institutions. The Council advises the sovereign on the issuing of Royal Charters, which are used to grant special status to incorporated bodies, otherwise, the Privy Councils powers have now been largely replaced by the Cabinet of the United Kingdom. The Judicial Committee consists of judges appointed as Privy Counsellors, predominantly Justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The Privy Council of the United Kingdom was preceded by the Privy Council of Scotland, the key events in the formation of the modern Privy Council are given below, Witenagemot was an early equivalent to the Privy Council of England. During the reigns of the Norman monarchs, the English Crown was advised by a court or curia regis. The body originally concerned itself with advising the sovereign on legislation, administration, later, different bodies assuming distinct functions evolved from the court. The courts of law took over the business of dispensing justice, nevertheless, the Council retained the power to hear legal disputes, either in the first instance or on appeal. Furthermore, laws made by the sovereign on the advice of the Council, powerful sovereigns often used the body to circumvent the Courts and Parliament. During Henry VIIIs reign, the sovereign, on the advice of the Council, was allowed to enact laws by mere proclamation, the legislative pre-eminence of Parliament was not restored until after Henry VIIIs death. Though the royal Council retained legislative and judicial responsibilities, it became an administrative body. The Council consisted of forty members in 1553, but the sovereign relied on a smaller committee, by the end of the English Civil War, the monarchy, House of Lords, and Privy Council had been abolished. The remaining parliamentary chamber, the House of Commons, instituted a Council of State to execute laws, the forty-one members of the Council were elected by the House of Commons, the body was headed by Oliver Cromwell, de facto military dictator of the nation. In 1653, however, Cromwell became Lord Protector, and the Council was reduced to thirteen and twenty-one members, all elected by the Commons. In 1657, the Commons granted Cromwell even greater powers, some of which were reminiscent of those enjoyed by monarchs, the Council became known as the Protectors Privy Council, its members were appointed by the Lord Protector, subject to Parliaments approval. In 1659, shortly before the restoration of the monarchy, the Protectors Council was abolished, Charles II restored the Royal Privy Council, but he, like previous Stuart monarchs, chose to rely on a small group of advisers. Under George I even more power transferred to this committee and it now began to meet in the absence of the sovereign, communicating its decisions to him after the fact. Thus, the British Privy Council, as a whole, ceased to be a body of important confidential advisers to the sovereign and it is closely related to the word private, and derives from the French word privé
23.
William Wilberforce
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William Wilberforce was an English politician, philanthropist, and a leader of the movement to eradicate the slave trade. A native of Kingston upon Hull, Yorkshire, he began his career in 1780. In 1785, he became an Evangelical Christian, which resulted in changes to his lifestyle. In 1787, he came into contact with Thomas Clarkson and a group of activists, including Granville Sharp, Hannah More. They persuaded Wilberforce to take on the cause of abolition, and he headed the parliamentary campaign against the British slave trade for twenty years until the passage of the Slave Trade Act of 1807. Wilberforce was convinced of the importance of religion, morality and education, in later years, Wilberforce supported the campaign for the complete abolition of slavery, and continued his involvement after 1826, when he resigned from Parliament because of his failing health. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, close to his friend William Pitt and his grandfather William had made the family fortune in the maritime trade with Baltic countries, and had twice been elected mayor of Hull. Wilberforce was a small, sickly and delicate child, with poor eyesight, in 1767 he began attending Hull Grammar School, at the time headed by a young, dynamic headmaster, Joseph Milner, who was to become a lifelong friend. Wilberforce profited from the atmosphere at the school until the death of his father in 1768 caused changes in his living arrangements. He attended an indifferent boarding school in Putney for two years and he spent his holidays in Wimbledon, where he grew extremely fond of his relatives. Wilberforce was heartbroken to be separated from his aunt and uncle and his family opposed a return to Hull Grammar School because the headmaster had become a Methodist, Wilberforce therefore continued his education at nearby Pocklington School from 1771 to 1776. Influenced by Methodist scruples, he initially resisted Hulls lively social life, in October 1776, at the age of 17, Wilberforce went up to St Johns College, Cambridge. The deaths of his grandfather and uncle in 1777 had left him independently wealthy, witty, generous and an excellent conversationalist, Wilberforce was a popular figure. He made many friends including the more studious future Prime Minister William Pitt, despite his lifestyle and lack of interest in studying he managed to pass his examinations and was awarded a B. A. in 1781 and an M. A. in 1788. Wilberforce began to consider a career while still at university. Pitt, already set on a career, encouraged Wilberforce to join him in obtaining a parliamentary seat. Free from financial pressures, Wilberforce sat as an independent, resolving to be no party man, Wilberforce attended Parliament regularly, but he also maintained a lively social life, becoming an habitué of gentlemens gambling clubs such as Goostrees and Boodles in Pall Mall, London. During the frequent government changes of 1781–1784, Wilberforce supported his friend Pitt in parliamentary debates, in autumn 1783, Pitt, Wilberforce and Edward Eliot, travelled to France for a six-week holiday together
24.
