1.
Sunni Islam
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Sunni Islam is the largest group of Islam. Its name comes from the word Sunnah, referring to the behavior of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. According to Sunni tradition, Muhammad did not clearly designate a successor and this contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad intended his son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib to succeed him. Political tensions between Sunnis and Shias continued with varying intensity throughout Islamic history and they have been exacerbated in recent times by ethnic conflicts, as of 2009, Sunni Muslims constituted between 87–90% of the worlds Muslim population. Sunni Islam is the worlds largest religious denomination, followed by Catholicism and its adherents are referred to in Arabic as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah or ahl as-sunnah for short. In English, its doctrines and practices are sometimes called Sunnism, while adherents are known as Sunni Muslims, Sunnis, Sunnites, Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as orthodox Islam. The Quran, together with hadith and binding juristic consensus form the basis of all traditional jurisprudence within Sunni Islam, sunnī, also commonly referred to as Sunnīism, is a term derived from sunnah meaning habit, usual practice, custom, tradition. The Muslim use of this term refers to the sayings and living habits of the prophet Muhammad, in Arabic, this branch of Islam is referred to as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah, the people of the sunnah and the community, which is commonly shortened to ahl as-sunnah. One common mistake is to assume that Sunni Islam represents a normative Islam that emerged during the period after Muhammads death, and that Sufism and Shiism developed out of Sunni Islam. This perception is due to the reliance on highly ideological sources that have been accepted as reliable historical works. Both Sunnism and Shiaism are the end products of centuries of competition between ideologies. Both sects used each other to further cement their own identities and doctrines, the first four caliphs are known among Sunnis as the Rashidun or Rightly-Guided Ones. Sunni recognition includes the aforementioned Abu Bakr as the first, Umar who established the Islamic calendar as the second, Uthman as the third, Sunnis believe that the companions of Muhammad were the best of Muslims. Support for this view is found in the Quran, according to Sunnis. Sunnis also believe that the companions were true believers since it was the companions who were given the task of compiling the Quran, furthermore, narrations that were narrated by the companions are considered by Sunnis to be a second source of knowledge of the Muslim faith. A study conducted by the Pew Research Center in 2010 and released January 2011 found that there are 1.62 billion Muslims around the world, Islam does not have a formal hierarchy or clergy. Leaders are informal, and gain influence through study to become a scholar of Islamic law, according to the Islamic Center of Columbia, South Carolina, anyone with the intelligence and the will can become an Islamic scholar. During Midday Mosque services on Fridays, the congregation will choose a person to lead the service
2.
Hyderabad
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Hyderabad is the capital of the southern Indian state of Telangana and de jure capital of Andhra Pradesh. At an average altitude of 542 metres, much of Hyderabad is situated on hilly terrain around artificial lakes, established in 1591 by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, Hyderabad remained under the rule of the Qutb Shahi dynasty for nearly a century before the Mughals captured the region. In 1724, Mughal viceroy Asif Jah I declared his sovereignty and created his own dynasty, the Nizams dominions became a princely state during the British Raj, and remained so for 150 years, with the city serving as its capital. The city continued as the capital of Hyderabad State after it was brought into the Indian Union in 1948, since 1956, Rashtrapati Nilayam in the city has been the winter office of the President of India. In 2014, the formed state of Telangana split from Andhra Pradesh. Relics of Qutb Shahi and Nizam rule remain visible today, the Charminar—commissioned by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah—has come to symbolise Hyderabad, Golconda fort is another major landmark. The influence of Mughlai culture is evident in the regions distinctive cuisine. The Qutb Shahis and Nizams established Hyderabad as a cultural hub, the Telugu film industry based in the city is the countrys second-largest producer of motion pictures. Hyderabad was historically known as a pearl and diamond trading centre, many of the citys traditional bazaars remain open, including Laad Bazaar, Begum Bazaar and Sultan Bazaar. Special economic zones dedicated to technology have encouraged companies from India. The emergence of pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries in the 1990s led to the naming as Indias Genome Valley. With an output of US$74 billion, Hyderabad is the fifth-largest contributor to Indias overall gross domestic product, according to John Everett-Heath, the author of Oxford Concise Dictionary of World Place Names, Hyderabad means Haydars city or lion city, from haydar and ābād. It was named to honour the Caliph Ali Ibn Abi Talib, andrew Petersen, a scholar of Islamic architecture, says the city was originally called Baghnagar. One popular theory suggests that Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, the founder of the city, named it Bhagyanagar or Bhāgnagar after Bhagmati and she converted to Islam and adopted the title Hyder Mahal. The city was renamed Hyderabad in her honour, French traveller Jean de Thévenot visited the Deccan region in 1666–1667 refers to the city in his book Travels in India as Bagnagar and Aiderabad. Archaeologists excavating near the city have unearthed Iron Age sites that may date from 500 BCE, the region comprising modern Hyderabad and its surroundings was known as Golkonda, and was ruled by the Chalukya dynasty from 624 CE to 1075 CE. The Kakatiya dynasty was reduced to a vassal of the Khilji dynasty in 1310 after its defeat by Sultan Alauddin Khilji of the Delhi Sultanate and this lasted until 1321, when the Kakatiya dynasty was annexed by Malik Kafur, Allaudin Khiljis general. During this period, Alauddin Khilji took the Koh-i-Noor diamond, which is said to have mined from the Kollur Mines of Golkonda
3.
Telangana
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Telangana is one of the 29 states in India, located in southern India. Formed in June 2014 as the newest state in India, from the part of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana has an area of 112,077 square kilometres. It is the twelfth largest state in India, and the twelfth most populated state in India and its major cities include Hyderabad, Warangal, Nizamabad, Khammam, Karimnagar and Ramagundam. Telangana is bordered by the states of Maharashtra to the north and north west, Chhattisgarh to the north, Karnataka to the west and Andhra Pradesh to the east and south. Telangana had a history as the Telugu-speaking region of the state of Hyderabad. It joined the Union of India in 1948, in 1956, the Hyderabad state was dissolved as part of the linguistic reorganisation of states and Telangana was merged with former Andhra State to form Andhra Pradesh. Following a movement for separation, Telangan was awarded separate statehood on 2 June 2014, Hyderabad will continue to serve as the joint capital city for Andhra Pradesh and Telangana for a period of not more than ten years. After Asaf Jahis ceded the Seemandhra region to the British, the rest of the Telugu region retained the name Telingana and the other parts were called Madras Presidencys Circars and Ceded. One of the earliest uses of a similar to Telangana can also be seen in a name of Malik Maqbul, who was called the Tilangani. He was the commander of the Warangal Fort, the Satavahana dynasty became the dominant power in this region. It originated from the lands between the Godavari and Krishna rivers and was based at Amaravathi and Dharanikota, after the decline of the Satavahanas, various dynasties, such as the Vakataka, Vishnukundina, Chalukya, Rashtrakuta and Western Chalukya, ruled the area. The Telangana area experienced its golden age during the reign of the Kakatiya dynasty, rudrama Devi and Prataparudra II were prominent rulers from the Kakatiya dynasty. The dynasty weakened with the attack of Malik Kafur in 1309 and was dissolved after the defeat of Prataparudra by the forces of Muhammad bin Tughluq in 1323, the area came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate in the 14th century, followed by the Bahmani Sultanate. Quli Qutb Mulk, a governor of Golkonda, revolted against the Bahmani Sultanate, on 21 September 1687, the Golkonda Sultanate came under the rule of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb after a year-long siege of the Golkonda fort. In 1712, Qamar-ud-din Khan was appointed by emperor Farrukhsiyar as the viceroy of Deccan with the title Nizam-ul-Mulk and he was later recalled to Delhi, with Mubariz Khan appointed as the viceroy. In 1724, Qamar-ud-din Khan defeated Mubariz Khan to reclaim the Deccan suba and he took the name Asif Jah, starting what came to be known as the Asif Jahi dynasty. He named the area Hyderabad Deccan, subsequent rulers retained the title Nizam ul-Mulk and were called Asif Jahi nizams or nizams of Hyderabad. The Medak and Warangal divisions of Telangana were part of their realm, when Asif Jah I died in 1748, there was political unrest due to contention for the throne among his sons, who were aided by opportunistic neighbouring states and colonial foreign forces
4.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
5.
