1.
Savannah, Georgia
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Savannah is the oldest city in the U. S. state of Georgia and is the county seat of Chatham County. Established in 1733 on the Savannah River, the city of Savannah became the British colonial capital of the Province of Georgia, a strategic port city in the American Revolution and during the American Civil War, Savannah is today an industrial center and an important Atlantic seaport. It is Georgias fifth-largest city and third-largest metropolitan area, Downtown Savannah largely retains the original town plan prescribed by founder James Oglethorpe. Savannah was the host city for the sailing competitions during the 1996 Summer Olympics held in Atlanta. On February 12,1733, General James Oglethorpe and settlers from the ship Anne landed at Yamacraw Bluff and were greeted by Tomochichi, the Yamacraws, Mary Musgrove often served as an interpreter. The city of Savannah was founded on that date, along with the colony of Georgia, in 1751, Savannah and the rest of Georgia became a Royal Colony and Savannah was made the colonial capital of Georgia. By the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, Savannah had become the southernmost commercial port of the Thirteen Colonies, British troops took the city in 1778, and the following year a combined force of American and French soldiers failed to rout the British at the Siege of Savannah. The British did not leave the city until July 1782, Savannah, a prosperous seaport throughout the nineteenth century, was the Confederacys sixth most populous city and the prime objective of General William T. Shermans March to the Sea. Early on December 21,1864, local authorities negotiated a surrender to save Savannah from destruction. Savannah was named for the Savannah River, which derives from variant names for the Shawnee. The Shawnee destroyed another Native people, the Westo, and occupied their lands at the head of the Savannah Rivers navigation on the fall line and these Shawnee, whose Native name was Ša·wano·ki, were known by several local variants, including Shawano, Savano, Savana and Savannah. Still other theories suggest that the name Savannah originates from Algonquian terms meaning not only southerners, Savannah lies on the Savannah River, approximately 20 mi upriver from the Atlantic Ocean. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 108.7 square miles. Savannah is the port on the Savannah River and the largest port in the state of Georgia. It is also located near the U. S. Intracoastal Waterway, Georgias Ogeechee River flows toward the Atlantic Ocean some 16 miles south of downtown Savannah. Savannahs climate is classified as humid subtropical, in the Deep South, this is characterized by long and almost tropical summers and short, mild winters. Savannah records few days of freezing temperatures each year, due to its proximity to the Atlantic coast, Savannah rarely experiences temperatures as extreme as those in Georgias interior. Nevertheless, the temperatures have officially ranged from 105 °F, on July 20,1986, down to 3 °F
2.
James Dunwoody Bulloch
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James Dunwoody Bulloch was the Confederacys chief foreign agent in Great Britain during the American Civil War. Based in Liverpool, he operated blockade runners and commerce raiders that provided the Confederacy with its source of hard currency. Bulloch arranged for the purchase of Confederate cotton, and the despatch of armaments. His secret service funds are alleged to have used for the planning of Lincoln’s assassination. Bulloch’s half-sister Martha was the mother of U. S. President Theodore Roosevelt, James D. Bulloch was born in 1823 on his familys plantation near Savannah, Georgia, to Major James Stephens Bulloch and Hester Amarintha Elliot. After Hester died, Major Bulloch enrolled his son in a school in Hartford. The elder Bulloch married Martha Stewart, in May 1832 and she had been the second wife and widow of Senator John Elliott. James S. and Martha Bulloch had four children, Anna Bulloch, Martha Mittie Bulloch, Charles Irvine Bulloch, in 1838, Major Bulloch moved his family to Cobb County, in the Piedmont, to become a partner with Roswell King in a new cotton mill there. In what would become Roswell, Georgia, he had a home built, with the labor of craftsmen. When it was completed in 1839, the moved into Bulloch Hall. James S. Bulloch, who was also a planter, had an amount of land in cotton cultivation. After he died in 1849, Mrs. Bulloch held 31 enslaved African-Americans, James Dunwoody Bulloch married Elizabeth Caskie in 1851. After her early death, he married Mrs. Hariott Cross Foster, Bulloch served in the United States Navy for about 15 years before resigning his commission to join a private shipping company in 1854. When the Southern states seceded from the Union and the Civil War began in 1861, in April 1861 while his ship was in New Orleans, Bulloch offered to assist the Confederate States of America. When he returned to New York, he found a letter from C. S. A, attorney General Judah P. Benjamin accepting his offer and ordering him to Montgomery, Alabama, for his assignment. James D. Bulloch soon became a Confederate secret agent and their most dangerous man in Europe, in less than two months after the attack on Fort Sumter, Bulloch arrived at Liverpool, England, and established a base of operations there. Britain was officially neutral in the conflict between North and South, but private and public sentiment favored the Confederacy, Britain was also willing to buy all the cotton that could be smuggled past the Union blockade, which provided the South with its only real source of revenue. Bulloch arranged for the construction and secret purchase of the commerce raider CSS Alabama and he arranged for cotton to be converted to hard currency, which he in turn used to purchase war materiel - including arms and ammunition, uniforms, and naval supplies
3.
Martha Bulloch Roosevelt
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Martha Bulloch Mittie Roosevelt was an American socialite. She was also the mother of US President Theodore Roosevelt and the grandmother of Eleanor Roosevelt. She was a great-granddaughter of Archibald Bulloch, grandniece of William Bellinger Bulloch, a true southern belle, she is thought to have been one of the inspirations for Scarlett OHara. Mittie was born in Hartford, Connecticut on July 8,1835 to Major James Stephens Bulloch and she had an elder sister, Anna Louisa Bulloch, and two younger brothers, Charles Irvine Bulloch and Civil War Confederate veteran Irvine Stephens Bulloch. When Mittie was four, Major Bulloch moved the family to Cobb County, Georgia and the new village that would become Roswell, Georgia. It lies just north of the Chattahoochee River and the city of Atlanta, Georgia, and Major Bulloch had gone there to become a partner in a new mill with Roswell King. Bulloch had a built, and soon after it was completed in 1839. As a significant antebellum structure, it has listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Bullochs were a wealthy family, members of the Georgia elite. In 1850, they held thirty-one negro slaves, most of whom worked in their cotton fields, others were assigned to such domestic tasks as cooking, sewing, and related work. Recent research in Bulloch records identified 33 slaves who were owned by the family and they have been commemorated on a plaque on the mansion grounds. Mittie, like all her siblings, was assigned a slave, or a shadow. Mitties companion, Lavinia, for example, went everywhere with her, stopping outside the classroom when Mittie went inside, for the family, the stress was on the pleasure of the companionship rather than on the hostage implications in the arrangement. After Major Bullochs death in 1849, the familys fortunes declined somewhat, later, as was expected of young southern gentlemen, Mitties brothers Irvine and James fought in the Civil War as Confederate officers. They both lived in England after the war and her brother Dan also fought as a Confederate but was killed in action. It is believed by some that the character of Scarlett OHara, in Margaret Mitchells novel, Mittie was a true southern belle, a beautiful and spirited woman at her best, not unlike the fictional Scarlett. Mitchell had, in fact, interviewed Mitties closest childhood friend and bridesmaid, Evelyn King, in that interview, Mitties beauty, charm, and fun-loving nature were described in detail. Before Theodore arrived in Georgia for the ceremony, she taunted him with the fact that she was receiving attention from other men and it was her right, she insisted, even as an engaged woman to dance with whomever she pleased
4.
Irvine Bulloch
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Irvine Stephens Bulloch was an officer in the Confederate Navy and the youngest officer on the famed warship CSS Alabama. He fired its last shot before it was sunk off the coast of France at the end of the American Civil War and he was a half-brother of James Dunwoody Bulloch and a full brother of socialite Martha Stewart Mittie Bulloch. Mittie was the mother of future U. S. President Theodore Roosevelt, Irvine Stephens Bulloch was born in Roswell, Georgia to Major James Stephens Bulloch and Martha Patsy Stewart. His family had moved to Roswell, Georgia in 1838, and he grew up in the antebellum mansion. Irvine and his elder half-brother James Dunwoody Bulloch served as Confederates in the Civil War, patsys father was General Daniel Stewart. In 1861 Bulloch served as a midshipman aboard the CSS Nashville, the Nashville returned to the Confederate States of America, and the James River Squadron, where she was renamed the Rattlesnake. Midshipman Bulloch was then posted to England for foreign service and he served with distinction aboard the CSS Alabama and his nephew, President Theodore Roosevelt, maintained that Irvine fired the last two shots from that vessel. After the loss of the Alabama, Irvine returned to Liverpool and was sent out on the Laurel in October 1864 to join the Shenandoah as sailing master and it was Irvine who navigated the Shenandoah from just off San Francisco back to Liverpool, arriving on November 6,1865. Denied amnesty, Irvine remained in Liverpool after the war, working as a merchant with his brother as the Bullochs realized that they could not return to the U. S. In 1869, when his sister Mittie and the Roosevelt family toured Europe, although T. R. at first seem to show no interest in his uncles exploits, he was no johnny-come-lately to naval topics and history. In fact, Bullochs nephews childhood had been filled with stories told him by Bullochs sister, Mittie. T. R. would write that his mother used to talk to me as a little shaver about ships, ships, ships and the fighting of ships, until they sank into the depths of my soul. Indeed, right in the middle of classes on mathematics at Harvard, T. R. s mind would wander from his tedious course work to the accomplishments of the infant U. S. Navy, the clash of the fighting tops. When T. R. s father took the family on their tour in 1869, TR spent time with those uncles in Liverpool. When the Southern states left the Union and the Civil War began in 1861, with these developments, the two brothers decided to serve the southern cause. Irvine fought against the U. S. government long after the surrender of General Lee and he fired the last gun on the cruiser CSS Alabama before it went down in the harbor of Cherbourg, France. Irvine Bullochs sword is in the Merseyside Maritime Museums collection in Liverpool and it was seen by his nephew Theodore Roosevelt and wife Edith Carow Roosevelt during their visit to the city. At the same museum, it was of his gallant uncle that President Roosevelt spoke with affection, Irvine lived in Sydenham Avenue, Liverpool, and died at the age of 56 at Selby Tower, Llandrillo-yn-Rhos, Colwyn Bay, Wales
5.