University of Cambridge
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The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s
25.
William Smyth (historian)
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William Smyth was an English poet and historian, who became Regius Professor at Cambridge in 1807. The son of merchant-banker Thomas Smyth, he was born in Liverpool, after attending a day school in the town, he went to Eton College, where he remained three years. On leaving Eton he read with a tutor at Bury, Lancashire, in the same he year was elected to the fellowship vacated by John Wilson. He proceeded to the M. A. in 1790, and returned to Liverpool, but in 1793, after the declaration of war with France, his fathers bank failed, and it became necessary for him to earn his living. Through Edward Morris, a friend, Smyth was chosen in 1793 by Richard Brinsley Sheridan as tutor to his elder son Thomas. He lived with his pupil at Wanstead, at Bognor, and at Cambridge, and saw much of Sheridan himself, when Smyth accompanied his pupil to Cambridge in 1803, he received bills on the Drury Lane Theatre for his expenses. In 1806 Thomas went into the army, and Smyth became tutor of Peterhouse, in 1807, on the recommendation of his political friends, Smyth was appointed Regius Professor of Modern History, a post he kept until his death. In 1825 he inherited property, and, in accordance with the statutes then in force. He continued, however, to occupy his rooms in college, until in 1847 he retired to Norwich and he was buried in Norwich Cathedral, where there is a stained-glass window to his memory over his grave. The two stained Munich windows in Peterhouse Chapel, representing the Nativity and the Ascension, were subscribed for as a memorial to him. There is a portrait of him in the hall of Peterhouse, given by his brother, the Rev. Thomas Smyth, fellow of Oriel College, Oxford, from 1800 to 1813, and vicar of St. Austell. This portrait is lithographed in the edition of his English Lyrics. The posthumous bust in the Fitzwilliam Museum, by E. H. Baily, is copied from the picture, a List of Books Recommended Memoir of Sheridan. Lectures on Modern History, dedicated to Henry Petty, 3rd Marquess of Lansdowne, Vol.1 vol.2 Lectures on the French Revolution vol.1 Breaks new ground. Both sets of lectures were reissued with authors corrections in Bohns Standard Library, Smyth wrote much verse, and his English Lyrics, published in 1797, which were praised by the Edinburgh Review, ran through five editions. Thomas Moores opinion of them was less favorable, he accused Smyth of appropriating his metres, Smyth contributed some of the words to Clarke Whitfields Twelve Vocal Songs, and wrote the ode for the installation of Prince William Frederick as chancellor of the university. Smyth devoted his last years to a work on the Evidences of Christianity. ’ Smyth is the Professor in Reminiscences of Thought, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Smyth, William. Hedva Ben-Israel, William Smyth, Historian of the French Revolution, Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol.21, published by, University of Pennsylvania Press
26.