Muslim
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A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims will accept anyone who has publicly pronounced Shahadah as a Muslim, the shahadah states, There is no god but the God and Muhammad is the last messenger of the God. The testimony authorized by God in the Quran that can found in Surah 3,18 states, There is no god except God, which in Arabic, is the exact testimony which God Himself utters, as well as the angels and those who possess knowledge utter. The word muslim is the active participle of the verb of which islām is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral S-L-M to be whole. A female adherent is a muslima, the plural form in Arabic is muslimūn or muslimīn, and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt. The Arabic form muslimun is the stem IV participle of the triliteral S-L-M, the ordinary word in English is Muslim. It is sometimes transliterated as Moslem, which is an older spelling, the word Mosalman is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central Asia. Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans, although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God. Other obsolete terms include Muslimite and Muslimist, musulmán/Mosalmán is a synonym for Muslim and is modified from Arabic. In English it was sometimes spelled Mussulman and has become archaic in usage, the Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi said, A Muslim is a person who has dedicated his worship exclusively to God. Islam means making ones religion and faith Gods alone. The Quran states that men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values. Thus, in Surah 3,52 of the Quran, Jesus disciples tell him, We believe in God, and you be our witness that we are Muslims. In Muslim belief, before the Quran, God had given the Tawrat to Moses, the Zabur to David and the Injil to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets. The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12. 7% of the worlds Muslims, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. About 20% of the worlds Muslims lives in the Middle East and North Africa, Sizable minorities are found in India, China, Russia, Ethiopia. The country with the highest proportion of self-described Muslims as a proportion of its population is Morocco
6.
Nizam of Hyderabad
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The Asaf Jah Dynasty was founded by Mir Qamar-ud-Din Siddiqi, a viceroy of the Deccan under the Mughal Empire from 1713 to 1721. He intermittently ruled after Aurangzebs death in 1707, in 1724, Mughal control lapsed, and Asaf Jah declared himself independent in Hyderabad. Following the decline of the Mughal power, the region of Deccan saw the rise of Maratha Empire, the Nizam himself saw many invasions by the Marathas in the 1720s, which resulted in the Nizam paying a regular tax to the Marathas. The major battles fought between the Marathas and the Nizam include Palkhed, Bhopal, Rakshasbhuvan, and Kharda, in all of which the Nizam lost. Following the conquest of Deccan by Bajirao I and the imposition of chauth by him, Nizam remained a tributary of the Marathas for all intent and purposes. In 1805, after the British victory in the Second Anglo-Maratha War, in 1903 the Berar region of the state was separated and merged into the Central Provinces of British India, to form the Central Provinces and Berar. In 1947, at the time of the partition of India, Britain offered the 566 princely states in the sub-continent the option of acceding to either India or Pakistan, Hyderabad was the largest and most prosperous state of all princely states in India. It covered 82,698 square miles of fairly homogeneous territory and had a population of roughly 16.34 million people, Hyderabad State had its own army, airline, telecommunication system, railway network, postal system, currency and radio broadcasting service. In spite of the overwhelming Hindu majority, Hindus were severely under-represented in government, police, of 1765 officers in the State Army,1268 were Muslims,421 were Hindus, and 121 others were Christians, Parsis and Sikhs. Of the officials drawing a salary between Rs. 600-1200 per month,59 were Muslims,5 were Hindus and 38 were of other religions, the Nizam and his nobles, who were mostly Muslims, owned 40% of the total land in the state. The Nizam decided to keep Hyderabad independent, unlike the other princely states, in September 1948, in Operation Polo, the Indian Army marched into Hyderabad, deposed the Nizam, and annexed the state into the Indian Union. Seven Nizams ruled Hyderabad for two centuries until 1947, the Asaf Jahi rulers were great patrons of literature, art, architecture, and culture, and rich food. The Nizams patronized aspects of a Persianate society, copied from their Turco-Mongol Mughal overlords, the last Nizam had been the richest man in the world in his time. He pushed education, science, and establishment of Osmania University, nizām-ul-mulk was a title first used in Urdu around 1600 to mean Governor of the realm or Deputy for the Whole Empire. The word is derived from the Arabic language, as in Abu Ali Hasan ibn Ali Tusi, better known by his title of Nizam al-Mulk, Nizām, meaning order. The Nizam was referred to as Ala Hadrat / Ala Hazrat or Nizam Sarkar, the first Nizam ruled on behalf of the Mughal emperors. After the death of Aurangzeb, the Nizams split from the Mughals to form an independent kingdom, when the British achieved paramountcy over India, the Nizams were allowed to continue to rule their princely states as client kings. The Nizams retained internal power over Hyderabad State until 17 September 1948 when Hyderabad was integrated into the new Indian Union
7.
Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII
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His Exalted Highness Nawab Sir Mir Osman Ali Khan Siddiqi, Bayafandi Asaf Jah - the VIIth GCSI GBE, born Mir Osman Ali Khan Bahadur, was the last Nizam of the Princely State of Hyderabad and Berar. He ruled Hyderabad between 1911 and 1948, until it was annexed by India and he was styled as His Exalted Highness H. E. H The Nizam of Hyderabad. He built the Hyderabad House in Delhi, now used for meetings by the Government of India. The Nizams vast inheritance was accumulated as mining royalties apart from its land revenue, Hyderabad State in British India was the only supplier of diamonds for the global market in the 18th century. He acceded as the Nizam of Hyderabad upon the death of his father in 1911, the state of Hyderabad was the largest of the princely states in pre-independence India. With an area of 86,000 square miles, it was roughly the size of the present-day United Kingdom, Mir Osman Ali Khan Bahadur was the absolute ruler of this principality. In some accounts, he is held to have been a benevolent ruler who patronised education, science, the Nizam possessed such enormous wealth that he was on Time cover for the February 22,1937 issue. He used the Jacob Diamond, a 185-carat diamond that is part of the Nizams jewellery and he built the Osmania University, the Osmania General Hospital, the High court and other institutions during his reign. In 1947, the Nizam made a gift of diamond jewels, including a tiara and necklace, the brooches and necklace from this gift are still worn by the Queen and is known as Nizam of Hyderabad necklace. He also paid for a Royal Australian Navy vessel, the N-class destroyer, Mir Osman Ali Khan Bahadur lived at King Kothi Palace—bought from a nobleman—for all his life from age 13. He never moved to Chowmahalla Palace, even after his accession to the throne, after Indian independence in 1947, the country was partitioned on religious lines into India and Pakistan. The princely states were free to make whatever arrangement they wished with either India or Pakistan. The Nizam ruled over more than 16 million people and 82,698 square miles of territory when the British withdrew from the sub-continent in 1947, the Nizam refused to join either India or Pakistan, preferring to form a separate kingdom within the British Commonwealth of Nations. This proposal for independence was rejected by the British government, towards this end, he kept up open negotiations with the Government of India regarding the modalities of a future relationship while opening covert negotiations with Pakistan in a similar vein. The Nizam cited the Razakars as evidence that the people of the state were opposed to any agreement with India, ultimately the new Indian government decided to invade and capture Hyderabad in 1948, in an operation code named Operation Polo. Under the supervision of Major General Jayanto Nath Chaudhuri, one division of the Indian Army, prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri visited Hyderabad and requested the Nizam to contribute to the National Defence Fund, set up in the wake of the Indo-Chinese skirmish. Mir Osman Ali announced that he would contribute five tonnes of gold to augment the war fund, in monetary terms, the Nizam’s contribution was about Rs 75 lakh, or about three-fourth of the annual Privy Purse he received from the Centre. The Nizam’s donation of 5,000 kg of gold to the National Defence Fund in 1965 was the biggest ever contribution by any individual or organisation in India, the Nizam was the honorary Colonel of the 20 Deccan Horse
8.