Archibald Bulloch
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Archibald Bulloch was a lawyer, soldier, and statesman from Georgia during the American Revolution. He was also the great-grandfather of Martha Bulloch Roosevelt, and the great-great-grandfather of Theodore Roosevelt, Bulloch was born and educated in Charleston, South Carolina, the son of James Bulloch and Jean Stobo Bulloch. He began to practice law in South Carolina and was commissioned as a lieutenant in the South Carolina militia and his family moved to Georgia in 1758, and Bulloch moved to Savannah, Georgia, in 1764. He was elected to the Commons House of Assembly of Georgia in 1768, Bulloch was an early supporter of the revolution in Georgia as a member of the Friends of Liberty. He served as President of the 1st and 2nd Provincial Congresses of Georgia, there, he won John Adamss praise for his Abilities and Fortitude. In the Continental Congress, he was a member of the Secret Committee, speaking to the Provincial Congress, Bulloch said, This is no time to talk of moderation, in the present instance it ceases to be a virtue. Bulloch is also recorded as having been a Freemason in Georgia and his name is listed on the 1779 Masonic rolls of Solomons Lodge No.1 at Savannah along with George Walton, John Adam Treutlen, James Jackson, Nathaniel Pendelton, and General Samuel Elbert. Bulloch would have been a signer of the Declaration of Independence, in 1776, Bulloch fought under the command of Colonel Lachlan McIntosh in the Battle of the Rice Boats and the Battle of Tybee Island. On June 20,1776, he was chosen to be the first President, when he signed the state constitution on February 20,1777, his position transferred from president to governor of Georgia. He was thus Georgias first chief executive under a constitutional government. Bulloch died in Savannah while preparing to defend against the British invasion of Georgia in 1777, there is some speculation that he was poisoned, though this has never been proven. His death was a blow, as his was the only leadership that united the Whig factions in the troubled young state. He is buried in Savannahs Colonial Park Cemetery and his son William Bellinger Bulloch later represented Georgia in the United States Senate. Archibalds great-great-grandson was President Theodore Roosevelt and his great-great-great granddaughter was First Lady of the United States Eleanor Roosevelt. Theodore Roosevelts son Archibald was named after his ancestor, Bulloch County, Georgia, was named in his honor. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, article in New Georgia Encyclopedia Archibald Bulloch historical marker
6.
William Bellinger Bulloch
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Bulloch was born in Savannah, Georgia, the youngest son of Archibald Bulloch. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in Savannah in 1797, in 1804, he was appointed United States district attorney. He was elected as mayor of Savannah in 1812 and alderman in 1814, during the War of 1812, he served in the Savannah Heavy Artillery, a militia unit charged with defending the Georgia coast. After the war, he served in a series of positions in Georgia, solicitor general of the State, collector of customs, Georgia House of Representatives. Additionally, he was one of the founders of the State Bank of Georgia and he owned a number of slaves. In 1830, he owned 7 slaves, in 1840, he owned 20 slaves. In 1850, he owned 44 slaves, Bulloch died in Savannah in 1852 and was buried in Laurel Grove Cemetery in that same city. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
7.
Theodore Roosevelt
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Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was an American statesman, author, explorer, soldier, naturalist, and reformer who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. As a leader of the Republican Party during this time, he became a force for the Progressive Era in the United States in the early 20th century. Born a sickly child with debilitating asthma, Roosevelt successfully overcame his health problems by embracing a strenuous lifestyle and he integrated his exuberant personality, vast range of interests, and world-famous achievements into a cowboy persona defined by robust masculinity. Home-schooled, he began a lifelong naturalist avocation before attending Harvard College and his first of many books, The Naval War of 1812, established his reputation as both a learned historian and as a popular writer. Upon entering politics, he became the leader of the faction of Republicans in New Yorks state legislature. Returning a war hero, he was elected governor of New York in 1898, the state party leadership distrusted him, so they took the lead in moving him to the prestigious but powerless role of vice presidential candidate as McKinleys running mate in the election of 1900. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously across the country, helping McKinleys re-election in a victory based on a platform of peace, prosperity. Following the assassination of President McKinley in September 1901, Roosevelt succeeded to the office at age 42, making conservation a top priority, he established a myriad of new national parks, forests, and monuments intended to preserve the nations natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America, where he began construction of the Panama Canal and he greatly expanded the United States Navy and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project the United States naval power around the globe. His successful efforts to end the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize, elected in 1904 to a full term, Roosevelt continued to promote progressive policies, but many of his efforts and much of his legislative agenda were eventually blocked in Congress. Roosevelt successfully groomed his close friend, William Howard Taft, to succeed him in the presidency, after leaving office, Roosevelt went on safari in Africa and toured Europe. Returning to the United States, he became frustrated with Tafts approach, failing to win the Republican presidential nomination in 1912, Roosevelt founded his own party, the Progressive, so-called Bull Moose Party, and called for wide-ranging progressive reforms. The split among Republicans enabled the Democrats to win both the White House and a majority in the Congress in 1912, Republicans aligned with Taft nationally would control the Republican Party for decades. Frustrated at home, Roosevelt led an expedition to the Amazon basin. During World War I, he opposed President Woodrow Wilson for keeping the country out of the war, and offered his military services, although planning to run again for president in 1920, Roosevelt suffered deteriorating health and died in early 1919. Roosevelt has consistently ranked by scholars as one of the greatest American presidents. Historians admire Roosevelt for rooting out corruption in his administration, but are critical of his 1909 libel lawsuits against the World and his face was carved into Mount Rushmore, alongside those of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln. Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27,1858, at East 20th Street in New York City and he was the second of four children born to socialite Martha Stewart Mittie Bulloch and glass businessman and philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt Sr
8.
Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt
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Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt was an American socialite. He was the father of First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt and the brother of Theodore Roosevelt. Elliott and Theodore were of the Oyster Bay Roosevelts, Eleanor later married their Hyde Park distant cousin Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Elliott was the third of the four children of Theodore Roosevelt Sr. and Martha Stewart Mittie Bulloch. In addition to elder brother Theodore Jr. he had a sister named Corinne and an elder sister named Anna. Mitties brothers Irvine and James were Civil War Confederate veterans who accompanied Elliott when he left Europe in 1892 to admit himself into an asylum in Virginia, Elliott had a competitive relationship with his older brother. As an Oyster Bay Roosevelt, and through his ancestor Cornelius Van Schaack, at a young age, Elliott was academically more successful than Theodore, however, he was eventually surpassed by his older brother. This competition would continue into the generation with their own daughters. Elliott enrolled at St Pauls School in Concord, New Hampshire in September 1875 and he performed well academically though had to soon withdraw and return home after unexpectedly falling ill. Elliott maintained a charming and winsome personality all his life, which masked a growing drinking problem that started at a young age, Elliott was Theodores best man on October 27,1880, on Theodores first marriage to Alice Hathaway Lee. In 1883, Elliott married Anna Rebecca Hall, the eldest daughter of Valentine Gill Hall, Jr. and Mary Livingston Ludlow, on December 1,1883, in Calvary Church in Gramercy Park, New York City. Due to his problem, Elliott was exiled to Abingdon, Virginia. Eleanor later recalled that on his horseback riding expeditions with the young children in Virginia. On occasion, he would, to the jubilation of Eleanor, Theodore Roosevelt became the conservator for his spendthrift brother. At the age of 34, Elliott attempted suicide by jumping out a window, he survived the initial fall, at the time of his death, his alcoholism had escalated such that he was consuming numerous bottles of Champagne and brandy each day. Elliott fathered a son with Catherine Katy Mann, a servant girl employed by Anna. His brother sent a detective who specialized in likenesses to look at the child, the sum was placed in a trust, but according to the Manns the child never received a dime, the money having apparently been looted by Katys lawyers. There was some correspondence between Eleanor Roosevelt and her half-brother Elliott Roosevelt Mann
9.
Corinne Roosevelt Robinson
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Corinne Roosevelt was an American poet, writer, lecturer, and public speaker. She was also the sister of former President of the United States Theodore Roosevelt. Her siblings were Anna, Theodore Jr. and Elliott, as an Oyster Bay Roosevelt Corinne was a descendant of the Schuyler family. She received most of her education from private tutors, Corinne was best friends with Edith Kermit Carow, her brother T. R. s second wife and later the First Lady of the United States. Theodore Sr. was a supporter of the North during the Civil War, mitties home state was Georgia, and she had moved to New York only because of her marriage to Theodore. Mitties brothers were members of the Confederate Navy, Robinson began writing at an early age, through the encouragement of her friends, in particular Edith Wharton who helped critique her poetry. In 1911, Robinson published her first poem, The Call of Brotherhood and her first book of poems of the same title was published in 1912. This volume was followed by One Woman to Another and Other Poems dedicated to her daughter, also named Corinne, commemorating the loss of Robinsons brother Elliott and son. Other volumes of poetry by Robinson include Service and Sacrifice dedicated to her brother Theodore Roosevelt, The Poems of Corinne Roosevelt Robinson and she also wrote the prose memoir My Brother Theodore Roosevelt. Robinson was a member of the committee of the Republican National Committee. After Wood lost the nomination to Harding, Robinson came out strongly for Harding and his vice-presidential candidate, in the 1924 election, she served as a member of Coolidges advisory committee. Also in 1924, she wrote a letter to The New York Times commenting on the loss of her nephew, Theodore Roosevelt. During the 1932 election, she declined the designation of a Republican elector-at-large and she also stated that, You must understand why I cannot comment on the national campaign. My own beloved niece is the wife of the Democratic candidate and she is the daughter of the brother who was nearer to me in age than Theodore. For her I have the deepest affection and respect, so, much as I would like to pay the highest tribute to President Hoover, I cannot do so in this campaign. On April 29,1882, she married Douglas Robinson, Jr. son of Douglas Robinson, Sr. Robinsons maternal grandfather, James Monroe, a member of the House of Representatives, was the nephew of U. S. President James Monroe. Monroe Douglas Robinson Stewart Douglas Robinson, who committed suicide by jumping from his college dormitory window after a party, throughout the 1920s, Robinsons health failed her a number of times and she had a total of sixteen eye surgeries. Robinson died on February 17,1933, age 71, of pneumonia, in New York City, the bulk of her estate was divided among her three surviving children with smaller bequests made to grandchildren, nephews, friends and institutions
10.