De Tocqueville
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Alexis Charles Henri Clérel, Viscount de Tocqueville was a French diplomat, political scientist, and historian. He was best known for his works Democracy in America and The Old Regime, in both he analyzed the improved living standards and social conditions of individuals, as well as their relationship to the market and state in Western societies. Democracy in America was published after Tocquevilles travels in the United States and is considered an early work of sociology. Tocqueville was active in French politics, first under the July Monarchy and he retired from political life after Louis Napoléon Bonapartes 2 December 1851 coup, and thereafter began work on The Old Regime and the Revolution. He argued the importance of the French Revolution was to continue the process of modernizing and centralizing the French state which had begun under King Louis XIV, the failure of the Revolution came from the inexperience of the deputies who were too wedded to abstract Enlightenment ideals. Tocqueville was a liberal who advocated parliamentary government, but he was skeptical of the extremes of democracy. Alexis de Tocqueville came from an old Norman aristocratic family with ancestors who participated in the Battle of Hastings in 1066, after an exile in England, they returned to France during the reign of Napoleon. Under the Bourbon Restoration, his became an noble peer. Tocqueville attended the Lycée Fabert in Metz, Tocqueville, who despised the July Monarchy, began his political career in 1839. From 1839 to 1851, he served as deputy of the Manche department, in parliament, he defended abolitionist views and upheld free trade, while supporting the colonisation of Algeria carried on by Louis-Philippes regime. Tocqueville was also elected general counsellor of the Manche in 1842, in 1831, he obtained from the July Monarchy a mission to examine prisons and penitentiaries in America, and proceeded there with his lifelong friend Gustave de Beaumont. While Tocqueville did visit some prisons, he traveled widely in America and he returned within nine months, and published a report, but the real result of his tour was De la démocratie en Amerique, which appeared in 1835. Beaumont also wrote an account of their travels in Jacksonian America, apart from America, Tocqueville also made an observational tour of England, producing Memoir on Pauperism. In 1841 and 1846, he traveled to Algeria and he went as far as openly advocating racial segregation between the European colonists and the Arabs through the implementation of two different legislative systems. In 1835, Tocqueville made a journey through Ireland and his observations provide one of the best pictures of how Ireland stood before the Great Famine. The observations chronicle the growing Catholic middle-class and the conditions in which most Catholic tenant farmers lived. Tocqueville made clear both his libertarian sympathies and his affinity for his Irish co-religionists and he defended bicameralism and the election of the President of the Republic by universal suffrage. As the countryside was thought to be more conservative than the population of Paris
27.
East India Company College
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It provided general and vocational education for young gentlemen of sixteen to eighteen years old, who were nominated by the Companys directors to writerships in its overseas civil service. The colleges counterpart for the training of officers for the companys Presidency armies was Addiscombe Military Seminary, the buildings are now occupied by Haileybury and Imperial Service College. Charles Grant, Chairman of the British East India Company and Member of Parliament, was involved in the foundation of the college. The foundation stone of the new buildings were laid on 12 May 1806, the buildings cost the East India Company £92,000 at the time of their erection to the designs of the architect William Wilkins. The grounds were landscaped by Humphry Repton, his most notable work here being the area to the front of Wilkins main range. Repton submitted his account for work undertaken here just eight days before a carriage accident which left him crippled. The new buildings were occupied by students in 1809, the East India Company had been incorporated in 1600 as a commercial entity. For two hundred years its administrators had been recruited, largely by patronage, to commercial transactions in Asia. By 1800 they had become the de facto government for millions of people in those areas, the college was intended to address these shortcomings. In fifty years it trained over two thousand so-called writers to administer the Indian subcontinent, the curriculum was wide, detailed, and targeted to the career responsibilities. It included political economy, history, mathematics, natural philosophy, classics, law and humanity, languages included Arabic, Urdu, Bengali, Marathi, Sanskrit, Telugu and Persian. Among the tutors were some of the finest minds of the day, many from Oxford and Cambridge, from 1839 the College had a journal known as The Haileybury Observer. The East India Company itself was seen as too powerful, there was pressure for meritocracy to replace recruitment by patronage. Graduates of universities in Great Britain should have the chance to serve in India, in 1855, Parliament passed an act to relieve the East India Company from the obligation to maintain the College at Haileybury. Kings College, London, hosted the first open competitive examinations for appointment to the Indian Civil Service. In the aftermath of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, and in anticipation of the winding-up of the affairs of the East India Company itself, for a brief period the buildings became a military depot for troops destined for India. During the Victorian era the difference between the two periods of education on the site were referred to as Old Haileybury and New Haileybury, major J. W. J. Ouseley, Professor of Persian and Arabic Edward Christian James Mackintosh was Professor of Law and General Politics 1818-24. William Empson, was Professor of Law, john Farley Leith QC, later Member of Parliament for Aberdeen Thomas Malthus taught from 1805-34
28.
