1.
Princely state
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A princely state, also called native state or Indian state, was a nominally sovereign monarchy under a local or regional ruler in a subsidiary alliance with a greater power. At the time of the British withdrawal,565 princely states were recognised in the Indian subcontinent, apart from thousands of zamindaris. Rulers of salute states entitled to a gun salute of eleven guns and above received from the British the style of Highness, while the Nizam of Hyderabad had the unique style of Exalted Highness. At the other end of the scale, the principality of Lawa covered an area of 49 km2, or smaller than Bermuda. Some two hundred of the states had an area of less than 25 km2. The era of the princely states effectively ended with Indian independence in 1947, by 1950, almost all of the principalities had acceded to either India or Pakistan – thirteen to Pakistan and the rest to India. During this time, the princely states were merged into unions, each of which was headed by a former ruling prince with the title of Rajpramukh. In 1956, the position of Rajpramukh was abolished and the federations dissolved, the Indian Government formally derecognised the princely families in 1971, followed by the Government of Pakistan in 1972. The widespread expansion of Islam during this time brought many principalities into tributary relations with Islamic sultanates, notably the Delhi Sultanate, in the south, however, the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire remained dominant until the mid-17th century, among its tributaries was the future Mysore Kingdom. The Turco-Mongol Mughal Empire brought a majority of the existing Indian kingdoms and principalities under its suzerainty by the 17th century, beginning with its foundation in the early 16th century. The advent of Sikhism resulted in the creation of the Sikh Empire in the north by the early 18th century, at the same time, the Marathas carved out their own states to form the Maratha Empire. Through the 18th century, former Mughal governors formed their own independent states, India under the British Raj consisted of two types of territory, British India and the Native states or Princely states. In general the term British India had been used also to refer to the regions under the rule of the East India Company in India from 1774 to 1858, the term has also been used to refer to the British in India. More prestigious Hindu rulers often used the title Raja, Raje or a variant such as Rana, Rao, also in this class were several Thakurs or Thakores and a few particular titles, such as Sardar, Mankari, Deshmukh, Sar Desai, Raja Inamdar, Saranjamdar. The most prestigious Hindu rulers usually had the prefix maha in their titles, as in Maharaja, Maharana, Maharao, etc. The states of Travancore and Cochin had queens regnant styled Maharani, generally the female forms applied only to sisters, spouses and widows, there were also compound titles, such as rajadhiraj, Raj-i-rajgan, often relics from an elaborate system of hierarchical titles under the Mughal emperors. For example, the addition of the adjective Bahadur raised the status of the one level. Furthermore, most dynasties used a variety of titles, such as Varma in South India
2.
Presidencies and provinces of British India
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Provinces of India, earlier Presidencies of British India and still earlier, Presidency towns, were the administrative divisions of British governance in the subcontinent. Collectively, they were called British India, in one form or other they existed between 1612 and 1947, conventionally divided into three historical periods. During 1612–1757, the East India Company set up factories in several locations, mostly in coastal India and its rivals were the merchant trading companies of Holland and France. By the mid-18th century, three Presidency towns, Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta had grown in size, during the period of Company rule in India, 1757–1858, the Company gradually acquired sovereignty over large parts of India, now called Presidencies. However, it increasingly came under British government oversight, in effect sharing sovereignty with the Crown. At the same time it gradually lost its mercantile privileges, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Companys remaining powers were transferred to the Crown. In the new British Raj, sovereignty extended to a few new regions, increasingly, however, unwieldy presidencies were broken up into Provinces. In 1608, the English East India Company established a settlement at Surat, and it was followed in 1611 by a permanent factory at Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast, and in 1612 the company joined other already established European trading companies in Bengal. Company rule in Bengal, however, ended with the Government of India Act 1858 following the events of the Bengal Rebellion of 1857 and these rulers were allowed a measure of internal autonomy in exchange for British suzerainty. British India constituted a significant portion of India both in area and population, in 1910, for example, it covered approximately 54% of the area, in addition, there were Portuguese and French exclaves in India. Independence from British rule was achieved in 1947 with the formation of two nations, the Dominions of India and Pakistan, the latter also including East Bengal, present-day Bangladesh. The term British India also applied to Burma for a time period, starting in 1824, a small part of Burma. This arrangement lasted until 1937, when Burma commenced being administered as a separate British colony, British India did not apply to other countries in the region, such as Sri Lanka, which was a British Crown colony, or the Maldive Islands, which were a British protectorate. It also included the Colony of Aden in the Arabian Peninsula, the original seat of government was at Allahabad, then at Agra from 1834 to 1868. Bombay Presidency, East India Companys headquarters moved from Surat to Bombay in 1687, the East India Company, which was incorporated on 31 December 1600, established trade relations with Indian rulers in Masulipatam on the east coast in 1611 and Surat on the west coast in 1612. The company rented a trading outpost in Madras in 1639, meanwhile, in eastern India, after obtaining permission from the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan to trade with Bengal, the Company established its first factory at Hoogly in 1640. Almost a half-century later, after Emperor Aurengzeb forced the Company out of Hooghly, by the mid-18th century the three principal trading settlements, now called the Madras Presidency, the Bombay Presidency, and the Bengal Presidency were each administered by a Governor. After Robert Clives victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in 1772, the Company also obtained the Nizāmat of Bengal and thereby full sovereignty of the expanded Bengal Presidency
3.