Eleanor Roosevelt
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Anna Eleanor Roosevelt was an American politician, diplomat, and activist. President Harry S. Truman later called her the First Lady of the World in tribute to her human rights achievements, Roosevelt was a member of the prominent American Roosevelt and Livingston families and a niece of President Theodore Roosevelt. She had a childhood, having suffered the deaths of both parents and one of her brothers at a young age. At 15, she attended Allenwood Academy in London and was influenced by its feminist headmistress Marie Souvestre. Returning to the U. S. she married her fifth cousin once removed, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, though widely respected in her later years, Roosevelt was a controversial First Lady at the time for her outspokenness, particularly her stance on racial issues. On a few occasions, she disagreed with her husbands policies. She launched a community at Arthurdale, West Virginia, for the families of unemployed miners. She advocated for expanded roles for women in the workplace, the rights of African Americans and Asian Americans. Following her husbands death in 1945, Roosevelt remained active in politics for the remaining 17 years of her life and she pressed the United States to join and support the United Nations and became its first delegate. She served as the first chair of the UN Commission on Human Rights, later she chaired the John F. Kennedy administrations Presidential Commission on the Status of Women. By the time of her death, Roosevelt was regarded as one of the most esteemed women in the world, in 1999, she was ranked ninth in the top ten of Gallups List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Century. Anna Eleanor Roosevelt was born in 1884 at 56 West 37th Street in Manhattan, New York City, to socialites Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt, from an early age, she preferred to be called by her middle name, Eleanor. Through her father, she was a niece of President Theodore Roosevelt, through her mother, she was a niece of tennis champions Valentine Gill Vallie Hall III and Edward Ludlow Hall. Her mother nicknamed her Granny because she acted in such a manner as a child. Her mother was somewhat ashamed of Eleanors plainness. Eleanor had two brothers, Elliott Jr. and Gracie Hall Roosevelt, usually called Hall. She also had a brother, Elliott Roosevelt Mann, through her fathers affair with Katy Mann. Roosevelt was born into a world of wealth and privilege
11.
Roswell King
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Roswell King was an American businessman, planter, slave owner and industrialist. Together with his son, Barrington King, he founded Roswell Manufacturing Company in the Georgia Piedmont, establishing a cotton mill and they co-founded the town of Roswell, Georgia, inviting friends to be part of its and the mills development in the 1830s. King was born in Windsor, Connecticut, in 1765, the son of Timothy King, a weaver and Revolutionary naval commander, at the age of fifteen in 1780, he moved to Darien, Georgia in the Low Country and started working. His early professional life included jobs as surveyor in Glynn County, King eventually became manager of Major Pierce Butlers rice and cotton plantations on Butler and St. Simons islands, Georgia, where he worked until 1820. The plantations covered hundreds of acres on each island, a total of 500 slaves worked and lived on the two plantations. King also owned a plantation and numerous slaves to work it in Darien, in the 1830s, King moved his family from the coast to the Piedmont area around Vickery Creek, the area of the future town of Roswell. King had identified this as an area for the construction of a cotton mill. He had the idea to combine cotton production and cotton processing at the same location, invention of the cotton gin had made cultivation of short-staple cotton profitable in the uplands of the South. King invited planter friends James Stephens Bulloch and Archibald Smith to join him in the new enterprise, the slaves likely built much of his house as well. They brought Gee Chee culture from the coast to the Piedmont area, King dammed the creek to power a cotton mill, which became fully operational by the latter half of the decade. The mill was incorporated as the Roswell Manufacturing Company by an act of the Georgia General Assembly on December 11,1839 and his son Barrington King served as the company president. Other people named in the act included John Dunwoody and James Stephens Bulloch, friends who he had invited to participate in the company and community. After living in homes for his first years in the area, Roswell King moved into Primrose Cottage in 1839 along with his recently widowed daughter Eliza King Hand. He died on February 15,1844 and he was buried in what is now referred to as Founders Cemetery on Sloan Street in Roswell, just to the north of the original location of the mill. Some of his servants were buried near him in unmarked graves. Barrington King built his mansion, Barrington Hall, on the square in Roswell and it was designed by Willis Ball in 1839. At Roswell Manufacturing Company, King continued to depend on the skills, according to the 1850 Census Slave Schedules, King personally held 70 slaves, and he controlled another 13 slaves held in the name of Roswell Manufacturing Company. In 1860, King still held 47 slaves and he may have sold some when the heavy construction work was finished
12.
Cotton mill
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Although some were driven by animal power, most early mills were built in rural locations near to fast-flowing rivers and streams and had water wheels to power them. The mechanisation of the process in the early factories was instrumental in the growth of the machine tool industry. Limited companies were developed to construct mills, and the floors of the cotton exchange in Manchester. Mills generated employment, drawing workers from rural areas and expanding urban populations. They provided incomes for girls and women, child labour was used in the mills, and the factory system led to organised labour. Poor conditions became the subject of exposés, and in England, the cotton mill, originally a Lancashire phenomenon, was copied in New England and later in the southern states of America. In the 20th century, North West England lost its supremacy to the United States, then to India, in the mid-16th century Manchester was an important manufacturing centre for woollens and linen and market for textiles made elsewhere. The fustian district of Lancashire, from Blackburn to Bolton, west to Wigan and Leigh and south towards Manchester, used flax and raw cotton imported along the Mersey and Irwell Navigation. During the Industrial Revolution cotton manufacture changed from a domestic to an industry, made possible by inventions. The weaving process was the first to be mechanised by the invention of John Kays flying shuttle in 1733, the manually-operated spinning jenny was developed by James Hargreaves in about 1764 speeded up the spinning process. The roller spinning principle of Paul and Bourne became the basis of Richard Arkwrights spinning frame and water frame, the principles of the spinning jenny and water frame were combined by Samuel Crompton in his spinning mule of 1779, but water power was not applied to it until 1792. Many mills were built after Arkwrights patent expired in 1783 and by 1788, the development of cotton mills was linked to the development of the machinery they contained. By 1774,30,000 people in Manchester were employed using the system in cotton manufacture. The first cotton mills were established in the 1740s to house roller spinning machinery invented by Lewis Paul, the machines were the first to spin cotton mechanically without the intervention of human fingers. They were driven by a single power source which allowed the use of larger machinery. The Paul-Wyatt mills spun cotton for several decades but were not very profitable, Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for his water frame spinning machinery in 1769. Arkwrights first mill – powered by horses in Nottingham in 1768 – was similar to Paul and Wyatts first Birmingham mill although by 1772 it had expanded to four storeys and employed 300 workers. Arkwright recruited large, highly disciplined workforces for his mills, managed credit and supplies, by 1782 his annual profits exceeded £40,000, and by 1784 he had opened 10 more mills
13.
Roswell, Georgia
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Roswell is a city in north Fulton County, Georgia, United States. At the 2010 census it had a population of 88,346, in 1830, while on a trip to northern Georgia, Roswell King passed through the area of what is now Roswell and observed the great potential for building a cotton mill along Vickery Creek. Since the land nearby was also good for plantations, his idea was to put cotton processing near cotton production, toward the middle of the 1830s, King returned to build a mill that would soon become the largest in north Georgia – Roswell Mill. He brought with him 36 African slaves from his own coastal plantation, the slaves built the mills, infrastructure, houses, mill worker apartments, and supporting buildings for the new town. The Africans brought their unique Geechee culture, language, and religious traditions from the coast to north Georgia, King invited investors from the coast to join him at the new location. He was also joined by Barrington King, one of his sons, archibald Smith was one of the planters who migrated there to establish a new plantation, also bringing enslaved African Americans from the coastal areas. Barrington Hall, Smith Plantation and Bulloch Hall have been preserved and restored and they are now open to the public. According to the 1850 Slave Schedules, these three founding families, together with the three largest planters, held 192 slaves, 51% of the total 378 slaves held in Roswell District. Archibald Smith had a 300-acre cotton plantation, according to the 1850 Census, Barrington King held 70 slaves. Half of these slaves were under the age of 10 and these slaves worked in Barringtons household. Barrington King leased or rented some of his male slaves to the Roswell Manufacturing Company. The Roswell area was part of Cobb County when first settled, since Roswell residents desired a local government, they submitted a city charter for incorporation to the Georgia General Assembly. The charter was approved on February 16,1854, by the time of the Civil War, the cotton mills employed more than 400 people, mostly women. Given settlement patterns in the Piedmont region, they were likely of Scots-Irish descent, as the mill increased in production, so did the number of people living in the area. During the Civil War, the city was captured by Union forces under the leadership of General Kenner Garrard, under orders of General Sherman, Garrard shipped the mill workers north to prevent them from returning to work if the mills were rebuilt. This was a tactic of Sherman to economically disrupt the South. The mill was burned, but the houses were left standing, the ruins of the mill and the 30-foot dam that was built for power still remain. Most of the property was confiscated by Union forces
14.