John Maynard Keynes
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John Maynard Keynes, 1st Baron Keynes CB FBA, was a British economist whose ideas fundamentally changed the theory and practice of macroeconomics and the economic policies of governments. His ideas are the basis for the school of thought known as Keynesian economics and he instead argued that aggregate demand determined the overall level of economic activity and that inadequate aggregate demand could lead to prolonged periods of high unemployment. According to Keynesian economics, state intervention was necessary to moderate boom, Keynes advocated the use of fiscal and monetary policies to mitigate the adverse effects of economic recessions and depressions. He and other economists had disputed the ability of government to regulate the business cycle favorably with fiscal policy. When Time magazine included Keynes among its Most Important People of the Century in 1999, the Economist has described Keynes as Britains most famous 20th-century economist. In addition to being an economist, Keynes was also a servant, a director of the Bank of England. John Maynard Keynes was born in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England and his father, John Neville Keynes, was an economist and a lecturer in moral sciences at the University of Cambridge and his mother Florence Ada Keynes a local social reformer. Keynes was the first born, and was followed by two more children – Margaret Neville Keynes in 1885 and Geoffrey Keynes in 1887, Geoffrey became a surgeon and Margaret married the Nobel Prize-winning physiologist Archibald Hill. According to the economist and biographer Robert Skidelsky, Keyness parents were loving and they remained in the same house throughout their lives, where the children were always welcome to return. Keyness mother made her childrens interests her own, and according to Skidelsky, because she could grow up with her children, they never outgrew home. In January 1889, at the age of five and a half and he quickly showed a talent for arithmetic, but his health was poor leading to several long absences. He was tutored at home by a governess, Beatrice Mackintosh, in January 1892, at eight and a half, he started as a day pupil at St Faiths preparatory school. By 1894, Keynes was top of his class and excelling at mathematics, in 1896, St Faiths headmaster, Ralph Goodchild, wrote that Keynes was head and shoulders above all the other boys in the school and was confident that Keynes could get a scholarship to Eton. In 1897, Keynes won a scholarship to Eton College, where he displayed talent in a range of subjects, particularly mathematics, classics. At Eton, Keynes experienced the first love of his life in Dan Macmillan, despite his middle-class background, Keynes mixed easily with upper-class pupils. In 1902 Keynes left Eton for Kings College, Cambridge, after receiving a scholarship for this also to read mathematics, Alfred Marshall begged Keynes to become an economist, although Keyness own inclinations drew him towards philosophy – especially the ethical system of G. E. Moore. Keynes joined the Pitt Club and was an member of the semi-secretive Cambridge Apostles society. Like many members, Keynes retained a bond to the club after graduating, before leaving Cambridge, Keynes became the President of the Cambridge Union Society and Cambridge University Liberal Club
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Thomas Robert Malthus
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Thomas Robert Malthus FRS was an English cleric and scholar, influential in the fields of political economy and demography. Malthus himself used only his name, Robert. Populations had a tendency to grow until the class suffered hardship and want and greater susceptibility to famine and disease. Malthus wrote in opposition to the view in 18th-century Europe that saw society as improving. As an Anglican cleric, Malthus saw this situation as divinely imposed to teach virtuous behaviour, Malthus criticized the Poor Laws for leading to inflation rather than improving the well-being of the poor. He supported taxes on imports, because food security was more important than maximizing wealth. His views became influential, and controversial, across economic, political, social, pioneers of evolutionary biology read him, notably Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. The seventh child of Henrietta Catherine and Daniel Malthus, Robert Malthus grew up in The Rookery, petersen describes Daniel Malthus as a gentleman of good family and independent means. A friend of David Hume