Jafarabad State
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Jafarabad or Jafrabad State was a tributary princely state in India during the British Raj. It was located in the Kathiawar Peninsula on the Gujarat coast, the state had formerly been part of the Baroda Agency and later of the Kathiawar Agency of the Bombay Presidency. Jafrabad State was a dependency of the Nawab of Janjira State, the states of Jafarabad and Janjira were united in a personal way. Jafrabad town, the capital and only municipality, is located 275 km south of Ahmedabad and 240 southwest of Baroda, the state was formed by the city and 11 villages and initially consisted of two districts located on both sides of the estuary of the Ranai river. Jafrabad state had an area of 68 km2 and a population in 1881 of 4,746, the majority of the population were Muslims and the rest Hindus. The state and the town took their name from Sultan Muzaffar Jafar from Gujarat who built fortifications, Jafarabad State was founded around 1650. On 6 December 1733 the ruler of Jafarabad State signed a defensive and offensive treaty with the British East India Company, in 1759, the Jafarabad and Janjira states entered into a personal union. Finally in 1834 Jafarabad State became a British protectorate, around 1731 when the Mughal Empire rule was relaxed in Gujarat, the local Thanedar who was an ally in the Muslim Mughal garrison became independent. Thereafter the Thanedar and the local Kolis were devoted to piracy, repeatedly attacking ships, Sidi Hilal, the prince of the dynasty of Janjira which was then ruling Surat, attacked the Kolis, destroyed their boats and captured them demanding a hefty fine. The Thanedar of Jafarabad could not afford to pay the fine, under British protectorate the Nawabs of Janjira were considered separate second class rulers among the rulers of Kathiawar, but they were later promoted to first class. In the nineteenth century the rulers maintained a force of 123 men. Jafarabad State acceded to the Indian Union on 8 March 1948, rulers initially held the title of Wazir and after 1803 the title of Nawab. -Regent 2 May 1922 -15 Aug 1947 Mohammad Khan II2 May 1922 -9 Nov 1933 Kulsum Begum -Regent Janjira State Political integration of India Western India States Agency
4.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
5.
Partition of India
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The Partition of India was the division of British India in 1947 which accompanied the creation of two independent dominions, India and Pakistan. The Dominion of India is today the Republic of India and Dominion of Pakistan, the partition involved the division of two provinces, Bengal and the Punjab, based on district-wise Hindu or Muslim majorities. It also involved the division of the British Indian Army, the Royal Indian Navy, the Indian Civil Service, the railways, and the central treasury, between the two new dominions. The partition was set forth in the Indian Independence Act 1947 and resulted in the dissolution of the British Raj, the two self-governing countries of India and Pakistan legally came into existence at midnight on 14–15 August 1947. The violent nature of the created an atmosphere of hostility. The term partition of India does not cover the secession of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971, nor the earlier separations of Burma and Ceylon from the administration of British India. It does not cover the incorporation of the enclaves of French India into India during the period 1947–1954, nor the annexation of Goa, other contemporaneous political entities in the region in 1947, Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, and The Maldives were unaffected by the partition. The Hindu elite of Bengal, among many who owned land in East Bengal that was leased out to Muslim peasants. The pervasive protests against Curzons decision took the form predominantly of the Swadeshi campaign led by two-time Congress president, Surendranath Banerjee, sporadically—but flagrantly—the protesters also took to political violence that involved attacks on civilians. The violence, however, was not effective, as most planned attacks were either preempted by the British or failed, the unrest spread from Calcutta to the surrounding regions of Bengal when Calcuttas English-educated students returned home to their villages and towns. Since Calcutta was the capital, both the outrage and the slogan soon became nationally known. In conjunction, they demanded proportional legislative representation reflecting both their status as rulers and their record of cooperating with the British. This led, in December 1906, to the founding of the All-India Muslim League in Dacca, although Curzon, by now, had resigned his position over a dispute with his military chief Lord Kitchener and returned to England, the League was in favour of his partition plan. In the three decades since that census, Muslim leaders across northern India, had intermittently experienced public animosity from some of the new Hindu political and social groups. In 1905, when Tilak and Lajpat Rai attempted to rise to positions in the Congress. It was not lost on many Muslims, for example, that the rallying cry, World War I would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. Indias international profile would thereby rise and would continue to rise during the 1920s, back in India, especially among the leaders of the Indian National Congress, it would lead to calls for greater self-government for Indians. Secretary of State for India, Montagu and Viceroy Lord Chelmsford presented a report in July 1918 after a long fact-finding trip through India the previous winter
6.
Population density
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Population density is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume, it is a quantity of type number density. It is frequently applied to living organisms, and most of the time to humans and it is a key geographical term. Population density is population divided by land area or water volume. Low densities may cause a vortex and lead to further reduced fertility. This is called the Allee effect after the scientist who identified it, commonly this may be calculated for a county, city, country, another territory, or the entire world. The worlds population is around 7,000,000,000, therefore, the worldwide human population density is around 7,000,000,000 ÷510,000,000 =13.7 per km2. If only the Earths land area of 150,000,000 km2 is taken into account and this includes all continental and island land area, including Antarctica. If Antarctica is also excluded, then population density rises to over 50 people per km2, thus, this number by itself does not give any helpful measurement of human population density. Several of the most densely populated territories in the world are city-states, microstates, cities with high population densities are, by some, considered to be overpopulated, though this will depend on factors like quality of housing and infrastructure and access to resources. Most of the most densely populated cities are in Southeast Asia, though Cairo, for instance, Milwaukee has a greater population density when just the inner city is measured, and the surrounding suburbs excluded. Arithmetic density, The total number of people / area of land, physiological density, The total population / area of arable land. Agricultural density, The total rural population / area of arable land, residential density, The number of people living in an urban area / area of residential land. Urban density, The number of people inhabiting an urban area / total area of urban land, ecological optimum, The density of population that can be supported by the natural resources. S. States by population density Selected Current and Historic City, Ward & Neighborhood Density
7.