Bulloch Hall
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Bulloch Hall is a Greek Revival mansion in Roswell, Georgia, built in 1839. It is one of several significant buildings in the city and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. This is where Martha Bulloch Roosevelt, mother of Theodore Roosevelt, 26th U. S. President and it is also where she married Theodore Roosevelts father, Theodore Roosevelt, Sr. The antebellum mansion was built by Mitties father, Major James Stephens Bulloch and he was a prominent planter from the Georgia coast, who was invited to the new settlement by his friend Roswell King. Major Bulloch selected a ten acre plot of land and engaged a skilled builder, Willis Ball, to design, the Bulloch family lived in an abandoned Cherokee farmhouse while slaves and trained laborers built the house. In 1839, Major Bulloch and his family moved into the completed house, soon Bulloch also owned land for cotton production and held enslaved African-Americans to work his fields. According to the 1850 Slave Schedules, Martha Stewart Elliott Bulloch, by then widowed a second time and they mostly labored on cotton and crop production, but some would have worked in the home, on cooking and domestic tasks to support the family. Some of the slaves who worked in the house were Maum Rose, Maum Charlotte, Maum Grace, Daddy William, Daddy Luke. In 1835 while living in Hartford, Connecticut, James wife gave birth to a daughter and she was known affectionately as Mittie. Mittie was raised at Bulloch Hall, Mittie was 15 at the time. Thee, as he was called, met Mittie again when she went to Philadelphia in January 1853 to stay with her sister Susan and they fell in love and began planning their wedding through letters between Mittie in Roswell and Thee in New York. They were married in the room of Bulloch Hall on December 22,1853. The marriage was an affair with people coming for many miles. Mitties friend and bridesmaid, Mrs. William Baker, left a recollection of the wedding in an interview by Margaret Peggy Mitchell of Gone with the Wind fame, in the Atlanta Journal, after the marriage, the couple moved to New York City. The couple lived with Thees parents while a house, a gift from them, was constructed at 28 E 20th Street. In 1856, Martha, Anna, and Irvine moved to Philadelphia to live with Marthas daughter Susan West, Anna and Martha later moved in with Mittie and Thee in New York. The Roosevelt couple became the parents of Anna, Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th President of the United States, Elliott, later Elliott married Anna Rebecca Hall, and his daughter was First Lady of the United States, Eleanor Roosevelt. Theodore Roosevelt, who had begun his presidency on reasonably good terms for a president, had infuriated the South by inviting Booker T. Washington to dine in the White House
15.
Slavery in the United States
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Slavery had been practiced in British North America from early colonial days, and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. By the time of the American Revolution, the status of slave had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry, when the United States Constitution was ratified, a relatively small number of free people of color were among the voting citizens. During and immediately following the Revolutionary War, abolitionist laws were passed in most Northern states, most of these states had a higher proportion of free labor than in the South and economies based on different industries. They abolished slavery by the end of the 18th century, some with gradual systems that kept adults as slaves for two decades. But the rapid expansion of the industry in the Deep South after the invention of the cotton gin greatly increased demand for slave labor. Congress during the Jefferson administration prohibited the importation of slaves, effective in 1808, domestic slave trading, however, continued at a rapid pace, driven by labor demands from the development of cotton plantations in the Deep South. More than one million slaves were sold from the Upper South, which had a surplus of labor, New communities of African-American culture were developed in the Deep South, and the total slave population in the South eventually reached 4 million before liberation. As the West was developed for settlement, the Southern state governments wanted to keep a balance between the number of slave and free states to maintain a balance of power in Congress. The new territories acquired from Britain, France, and Mexico were the subject of major political compromises, by 1850, the newly rich cotton-growing South was threatening to secede from the Union, and tensions continued to rise. When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, the first six states to secede held the greatest number of slaves in the South. Shortly after, the Civil War began when Confederate forces attacked the US Armys Fort Sumter, four additional slave states then seceded. In the early years of the Chesapeake Bay settlements, colonial officials found it difficult to attract and retain laborers under the frontier conditions. Most laborers came from Britain as indentured servants, having signed contracts of indenture to pay with work for their passage, their upkeep and training and these indentured servants were young people who intended to become permanent residents. In some cases, convicted criminals were transported to the colonies as indentured servants, the indentured servants were not slaves, but were required to work for four to seven years in Virginia to pay the cost of their passage and maintenance. Historians estimate that more than half of all immigrants to the English colonies of North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came as indentured servants. The number of indentured servants among immigrants was particularly high in the South, many Germans, Scots-Irish, and Irish came to the colonies in the 18th century, settling in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and further south. The planters in the South found that the problem with indentured servants was that many left after several years, just when they had become skilled. In addition, an economy in England in the late 17th
16.
John Elliott (Georgia)
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John Elliott was a United States Senator from Georgia, serving from 1819 to 1825. Elliott graduated from Yale University in 1794 and returned to Georgia to practice law and he was elected to the Senate after holding several local offices. Through his first wife Esther Dunwoody, he was the father of Hester Amarintha Hettie Elliott, Hettie was the first wife of Major James Stephens Bulloch and mother of Civil War Confederate veteran James Dunwoody Bulloch. Senator Elliott was also the first husband of Martha Patsy Stewart, daughter of General Daniel Stewart, mittie was the mother of US President Theodore Roosevelt and Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt, who was the father of First Lady Anna Eleanor Roosevelt. In 1820, he owned 115 slaves in Liberty County, Georgia, in 1830, his estate owned 117 slaves. Congressional biography John Elliott at Find a Grave
17.
Daniel Stewart (Brigadier General)
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Daniel Stewart was an American politician and brigadier general in the Georgia Militia. He joined the militia in 1776 and served during the American Revolutionary War and he was born in Liberty County, Georgia to military officer John Stewart, Jr. and Susannah Bacon. Daniels paternal grandparents John Stewart, Sr. and Jerusha were English immigrants who settled in Dorchester, daniels siblings who died young were Ann, Mary, and John III. He had two sisters who survived, Sarah Susannah. Daniel also had a younger half-sister, Elizabeth, from John Jr. s second marriage to Sarah Nickols. Stewart served as a representative from 1785 to 1787, sheriff of Liberty County, Georgia from 1795 to 1797. On February 20,1783, he married Martha Pender and she died giving birth to their son, John Stewart IV. In 1785, Daniel married Sarah Susannah Oswald, a daughter of Joseph Oswald, Jr. and her brother Thomas Hepworth Oswald was the patrilineal great-great-grandfather of assassin Lee Harvey Oswald. She bore Daniel six children, Mary Stewart Daniel McLachlan Stewart Sophia Stewart Susannah Stewart Joseph Oswald Stewart Martha Patsy Stewart and she first married Senator John Elliott and later married Major James Stephens Bulloch. Patsys children with Bulloch included, Anna Louisa Bulloch Martha Mittie Bulloch and she married Theodore Thee Roosevelt, Sr. Thee and Mittie were the parents of Anna Bamie Roosevelt Cowles, President Theodore Roosevelt, Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt, and Corinne Roosevelt Robinson. Elliott and his wife, socialite Anna Rebecca Hall, were the parents of First Lady Anna Eleanor Roosevelt, Charles Irvine Bulloch Irvine Stephens Bulloch On March 6,1810, General Stewart married Sarah Hines, widow of Captain Elijah Lewis. They had two daughters, Sarah Caroline Stewart Georgia Drusilla Stewart He died in his home at Cedar Hill Plantation. Fort Stewart and Stewart County, Georgia, are named after Daniel Stewart, new Georgia Encyclopedia Liberty County Historical Society - Stewart, Daniel Stewart Cemeteries Gary L. McKay, Walter E. Wilson James D. Bulloch, Secret Agent and Mastermind of the Confederate Navy. Jefferson, North Carolina, McFarland & Company Inc, kenneth Coleman and Charles S. Gurr, s. v. Genealogical Publishing Com Roster of Revolutionary Soldiers in Georgia, Volume 1
18.
Cobb County, Georgia
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Cobb County is a suburban county in the U. S. state of Georgia. As of the 2015, the population was 741,334 and its county seat and largest city is Marietta. The county was named for Thomas Willis Cobb, a United States representative and it is believed Marietta was named for his wife, Mary. Cobb County is included in the Atlanta-Sandy Springs-Roswell, GA Metropolitan Statistical Area and it is situated immediately to the northwest of Atlantas city limits. Its Cumberland District, a city, has over 24,000,000 square feet of office space. The U. S. Census Bureau ranks Cobb County as the most-educated in the state of Georgia and it has ranked among the top 100 wealthiest counties in the United States. Cobb County was one of nine Georgia counties carved out of the territory of the Cherokee Nation in 1832. It was the 81st county in Georgia and named for Judge Thomas Willis Cobb and it is believed that the county seat of Marietta was named for Judge Cobbs wife, Mary. The state started acquiring right-of-way for a railroad in 1836, a train began running between Marietta and Marthasville in 1845. Before the Civil War, Marietta was a resort for residents of Savannah. During the American Civil War, some troops were trained at a camp in Kennesaw. There were battles of New Hope Church May 25, Picketts Mill May 27, the Battle of Allatoona Pass on October 28 occurred as Sherman was starting his March through Georgia. Union forces burnt most houses and confiscated or burnt crops, the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain June 27,1864, was the site of the only major Confederate victory in General William T. Shermans invasion of Georgia. Despite the victory, Union forces outflanked the Confederates, Cotton farming in the area peaked from the 1890s through the 1920s. Low prices during the Great Depression resulted in the cessation of cotton farming throughout Cobb County, the price of Cotton went from 16 cents a pound in 1920 to 9.5 cents in 1930. This resulted in a Cotton Bust for the county, which had stopped growing the product but was milling it and this bust was in turn, followed by the Great Depression. To help combat the bust, the state started work on a road in 1922 that would later become US41, in 1942, Bell Aircraft opened a Marietta plant to manufacture B-29 bombers and Marietta Army Airfield was founded. Both were closed after World War II, but reopened during the Korean War, when the air field was acquired by the Air Force, renamed Dobbins AFB, and the plant by Lockheed
19.
Theodore Roosevelt Sr.