and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the young Malthus received his education at home in Bramcote, Nottinghamshire, and then at the Warrington Academy from 1782. Warrington was an academy, then at the end of its existence. Malthus entered Jesus College, Cambridge in 1784, there he took prizes in English declamation, Latin and Greek, and graduated with honours, Ninth Wrangler in mathematics. He took the MA degree in 1791, and was elected a Fellow of Jesus College two years later, in 1789, he took orders in the Church of England, and became a curate at Oakwood Chapel in the parish of Wotton, Surrey. Malthus came to prominence for his 1798 essay on population growth, in it, he argued that population multiplies geometrically and food arithmetically, therefore, whenever the food supply increases, population will rapidly grow to eliminate the abundance. He wrote the text in reaction to the optimism of his father. Malthus also constructed his case as a response to writings of William Godwin. The Essay gave rise to the Malthusian controversy during the next decades, the content saw an emphasis on the birth rate and marriage rates. The neo-Malthusian controversy, or related debates of many later, has seen a similar central role assigned to the numbers of children born. In 1799 Malthus made a European tour with William Otter, a college friend, travelling part of the way with Edward Daniel Clarke and John Marten Cripps, visiting Germany
30.
Kingdom of Prussia
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It was the driving force behind the unification of Germany in 1871 and was the leading state of the German Empire until its dissolution in 1918. Although it took its name from the region called Prussia, it was based in the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the kings of Prussia were from the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia was a power from the time it became a kingdom, through its predecessor, Brandenburg-Prussia. Prussia continued its rise to power under the guidance of Frederick II, more known as Frederick the Great. After the might of Prussia was revealed it was considered as a power among the German states. Throughout the next hundred years Prussia went on to win many battles and it was because of its power that Prussia continuously tried to unify all the German states under its rule. Attempts at creation of a federation remained unsuccessful and the German Confederation collapsed in 1866 when war ensued between its two most powerful states, Prussia and Austria. The North German Confederation which lasted from 1867–1871, created a union between the Prussian-aligned states while Austria and most of Southern Germany remained independent. The North German Confederation was seen as more of an alliance of military strength in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, the German Empire lasted from 1871–1918 with the successful unification of all the German states under Prussian hegemony. This was due to the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in 1871, Germany unified into a single country, minus Austria and Switzerland, with Prussia the dominant power. Prussia is considered the predecessor of the unified German Reich. The Kingdom left a significant cultural legacy, today notably promoted by the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, in 1415 a Hohenzollern Burgrave came from the south to the March of Brandenburg and took control of the area as elector. In 1417 the Hohenzollern was made an elector of the Holy Roman Empire, after the Polish wars, the newly established Baltic towns of the German states including Prussia, suffered many economic setbacks. Many of the Prussian towns could not even afford to attend political meetings outside of Prussia, the towns were poverty stricken, with even the largest town, Danzig, having to borrow money from elsewhere to pay for trade. Poverty in these towns was partly caused by Prussias neighbors, who had established and developed such a monopoly on trading that these new towns simply could not compete and these issues led to feuds, wars, trade competition and invasions. However, the fall of these gave rise to the nobility, separated the east and the west. It was clear in 1440 how different Brandenburg was from the other German territories, not only did it face partition from within but also the threat of its neighbors. It prevented the issue of partition by enacting the Dispositio Achillea which instilled the principle of primogeniture to both the Brandenburg and Franconian territories, the second issue was solved through expansion
31.