Ijazah
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This usually implies that the student has learned this knowledge through face-to-face interactions at the feet of the teacher. The ijazah was limited to the study of Islamic law and in the transmission of knowledge in the Islamic spiritual tradition Sufism, philosophy, natural sciences and Islamic theology were excluded. In a paper titled Traditionalism in Islam, An Essay in Interpretation, according to a 1989 hypothesis by George Makdisi, the origins of the Christian medieval doctorate dates back to the ijāzah al-tadrīs wa al-iftā in the medieval Islamic legal education system. Makdisi proposed that the ijazat attadris was the origin of the European doctorate, according to the 1989 paper, the ijazat was equivalent to the Doctor of Laws qualification and was developed during the 9th century after the formation of the Madhhab legal schools. To obtain a doctorate, a student had to study in a school of law, usually four years for the basic undergraduate course. The commonly held view is all these titles were proper developments of the medieval university in Europe. It should be noted that madrasas only issued the ijazat attadris in one field, the Islamic religious law of Sharia, other academic subjects, including the natural sciences, philosophy and literary studies, were only treated ancillary to the study of the Sharia. The Islamic law degree in Al-Azhar University, the most prestigious madrasa, was granted without final examinations. However, the doctorate in law was only obtained after an oral examination. He also points out that, much like the ijazat attadris was confined to law, in a discussion of Makdisis thesis, Toby Huff disagreed and argued that there was never any equivalent to the Bachelors degree or the doctorate in the Islamic madrasahs
9.
Muhammad
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Muhammad is the prophet of Islam. From a secular historical perspective he was a religious, political, from an Islamic perspective, he was Gods Messenger sent to confirm the essential teachings of monotheism preached previously by Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. He is viewed as the prophet of God in all branches of Islam. Muhammad united Arabia into a single Muslim polity and ensured that his teachings, practices, born approximately 570 CE in the Arabian city of Mecca, Muhammad was orphaned at an early age, he was raised under the care of his paternal uncle Abu Talib. Muhammad gained few early followers, and met hostility from some Meccan tribes, to escape persecution, Muhammad sent some followers to Abyssinia before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina in the year 622. This event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, in Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina. In December 629, after eight years of intermittent conflict with Meccan tribes, Muhammad gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts, the attack went largely uncontested and Muhammad seized the city with little bloodshed. In 632, a few months after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage, he fell ill, before his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam. The revelations, which Muhammad reported receiving until his death, form the verses of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as the Word of God and around which the religion is based. Besides the Quran, Muhammads teachings and practices, found in the Hadith and sira literature, are upheld by Muslims. The name Muhammad means praiseworthy and appears four times in the Quran, Muhammad is sometimes addressed by designations deriving from his state at the time of the address, thus he is referred to as the enwrapped in Quran 73,1 and the shrouded in Quran 74,1. In Sura Al-Ahzab 33,40 God singles out Muhammad as the Seal of the Prophets, the Quran also refers to Muhammad as Aḥmad more praiseworthy. The name Abū al-Qāsim Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib ibn Hāshim, begins with the kunya Abū, the Quran is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe it represents the words of God revealed by the archangel Gabriel to Muhammad, the Quran, however, provides minimal assistance for Muhammads chronological biography, most Quranic verses do not provide significant historical context. An important source may be found in the works by writers of the 2nd. These include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad, which additional information about Muhammads life. The earliest surviving written sira is Ibn Ishaqs Life of Gods Messenger written c.767 CE, although the work was lost, this sira was used verbatim at great length by Ibn Hisham and Al-Tabari. Another early history source is the history of Muhammads campaigns by al-Waqidi, many scholars accept the earliest biographies as accurate, though their accuracy is unascertainable
10.
Hyderabad State
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Hyderabad State, also known as Hyderabad Deccan, was an Indian princely state located in the south-central region of India with its capital at the city of Hyderabad. It is now divided into Telangana state, Hyderabad-Karnataka region of Karnataka, the state was ruled from 1724 until 1948 by a hereditary Nizam who was initially a Mughal governor of the Deccan before becoming independent. Hyderabad gradually became the first princely state to come under British paramountcy signing an alliance agreement. However, with the rise of militant razakars, India found it necessary to station Indian troops, subsequently, the Nizam signed an instrument of accession, joining India. Hyderabad State was founded by Mir Qamar-ud-din Khan who was the governor of Deccan under the Mughals from 1713 to 1721, in 1724, he once again resumed rule under the title of Asaf Jah. His other title Nizam ul-Mulk, became the title of his position Nizam of Hyderabad, by the end of his rule, the Nizam had become independent from the Mughals, and had founded the Asaf Jahi dynasty. Following the decline of the Mughal power, the region of Deccan saw the rise of Maratha Empire, the Nizam himself saw many invasions by the Marathas in the 1720s, which resulted in the Nizam paying a regular tax to the Marathas. The major battles fought between the Marathas and the Nizam include Palkhed, Rakshasbhuvan, and Kharda, in all of which the Nizam lost. Following the conquest of Deccan by Bajirao I and the imposition of chauth by him, Nizam remained a tributary of the Marathas for all intent, from 1778, a British resident and soldiers were installed in his dominions. In 1795, the Nizam lost some of his own territories to the Marathas, the territorial gains of the Nizam from Mysore as an ally of the British were ceded to the British to meet the cost of maintaining the British soldiers. In 1798, Nizam ʿĀlī Khan was forced to enter into an agreement which put Hyderabad under British protection and he was the first Indian prince to do so. Hyderabad under Nizam Ali Khan was a British ally in the second and third Maratha Wars, by 1918 Nizam Mīr Us̄mān ʿĀlī was given British titles, but the Crown retained the right to intervene in case of misrule. Hyderabad was considered backward, but peaceful, during this time, hyderabad’s Muslim nizams ruled over a predominantly Hindu population. The last Nizam, Osman Ali Khan, was one of the worlds richest men in the 1930s. In 1947 India gained independence and Pakistan came into existence, the British left the rulers of the princely states the choice of whether to join one or the other. On 11 June 1947, the Nizam issued a declaration to the effect that he had decided not to participate in the Constituent Assembly of either Pakistan or India, India insisted that the great majority of residents wanted to join India. The Nizam was in a position as his army numbered only 24,000 men. On 4 September the Prime Minister of Hyderabad Mir Laiq Ali announced to the Hyderabad Assembly that a delegation was about to leave for Lake Success, headed by Moin Nawaz Jung
11.
Deccan Plateau
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The Deccan Plateau is a large plateau in southern India. It rises to 100 metres in the north, and to more than 1 kilometre in the south and it extends over eight Indian states and encompasses a wide range of habitats, covering most of central and southern India. It is separated from the Gangetic plain to the north by the Satpura and Vindhya Ranges, the name Deccan is an anglicised form of the Prakrit word dakkhin, itself derived from the Sanskrit word dákṣiṇa, as the Deccan Plateau is located in southern part of Indian subcontinent. The Deccan region has historically lacked an enduring geo-political centre, and has been defined in various ways, geographers have attempted to define it using indices such as rainfall, vegetation, soil type or physical features. When considering physical features, it is taken to be the bounded by the Narmada River, the Eastern Ghats. The 16th century historian Firishta defined Deccan as the inhabited by the native speakers of Kannada, Marathi. Richard M. Eaton also settled on this linguistic definition, the Western Ghats mountain range is very tall and blocks the moisture from the southwest monsoon from reaching the Deccan Plateau, so the region receives very little rainfall. The eastern Deccan Plateau is at an elevation spanning the southeastern coast of India. Its forests are relatively dry but serve to retain the rain to form streams that feed into rivers that flow into basins. Most Deccan plateau rivers flow south, most of the central plateau is drained by the Tungabhadra River, Krishna River and its tributaries, including the Bhima River, which also run east. The climate of the region varies from semi-arid in the north to tropical in most of the region with distinct wet, rain falls during the monsoon season from about June to October. March to June can be dry and hot, with temperatures regularly exceeding 40 °C. The name derives from the Sanskrit daksina, the plateau is bounded on the east and west by the Ghats, while its northern extremity is the Vindhya Range. The Deccans average elevation is about 2,000 feet, sloping generally eastward, its rivers, the Godavari, Krishna. The plateaus climate is drier than that on the coasts and is arid in places, having once constituted a segment of the ancient continent of Gondwanaland, this land is the oldest and most stable in India. The average height of the Western Ghats, which run along the Arabian Sea, anaimudi Peak in Kerala, with a height of 2,695 m above sea level, is the highest peak of peninsular India. In the Nilgiris lie Ootacamund, the hill station of southern India. The western coastal plain is uneven and swift rivers flow through it that forms beautiful lagoons and backwaters, the east coast is wide with deltas formed by the rivers Godavari, Mahanadi and Kaveri
12.