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Theodore Thee Roosevelt Sr. was an American businessman and philanthropist. He was also the father of President Theodore Roosevelt and the grandfather of First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt. He was a fourth-generation Dutch New Yorker and participant in the Roosevelt family business of plate-glass importing, Theodore Sr. helped found the New York City Childrens Aid Society, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the American Museum of Natural History, and the New York Childrens Orthopedic Hospital. A participant in the dazzling New York society life, he was described by one historian as a man of good works and good times. In December 1877, he was nominated to be Collector of the Port of New York but was rejected by the U. S. Senate, Theodore Sr. was born in New York City to businessman Cornelius Van Schaak C. V. S. His four elder brothers were Silas, James, Cornelius Jr. thees younger brother William died at the age of one. Thee married Martha Stewart Mittie Bulloch of Roswell, Georgia on December 22,1853 and she was the younger daughter of Major James Stephens Bulloch and Martha P. Mittie was also a sister of Civil War Confederate veteran Irvine Stephens Bulloch and they married at her familys historic mansion, Bulloch Hall in Roswell. Thee and Mittie had four children, Anna, Theodore Jr. Elliott, Elliott was the father of First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt. Eleanor was the wife of Hyde Park distant cousin President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Of Theodore Sr. or Thee as he was known, his son, in his autobiography described him in the following words, My father. He combined strength and courage with gentleness, tenderness, and great unselfishness and he would not tolerate in us children selfishness or cruelty, idleness, cowardice, or untruthfulness. As we grew older, he made us understand that the standard of clean living was demanded the boys as for the girls. With great love and patience, and the most generous sympathy and consideration and he never physically punished me but once, but he was the only man of whom I was ever really afraid. I do not mean that it was a fear, for he was entirely just. He and my mother were given to hospitality that at time was associated more commonly with southern than northern households. My father worked hard at his business, for he died when he was forty-six and he was interested in every social reform movement, and he did an immense amount of practical charitable work himself. On Sundays, he had a mission class, in a 1900 letter, Roosevelt described his father, writing, I was fortunate enough in having a father whom I have always been able to regard as an ideal man
20.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
21.
Alice Roosevelt Longworth
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Alice Lee Roosevelt Longworth was an American writer and prominent socialite. She was the eldest child of U. S. President Theodore Roosevelt, Alice led an unconventional and controversial life. She temporarily became a Democrat during the Kennedy and Johnson administrations, Alice Lee Roosevelt was born in the Roosevelt family home at 6 West 57th St. in New York City. Her mother, Alice Hathaway Lee Roosevelt, was a Boston banking heiress and her father, Theodore, was then a New York State Assemblyman. As an Oyster Bay Roosevelt, Alice is a descendant of the Schuyler family, two days after her birth, in the same house, her mother died of undiagnosed kidney failure. Eleven hours earlier that day, Theodores mother Martha Stewart Mittie Bulloch had also died of typhoid fever, Theodore was rendered so distraught by his wifes death that he could not bear to think about her. He almost never spoke of her again, would not allow her to be mentioned in his presence, therefore, his daughter Alice was called Baby Lee instead of her name. She continued this practice late in life, often preferring to be called Mrs. L rather than Alice, seeking solace, Theodore retreated from his life in New York and headed west, where he spent two years traveling and living on his ranch in North Dakota. He left his infant daughter in the care of his sister Anna, There are letters to Bamie that reveal Theodores concern for his daughter. In one 1884 letter, he wrote, I hope Mousiekins will be very cunning, Bamie had a significant influence on young Alice, who would later speak of her admiringly, If auntie Bye had been a man, she would have been president. Bamie took her into her care, moving Alice into her book-filled Manhattan house. After Theodores marriage to Edith Kermit Carow, Alice was raised by her father and stepmother, Theodore and Ediths five children were Theodore III, Kermit, Ethel, Archibald, and Quentin. They remained married until his death in January 1919, during much of Alices childhood, Bamie was a remote figure who eventually married and moved to London for a time. But later, as Alice became more independent and came into conflict with her father and stepmother, Aunt Bye provided needed structure, late in life, she said of her Aunt Bye, There is always someone in every family who keeps it together. In ours, it was Auntie Bye, Edith once angrily told her that if Alice Hathaway Lee had lived, she would have bored Theodore to death. Alice, frequently spoiled with gifts, matured into young womanhood and, in the course, when her father was Governor of New York, he and his wife proposed that Alice attend a conservative school for girls in New York City. Pulling out all the stops, Alice wrote, If you send me I will humiliate you, I will do something that will shame you. In later years, Alice expressed admiration for her stepmothers sense of humor, when her father took office in 1901 following the assassination of President William McKinley, Jr. Alice was known as a rule-breaker in an era when women were under great pressure to conform
22.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
23.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
24.
Vice President of the United States
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The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is elected, together with the president. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists, as the president of the United States Senate, the vice president votes only when it is necessary to break a tie. Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College. Currently, the president is usually seen as an integral part of a presidents administration. The Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress. Mike Pence of Indiana is the 48th and current vice president and he assumed office on January 20,2017. The formation of the office of vice president resulted directly from the compromise reached at the Philadelphia Convention which created the Electoral College, the delegates at Philadelphia agreed that each state would receive a number of presidential electors equal to the sum of that states allocation of Representatives and Senators. The delegates assumed that electors would typically choose to favor any candidate from their state over candidates from other states, under a plurality election process, this would tend to result in electing candidates solely from the largest states. Consequently, the delegates agreed that presidents must be elected by a majority of the number of electors. To guard against such stratagems, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the first runner-up presidential candidate would become vice president, the process for selecting the vice president was later modified in the Twelfth Amendment. Each elector still receives two votes, but now one of those votes is for president, while the other is for vice president. The requirement that one of those votes be cast for a candidate not from the electors own state remains in effect. S, other statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. As President of the Senate, the president has two primary duties, to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50-50 between Republicans and Democrats and Dick Cheneys tie-breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority, as President of the Senate, the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie-breaking vote. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast 29 tie-breaking votes that was surpassed by John C. Calhoun with 31. Adamss votes protected the presidents sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, on at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters
25.
Governor of New York
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The Governor of the State of New York is the chief executive of the U. S. state of New York. The governor is the head of the branch of New Yorks state government. The current governor is Andrew Cuomo, a Democrat, Cuomo won the November 2010 gubernatorial election and was sworn in as the 56th governor of the state of New York on January 1,2011. Cuomo was re-elected on November 5,2014, defeating his Republican challenger Robert Astorino, unlike the other government departments that compose the executive branch of government, the governor is themselves head of the state Executive Department. The officeholder is afforded the courtesy style of His/Her Excellency while in office, the governor of New York is often considered a potential candidate for President. Ten governors have been major-party candidates for president, and four, Martin Van Buren, Grover Cleveland, Theodore Roosevelt, six New York governors have gone on to serve as vice president. Additionally two Governors of New York, John Jay and Charles Evans Hughes, have served as Chief Justice of the United States, the office of Governor was established by the first New York State Constitution in 1777 to coincide with the calendar year. An 1874 amendment extended the term of office back to three years, but the 1894 constitution again reduced it to two years, the most recent constitution of 1938 extended the term to the current four years. The state constitution has provided since 1777 for the election of a lieutenant governor, originally, in the event of the death, resignation or impeachment of the governor, or absence from the state, the lieutenant governor would take on the governors duties and powers. Since the 1938 constitution, the lieutenant governor becomes governor upon such vacancy in the office. Although no provision exists in the constitution for it, precedent set in 2009 allows the governor to appoint a lieutenant governor should a vacancy occur, should the president pro tempore be unable to fulfill the duties, the speaker of the assembly is next in the line of succession. The lieutenant governor is elected on the ticket as the governor
26.
Assistant Secretary of the Navy
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Assistant Secretary of the Navy is the title given to certain civilian senior officials in the United States Department of the Navy. From 1861 to 1954, the Assistant Secretary of the Navy was the second highest civilian office in the Department of the Navy and that role has since been supplanted by the office of Under Secretary of the Navy and the office of Assistant Secretary of the Navy has been abolished. There have, however, been a number of bearing the phrase Assistant Secretary of the Navy in their title. The Office of the Assistant Secretary of the Navy was established in 1861, the Assistant Secretary was responsible for the Navys civilian personnel, as well as for administration of shore facilities. Gustavus Fox was the first to hold the post, serving throughout the Civil War, the office was disestablished in 1869, during Reconstruction, but was reestablished by Congress on July 11,1890. James R. Soley was the first to be appointed to the reestablished position. James V. Forrestal, later Secretary of Defense, was the first to serve as Under Secretary, he held the post until 1944, during the 20th century, the responsibilities of the Assistant Secretary were divided among several officials. During the 1920s, for example, to reflect the importance of naval aviation. The office of Assistant Secretary of the Navy was disestablished in 1954, U. S. President Theodore Roosevelt served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy from 1897–1898, during the William McKinley administration. U. S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy from 1913 until 1920, and helped to implement Navy policies during World War I. Source for papers and photos of various Assistant Secretaries of the Navy Navy Organization – The Secretariat An organizational chart for the Office of the Secretary of the Navy, Dept. of the Navy
27.
New York City Police Commissioner
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The New York City Police Commissioner is the head of the New York City Police Department. The Commissioner is appointed by the Mayor, and serves at the Mayors pleasure, the Commissioner is responsible for the day-to-day operation of the department as well as the appointment of deputies and subordinate officers. Commissioners are civilian administrators, and they and their deputies are civilians under an oath of office. There is a position of Chief of Department, the holder of which serves as the senior sworn uniformed member of the force. The current Police Commissioner is James P. ONeill, who was appointed by Mayor Bill de Blasio, the longest serving Commissioner was Raymond W. Kelly who served for 13 years in two separate appointments, under Mayors David Dinkins and Michael Bloomberg, respectively. Prior to 1901, the New York City Police Department was run by a board of four to six Commissioners, sexton, 1898–1901, Commissioner William Stephen Devery, May 21, 1898–June 30,1898, June 30,1898 – February 22,1901. The superintendent title was changed to Chief of Police in 1898, Devery was the Police Departments last superintendent, and first chief. Presidents of the Board of Commissioners Since 1901, a single commissioner has been in charge of the New York Police Department. The following is a list of the commissioners, In the popular TV show Blue Bloods, List of New York City lists List of New York City Police Department officers Police Commissioner page on the New York Police Department website
28.