Aubrey Thomas de Vere
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Aubrey Thomas de Vere was an Irish poet and critic. He was a nephew of Lord Monteagle and a brother of Sir Stephen de Vere. His sister Ellen married Robert OBrien, the brother of William Smith OBrien, in 1832, his father dropped the original surname Hunt by royal licence, assuming the surname de Vere. He was strongly influenced by his friendship with the astronomer, Sir William Rowan Hamilton, through whom he came to a knowledge and reverent admiration for Wordsworth and he was educated privately at home and in 1832 entered Trinity College, Dublin, where he read Kant and Coleridge. Later he visited Oxford, Cambridge, and Rome, and came under the potent influence of John Henry Newman and he was also a close friend of Henry Taylor. The characteristics of Aubrey de Veres poetry are high seriousness and a religious enthusiasm. His research in questions of faith led him to the Roman Catholic Church where in 1851 he was received into the Church by Cardinal Manning in Avignon. In many of his poems, notably in the volume of sonnets called St Peters Chains, for a few years he held a professorship, under Newman, in the Catholic University in Dublin. In A Book of Irish Verse, W. B, yeats described de Veres poetry as having less architecture than the poetry of Ferguson and Allingham, and more meditation. Indeed, his few but ever memorable successes are enchanted islands in gray seas of stately impersonal reverie and description, one needs, perhaps, to perfectly enjoy him, a Dominican habit, a cloister, and a breviary. He also visited the Lake Country of England, and stayed under Wordsworths roof and his veneration for Wordsworth was singularly shown in later life, when he never omitted a yearly pilgrimage to the grave of that poet until advanced age made the journey impossible. He was of tall and slender physique, thoughtful and grave in character, of exceeding dignity and grace of manner, according to Helen Grace Smith, he was one of the most profoundly intellectual poets of his time. His census return for 1901 lists his profession as Author and he died at Curraghchase in 1902, at the age of eighty-eight. As he never married, the name of de Vere at his death became extinct for the second time and he also wrote a picturesque volume of travel-sketches, and two dramas in verse, Alexander the Great, and St Thomas of Canterbury. According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica Eleventh Edition, both of these dramas, though they contain fine passages, suffer from diffuseness and a lack of dramatic spirit. One of his best remembered poem is Inisfail while two of his historical poems used to be on the Junior Cycle English syllabus, The March to Kinsale and The Ballad of Athlone. In his Recollections he says that Byron was his first admiration, a volume of Selections from his poems was edited in 1894 by G. E. Woodberry. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles
32.