Ulama
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Ulama are those recognized as scholars or authorities in the religious hierarchy of the Islamic religious studies. They are the guardians of legal and religious tradition in Islam, often they are Imams of important mosques, judges, teachers in the religious faculties of universities. Most ulama specialize in fiqh, and are considered the arbiters of law by mainstream Muslims. Ulama may also include specialists in areas such as muhaddith. Ulama is the plural of the word ‘alīm, which is derived from the word ‘ilm, sources used in the development of Sharia such as hadith, Ijma, and Qias, or for Shia ulama aql, are all the province of the ulama. At times in Muslim history the ulama have even served as a branch of government. On the other hand, the term is no longer confined to the Arabic bounds and is now taken with a broader meaning, the word ‘alīm is used twice in the Quran, but not necessarily in the same manner as its application in the Muslim community today. Syed, ‘alīm in the Quran refers to scientists, indicating the high importance afforded by the Quran to the physical sciences, the formative period of Islamic jurisprudence stretches back to the time of the early Muslim communities. In this period, jurists were more concerned with issues of authority. Progress in theory began to develop with the coming of the early Muslim jurist Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafii, laws were decided based on the Ijma of the Ummah, which was most often represented by the legal scholars. In order to qualify as a scholar, it was necessary obtain a doctorate known as the ijazat attadris wa l-ifttd from a Madrasah. In many ways, classical Islamic law functioned like a constitutional law, during the Ottoman era, the term ulama was commonly applied to scholars who had completed their madrasa training and gained an icazet. They had to be an expert in all the religious sciences, in addition, the student had to have been tested and approved by higher ranking ulama. Such assessment by experts gave the ulama legitimacy in the eyes of the public, in 14th and 15th century Ottoman Empire, there were not many madrasahs, and so the ulama traveled to countries such as Persia and Egypt to further their education. Upon the conquering of Istanbul, the sultan converted eight churches into madrasahs, Ulama worked as priest-like authorities who had the role of interpreting and enforcing Islamic shariah law. These jobs were distributed between two types of ulama, the Muftis, who interpreted Shariah law, and the Qadi, the Ottomans had a strict hierarchy of ulama, with the Sheikh ul-Islam holding the highest rank. A Sheikh ul-Islam was chosen by a royal warrant amongst the qadis of important cities, the Sheikh ul-Islam had the power to confirm new sultans, but once the sultan was affirmed, the sultan retained a higher authority than the Sheik ul-Islam. The Sheikh ul-Islam issued fatwas, which were written interpretations of the Quran that had authority over the community, the Sheikh ul-Islam represented the law of shariah and in the 16th century its importance rose which led to increased power
13.
Osmania University
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Osmania University is a public state university located in Hyderabad, India, founded in 1918 with the help of chief Architect of Mahbub Ali Khan - Nawab Sarwar Jung. It was established and named after the seventh and last Nizam of Hyderabad and it is the third oldest university in southern India, and the first to be established in the erstwhile princely State of Hyderabad. It is the first Indian university to have Urdu as a medium of instruction, in 2012, the university was placed sixth among the nations premier universities in Humanities, Sciences and Commerce stream, which secured the University with Potential for Excellence status. The Main Campus is ranked tenth among state universities, as published by India Today, as of 2012, the university hosts 3,700 international students from more than 80 nations. The OU is one of the largest university systems in the subcontinent with over 300,000 students on its campuses and it is particularly known for its faculty of Engineering and Technology, Law, Arts, Sciences, Commerce and Management departments. Osmania Medical College was once a part of the university, however, it is now under the supervision of NTR University of Health Sciences. A plan to establish a university in Hyderabad state was initiated in 1884, wilfred Sewen Blunt, a British educationist, prepared a proposal and presented it to the Nizam of Hyderabad on 24 January 1884. The official decree was issued on 17 August 1917 for the establishment of Osmania University, inaugurated in 1918, the university has functioned since 28 August 1919, with an initial enrollment of 225 students. Within the first decade of its establishment, medicine and engineering faculties were started in 1927 and 1929, the university college for women was initiated in 1926, and in 1936 the arts college was started. The main campus is an intellectual centre in Hyderabad, and its alumni and faculty members include many distinguished individuals. Admission to the main departments of Psychology, Genetics, Biochemistry, Chemistry, Engineering, Management. The state government has appointed Prof S Satyanarayana as vice chancellor of the university, the University is accredited by the NAAC with an A grade and conferred with the status of University with Potential for Excellence by the UGC, New Delhi. The university colleges are located within the campus of the university. The university offers courses in humanities, arts, sciences, social sciences, law, engineering, medicine, technology, commerce and business management, information technology and Oriental languages. In 2001, Osmania was awarded five-star status by the National Accreditation and Assessment Council of the University Grants Commission, the university has a campus of nearly 1600 acres with 300,000 students, making it one of the largest higher education system in India. It is home to nearly 300,000 students pursuing their higher studies and it attracts students from across the nation as well as from other countries. Nearly 5000 faculty and staff are employed at Osmania, Osmania is a non-profit university which is funded and managed by the government. Admissions into the Bachelor of Engineering, Masters and Doctoral programs in the campus is on a merit basis
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Aligarh Muslim University
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Aligarh Muslim University is a public central university. It was originally established by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan as Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College in 1875, the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College became Aligarh Muslim University in 1920. The main campus of AMU is located in the city of Aligarh, spread over 467.6 hectares, AMU offers more than 300 courses in both traditional and modern branches of education. In addition to this it has its three off-campus centres at Malappuram, Murshidabad and Kishanganj, the university comprises all castes, creeds, religions and genders, and is an Institute of National Importance provided under the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution at its commencement. It was established as Madrasatul Uloom Musalmanan-e-Hind in 1875, the college started on 24 May 1875. The Anglo–Indian statesman Syed Ahmad Khan founded the predecessor of AMU, the movement of Muslim awakening associated with Syed Ahmad Khan and M. A. O. College came to be known as Aligarh Movement and he considered competence in English and Western sciences necessary skills for maintaining Muslims political influence, especially in Northern India. Khans image for the college was based on his visit to Oxford and Cambridge, a committee was formed by the name of foundation of Muslim College and asked people to fund generously. The, then, Viceroy and Governor General of India Lord Northbrook gave a donation of Rs 10000, Governor of the North Western Provinces contributed Rs 1000 and by March 1874 the fund for the college stood at Rs 153492 and 8 anas. In the beginning, the college was affiliated with the University of Calcutta for the matriculate examination, in 1877, the school was raised to college level and Lord Lytton laid the foundation stone of the college building. Around 1900 efforts began to make the college its own university, the Aligarh Muslim University Act of 1920 made it a central university. By the end of the 1930s, the university had developed an Engineering faculty, Syed Zafarul Hasan, joined the Aligarh Muslim University in early 1900s as head of Philosophy Department, dean Faculty of Arts. He was a pro-vice chancellor before his retirement, before 1939, faculty members and students supported an all-India nationalist movement. After 1939, political sentiment shifted toward support for a Muslim separatist movement, students and faculty mobilised behind Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the university became a center of Pakistan Movement. Womens education started at the university with the establishment of the Girls School on 19 October 1906, the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference had started a movement to establish girls education from 1896 onward. The school became intermediate college in 1929 and on 1930 it was made a constituent college of the university, since then it caters to the female undergraduate students of the university. In late 2014 the universitys vice-chancellor Zameer Uddin Shah turned down a demand by students of the college to be allowed to use the Maulana Azad Library. Shah stated that the issue was not one of discipline, but of space as if girls were allowed in the library there would be four times more boys, putting a strain on the librarys capacity
15.