Maharashtra
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Four Maharashtra is a state in the western region of India and is Indias second-most populous state and third-largest state by area. It is the wealthiest Indian state and it is also the worlds second-most populous sub-national entity. It has over 112 million inhabitants and its capital, Mumbai, has a population of approximately 18 million, Nagpur is Maharashtras second capital as well as its winter capital. Maharashtras business opportunities along with its potential to offer a standard of living attract migrants from all over India. Ancient and medieval Maharashtra included the empires of the Satavahana dynasty, Rashtrakuta dynasty, Western Chalukyas, Mughals, the major rivers of the state are Godavari, and Krishna. The Narmada and Tapti Rivers flow near the border between Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat, Maharashtra is the second most urbanised state in India. The state has several popular Hindu places of pilgrimage including Pandharpur, Dehu and Alandi, other places that attract pilgrims from other parts of India and beyond include Hazur Sahib Gurudwara at Nanded, Sai Baba shrine at Shirdi and Dikshabhumi at Nagpur. Maharashtra is the wealthiest and one of the most developed states in India, as of 2011, the state had a per capita income of ₹1.0035 lakh, more than the national average of ₹0.73 lakh. Its GDP per capita crossed the ₹1.20 lakh threshold for the first time in 2013, however, as of 2014, the GDP per capita reduced to ₹1.03 lakh Agriculture and industries are the largest parts of the states economy. Major industries include chemical products, electrical and non-electrical machinery, textiles, petroleum, Jai Maharashtra The modern Marathi language developed from the Maharashtri Prakrit, and the word Mahratta is found in the Jain Maharashtri literature. The terms Maharashtra, Maharashtri, Marathi and Maratha may have derived from the same root, however, their exact etymology is uncertain. But the Marathas as a people do not seem to be mentioned before the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the most widely accepted theory among the linguistic scholars is that the words Maratha and Maharashtra ultimately derived from a combination of Maha and rashtrika. The word rashtrika is a Sanskritized form of Ratta, the name of a tribe or dynasty of petty chiefs ruling in the Deccan region. Another theory is that the term is derived from Maha and ratha / rathi, an alternative theory states that the term derives from the word Maha and Rashtra. However, this theory has not found acceptance among scholars who believe it to be the Sanskritised interpretation of later writers. Maharashtra was ruled by the Maurya Empire in the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE, around 230 BCE Maharashtra came under the rule of the Satavahana dynasty for 400 years. The greatest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni, in 90 CE Vedishri, son of the Satavahana king Satakarni, the Lord of Dakshinapatha, wielder of the unchecked wheel of Sovereignty, made Junnar, thirty miles north of Pune, the capital of his kingdom. The state was ruled by Western Satraps, Gupta Empire, Gurjara-Pratihara, Vakataka, Kadambas, Chalukya Empire, Rashtrakuta Dynasty, and Western Chalukya before finally
8.
The Imperial Gazetteer of India
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The Imperial Gazetteer of India was a gazetteer of the British Indian Empire, and is now a historical reference work. It was first published in 1881, sir William Wilson Hunter made the original plans of the book, starting in 1869. The New Editions were all published by the Oxford University Press, Oxford, the first edition of The Imperial Gazetteer of India was published in nine volumes in 1881. A second edition, augmented to fourteen volumes, was issued in the years 1885–87, all of these were edited by Hunter, who formed the original plan of the work in 1869. A parallel series of known as the Imperial Gazetteer of India. V.4, C-G The Imperial Gazetteer of India, digital South Asia Library, University of Chicago
9.
British Raj
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The British Raj was the rule by the British Crown in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947. The rule is also called Crown rule in India, or direct rule in India, the resulting political union was also called the Indian Empire and after 1876 issued passports under that name. It lasted until 1947, when the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two sovereign states, the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The British Raj extended over almost all present-day India, Pakistan and this area is very diverse, containing the Himalayan mountains, fertile floodplains, the Indo-Gangetic Plain, a long coastline, tropical dry forests, arid uplands, and the Thar desert. In addition, at times, it included Aden, Lower Burma, Upper Burma, British Somaliland. Burma was separated from India and directly administered by the British Crown from 1937 until its independence in 1948, among other countries in the region, Ceylon was ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens. Ceylon was part of Madras Presidency between 1793 and 1798, the kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan, having fought wars with the British, subsequently signed treaties with them and were recognised by the British as independent states. The Kingdom of Sikkim was established as a state after the Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty of 1861, however. The Maldive Islands were a British protectorate from 1887 to 1965, India during the British Raj was made up of two types of territory, British India and the Native States. In general, the term British India had been used to also to the regions under the rule of the British East India Company in India from 1600 to 1858. The term has also used to refer to the British in India. The terms Indian Empire and Empire of India were not used in legislation, the monarch was known as Empress or Emperor of India and the term was often used in Queen Victorias Queens Speeches and Prorogation Speeches. The passports issued by the British Indian government had the words Indian Empire on the cover, in addition, an order of knighthood, the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire, was set up in 1878. At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a Governor or a Lieutenant-Governor, during the partition of Bengal the new provinces of Assam and East Bengal were created as a Lieutenant-Governorship. In 1911, East Bengal was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became, Assam, Bengal, Bihar, there were 565 princely states when India and Pakistan became independent from Britain in August 1947. The princely states did not form a part of British India, the larger ones had treaties with Britain that specified which rights the princes had, in the smaller ones the princes had few rights. Within the princely states external affairs, defence and most communications were under British control, the British also exercised a general influence over the states internal politics, in part through the granting or withholding of recognition of individual rulers. Although there were nearly 600 princely states, the majority were very small
10.