Nassau William Senior
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Nassau William Senior, was an English lawyer known as an economist. He was also a government adviser over several decades on economic and he was born at Compton, Berkshire, the eldest son of Rev. J. R. Senior, vicar of Durnford, Wiltshire. He took the degree of B. A. in 1811, Senior went into the field of conveyancing, with a pupilage under Edward Burtenshaw Sugden. When Sugden rather abruptly informed his pupils in 1816 that he was concentrating on chancery work, Senior took steps to qualify as a Certified Conveyancer, with one other pupil, Aaron Hurrill, he then took over Sugdens practice. Senior was called to the bar in 1819, but problems with public speaking limited his career as an advocate. In 1836, during the chancellorship of Lord Cottenham, he was appointed a master in chancery. On the foundation of the Drummond professorship of political economy at Oxford in 1825, he was elected to fill the chair, which he occupied until 1830 and again from 1847 to 1852. In 1830, he was requested by Lord Melbourne to inquire into the state of combinations and strikes, report on the state of the law, Senior was a member of the Poor Law Inquiry Commission of 1832, and of the Royal Commission of 1837 on handloom weavers. The report of the latter, published in 1841, was drawn up by him and had the substance of the report he had prepared years earlier, on combinations. Senior became a friend of Alexis de Tocqueville whom he met in 1833 for the first time before the publishing of Democracy in America. Senior was in the spring of 1849 legal advisor and counsellor to Jenny Lind and she intended to marry a soldier named Harris, and Senior was supposed to draw up marriage settlements. Senior accompanied Lind and Harriet Grote to Paris, the marriage failed to take place. Senior was indirectly responsible for the contract which Jenny Lind condescended to sign in 1850 with the American promoter P. T. Barnum, Senior was one of the commissioners appointed in 1864 to inquire into popular education in England. He died at Kensington that year, Senior was a contributor to the Quarterly Review, Edinburgh Review, London Review and North British Review. In their pages, he dealt with literary as well as with economic, the London Review was a project of Senior from 1828, for a quarterly periodical. It was backed by Richard Whately and others of the Oriel Noetics, early contributions from John Henry Newman, Edwin Chadwick and Senior himself were not enough to establish it, and it ceased publication in mid-1829. Of the latter, the following were printed, An Introductory Lecture on Political Economy, two Lectures on Population, with a correspondence between the author and Malthus. Three Lectures on the Transmission of the Precious Metals from Country to Country, three Lectures on the Cost of obtaining Money, and on some Effects of Private and Government Paper Money
33.
Carlo Marochetti
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Baron Carlo Marochetti RA was an Italian-born French sculptor. Carlo Marochetti was born in Turin but brought up in Paris as a French citizen and his first teachers were François Joseph Bosio and Antoine-Jean Gros in Paris. There his statue of A Young Girl playing with a Dog won a medal in 1829, between 1822 and 1830 he studied chiefly in Rome. From 1832 to 1848 he lived in France, in Paris, he made a panel representing the Battle of Jemappes for the Arc de Triomphe, the altar in the Church of the Madeleine and the tomb of Vincenzo Bellini in Père Lachaise Cemetery. While living in Paris, he created the equestrian monument of Emmanuel Philibert which stands in a central piazza in Turin. He followed the French king Louis-Philippe into exile in the United Kingdom after the fall of the July monarchy in 1848 and he spent the greater part of his time from then until his death in London. He lived in Onslow Square, and had a large studio, among his chief works were statues of Queen Victoria, Colin Campbell, 1st Baron Clyde, and King Richard the Lionheart. The Richard Coeur de Lion was displayed in the Great Exhibition, and a copy was made in 1860 to be displayed in front of the Palace of Westminster. His statue of Robert Stephenson still stands in the forecourt of Euston Station and he made a bust of William Makepeace Thackeray for Westminster Abbey. From 1864 he collaborated with Sir Edwin Landseer on the four lions to be placed around the base of Nelsons Column in Trafalgar Square. As a favourite sculptor of Queen Victoria, he was commissioned to make the figure of Prince Albert for the Albert Memorial in Kensington Gardens. However the first version was rejected by the architect of the monument, Sir George Gilbert Scott, Marochetti was created a baron by the King of Sardinia and was also a chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy 1861 and an academician in 1866. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
34.