Al-Azhar University
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Al-Azhar University is a university in Cairo, Egypt. Associated with Al-Azhar Mosque in Islamic Cairo, it is Egypts oldest degree-granting university and is renowned as Sunni Islam’s most prestigious university, in addition to higher education, Al-Azhar oversees a national network of schools with approximately two million students. As of 1996, over 4000 teaching institutes in Egypt were affiliated with the University and it was one of the first universities in the world, and the only one in the Arabic world to survive as a modern university including secular subjects in the curriculum. Today it is the centre of Arabic literature and Islamic learning in the world. In 1961 additional non-religious subjects were added to its curriculum and its mission is to propagate Islam and Islamic culture. To this end, its Islamic scholars render edicts on disputes submitted to them all over the Sunni Islamic world regarding proper conduct for Muslim individuals. Al-Azhar also trains Egyptian government-appointed preachers in proselytization and its library is considered second in importance in Egypt only to the Egyptian National Library and Archives. Fatimah, was called Al-Zahra, and it was named in her honor and it was founded as mosque by the Fatimid commander Jawhar at the orders of the Caliph and Ismaili Imam Al-Muizz as he founded the city for Cairo. It was in Jamadi al-Awwal in the year 359 A. H and its building was completed on the 9th of Ramadan in the year 361 A. H. Both Al-Aziz Billah and Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah added to its premises and it was further repaired, renovated and extended by Al-Mustansir Billah and Al-Hafiz Li-Din-illah. Studies began at Al-Azhar in the month of Ramadan,975, according to Syed Farid Alatas, the Jamiah had faculties in Islamic law and jurisprudence, Arabic grammar, Islamic astronomy, Islamic philosophy, and logic. The Fatimids gave attention to the studies at the time when rulers in other countries declared those who were engaged in philosophical pursuits as apostates. The Greek thought found a reception with the Fatimids who expanded the boundaries of such studies. They paid much attention to philosophy and gave support to everyone who was known for being engaged in the study of any branch of philosophy and these books were destroyed by Salah-ud-Din Ayyubi. An Islamic womens faculty was added in the same year. Al-Azhar has a membership that represents the schools of Al-Ashari and Al-Maturidi, the four schools of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence. Al-Azhar has had a relationship with Wahhabism and Salafism. Although al-Azhar is not monolithic, its identity has been associated with Sufism
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Umm al-Qura University
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Umm Al-Qura University may also refer to a calendar of Saudi Arabia or the city of Mecca See Islamic calendar and Mecca. Umm Al-Qura University is a public university in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. The university was established as the College of Sharia in 1949 before being joined by new colleges, UQU started primarily as an Islamic university offering degrees in Islamic Law and Arabic language studies. In 2015, the UQU annual budget hovered around SR3 billion, in 1949 King Abdulaziz Al Saud established the College of Sharia in Mecca, making it the first higher education institution in the country. It constituted the kernel of Umm Al-Qura University and it was followed by the establishment of the Teachers College in 1952. This continued until 1959 when the College of Sharia took the responsibility of teachers preparation and became the College of Sharia, in 1962 the College of Education was established as an independent college. In 1971 the Colleges of Sharia and Education became part of King Abdul Aziz University in Jeddah, currently, it has student exchange programs with Purdue University, Tufts University, and Kings College London. University offers degrees of Bachelor of Science, Master of Science, the grading system is the standard 0 to 4.0 scale with classes of, College of Da’wa and Usul-ud-Din The College of Dawa and Usul-ud-Din was established on 21/12/1401A. H. This college is considered as an extension of the two ancient colleges, College of Shariah and Islamic Studies and College of Education and it was renamed into the College of Dawa and Usul-ud-Din. By the beginning of the academic year 1402/1403 A. H, however, by the academic year 1404/1405 A. H, the Department of the Quran and Sunna was inaugurated by virtue of resolution No. 30/4/16/6827/1, issued on 22 Rajab,1404 A, the College has four departments, Department of Dawa and Usul-ud-Din, Department of Kitab and Sunna, Department of Aqidah, Department of Qeraat. The postgraduate studies in the specializations of the college started since it was supervised by the College of Shariah and Islamic Studies, before their separation is effected. In 1420 A. H, the deputy deanship of the College of Dawa, College of Arabic Language The Department of Arabic was established in 1962 as an independent department at the College of Education before it was joined to the College of Sharia in 1965. Graduate Studies were introduced to the department in 1973 and the College of Arabic Language was created by a decree in 1981. The College includes the departments,1. Department of Arabic Language and Grammar, Department of the Languages of Islamic Societies. The College offers the Bachelors, Masters, and Ph. D, degrees in all the above-mentioned disciplines, except for the Department of the Languages of Islamic Societies which offers the Bachelors degree only. The CoB has five departments offering teaching and learning in various business, the research is disseminated through publications in international journals and presentations at conferences, workshop, and symposia
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Islamic University of Madinah
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The Islamic University of al-Madinah al-Munawarah was founded by the government of Saudi Arabia by a royal decree in 1961 in the Islamic holy city of Medina. It follows the Salafi ideology which is prevalent in Saudi Arabia, University students may study Sharia, Quran, Dawah/Usul al-din, Hadith, and Arabic. The university offers Bachelor of Arts degrees and also Masters and Doctorate Degrees, studies at the College of Sharia Islamic law were the first to start when the university opened. The admission is open to every Muslim individual based on programs and provides accommodation
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Kuwait
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Kuwait /kuːˈweɪt/, officially the State of Kuwait, is a country in Western Asia. Situated in the edge of Eastern Arabia at the tip of the Persian Gulf, it shares borders with Iraq. As of 2016, Kuwait has a population of 4.2 million people,1.3 million are Kuwaitis and 2.9 million are expatriates, expatriates account for 70% of the population. Oil reserves were discovered in 1938, from 1946 to 1982, the country underwent large-scale modernization. In the 1980s, Kuwait experienced a period of geopolitical instability, in 1990, Kuwait was invaded by Iraq. The Iraqi occupation came to an end in 1991 after military intervention by coalition forces, at the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure. Kuwait is a constitutional emirate with a political system. It has an income economy backed by the worlds sixth largest oil reserves. The Kuwaiti dinar is the highest valued currency in the world, according to the World Bank, the country has the fourth highest per capita income in the world. The Constitution was promulgated in 1962, making Kuwait the most democratic country in the region, Kuwait ranks highly in regional metrics of gender equality, as it has the regions highest Global Gender Gap ranking. During the Ubaid period, Kuwait was the site of interaction between the peoples of Mesopotamia and Neolithic Eastern Arabia, mainly centered in As-Subiya in northern Kuwait. The earliest evidence of habitation in Kuwait dates back 8000 B. C. where Mesolithic tools were found in Burgan. As-Subiya in northern Kuwait is the earliest evidence of urbanization in the whole Persian Gulf basin area, mesopotamians first settled in the Kuwaiti island of Failaka in 2000 B. C. Traders from the Sumerian city of Ur inhabited Failaka and ran a mercantile business, the island had many Mesopotamian-style buildings typical of those found in Iraq dating from around 2000 B. C. The Neolithic inhabitants of Kuwait were among the worlds earliest maritime traders, one of the worlds earliest reed-boats was discovered in northern Kuwait dating back to the Ubaid period. In 3rd century BC, the ancient Greeks colonized the bay of Kuwait under Alexander the Great, according to Strabo and Arrian, Alexander the Great named Failaka Ikaros because it resembled the Aegean island of that name in size and shape. Remains of Greek colonization include a large Hellenistic fort and Greek temples, in 224 AD, Kuwait became part of the Sassanid Empire. At the time of the Sassanid Empire, Kuwait was known as Meshan, Akkaz was a Partho-Sassanian site, the Sassanid religions tower of silence was discovered in northern Akkaz
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Call centre