Siddi
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The Siddi, also known as Siddhi, Sheedi, or Habshi, are an ethnic group inhabiting India and Pakistan. Members are descended from Bantu peoples from Southeast Africa, some were merchants, sailors, indentured servants, slaves, and mercenaries. The Siddi community is estimated at around 50, 000–60,000 individuals, with Karnataka, Gujarat and Hyderabad in India and Makran. Siddis are primarily Sufi Muslims, although some are Hindus and others Roman Catholic Christians, there are conflicting hypotheses on the origin of the name Siddi. One theory is that the word derives from sahibi, a Arabic term of respect in North Africa, similar to the word sahib in modern India and Pakistan. A second theory is that the term Siddi is derived from the title borne by the captains of the Arab vessels that first brought Siddi settlers to India and these captains were known as Sayyid. Similarly, another term for Siddis, habshi, is held to be derived from the name for the captains of the Abyssinian ships that also first delivered Siddi slaves to the subcontinent. Siddis are also referred to as Afro-Indians. Siddis were referred to as Zanji by Arabs, in China, various transcriptions of this Arabic word were used, including Xinji, the first Siddis are thought to have arrived in India in 628 AD at the Bharuch port. Several others followed with the first Arab Islamic invasions of the subcontinent in 712 AD, the latter group are believed to have been soldiers with Muhammad bin Qasims Arab army, and were called Zanjis. Later the Siddi population was added to via Bantu peoples from Southeast Africa that had brought to the Indian subcontinent as slaves by the Portuguese. While most of these migrants became Muslim and a minority became Christian. A former alternative name of Janjira was Habshan, in the Delhi Sultanate period prior to the rise of the Mughals in India, Jamal-ud-Din Yaqut was a prominent Siddi slave-turned-nobleman who was a close confidant of Razia Sultana. Although this is disputed, he may also have been her lover, malik Ambar, a prominent Siddi figure in Indian history at large, is sometimes regarded as the military guru of the Marathas, and was deeply allied with them. He established the town of Khirki which later became the city of Aurangabad. Later, the Marathas adapted Siddi guerrilla warfare tactics to grow their power, harris provides an historical survey of the eastward dispersal of slaves from Southeast Africa to places like India. Historically, Siddis have not existed only within binary relations to the nation state and they did not simply succumb to the ideologies and structures of imperial forces, nor did they simply rebel against imperial rule. The Siddi are recognized as a tribe in 3 states and 1 union territory, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka and Daman
11.
Abyssinian people
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The Abyssinian people, also known as the Habesha, are a people inhabiting the Horn of Africa. They include a few linguistically, culturally and ancestrally related ethnic groups in the Ethiopian Highlands, members cultural, linguistic, and in certain cases, ancestral origins trace back to the Kingdom of Dʿmt and the Kingdom of Aksum. Scholars have classified the Amhara and the Tigreans as Abyssinians proper, the Geez speaking people, minimally affected by Sabaean influence, formed the ethnic and cultural stock for both the pre-Axumite and Axumite states. Geez, which is related to Tigrinya and Tigre, is also believed to be the ancestor of the diverse southern Ethiopian Semitic languages including Amharic. Together, the Amhara and Tigray constitute over 35% of Ethiopias population, the Abyssinians are believed to be descendants of the Axumites, who spoke the ancient Geez language. Geez is most closely related to Tigrinya and Tigre languages, the Aksumites inhabited northern Ethiopia and Eritrea. They already lived in area by the early 1st millennium BC, and founded the Axumite empire. These people formed the basic stock of both the pre-Axumite and Axumite states. By the medieval period, the Semitic languages would have spread southward as far as southern Shewa, eastward into the Hararghe highlands, linguistic analysis further indicates that the Ethiopian Semitic languages have retained a Cushitic substratum, which also belongs to the Afro-Asiatic family. The Geez language, Tigre and Tigrinya spoken in the north were influenced by Beja, Agaw and Saho-Afar substrates, with Amharic and Gafat in the south also partially influenced by these substrates. The Amharic, Argobba, Harari and Gurage tongues spoken in central Ethiopia are characterized by an Eastern Sidamo or Highland East Cushitic substratum, as well as Oromo, overall, the linguistic impact of the Cushitic languages is more marked toward the south. In Arabic, the plateau on the east of the Nile, from which most of the waters of that river are derived, is called Habesh. The modern term derives from the vocalized Geez, ሐበሣ, Ḥabaśā, first written with a script that did not mark vowels as ሐበሠ ḤBŚ or in pseudo-Sabaic as ḤBŠTM. The earliest known use of the dates to the second or third century Sabaean inscription recounting the defeat of the nəgus GDRT of Aksum. The term Habashat appears to refer to a group of peoples, a Sabaean inscription describes an alliance between Shamir Yuhahmid of the Himyarite Kingdom and King DBH of Aksum in the first quarter of the third century. The submission of Shamir of dhū Raydān and the clans of Habashat, the term Habesha was formerly thought by some scholars to be of Arabic descent because the English name Abyssinia comes from the Arabic form. Based on the inscriptions the Aksumites left behind, they did not regard themselves or their territory as Habesha and he believed the etymology of Habesha must have derived from the Mehri language, which means “gatherers”. It was not until long after Aksumite kingdom had ended that Gulf Arab travelers and geographers began to describe the Horn region as Al-Habash, the first among these travelers were Al-Masudi and Al-Harrani
12.