National Portrait Gallery, London
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The National Portrait Gallery is an art gallery in London housing a collection of portraits of historically important and famous British people. It was the first portrait gallery in the world when it opened in 1856, the gallery moved in 1896 to its current site at St Martins Place, off Trafalgar Square, and adjoining the National Gallery. It has been expanded twice since then, the National Portrait Gallery also has regional outposts at Beningbrough Hall in Yorkshire and Montacute House in Somerset. It is unconnected to the Scottish National Portrait Gallery in Edinburgh, the gallery is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. The gallery houses portraits of important and famous British people, selected on the basis of the significance of the sitter. The collection includes photographs and caricatures as well as paintings, drawings, one of its best-known images is the Chandos portrait, the most famous portrait of William Shakespeare although there is some uncertainty about whether the painting actually is of the playwright. Not all of the portraits are exceptional artistically, although there are self-portraits by William Hogarth, Sir Joshua Reynolds, some, such as the group portrait of the participants in the Somerset House Conference of 1604, are important historical documents in their own right. Portraits of living figures were allowed from 1969, the three people largely responsible for the founding of the National Portrait Gallery are commemorated with busts over the main entrance. At centre is Philip Henry Stanhope, 5th Earl Stanhope, with his supporters on either side, Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay and it was Stanhope who, in 1846 as a Member of Parliament, first proposed the idea of a National Portrait Gallery. It was not until his attempt, in 1856, this time from the House of Lords. With Queen Victorias approval, the House of Commons set aside a sum of £2000 to establish the gallery, as well as Stanhope and Macaulay, the founder Trustees included Benjamin Disraeli and Lord Ellesmere. It was the latter who donated the Chandos portrait to the nation as the gallerys first portrait, Carlyle became a trustee after the death of Ellesmere in 1857. For the first 40 years, the gallery was housed in locations in London. The first 13 years were spent at 29 Great George Street, there, the collection increased in size from 57 to 208 items, and the number of visitors from 5,300 to 34,500. In 1869, the moved to Exhibition Road and buildings managed by the Royal Horticultural Society. Following a fire in buildings, the collection was moved in 1885. This location was unsuitable due to its distance from the West End, condensation. Following calls for a new location to be found, the government accepted an offer of funds from the philanthropist William Henry Alexander, Alexander donated £60,000 followed by another £20,000, and also chose the architect, Ewan Christian
35.
The London Gazette
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The London Gazette claims to be the oldest surviving English newspaper and the oldest continuously published newspaper in the UK, having been first published on 7 November 1665 as The Oxford Gazette. This claim is made by the Stamford Mercury and Berrows Worcester Journal. It does not have a large circulation, in turn, The London Gazette carries not only notices of UK-wide interest, but also those relating specifically to entities or people in England and Wales. However, certain notices that are only of specific interest to Scotland or Northern Ireland are also required to be published in The London Gazette, the London, Edinburgh and Belfast Gazettes are published by TSO on behalf of Her Majestys Stationery Office. They are subject to Crown Copyright, the London Gazette is published each weekday, except for Bank Holidays. The official Gazettes are published by The Stationery Office, the content, apart from insolvency notices, is available in a number of machine-readable formats, including XML and XML/RDFa via Atom feed. The London Gazette was first published as The Oxford Gazette on 7 November 1665. Charles II and the Royal Court had moved to Oxford to escape the Great Plague of London, the Gazette was Published by Authority by Henry Muddiman, and its first publication is noted by Samuel Pepys in his diary. The King returned to London as the plague dissipated, and the Gazette moved too, the Gazette was not a newspaper in the modern sense, it was sent by post to subscribers, not printed for sale to the general public. Her Majestys Stationery Office took over the publication of the Gazette in 1889, publication of the Gazette was transferred to the private sector, under government supervision, in the 1990s, when HMSO was sold and renamed The Stationery Office. In time of war, dispatches from the conflicts are published in The London Gazette. People referred to are said to have mentioned in dispatches. When members of the forces are promoted, and these promotions are published here. Man tally-ho, Miss piano, Wife silk and satin, Boy Greek and Latin, the phrase gazetted fortune hunter is also probably derived from this. Notices of engagement and marriage were also published in the Gazette. Gazettes, modelled on The London Gazette, were issued for most British colonial possessions
36.
Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Stephen, Leslie (1898). "Stephen, James (1789-1859)". In Lee, Sidney. Dictionary of National Biography. 54. London: Smith, Elder & Co.