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A call centre or call center is a centralised office used for receiving or transmitting a large volume of requests by telephone. An inbound call centre is operated by a company to administer incoming product support or information enquiries from consumers, outbound call centres are operated for telemarketing, solicitation of charitable or political donations, debt collection and market research. A contact centre is a location for centralised handling of individual communications, including letters, faxes, live support software, social media, instant message, and e-mail. It can be operated or networked with additional centres, often linked to a corporate computer network, including mainframes, microcomputers. Increasingly, the voice and data pathways into the centre are linked through a set of new technologies called computer telephony integration, the contact centre is a central point from which all customer contacts are managed. Through contact centres, valuable information about company are routed to people, contacts to be tracked. It is generally a part of customer relationship management. The majority of companies use contact centres as a means of managing their customer interaction. These centres can be operated by either an in house department responsible or outsourcing customer interaction to a third party agency, during the late 1970s, call centre technology expanded to include telephone sales, airline reservations and banking systems. The term call centre was first published and recognized by the Oxford English Dictionary in 1983, the 1980s experienced the development of toll-free telephone numbers to increase the efficiency of agents and overall call volume. Call centres increased with the deregulation of long distance calling and growth in information dependent industries, as call centres expanded, unionisation occurred in North America to gain members including the Communications Workers of America and the United Steelworkers. In Australia, the National Union of Workers represents unionised workers, in Europe, Uni Global Union of Switzerland is involved in assisting unionisation in this realm and in Germany Vereinte Dienstleistungsgewerkschaft represents call centre workers. During the 1990s, call centres expanded internationally and developed two additional subsets of communication, contact centres and outsourced bureau centres. In contrast to in-house management, outsourced bureau contact centres are a model of contact centre that provide services on a pay per use model. The overheads of the centre are shared by many clients, thereby supporting a very cost effective model. Automatic lead selection or lead steering is also intended to improve efficiencies and this allows inbound calls to be directly routed to the appropriate agent for the task, whilst minimising wait times and long lists of irrelevant options for people calling in. The universal queue standardises the processing of communications across multiple technologies such as fax, phone, the virtual queue provides callers with an alternative to waiting on hold when no agents are available to handle inbound call demand. Historically, call centres have been built on Private branch exchange equipment that is owned, hosted, the PBX can provide functions such as automatic call distribution, interactive voice response, and skills-based routing
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Hanafi
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The Hanafi school is one of the four religious Sunni Islamic schools of jurisprudence. It is named after the scholar Abū Ḥanīfa an-Nu‘man ibn Thābit, the other major schools of Sharia in Sunni Islam are Maliki, Shafii and Hanbali. Hanafi is the fiqh with the largest number of followers among Sunni Muslims and it is predominant in the countries that were once part of the historic Ottoman Empire, Mughal Empire and Sultanates of Turkic rulers in the Indian subcontinent, northwest China and Central Asia. Thus, the Hanafi school came to be known as the Kufan or Iraqi school in earlier times. Ali and Abdullah, son of Masud formed much of the base of the school, as well as other such as Muhammad al-Baqir, Jafar al-Sadiq. Many jurists and historians had lived in Kufa including one of Abu Hanifas main teachers, in the early history of Islam, Hanafi doctrine was not fully compiled. The fiqh was fully compiled and documented in the 11th century, the Abbasids patronized the Hanafi school from the 10th century onwards. The Seljuk Turkish dynasties of 11th and 12th centuries, followed by Ottomans adopted Hanafi fiqh, the Turkic expansion spread Hanafi fiqh through Central Asia and into South Asia, with the establishment of Seljuk Empire, Timurid dynasty, Khanates and Delhi Sultanate. Nurit Tsafrir, The History of an Islamic School of Law, the Second Formation of Islamic Law, The Ḥanafī School in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire
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Hindu
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Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically used as a geographical, cultural, or religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time, by the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of India who were not Turks or Muslims. The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the Indian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear, competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu-Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath used the phrase Hindu dharma, the Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term Hindu in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals, scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. Hindoo is a spelling variant, whose use today may be considered derogatory. At more than 1.03 billion, Hindus are the third largest group after Christians. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million, live in India, according to Indias 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom and Myanmar. These together accounted for 99% of the worlds Hindu population, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means a large body of water, covering river, ocean. It was used as the name of the Indus river and also referred to its tributaries, the Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhava in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in Zend Avesta. The 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of Hidush, the people of India were referred to as Hinduvān and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text Chachnama. The term Hindu in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term, the Arabic equivalent Al-Hind likewise referred to the country of India. Among the earliest known records of Hindu with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang, Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In-tu whose connotation overflows in the religious according to Arvind Sharma. The Hindu community occurs as the amorphous Other of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that Hindu retained its geographical reference initially, Indian, indigenous, local, virtually native. Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves, the poet Vidyapatis poem Kirtilata contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks in a city and concludes The Hindus and the Turks live close together, Each makes fun of the others religion
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Puja (Hinduism)
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Pūjā or Poojan is a prayer ritual performed by Hindus to host, honour and worship one or more deities, or to spiritually celebrate an event. Sometimes spelt phonetically as pooja or poojah, it may honour or celebrate the presence of special guest, the word pūjā comes from Sanskrit, and means reverence, honour, homage, adoration, and worship. Puja rituals are held by Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs. In Hinduism, puja is done on a variety of occasions, frequency and settings. It may include daily puja done in the home, to temple ceremonies and annual festivals, to few lifetime events such as birth of a baby or a wedding. The two main areas where puja is performed are in the home and at temples to mark certain stages of life, events or some such as Durga Puja. Puja is not mandatory, it may be a daily affair for some Hindus, periodic ritual for some. In some temples, various pujas may be performed daily at various times of the day, in other temples, Puja varies according to the school of Hinduism. Puja may vary by region, occasion, deity honored, in formal Nigama ceremonies, a fire may be lit in honour of deity Agni, without an idol or image present. In contrast, in Agama ceremonies, an idol or image of deity is present, in both ceremonies, a diya or incense stick may be lit while a prayer is chanted or hymn is sung. Puja is typically performed by a Hindu worshipper alone, though sometimes in presence of a priest who is well versed in procedure, both Nigama and Agama puja are practiced in Hinduism in India. In Hinduism of Bali Indonesia, Agama puja is most prevalent both inside homes and in temples, Puja is sometimes called Sembahyang in Indonesia. Puja is an ancient culture or way of life, with unclear origins, joshi claims the word puja was first used in vedic times when Sūtra were composed, to describe prayers and worship before yajna or homa – fire deity, Agni. Charpentier suggests the origin of the word Puja may lie in the Dravidian languages, two possible Tamil roots have been suggested, Poosai to smear with something and Poochei to do with flowers. According to scholars, one of the earliest mentions of pūjā is in the Grihya Sutras and these Sutras, dated to be about 500 BC, use the term puja to describe the hospitality to honor priests who were invited to one’s home to lead rituals for departed ancestors. As Hindu philosophy expanded and diversified, with such as the bhakti movement. As with vedic times, the concept of puja remained the same. The Puranic corpus of literature, dating from about 6th century CE, deity puja thus melds Vedic rites with devotion to deity in its ritual form
23.
Shabana Azmi
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Shabana Azmi is an Indian actress of film, television and theatre. The daughter of poet Kaifi Azmi and stage actress Shaukat Azmi, she is the alumna of Film and she has also received five Filmfare Awards, and was honored among women in cinema at the 30th International Film Festival of India. In 1988, the Government of India awarded her with Padma Shri, Azmi has appeared in over 120 Hindi and Bengali films in both mainstream and independent cinema, and since 1988 she has acted in several foreign projects. Numerous of her films have been cited as a form of progressivism which portrays Indian society, its customs, in addition to acting, Azmi is a social and womens rights activist. She is the wife of poet and screenwriter Javed Akhtar and she is a Goodwill Ambassador of the United Nations Population Fund which seeks to spread contraception and abortion in India in order to limit that countrys population. In appreciation of Azmis life and works, the Congress partys government gave her a membership of the Rajya Sabha. Shabana Azmi was born into a Saiyyid Muslim family of Arab origin, in Hyderabad and her parents are Kaifi Azmi and Shaukat Azmi, both of whom were members of the Communist Party of India. Her brother, Baba Azmi, is a cinematographer, shabana was named at the age of eleven by Ali Sardar Jafri. Her parents used to call her Munni, Baba Azmi was named by Prof. Masood Siddiqui to Ahmer Azmi. Her parents had a social life, and their home was always thriving with people. It was not unusual for her to wake up in the morning and find members of the communist party sleeping about, Azmi did her schooling at the premier girls school, Queen Mary School, Mumbai. She completed a degree in Psychology from St. Xaviers College, Mumbai. I really marvelled at that and said, My god, if by going to the Film Institute I can achieve that, Azmi eventually topped the list of successful candidates of 1972. Azmi graduated from the FTII in 1973 and went on to sign on Khwaja Ahmad Abbas Faasla and her first release, however, was Shyam Benegals directorial debut Ankur. Belonging to the genre of neo-realistic films, Ankur is based on a true story which occurred in Hyderabad. Azmi played Lakshmi, a servant and villager who drifts into an affair with a college student who visits the countryside. Azmi was not the choice for the film, and several leading actresses of that time refused to do it. The film went on to become a critical success
24.