Bombay Presidency
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The Bombay Presidency, also known as Bombay and Sind from 1843 to 1936 and the Bombay Province, was an administrative subdivision of British India. The English East India Company transferred its Western India headquarters from Surat, its first colony in that region, the Presidency was brought under British Parliament control along with other parts of British India through Pitts India Act. Aden was annexed in 1839, while Sind was annexed by the Company in 1843 after defeating the Talpur dynasty in the Battle of Hyderabad and it was made a part of the Bombay Presidency. The districts and provinces of the presidency were directly under British rule, while the administration of the native or princely states was in the hands of local rulers. The presidency, however, managed the defence of princely states, the Bombay Presidency along with the Bengal Presidency and Madras Presidency were the three major centres of British power. In 1661 Bombay was ceded to the Kingdom of England as part of the dowry of the infanta Catherine of Braganza on her marriage to King Charles II, as English trade in Bombay increased, Surat began its relative decline. In 1687, Bombay was made the headquarters of all the East India Companys possessions in India, however, in 1753 the governor of Bombay became subordinate to that of Calcutta. During the 18th century, the Hindu Maratha Empire expanded rapidly, claiming Konkan, in western Gujarat, including Kathiawar and Kutch, the loosening of Mughal control allowed numerous local rulers to create virtually independent states. The British annexed Surat in 1800, British territory was enlarged in the Second Anglo-Maratha War which ended in 1803. The East India Company received the districts of Bharuch, Kaira, etc. in 1803 the Bombay Presidency included only Salsette, the islands of the harbour, Surat and Bankot, but between this date and 1827 the framework of the presidency took shape. The Gujarat districts were taken over by the Bombay government in 1805, in 1858, under the terms of Queens Proclamation issued by Queen Victoria, the Bombay Presidency, along with the rest of British India, came under the direct rule of the British crown. Henry Bartle Frere was the first Governor appointed by the Crown, under Sir Bartle Frere agricultural prosperity reached its highest point, as a result of the American Civil War and the consequent enormous demand for Indian cotton in Europe. The money thus poured into the country produced an epidemic of speculation known as the Share Mania, which ended in a commercial crisis, but the peasantry gained on the whole more than they lost, and the trade of Bombay was not permanently injured. However, the important portfolios like finance, police and irrigation were reserved with members of the Governors Executive Council, in 1932, Aden was separated from Bombay and made a separate province, and Sindh became a separate province on 1 April 1936. The Government of India Act 1935 made the Bombay Presidency into a regular province and it enlarged the elected provincial legislature and expanded provincial autonomy vis a vis the central government. In the 1937 elections, the Indian National Congress won the elections in Bombay, the Cooper ministry did not last long and a Congress ministry under B. G. Kher was sworn in. Council of Ministers in Khers Cabinet, In 1939, all of the Congress ministries in British Indian provinces resigned and Bombay was placed under the Governors rule. After the end of World War II, the Indian National Congress re-entered politics, the Bombay Presidency became the Bombay State when India was granted independence on 15 August 1947 and Kher continued as the Chief Minister of the state, serving until 1952
13.
Konkan
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Konkan, also known as the Konkan Coast or Kokan, is a rugged section of the western coastline of India. It is a 720 km long coastline and it consists of the coastal districts of western Indian states of Karnataka, Goa, and Maharashtra. The ancient Saptakonkana is a larger region. The word Konkan derived from two marathi words koṇa and kaṇa, the Konkan region is a relatively small strip of flat land at the western foothills of the Western Ghats. The Konkan division is an administrative sub-division of Maharashtra which comprises all the districts of the state. The Sahyadri Mountain range forms the boundary of the Konkan. The southern boundary is the Gangavali River, the Mayura River forms the northern boundary. The Gangavali flows in the district of in present-day Karnataka State, the towns of Karwar, Ankola, Kumta, Honavar and Bhatkal fall within the Konkan. The exact identity of the Mayura River, the limits of the historic Konkan, is indeterminate. The two districts in the state capital Mumbai are also part of Konkan division, maharashtras konkan area consists of,1. Palghar 2. Thane 3. Mumbai city 4. Mumbai suburb 5. Raigarh 6. Ratnagiri 7. Tribal communities in Konkan include Konkana, Warli and Kolcha in Southern Gujarat, Dadra and Nagarhaveli, katkaris are found more in Raigad and also some in Ratnagiri district
14.