105th New York State Legislature
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The 105th New York State Legislature, consisting of the New York State Senate and the New York State Assembly, met from January 3 to June 2,1882, during the third year of Alonzo B. Under the provisions of the New York Constitution of 1846,32 Senators and 128 assemblymen were elected in districts, senators for a two-year term. The senatorial districts were made up of counties, except New York County. The Assembly districts were made up of entire towns, or city wards, forming a contiguous area, at this time there were two major political parties, the Republican Party and the Democratic Party. The Greenback Party and the Prohibition Party also nominated tickets, the New York state election,1881 was held on November 8. Of the statewide offices up for election, five were carried by the Republicans. The approximate party strength at this election, as expressed by the vote for Secretary of State, was, Republican 417,000, Democratic 404,000, Greenback 16,000, and Prohibition 4,500. The Legislature met for the session at the State Capitol in Albany on January 3,1882. The Senate had 15 Republicans,14 Democrats and 3 Tammany men, in both Houses, the Tammany men were in a balance of power position, and deadlock ensued. Tammany Boss John Kelly objected to the election of John C. Jacobs as President pro tempore of the State Senate, on February 2, Charles E. Patterson was elected Speaker with 59 votes against 51 for Thomas G. Alvord. Note, There are now 62 counties in the State of New York, the counties which are not mentioned in this list had not yet been established, or sufficiently organized, the area being included in one or more of the abovementioned counties. The asterisk denotes members of the previous Legislature who continued in office as members of this Legislature, Charles H. Russell, John W. Browning and Shepard P. Bowen changed from the Assembly to the Senate. Clerk, Edward M. Johnson, from February 15 Sergeant-at-Arms, vacant Doorkeeper, Henry Wheeler Stenographer, James M
29.
106th New York State Legislature
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Under the provisions of the New York Constitution of 1846,32 Senators and 128 assemblymen were elected in single-seat districts, senators for a two-year term, assemblymen for a one-year term. The senatorial districts were made up of counties, except New York County. The Assembly districts were made up of entire towns, or city wards, forming a contiguous area, at this time there were two major political parties, the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. In New York City the Democrats were split into three factions, Tammany Hall, Irving Hall and the County Democrats, the Prohibition Party and the Greenback Party also nominated tickets. The New York state election,1882 was held on November 7, Democrats Grover Cleveland and David B. Hill were elected Governor and Lieutenant Governor, the other two statewide elective offices up for election were also carried by the Democrats. The approximate party strength at this election, as expressed by the vote for Governor, was, Democratic 535,000, Republican 342,000, Prohibition 26,000, and Greenback 12,000. The Legislature met for the session at the State Capitol in Albany on January 2,1883. Chapin was elected Speaker with 84 votes against 41 for Theodore Roosevelt, on January 11, John C. Jacobs was elected President pro tempore of the State Senate. On March 14, the Legislature elected William B, ruggles as Superintendent of Public Instructions, with 94 votes against 52 for Neil Gilmour, to succeed Gilmour for a term of three years. Note, There are now 62 counties in the State of New York, the counties which are not mentioned in this list had not yet been established, or sufficiently organized, the area being included in one or more of the abovementioned counties. The asterisk denotes members of the previous Legislature who continued in office as members of this Legislature. Clerk, Walter H. Bunn Sergeant-at-Arms, James H. Delaney Doorkeeper, Jabez C. Pierce First Assistant Doorkeeper, Edward Hinch Second Assistant Doorkeeper, Edward Brodie Stenographer, Spencer C
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107th New York State Legislature
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Under the provisions of the New York Constitution of 1846,32 Senators and 128 assemblymen were elected in single-seat districts, senators for a two-year term, assemblymen for a one-year term. The senatorial districts were made up of counties, except New York County. The Assembly districts were made up of entire towns, or city wards, forming a contiguous area, at this time there were two major political parties, the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. In New York City the Democrats were split into three factions, Tammany Hall, Irving Hall and the County Democrats, the Prohibition Party and the Greenback Party also nominated tickets. The New York state election,1883 was held on November 6, of the five statewide elective offices up for election, four were carried by the Democrats, and one by a Republican. The approximate party strength at this election was, Democratic 446,000, Republican 430,000, Prohibition 18,000, the Legislature met for the regular session at the State Capitol in Albany on January 1,1884, and adjourned on May 16. Titus Sheard was elected Speaker against Frank Rice, dennis McCarthy was elected President pro tempore of the State Senate. Note, There are now 62 counties in the State of New York, the counties which are not mentioned in this list had not yet been established, or sufficiently organized, the area being included in one or more of the abovementioned counties. The asterisk denotes members of the previous Legislature who continued in office as members of this Legislature, michael C. Murphy and Timothy J. Campbell changed from the Assembly to the Senate
31.
Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt
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Roosevelt had been Vice President of the United States for only 194 days when he succeeded to the presidency. A Republican, he ran for and won a full term as president in 1904. Parker, sweeping every region in the nation except the South, in doing so he became the first president to be elected to a full term of his own after having succeeded to the presidency upon the death of his predecessor. Roosevelt was succeeded in office by his protege and chosen successor William Howard Taft, Roosevelt was a Progressive reformer who sought to move the dominant Republican Party into a more liberal camp. He distrusted wealthy businessmen and dissolved 44 monopolistic corporations as a trust buster and he took care, however, to show that he did not disagree with trusts and capitalism in principle, but was only against their corrupt, illegal practices. His Square Deal included regulation of railroad rates and pure foods and drugs and he avoided labor strife and negotiated a settlement to the great Coal Strike of 1902. After 1906, he moved to the left, attacking big business. His great love was nature and he promoted the Conservation movement. He dramatically expanded the system of parks and national forests. In foreign affairs, Roosevelt, as president, showed none of the bellicosity that made his reputation when he called for war with Spain in 1898. Indeed, he became the first American to be awarded, in 1906, Roosevelt was a naval strategist, often discussing history and theory with Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, and taking a close interest in the Navy. The president emphasized the necessity of the Panama Canal for reasons both military and commercial. He negotiated US control of its construction in 1904, he felt that the Canals completion was his most important and he dominated his era as he dominated conversations. the masses loved him, he proved to be a great popular idol and a great vote getter. His image stands alongside George Washington, Thomas Jefferson and Abraham Lincoln on Mount Rushmore, although Roosevelt has been criticized by some for his perceived imperialist stance, he is often ranked by historians among the top-five greatest U. S. Presidents of all time. President William McKinley was shot by anarchist Leon Czolgosz in Buffalo, New York on September 6,1901, being a few weeks short of his 43rd birthday, Theodore Roosevelt became the youngest person to hold the office. He retained McKinleys cabinet and promised to maintain his predecessors policies, one of his first notable acts as President was to deliver a 20, 000-word address to Congress on December 3,1901, asking it to curb the power of large corporations within reasonable limits. For his aggressive attacks on trusts over his two terms, he earned the label trust-buster, Roosevelt relished the Presidency and seemed to be everywhere at once. He took Cabinet members and friends on long, fast-paced hikes, engaged in boxing in the White House state rooms, romped with his children, in 1904, Roosevelt ran for President in his own right and won in a landslide over a little known conservative Democrat
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First inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt
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The inauguration marked the commencement of the first term of Theodore Roosevelt as President. John R. Hazel, U. S. District Judge for the Western District of New York, vice President Roosevelt had been at a luncheon of the Vermont Fish and Game League on Lake Champlain when he learned the news that McKinley had been shot. He rushed to Buffalo, but after being assured the President would recover, in the mountains, a runner notified him McKinley was on his death bed. Roosevelt pondered with his wife, Edith, how best to respond, not wanting to show up in Buffalo, Roosevelt was rushed by a series of stagecoaches to North Creek train station. At the station, Roosevelt was handed a telegram that said President McKinley died at 2,15 AM that morning, the new President continued by train from North Creek to Buffalo. At 3,00 PM on the afternoon of September 14 and they were United States Secretary of War Elihu Root, Secretary of the Navy John D. Long, Attorney General Philander C. Knox, Secretary of the Interior Ethan Hitchcock, Postmaster General Charles Emory Smith, with them were Judge Hazel, Judge Albert Haight of the New York Court of Appeals, and United States Senator from New York Chauncey Depew, among others. Roosevelt met with them informally in the Library and, at the last moment, the men were all let in. Then, when asked whether he was ready to take the oath, he answered, after his response, Judge Hazel administered the oath. Expressing the fears of many old-line Republicans, Mark Hanna lamented that damned cowboy is president now, presidency of Theodore Roosevelt Second inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt Theodore Roosevelt Inaugural National Historic Site
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Second inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt
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The second inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt as President of the United States, took place on March 4,1905. The inauguration marked the beginning of his term as President. The Chief Justice, Melville W. Fuller, administered the Oath of office, Roosevelt had a very thankful and optimistic tone to his second inaugural address. In it, the President touches on Americans hardiness and the fact that the United States has a slate that the rest of the world simply does not have. He speaks of past successes, but warns that any success in the future will come with hard work. He speaks of responsibility, not only to ourselves but to the rest of the world as well, the United States must show good deeds through actions as well as words with all nations of the world. Justice and generosity are counted as most important, however he also warns of those wishing to wrong America, Roosevelt values peace, not out of fear, but because it is just and righteous. He comments on how any weak nation shall have nothing to fear from the US, the President cites good relations with the world as being important, but relations among Americans as most important. All of the growth and success has come with problems the Founding Fathers could not have foreseen, Roosevelt speaks about the complexity of modern life, and the advances of industry. He speaks about the difficulty of self-government, and warns that should America fail, Roosevelt calls this a heavy responsibility, to Americans, to the world, and to the unborn generations. He gives no reason to fear the future or unseen problems, in his closing, Theodore Roosevelt knows that the problems facing Americans differs from those of the Founding Fathers, but insists that these problems be met with the same spirit. While it may be difficult, it must not be abandoned, America has been blessed with a heritage that is to be unwasted and enlarged for all future generations. To do this, America has to each day, that she possesses intelligence, courage, hardiness, endurance, and devotion of a lofty ideal. It is said that “The inaugural celebration was the largest and most diverse of any in memory—cowboys, Indians, coal miners, soldiers, there is actual footage of the parade. First inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt United States presidential election,1904 President Theodore Roosevelts Second Inauguration Second Inaugural Parade Footage on YouTube
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Booker T. Washington dinner at the White House
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This reaction affected subsequent White House practice, and no other African American was invited to dinner for almost thirty years. Roosevelt, while governor of New York, had frequently had black guests to dinner, in 1798 John Adams had dined in the White House with Joseph Bunel, a representative of the Haitian President, and his black wife. Black people, including such as Frederick Douglass and Sojourner Truth, had been received at the White House by Presidents Lincoln, Grant, Hayes. At the invitation of First Lady Lucy Hayes, Marie Selika Williams became the first African-American professional musician to appear at the White House, the following day, the White House released a statement headed, Booker T Washington of Tuskegee, Alabama, dined with the President last evening. The response from the press and politicians was immediate, sustained. Senator Benjamin Tillman of South Carolina said we shall have to kill a thousand niggers to get back in their places. The Northern presses were more generous, acknowledging Washingtons accomplishments and suggesting that the dinner was an attempt by Roosevelt to emphasize he was everybodys president, Washington made no comment at the time. A Guest of Honor, the first opera created by Scott Joplin, based on Washingtons dinner at the White House 1929 Jessie De Priest tea at the White House List of dining events Davis, Deborah. Guest of Honor, Booker T. Washington, Theodore Roosevelt, New York City, Simon and Schuster. The Night President Teddy Roosevelt Invited Booker T. Washington to Dinner, the Journal of Blacks in Higher Education. When Teddy Roosevelt Invited Booker T. Washington to Dine at the White House, the Journal of Blacks in Higher Education. Severn, John K. William Warren Rogers, Theodore Roosevelt Entertains Booker T. Washington, Floridas Reaction to the White House Dinner. White, Arthur O. Booker T. Washingtons Florida Incident, 1903-1904
35.