Qadi
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The word qadi comes from a verb meaning to judge or to decide. The term qadi was in use from the time of Muhammad, and remained the term used for judges throughout Islamic history, thus, the qadi was chosen from amongst those who had mastered the sciences of jurisprudence and law. In constructing their legal doctrine, these legal scholars took as their point of departure the precedents established by the qadis. During the period of the Abbasid Caliphate, the office of the qadi al-qudat was established, among the most famous of the early qadi al-qudat was Qadi Abu Yusuf who was a disciple of the famous early jurist Abu Hanifa. The office of the continued to be a very important one in every principality of the caliphates and sultanates of the Muslim empires over the centuries. The rulers appointed qadis in every region, town and village for judicial and administrative control, the Abbasids created the office of chief qadi, whose holder acted primarily as adviser to the caliph in the appointment and dismissal of qadis. Later Islamic states generally retained this office, while granting to its holder the authority to issue appointments, the Mamluk state, which ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1516 CE, introduced the practice of appointing four chief qadis, one for each of the Sunni legal schools. A qadi is a responsible for the application of Islamic positive law. Thus the first qadis in effect laid the foundations of Islamic positive law, once this law had been formed, however, the role of the qadi underwent a profound change. No longer free to follow the guidelines mentioned above, a qadi was now expected to adhere solely to the new Islamic law, and this adherence has characterized the office ever since. A qadi continued, however, to be a delegate of an authority, ultimately the caliph or, after the demise of the caliphate. This delegate status implies the absence of a separation of powers, on the other hand, a certain degree of autonomy was enjoyed by a qadi in that the law that he applied was not the creation of the supreme ruler or the expression of his will. What a qadi owed to the ruler was solely the power to apply the law. Similar to a qadi, a mufti is also a power of Sharia law. Muftis are jurists that give authoritative legal opinions, or fatwas, with the introduction of the secular court system in the 19th century, Ottoman councils began to enforce criminal legislation, in order to emphasize their position as part of the new executive. This creation of the hierarchical secular judiciary did not displace the original Sharia courts, until the Qadi’s Ordinance of 1856, the qadis were appointed by the Porte and were part of the Ottoman religious judiciary. This Ordinance recommends the consultation of muftis and ulama, in practice, the sentences of qadis usually were checked by muftis appointed to the courts. Other important decisions were also checked by the mufti of the Majlis al-Ahkdm or by a council of ulama connected with it and it is said that if the local qadi and mufti disagreed, it became customary to submit the case to the authoritative Grand Mufti
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Suicide attack
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A suicide attack is a violent attack in which the attacker expects to die in the process. They constituted only 4% of all terrorist attacks around the world over one period, ninety per cent of those attacks occurred in Afghanistan, Iraq, Israel, the Palestinian territories, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Overall, as of mid-2015 about three-quarters of all suicide attacks occurred in just three countries, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iraq, the motivation of suicide attackers varies. Kamikaze acted under orders and were motivated by obedience and nationalism. Before 2003, most attacks targeted forces occupying the attackers homeland, anthropologist Scott Atran states that since 2004 the overwhelming majority of bombers have been motivated by the ideology of Islamist martyrdom. Academic Fred Halliday, has written that assigning the descriptor of terrorist or terrorism to the actions of a group is a used by states to deny legitimacy and rights to protest. The definition of suicide is another issue, Suicide terrorism itself has been defined by one source as violent actions perpetrated by people who are aware that the odds they will return alive are close to zero. It may not always be clear to investigators which type of killing is which, the usage of the term suicide attack goes back a long way but suicide bombing dates back to at least 1940 when a New York Times article mentions the term in relation to German tactics. Less than two years later that newspaper referred to a Japanese kamikaze attempt on an American carrier as a suicide bombing, sometimes, to assign either a more positive or negative connotation to the act, suicide bombing is referred to by different terms. Istishhad Islamist supporters often call a suicide attack Istishhad, and the suicide attacker shahid, the idea being that the attacker died in order to testify his faith in God, for example while waging jihad bis saif. The term suicide is never used because Islam has strong strictures against taking ones own life, the terms Istishhad/martyrdom operation have been embraced by the Palestinian Authority, and by Hamas, Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades, Fatah and other Palestinian factions. The first to use the term for an audience was White House Press Secretary Ari Fleischer in April 2002. The only major media outlets to use it are Fox News Channel, Fox News producer Dennis Murray argued that a suicidal act should be reserved for a person who does something to kill themselves only. CNN Producer Christa Robinson argued that the term homicide bomber reflects only that you have killed other people, sacrifice bombing In the German-speaking area the term sacrifice bombing was proposed in 2012 by German scholar Arata Takeda. The term is intended to shift the focus away from the suicide of the perpetrators, until the second half of the twentieth century most suicide attacks occurred in a military context. The first recorded suicide attack came from Christian soldiers during the Crusades to free The Holy City of Jerusalem from the control of Muslim armies. During the Crusades, the Knights Templar destroyed one of their own ships with 140 Christians on board in order to kill 10 times as many Muslims in the opposing fleet. The 1st Century AD Jewish Sicarii sect are thought to have out carried suicidal attacks against Hellenized Jews they considered immoral collaborators
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Reservation in India
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It has been created to realize the promise of equality enshrined in the Constitution. Over the years, the categories for affirmative action have been expanded beyond the lists of Scheduled castes and tribes to include a category of Other Backward Classes. Consideration has also given to economically backward in providing reservations. It has not had the results aspired to, as it has not been backed by a more holistic programme that truly addresses historic oppression, Reservation is governed by constitutional laws, statutory laws, and local rules and regulations. It has also argued that the system is used largely by the dominant and powerful in the SC/ST/OBC quota. Many scholars and intellectuals think that it is time to revoke reservation in India. The issue has often been debated by and demand raised by students of IITs to remove reservation, in a historic ruling, the Supreme Court of India advised the government to revoke reservation in the education sector. The primary objective of the present-day Indian reservation system is to enhance the social and educational status of underprivileged communities, quota systems favouring certain castes and other communities existed before independence in several areas of British India. Demands for various forms of discrimination had been made, for example. Shahu, the Maharaja of the state of Kolhapur, introduced reservation in favour of non-Brahmin and backward classes. He provided free education to everyone and opened several hostels to make it easier for them to receive it and he also tried to ensure that people thus educated were suitably employed, and he appealed both for a class-free India and the abolition of untouchability. His 1902 measures created 50 per cent reservation for backward communities, the British Raj introduced elements of reservation in the Government of India Act of 1909 and there were many other measures put in place prior to independence. The depressed classes were assigned a number of seats to be filled by election from constituencies in which only they could vote, although they could also vote in other seats. The proposal was controversial, Mahatma Gandhi fasted in protest against it but many among the classes, including their leader, B. R. Ambedkar. After negotiations, Gandhi reached an agreement with Ambedkar to have a single Hindu electorate, electorates for other religions, such as Islam and Sikhism, remained separate. This became known as the Poona Pact, Indias affirmative action programme was launched in 1950 and is the oldest such programme in the world. After the independence of India in 1947 there were major changes in favour of the Scheduled Tribes, Scheduled Castes. A common form of discrimination in India has been the practice of untouchability
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Caste
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Its paradigmatic ethnographic example is the division of Indian society into rigid social groups, with roots in Indias ancient history and persisting until today. However, the significance of the caste system in India has been declining as a result of urbanization. The term is applied to non-human populations like ants and bees. The English word caste derives from the Spanish and Portuguese casta, when the Spanish colonized the New World, they used the word to mean a clan or lineage. The use of the caste, with this latter meaning, is first attested to in English in 1613. Modern Indias caste system is based on the social groupings called jāti, the system of varnas appears in Hindu texts dating back to 1000 BCE and envisages the society divided into four classes, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The texts do not mention any separate, untouchable category in varna classification, scholars believe that the system of varnas was a theoretical classification envisioned by the Brahmins, but never truly operational in the society. The practical division of the society had always been in terms of jātis, which are not based on any specific principle, but could vary from ethnic origins to occupations. The jātis have been endogamous groups without any fixed hierarchy but subject to vague notions of rank articulated over time based on lifestyle, starting with the British colonial Census of 1901 led by Herbert Hope Risley, all the jātis were grouped under the theoretical varnas categories. The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than the varnas, as it provided a convenient shorthand, upon independence from Britain, the Indian Constitution listed 1,108 castes across the country as Scheduled Castes in 1950, for positive discrimination. The Untouchable communities are sometimes called Scheduled Castes, Dalit or Harijan in contemporary literature, in 2001, Dalits were 16. 2% of Indias population. Most of the 15 million bonded child workers are from the lowest castes, independent India has witnessed caste-related violence. Indias National Crime Records Bureau records crimes against scheduled castes and scheduled tribes – the most disadvantaged groups - in a separate category, the socio-economic limitations of the caste system are reduced due to urbanization and affirmative action. Nevertheless, the system still exists in endogamy and patrimony, and thrives in the politics of democracy. The globalization and economic opportunities from foreign businesses has influenced the growth of Indias middle-class population, some members of the Chhattisgarh Potter Caste Community are middle-class urban professionals and no longer potters unlike the remaining majority of traditional rural potter members. The co-existence of the middle-class and traditional members in the CPCC has created intersectionality between caste and class, there is persistence of caste in Indian politics. Caste associations have evolved into caste-based political parties, political parties and the state perceive caste as an important factor for mobilization of people and policy development. It is not politics that gets caste-ridden, it is caste that gets politicized, the Nepalese caste system resembles that of the Indian jāti system with numerous jāti divisions with a varna system superimposed for a rough equivalence
28.