Raigad district
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Raigad District is a district in the state of Maharashtra, India. In 2011 the district had a population of 2,635,394, in 2011 urban dwellers had increased to 36. 91% from 24. 22% in 2001. The district is bounded by Mumbai Harbour to the northwest, Thane District to the north, Pune District to the east, Ratnagiri district to the south, and the Arabian Sea to the west. It includes the natural harbour of Pen-Mandwa, which is immediately south of Mumbai harbour. The northern part of the district is included in the metropolis of Navi Mumbai, and its port. The district includes towns/cities of Panvel, Alibag, Mangaon, Roha, Pen, Khopoli, Kharghar, Taloja, Khalapur, Uran, Patalganga, Rasayani, Nagothana, Poladpur, Karjat, the largest city both in area and population is Panvel. The district also includes the isle of Gharapuri or Elephanta, located in Uran which has ancient Hindu, Kulaba district was split from Thane district in 1869. According to the 1872 census, Kulaba district had a population of just over 350,000 people, with 94% of the population being Hindus, in 1881 the population was about 382,000, with 95% of the population being Hindus. Bhagat, Patil, Mhatre, Naik, Thakur, are famous, at this point the northernmost parts of modern Raigad district were retained in Thane district. Kolaba district was subsequently renamed Raigad district, after the British took over the old Colaba and this region, they established four Anglo – Vernacular medium school and 30 government schools in the year 1865–66. In the year 1861 the first school for girls was started in Alibag, the Mission Church started the first English school in Alibag in 1879. College, One Polytechnic Institute and One MMS College, Raigad district is divided into four subdivisions, with fifteen talukas, and 1,967 villages. According to the 2011 census Raigad district has a population of 2,634,200 and this gives it a ranking of 153rd in India. The district has a density of 368 inhabitants per square kilometre. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 19. 36%, Raigad has a sex ratio of 955 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 83. 89%. Several scheduled tribes live in Raigad district, among these are the Mahadev, Koli, Katkari and Thakur. Raigad District is connected to Mumbai by Sion Panvel Expressway, the Mumbai-Pune expressway and NH4 passes through Panvel. NH17, which starts at Panvel, traverses the whole district, the Konkan Railway line starts at Roha and passes through Mangaon and Veer
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Murud, Raigad
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Murud is a taluka city and a municipal council in Raigad district in the Indian state of Maharashtra. Situated at a distance of 42 km from Alibag, Murud is a tourist destination, the Palace of Nawab is located in Murud. The palace was built in 1885 for administration purposes, the palace is still owned by the descendants of the Nawab and is a private property. Murud is known for a beach, and for its proximity to Janjira off the coast of Rajapuri. Murud-Janjira is the name for a fort situated at the coastal village of Murud, in the Raigad district of Maharashtra. It is notable for being the fort along Indias western coast that remained undefeated despite Dutch. Main Land to Murud JangiraAt the time they seized the fort, the Siddis were employed by the Bahamani Sultan of Ahmednagar, Malik Amber initially rose to great prominence as the Prime Minister of Ahmednagar. He is credited with having carried out a revenue settlement of major portions of the Deccan. Despite being feudatories, first of Bijapur and then of the Mughals, the Siddis acted as if they were independent, and lived mainly by piracy on coastal shipping. The piracy of the Siddis provoked the local powers to attempt to suppress them, but despite efforts by the Portuguese, Dutch, English and the Marathas. The fort thus earned a reputation for being impregnable, the same happened with Goa, with the Mughals invading Maratha lands in order to divert Maratha attempts to conquer Goa. HH Nawab Sidi Muhammed Khan II Sidi Ahmad Khan was the last Ruler of Murud-Janjira, a patron of arts and culture, he supported such musicians as Beenkar Abid Hussain Khan. Murud is located at 17. 77°N73. 12°E /17.77,73.12 and it has an average elevation of 159 metres. As of 2001 India census, Murud had a population of 12,551, males constitute 48% of the population and females 52%. In Murud, 11% of the population is under 6 years of age, seafood, prawns, surumai, pomfret, kingfish, mackerel, crab, lobster. Vegetables, eggplant, sweet potato, sugarcane, onions, garlic, fruits, coconut, mango, watermelon, bananas, jack fruit, kokum
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Shrivardhan
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For the fort in Satara see Shrivardhan fort Shrivardhan/Shriwardhan is a taluka, city and municipal council in the Raigad district of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It has developed into a resort, along with the nearby town of Harihareshwar. Located on a peninsula, the town itself boasts many beaches, in addition to proximity to numerous other beach destinations such as Diveagar Beach, people from across Maharashtra come to Shrivardhan and the nearby beaches all year round. The taluka of Shriwardhan is an ancient place of importance and is mentioned as being visited by Arjuna Pandav in his pilgrimage. It was an important port in the past, well known to traders of Ahmednagar and it appears in the accounts of leading European travellers, for example, Ziffardan. In 1538, Dom Joao de Castro described it as having little water under the pier at low tide and it is notable as the birthplace of Balaji Visvanath, the first Peshwa who was the Deshmukh of the town, where there is now a monument to him. In 1713, Shriwardhan was one of the sixteen fortified places in the Konkan ceded by Balaji Visvanath Peshwa to Kanhoji Angre of Kolaba. Balaji was the first Peshwa of Maratha Empire appointed by Chhatrapati Shahu, the distance between Shrivardhan and Harihareshwar is 18 km and they are often considered to be twin cities. Diveagar is a place than both cities, which has garnered it recent notice which has initiated its transformation into a popular tourist destination. Kandivali