Antiquities Act
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The Antiquities Act of 1906, is an act passed by the United States Congress and signed into law by Theodore Roosevelt on June 8,1906. The Act has been used over a hundred times since its passage and its use occasionally creates significant controversy. Removal of artifacts from these lands by private collectors – pot hunters and his findings, supported by an exhaustive report by Hewett to Congress detailing the archaeological resources of the region, provided the necessary impetus for the passage of the legislation. The Act was intended to allow the President to set aside certain valuable public natural areas as park, the 1906 act stated that it was intended for. The protection of objects of historic and scientific interest and these areas are given the title of National Monuments. It also allows the President to reserve or accept private lands for that purpose, the aim is to protect all historic and prehistoric sites on United States federal lands and to prohibit excavation or destruction of these antiquities. With this act, this can be much more quickly than going through the Congressional process of creating a National Park. The Act states that areas of the monuments are to be confined to the smallest area compatible with the proper care, some areas designated as National Monuments have later been converted into National Parks, or incorporated into existing National Parks. The first use of the Act protected a large geographic feature – President Roosevelt proclaimed Devils Tower National Monument on September 24,1906, President Roosevelt also used it to create the Grand Canyon National Monument – the first step in protecting that place of great historic and scientific interest. At 583,000 square miles, Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument is the largest protected area proclaimed, the smallest, Father Millet Cross National Monument, was a mere 0.0074 acres. For any excavation, the Act requires that a permit be obtained from the Secretary of the department which has jurisdiction over those lands, presidential powers under the Act have been reduced twice. The first time followed the proclamation of Jackson Hole National Monument in 1943. The second time followed Jimmy Carters use of the Act to create fifty-six million acres of National Monuments in Alaska, the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act requires Congressional ratification of the use of the Antiquities Act in Alaska for withdrawals of greater than 5,000 acres. However, the episode states that the President can declare a National Park instead of a National Monument
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Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge
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Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge is a United States National Wildlife Refuge located just off the western coast of Orchid Island in the Indian River Lagoon east of Sebastian, Florida. The refuge consists of a 3-acre island that includes an additional 2.5 acres of surrounding water and is located off the east coast of Florida of the Indian River Lagoon. Established by an order of President Theodore Roosevelt on March 14,1903. It was created to protect egrets and other birds from extinction through plume hunting, Pelican Island’s bird populations were threatened because of increased American settlement around the area in the mid-19th century. Many of the birds were killed for their feathers, used in the fashion industry. Plumes from the birds were used to adorn ladies hats of the day, Paul Kroegel, a German immigrant, moved to Florida in 1881 and lived on the west bank of Indian River Lagoon. He was fascinated with the pelicans on the island, being able to see the island from his home, Paul would watch the pelicans and other water birds. He eventually took an interest in the island and its protection, however, there was not any state or federal law to help him so he took control of the situation himself. Kroegel sailed to the island to guard and protect the birds. A few naturalists visited Kroegel at Pelican Island, a curator at the American Museum of Natural History in New York, Frank Chapman, was one of the naturalists showing interest in the island as well. He discovered that Pelican Island was one of the last rookeries of Brown pelicans on the eastern coast of Florida, the American Ornithologists Union and the Florida Audubon Society led a campaign to pass legislation for protection of non-game birds in 1901. Kroegel was hired by the Florida Audubon Society to protect the birds from the game hunters. Knowing that the protection of Pelican Island would require legislation, Chapman and his fellow advocate. The two appealed their case to Roosevelt’s conservative ethics, President Roosevelt signed an executive order that established Pelican Island as the first federal bird reservation. This was the first time that the government put land aside for the sake of wildlife. The area, however, was open for big game hunters, during the 1960s, Pelican Island was threatened by attempts to sell the surrounding wetlands and islands to developers. Local citizens led a fight to protect Pelican Island by stopping the sale of the wetlands, in 1968, Florida agreed to expand to include nearly 5000 acres of mangrove islands and other submerged lands. And then in 1970, Pelican Island became the smallest wilderness area in the National Wilderness Preservation System, Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge was added to the list of wetlands of international importance under the Ramsar Convention signed in 1971
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Devils Tower
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Devils Tower is a laccolithic butte composed of igneous rock in the Bear Lodge Mountains near Hulett and Sundance in Crook County, northeastern Wyoming, above the Belle Fourche River. It rises dramatically 1,267 feet above the Belle Fourche River, the summit is 5,112 feet above sea level. Devils Tower was the first declared United States National Monument, established on September 24,1906, the Monuments boundary encloses an area of 1,347 acres. In recent years, about 1% of the Monuments 400,000 annual visitors climbed Devils Tower, the name Devils Tower originated in 1875 during an expedition led by Colonel Richard Irving Dodge, when his interpreter reportedly misinterpreted a native name to mean Bad Gods Tower. All information signs in that use the name Devils Tower. Native American names for the monolith include, Bears House or Bears Lodge, Aloft on a Rock, Tree Rock, Great Gray Horn, and Brown Buffalo Horn. In November 2014, one Arvol Looking Horse again proposed renaming the geographical feature Bear Lodge, a second proposal was submitted to request that the US acknowledge the offensive mistake and to rename the monument and sacred site Bear Lodge National Historic Landmark. The formal public comment period ended in fall 2015, local state senator Ogden Driskill opposed the change. The landscape surrounding Devils Tower is composed mostly of sedimentary rocks, the oldest rocks visible in Devils Tower National Monument were laid down in a shallow sea during the Triassic period,225 to 195 million years ago. This dark red sandstone and maroon siltstone, interbedded with shale, oxidation of iron minerals causes the redness of the rocks. This rock layer is known as the Spearfish Formation, above the Spearfish formation is a thin band of white gypsum, called the Gypsum Springs Formation. This layer of gypsum was deposited during the Jurassic period,195 to 136 million years ago, created as sea levels and climates repeatedly changed, gray-green shales were interbedded with fine-grained sandstones, limestones, and sometimes thin beds of red mudstone. This composition, called the Stockade Beaver member, is part of the Sundance Formation, the Hulett Sandstone member, also part of the Sundance formation, is composed of yellow fine-grained sandstone. Resistant to weathering, it forms the vertical cliffs which encircle the Tower itself. During the Paleocene Epoch,56 to 66 million years ago, the Rocky Mountains, magma rose through the crust, intruding into the existing sedimentary rock layers. Geologists Carpenter and Russell studied Devils Tower in the late 19th century, modern geologists agree that it was formed by the intrusion of igneous material, but not on exactly how that process took place. Several believe the molten rock comprising the Tower might not have surfaced, in 1907, scientists Darton and OHarra decided that Devils Tower must be an eroded remnant of a laccolith. A laccolith is a mass of igneous rock which is intruded through sedimentary rock beds without reaching the surface
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Muir Woods National Monument
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Muir Woods National Monument is a unit of the National Park Service on Mount Tamalpais near the Pacific coast, in southwestern Marin County, California. It is part of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area, and is 12 miles north of San Francisco and it protects 554 acres, of which 240 acres are old growth coast redwood forests, one of a few such stands remaining in the San Francisco Bay Area. The Muir Woods National Monument is an old-growth coastal redwood forest, due to its proximity to the Pacific Ocean, the forest is regularly shrouded in a coastal marine layer fog, contributing to a wet environment that encourages vigorous plant growth. The fog is also vital for the growth of the redwoods as they use moisture from the fog during droughty seasons, the monument is cool and moist year round with average daytime temperatures between 40 and 70 degrees Fahrenheit. Rainfall is heavy during the winter and summers are almost completely dry with the exception of fog drip caused by the fog passing through the trees. Annual precipitation in the ranges from 39.4 inches in the lower valley to 47.2 inches higher up in the mountain slopes. The redwoods grow on brown humus-rich loam which may be gravelly and this soil has been assigned to the Centissima series, which is always found on sloping ground. It is well drained, moderately deep, and slightly to moderately acidic and it has developed from a mélange in the Franciscan Formation. More open areas of the park have shallow gravelly loam of the Barnabe series, one hundred and fifty million years ago ancestors of redwood and sequoia trees grew throughout the United States. Today, the Sequoia sempervirens can be only in a narrow, cool coastal belt from Monterey, California. Before the logging industry came to California, there were an estimated 2 million acres of old growth forest containing redwoods growing in a strip along the coast. By the early 20th century, most of these forests had been cut down, just north of the San Francisco Bay, one valley named Redwood Canyon remained uncut, mainly due to its relative inaccessibility. He and his wife, Elizabeth Thacher Kent, purchased 611 acres of land from the Tamalpais Land and Water Company for $45,000 with the goal of protecting the redwoods and the mountain above them. In 1907, a company in nearby Sausalito planned to dam Redwood Creek. When Kent objected to the plan, the company threatened to use eminent domain. Kent sidestepped the water companys plot by donating 295 acres of the redwood forest to the federal government, on January 9,1908, President Theodore Roosevelt declared the land a National Monument, the first to be created from land donated by a private individual. President Roosevelt agreed, writing back, MY DEAR MR, and, responding to some photographs of Muir Woods that Mr. Kent had sent him, Those are awfully good photos. Kent and Muir had become friends over shared views of wilderness preservation, in December 1928, the Kent Memorial was erected at the Kent Tree in Fern Canyon