Muhammad Hamidullah
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HI, was a Muhaddith, Faqih, scholar of Islamic law and an academic author with over 250 books. A prolific writer, his works on Islamic science, history and culture have been published in several languages. His scholarship is regarded by many as unparalleled in the last century, a double doctorate and a polymath, he was fluent in 22 languages including Urdu, Persian, Arabic, French, English, German, Italian, Greek, Turkish, Russian etc. He learned Thai at the age of 84 and his familys roots lie in the Nawayath community, his ancestors were eminent scholars in their own right. He earned his BA, LLB and MA at Osmania University and he travelled to Germany and was awarded D. Phil by Bonn University in 1932. After serving in the faculty of Bonn as a lecturer in Arabic and Urdu for a time, he went to France. He was awarded D. Litt by the university after 11 months and he taught international law at Osmania University between 1936 and 1946. Subsequently he moved to Pakistan and was involved in writing of Pakistans constitution, in 1985, he was awarded the Hilal-e-Imtiaz, the highest civilian award of Pakistan. The monetary part of the award was donated to the Islamic Research Academy, in 1948 he returned to France, living there for virtually the remainder of his life, apart from travel to teaching posts he held in Turkey for a number of years. He also held a post with French National Centre for Scientific Research from 1954, Hamidullah was the last remaining citizen of the erstwhile Hyderabad State and never obtained the citizenship of any other nation. Classed as a Refugee of Hyderabad by the French Government, which allowed him to stay in Paris, Hamidullah devoted his whole life to scholarship and did not marry. His ancestors and extended family are jurists, writers and administrators and his great grandfather Maulvi Mohammed Ghauth Sharful-Mulk was scholar of Islamic sciences, writing over 30 books in Arabic, Persian and Urdu, including a seven volume exegesis of the Quran. His paternal grandfather Qadi Mohammed Sibghatullah was a jurist and a scholar of repute writing an exegesis of the Holy Quran as well as other books and he was also appointed Chief Judge of Madras in 1855. He is also famous for discovering a missing work on the Prophet Muhammad regarded as one of his contributions to the Hadith literature. The earliest Hadith manuscript still extant today, Sahifa Hammam bin Munabbah, was discovered in a Damascus library, Hammam bin Munabbah being a disciple of Sayyidina Abu Huraira, one of the Sahaba. It proved, that the earliest manuscripts had been absorbed into the much bigger later compilations, Dr. Muhammad Hamidullah bio by Prof. Dr A. R
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Al Jamiatul Ashrafia
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Al Jamiatul Ashrafia is the largest Islamic seminary of Sunni Muslims of India belonging to Barelvi school. It is located in Mubarakpur, in the north Indian state of Uttar Pradesh and it started off as a madrasa called Misbah al-Ulum in 1898 in the town of Mubarakpur of what was then British India. It was named Ashrafia after the most prominent Saint of not only the subcontinent, after struggling for many years and moving locations several times, a new building was constructed using funds raised by Hafiz Abd al-Aziz Muradabadi. This was the site for the now known as Dar al-Ulum Ahl-i Sunnat or Misbah al-Ulum. Realizing that the site was becoming too small, Hafiz Abd al-Aziz organized a conference in May 1972 to discuss moving Ashrafiyya to a larger campus. In 1992, under the auspices of Al Jamiatul Ashrafia, Mobarakpur, though the body incorporated all the renowned muftis of the sect, it was not long before a number of such bodies started mushrooming in the length and breadth of Jahan-e-Riza. Jamia Nizamia Jamiatur Raza Islam in India Al-Jame-atul-Islamia Manzar-e-Islam Sanyal, Usha, Ahl-i Sunnat Madrasas, the Madrasa Manzar-i Islam, Bareilly, and Jamia Ashrafiyya, Mubarakpur. Madrasas in South Asia, Teaching terror
30.
Islam in India
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Islam is the second largest religion in India, with 14. 2% of the countrys population or roughly 172 million people identifying as adherents of Islam. Islam first came to the western coast of India when Arab traders as early as the 7th century AD came to coastal Malabar, Cheraman Juma Masjid in Kerala is thought to be the first mosque in India, built in 629 AD by Malik lbn Dinar. Ismaili Shia Islam was introduced to Gujarat in the half of the 11th century. Islam arrived in North India in the 12th century via the Turkic invasions and has become a part of Indias religious. Over the centuries, there has been significant integration of Hindu and Muslim cultures across India and Muslims have played a prominent role in Indias economic rise, trade relations have existed between Arabia and the Indian subcontinent since ancient times. Even in the era, Arab traders used to visit the Konkan-Gujarat coast and Malabar region. Newly Islamised Arabs were Islams first contact with India, Historians Elliot and Dowson say in their book, The History of India as told by its own Historians, that the first ship bearing Muslim travellers was seen on the Indian coast as early as 630 AD. H. G. Rawlinson in his book Ancient and Medieval History of India claims that the first Arab Muslims settled on the Indian coast in the last part of the 7th century AD. This fact is corroborated by J. Sturrock in his South Kanara and Madras Districts Manuals and it was with the advent of Islam that the Arabs became a prominent cultural force in the world. Arab merchants and traders became the carriers of the new religion, the first Indian mosque, Cheraman Juma Masjid, is thought to have been built in 629 AD by Malik Bin Deenar. In Malabar, the Mappilas may have been the first community to convert to Islam, intensive missionary activities were carried out along the coast and many other natives embraced Islam. These new converts were now added to the Mappila community, thus, among the Mappilas we find both the descendants of the Arabs through local women and converts from among the local people. In the 8th century, the province of Sindh was conquered by an Arab army led by Muhammad bin Qasim, Sindh became the easternmost province of the Umayyad Caliphate. In the first half of the 10th century, Mahmud of Ghazni added the Punjab to the Ghaznavid Empire, in the 11th century, Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud played a significant role in the conversion of locals to Islam. A more successful invasion came at the end of the 12th century from Muhammad of Ghor and this eventually led to the formation of the Delhi Sultanate. He came across a couple named Kaka Akela and Kaki Akela who became his first converts in the Taiyabi community. There is much evidence to show that Arabs and Muslims interacted with India. Arab traders transmitted the numeral system developed by Indians to the Middle East, many Sanskrit books were translated into Arabic as early as the 8th century
31.
Al-Jame-atul-Islamia
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Al-Jame-atul Islamia is an Islamic seminary of Sunni-Barelvi Muslims in India. It is located in Raunahi, Distt, faizabad, near Lucknow, in the north Indian state of Uttar Pradesh in India. Al-Jame-atul-Islamia was founded in 1964 by Qamaruzzaman Azmi, ghulam Rasool Dehlvi Islam in India Jamiatur Raza Al Jamiatul Ashrafia Manzar-e-Islam