beach is also an important tourist destination, located just 10 minutes from Shrivardhan by bike, most of the people are engaged in fishing and agriculture, with fish being a popular offering for tourism. Shriwardhan is mostly covered with mango and coconut trees, the city is home to many hotels and resorts, and is popular as a destination for weekend getaways and group picnics. Rickshaws and Six-Seaters are available for travel between Shrivardhan and Harihareshwar, there is also an availability of Maharashtra state transport buses, which provide connections to all neighbouring cities. Buses connect Mumbai, Pune, Harihareshwar and Panvel, the nearest train station is in Mangaon, located 45 km away from Shrivardhan with strong connections throughout the Konkan coast to Pune and Mumbai. Shrivardhan is one of the oldest towns in Maharashtra, the Bhat Deshmukhs of Shrivardhan - later popularly known as Peshwas - witnessed the rise and the fall of Marathas after the Shivaji period. Though the capital of Peshwas was Pune, the institution of Peshwa was born in Shrivardhan in 1713. Balaji Vishwanath took control of the position and gained de facto rule in the Maratha empire under the rule of the Chatrapati king. The Peshwas administered the Maratha kingdom for more than 100 years, the third Peshwa, Balaji Bajirao, built a huge house here in 1750, which has recently been renovated. The statue of Balaji Vishwanath was also installed here in 1988, the temple in the town - Shri Laxminarayan Temple - is the main temple of Peshwas
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Murud-Janjira
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Murud-Janjira is the local name for a fort situated on an island just off the coastal village of Murud, in the Raigad district of Maharashtra, India. The word Janjira is not native to India, and may have originated after the Arabic word Jazeera, Murud was once known in Marathi as Habsan. The name of the fort is a concatenation of the Konkani and Arabic words for Island, morod, the word morod is peculiar to Konkani and is absent in Marathi. Murud-Janjira Fort is situated on a rock off the Arabian Sea coast near the port town of Murud,165 km south of Mumbai. Janjira is considered one of the strongest marine forts in India, the fort is approached by sailboats from Rajapuri jetty. The main gate of the fort faces Rajapuri on the shore and it has a small postern gate towards the open sea for escape. The fort has 26 rounded bastions, still intact, there are many cannons of native and European make rusting on the bastions. On the outer wall flanking the gate, there is a sculpture depicting a tiger-like beast clasping elephants in its claws. The palace of the Nawabs of Janjira at Murud is still in good shape, a special attraction of this fort are 3 gigantic cannons named Kalalbangdi, Chavri and Landa Kasam. These cannons were said to be feared for their shooting range, another gate to the west is sea-facing, called Darya Darwaza. There is also another fortress, named Ghosalgad, which is located on top of the hill around 32 km east of Murud-Janjira, the Fort of Janjira on the sea is the only one of its kind. Janjira Jal-Durg was constructed by Malik Ambar, an Abssynian minister in the service of the Sultan of Ahmednagar, who belonged to the famous Nizamshahi dynasty. The fort, built at the end of the 17th Century, is almost entirely intact even today, despite the ravages of wind and tide, surprisingly, not even Shivaji could acquire it despite 13 expeditions to conquer the fort. His son, Sambhaji, tried a unique approach to capture the fort, but he too failed in his attempt. Not to be deterred, Sambhaji constructed another fort just across the bay, most of the earth that was dug up to build the tunnel was used in the making of this second fort, which was to be the base for future attacks on the sea fort of Janjira. This fort took 22 years to build and is constructed on 22 acres of land, in a journey back in history, visitors can gain access to the Janjira fort from Rajapuri, a small village on the coast. After a short ride in a boat, one can enter the fort through the main entrance. The fort is oval shaped instead of the oblong or square shape
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Nawab
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Nawab or nawaab is an honorific title ratified and bestowed by the reigning Mughal emperor to semi-autonomous Muslim rulers of princely states in South Asia. Nawab usually refers to males, the equivalent is begum or nawab begum. The primary duty of a nawab was to uphold the sovereignty of the Mughal emperor along with the administration of a certain province, in some cases, these titles were also accompanied by jagir grants, either in cash revenues and allowances or land-holdings. During the British Raj, some of the chiefs or Sardars of large or important tribes were given the title. The term nawab was originally used for the subahdar or viceroy of a subah or region of the Mughal empire. It is a Hindustani term, used in Urdu, Hindi, Bengali and many other North-Indian languages, borrowed via Persian from the Arabic, being the plural of naib. In some areas, especially Bengal, the term is pronounced nobab and this later variation has also entered English and other foreign languages. The term nawbab is often used to refer to any Muslim ruler in north or south India while the term nizam is preferred for a senior official—it literally means governor of region. The Nizam of Hyderabad had several nawabs under him, Nawabs of Cuddapah, Sira, Rajahmundry, Kurnool, Chicacole, Nizam was his personal title, awarded by the Mughal Government and based on the term Nazim as meaning senior officer. Nazim is still used for a collector in many parts of India. The term nawab is still technically imprecise, as the title was awarded to Hindus and Sikhs, as well. With the decline of empire, the title, and the powers that went with it. Other former rulers bearing the title, such as the nawabs of Bengal, some princes became Nawab by promotion, e. g. the ruler of Palanpur was diwan until 1910, then nawab sahib. Other nawabs were promoted are restyled to another style, or to and back. The style for a queen is begum. Most of the dynasties were male primogenitures, although several ruling Begums of Bhopal were a notable exception. Before the incorporation of the Subcontinent into the British Empire, nawabs ruled the kingdoms of Awadh, Bengal, Arcot and Bhopal. The title nawab was also awarded as a distinction by the paramount power, similarly to a British peerage, to persons