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United States Forest Service
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The United States Forest Service is an agency of the U. S. Department of Agriculture that administers the nations 154 national forests and 20 national grasslands, which encompass 193 million acres. Major divisions of the include the National Forest System, State and Private Forestry, Business Operations. Managing approximately 25% of federal lands, it is the major national land agency that is outside the U. S. Department of the Interior. The concept of the National Forests was born from Theodore Roosevelt’s conservation group, Boone and Crockett Club, in 1876, Congress created the office of Special Agent in the Department of Agriculture to assess the quality and conditions of forests in the United States. Hough was appointed the head of the office, in 1881, the office was expanded into the newly formed Division of Forestry. The Forest Reserve Act of 1891 authorized withdrawing land from the domain as forest reserves. In 1901, the Division of Forestry was renamed the Bureau of Forestry, gifford Pinchot was the first United States Chief Forester in the Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt. As of 2009, the Forest Service has a budget authority of $5.5 billion. The Forest Service employs 34,250 employees in 750 locations, including 10,050 firefighters,737 law enforcement personnel, and 500 scientists. The mission of the Forest Service is To sustain the health, diversity and its motto is Caring for the land and serving people. As the lead agency in natural resource conservation, the US Forest Service provides leadership in the protection, management, and use of the nations forest, rangeland. The agencys ecosystem approach to management integrates ecological, economic, and social factors to maintain and enhance the quality of the environment to meet current, the everyday work of the Forest Service balances resource extraction, resource protection, and providing recreation.5 billion trees per year. Further, the Forest Service fought fires on 2,996,000 acres of land in 2007, the Forest Service organization includes ranger districts, national forests, regions, research stations and research work units and the Northeastern Area Office for State and Private Forestry. Each level has responsibility for a variety of functions, the Chief of the Forest Service is a career federal employee who oversees the entire agency. The Chief reports to the Under Secretary for Natural Resources and Environment in the U. S. Department of Agriculture, there are five deputy chiefs for the following areas, National Forest System, State and Private Forestry, Research and Development, Business Operations, and Finance. The Forest Service Research and Development deputy area includes five stations, the Forest Products Laboratory. Station directors, like regional foresters, report to the Chief, Research stations include Northern, Pacific Northwest, Pacific Southwest, Rocky Mountain, and Southern. There are 92 research work units located at 67 sites throughout the United States, there are 80 Experimental Forests and Ranges that have been established progressively since 1908, many sites are more than 50 years old
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United States Bureau of Reclamation
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On June 17th 1902, in accordance with the Reclamation Act, Secretary of the Interior Ethan Allen Hitchcock established the U. S. Reclamation Service within the U. S. Geological Survey. The new Reclamation Service studied potential water development projects in each state with federal lands—revenue from sale of federal lands was the initial source of the programs funding. Because Texas had no lands, it did not become a Reclamation state until 1906. From 1902 to 1907, Reclamation began about 30 projects in Western states, then, in 1907, the Secretary of the Interior separated the Reclamation Service from the USGS and created an independent bureau within the Department of the Interior. Frederick Haynes Newell was appointed the first director of the new bureau, in 1923 the agency was renamed the Bureau of Reclamation. In 1928 Congress authorized the Boulder Canyon Project, and large appropriations began, for the first time, the authorization came only after a hard-fought debate about the pros and cons of public power versus private power. The heyday of Reclamation construction of water facilities occurred during the Depression, from 1941 to 1947, Civilian Public Service labor was used to carry on projects otherwise interrupted by the war effort. Even the 1976 failure of Teton Dam as it filled for the first time did not diminish Reclamations strong international reputation in water development circles, however, this first and only failure of a major Reclamation Bureau dam led to subsequent strengthening of its dam-safety program to avoid similar problems. Reclamation operates about 180 projects in the 17 western states, the total Reclamation investment for completed project facilities in September 1992 was about $11 billion. Reclamation projects provide agricultural, household, and industrial water to about one‑third of the population of the American West. About 5% of the area of the West is irrigated. Reclamation is a major American generator of electricity, as of 2007, Reclamation had 58 power plants on‑line and generated 125,000 GJ of electricity. From 1988 to 1994, Reclamation underwent major reorganization as construction on projects authorized in the 1960s, Reclamation wrote that The arid West essentially has been reclaimed. The major rivers have been harnessed and facilities are in place or are being completed to meet the most pressing current water demands, emphasis in Reclamation programs shifted from construction to operation and maintenance of existing facilities. Reclamations redefined official mission is to manage, develop, and protect water, in redirecting its programs and responsibilities, Reclamation substantially reduced its staff levels and budgets but remains a significant federal agency in the West. Mead guided the bureau during the development, planning, and construction of the Hoover Dam, since his confirmation in December of 2014, Estevan Lopez of New Mexico has been serving as commissioner of the bureau. “‘The Wilderness and the Dry Land Will Be Glad, and the Desert Will Rejoice and Blossom like a Rose’, The Origins of the Bureau of Reclamation, ” Journal of the West 50, marc Reisner, Cadillac Desert, The American West and Its Disappearing Water
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History of the National Wildlife Refuge System
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The National Wildlife Refuge System in the United States has a long and distinguished history. In January,1902, a plan was hatched by members of the Boone and it is misleading, however, to conclude that this was the genesis of wildlife sanctuaries in the United States. Yosemite Valley was later returned to the Federal government, in 1872, Yellowstone National Park was established, primarily to protect the areas hot springs and geysers, but again, the wanton destruction of wildlife was forbidden. Establishment as a national park did not, however, produce the desired wildlife protection effect until passage of the Yellowstone Park Protection Act of 1894, in 1869, the Congress formally enacted legislation for this purpose. Fundamentally, this marked a formal recognition of the need to protect. The action showed, in its history, that wildlife concerns were a paramount element in the proposal. However, possibly because of the emphasis on forest and fish resource protection and this order also established the first reservation for fish. From studies performed by these agencies it became evident that the resources were in jeopardy and conservation, sportsmens, one such organization was the Boone and Crockett Club, founded in 1887 by a group of leading explorers, writers, scientists and political leaders, including Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelts activities during the 1880s and 1890s placed him in the mainstream of events concerning the plight of fish and wildlife and he was acquainted with resource management needs and with the many individuals, organizations and agencies that were in the forefront of efforts to stem the losses. Thus, when he became President in 1901, he was well suited to the task of natural resource protection. Public support increased for more vigorous actions on the part of the government to reverse this downward slide and these organizations then employed wardens to protect rookeries, in effect establishing colonial bird sanctuaries. Thus, it is said to be the first bona fide refuge, the first warden employed by the government at Pelican Island, Paul Kroegel, was an Audubon warden whose salary was $1 a month. Such refuge areas included Breton, Louisiana, Passage Key, Florida, Shell Keys, Louisiana, the need for sound management of these reservations or refuges had become apparent as the knowledge of preservation and conservation requirements grew. During this period of time, on the Pacific coast sea bird populations were declining due to their extensive exploitation for eggs, feathers, establishment of Lower Klamath, California in 1908 then marked the beginning of the practice of creating wildlife refuges on Bureau of Reclamation reservoirs. Seventeen such western overlay refuges were established on one day alone in 1909 by Executive Order 1032 of February 25, by the end of his administration in 1909, Roosevelt had issued a total of 5l Executive Orders that established wildlife reservations in 17 states and three territories. The latter was the first unit of the present system to be referred to as a refuge, the Izaak Walton League had initiated establishment of the National Elk Refuge by purchasing lands which they then donated to the government as a nucleus for the refuge. At the time it was said that elk were so plentiful that they were killed for their teeth alone. Then in 1913, some 2.7 million acres were set aside in one action by President William Howard Taft when the vast Aleutian Island chain was added to the system
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Roosevelt Arch
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The Roosevelt Arch is a rusticated triumphal arch at the north entrance to Yellowstone National Park in Gardiner, Montana, USA. Constructed under the supervision of the U. S. Army at Fort Yellowstone, the top of the arch is inscribed with a quote from the Organic Act of 1872, the legislation which created Yellowstone, which reads For the Benefit and Enjoyment of the People. Before 1903, trains brought visitors to Cinnabar, Montana, which was a few miles northwest of Gardiner, Montana, in 1903, the railway finally came to Gardiner, and people entered through the stone archway. The design of the Roosevelt Arch has been attributed to architect Robert Reamer, construction of the arch began on February 19,1903, and was completed on August 15,1903, at a cost of about $10,000. The archway was built at the entrance, which was the first major entrance for Yellowstone. President Roosevelt was visiting Yellowstone during construction and was asked to place the cornerstone for the arch, the cornerstone Roosevelt laid covered a time capsule that contains a Bible, a picture of Roosevelt, local newspapers, and other items. The idea of the arch is attributed to Hiram Martin Chittenden, several thousand people came to Gardiner for the dedication, including John F. Yancey, who caught a chill and died in Gardiner as a result. The Roosevelt Arch, A Centennial History of an American Icon, National Park Service National Park Service rustic North Entrance Road Historic District National Park Service video on Roosevelt Arch List of post-Roman triumphal arches