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Points of the compass
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The points of the compass, specifically on the compass rose, mark divisions of a compass, such divisions may be referred to as winds or directions. A compass point allows reference to a heading in a general or colloquial fashion. A compass is primarily divided into the four cardinal points—north, south, east and these are often further subdivided by the addition of the four intercardinal directions—northeast between north and east, southeast, southwest, and northwest —to indicate the eight principal winds. In meteorological usage, further intermediate points between cardinal and ordinal points, such as north-northeast between north and northeast, are added to give the sixteen points of a wind compass, for most applications, the fractional points have been superseded by degrees measured clockwise from North. In ancient China 24 points of the compass were used, measuring fifteen degrees between points. The names of the compass directions follow the 32-point wind compass rose follow these rules, The cardinal directions are north, east, south, west, the ordinal directions are northeast, southeast, southwest and northwest, formed by bisecting the angle of the cardinal winds. The name is merely a combination of the cardinals it bisects, the eight principal winds are the cardinals and ordinals considered together, that is N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW. Each principal wind is 45° from its neighbour, the principal winds form the basic eight-wind compass rose. The eight half-winds are the points obtained by bisecting the angles between the principal winds, the half-winds are north-northeast, east-northeast, east-southeast, south-southeast, south-southwest, west-southwest, west-northwest and north-northwest. Notice that the name is constructed simply by combining the names of the winds to either side, with the cardinal wind coming first. The eight principal winds and the eight half-winds together yield a 16-wind compass rose, all of the above named points plus the sixteen quarter winds listed in the next paragraph define the 32 points of the wind compass rose. The sixteen quarter winds are the points obtained by bisecting the angles between the points on a 16-wind compass rose. The name of a quarter-wind is X by Y, where X is a principal wind, so northeast by east means one quarter from NE towards E, southwest by south means one quarter from SW towards S. The eight principal winds, eight half-winds and sixteen quarter winds together yield a 32-wind compass rose, in the mariners exercise of boxing the compass, all thirty-two points of the compass are named in clockwise order. The title of the Alfred Hitchcock 1959 movie, North by Northwest, is not a direction point on the 32-wind compass. The traditional compass rose of eight winds was invented by seafarers in the Mediterranean Sea during the Middle Ages. This Italianate patois was used to designate the names of the winds on the compass rose found in mariner compasses. Tramutana, Gregale, Grecho, Sirocco, Xaloc, Lebeg, Libezo, Leveche, Mezzodi, Migjorn, Magistro, Mestre, etc
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Ahmadnagar Sultanate
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The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was a late medieval Indian kingdom, located in the northwestern Deccan, between the sultanates of Gujarat and Bijapur. Initially his capital was in the town of Junnar with its fort, in 1494, the foundation was laid for the new capital Ahmadnagar. In 1636 Aurangzeb, then Mugal viceroy of Deccan finally annexed the sultanate to the Mughal empire, Malik Ahmad was the son of Nizam-ul-Mulk Malik Hasan Bahri. After the death of his father, he assumed the appellation of his father and he founded the new capital Ahmadnagar on the bank of the river Sina. After several attempts, he secured the fortress of Daulatabad in 1499. After the death of Malik Ahmad in 1510, his son Burhan, in the initial days of his reign, the control of the kingdom was in the hands of Mukammal Khan, an Ahmadnagar official and his son. Burhan Shah I died in Ahmadnagar in 1553 and he left six sons, of whom Hussain succeeded him. After the death of Hussain Shah I in 1565, his minor son Murtaza ascended the throne, during his minority, his mother Khanzada Humayun Sultana better known in history as Chand Sultana or Chand Bibi ruled as a regent for several years. Murtaza Shah annexed Berar in 1572, on his death in 1588, his son Miran Hussain ascended the throne. But his reign could last only a more than ten months as he was poisoned to death. Ismail, a cousin of Miran Hussain was raised to the throne, but the power was in the hands of Jamal Khan. Jamal Khan was killed in the battle of Rohankhed in 1591 and soon Ismail Shah was also captured and confined by his father Burhan, winning the kingdom, Chand Bibi ascended the throne. After the death of Chand Bibi in July,1600 Ahmadnagar was conquered by the Mughals, although, Ahmadnagar city and its adjoining areas were occupied by the Mughals, an extensive part of the kingdom still remained in possession of the influential officials of the Nizam Shahi dynasty. Malik Ambar and other Ahmadnagar officials defied the Mughals and declared Murtaza Shah II as sultan in 1600 at a new capital Paranda, Malik Ambar became prime minister and Vakil-us-Saltanat of Ahmadnagar. Later, the capital was shifted first to Junnar and then to a new city Khadki, soon, Shah Jahan ordered the Subhedar of Deccan, Mahabat Khan to finish off the Nizamshahi when the commander-in-chief, Shahaji Bhosale was away. But soon, Shahaji with the assistance of Bijapur, placed an infant scion of the Nizam Shahi dynasty, Murtaza on the throne, the scion Nizam and Shahajis family was stationed in the Mahuli Fort. Shah Jahan quickly made an alliance with Mohammed Adilshah of Bijapur, Shahaji tried to break the siege externally several times, but failed. So Jijabai along with young Shivaji successfully escaped from Mahuli in disguise, however, the mother of scion Nizam, Sajeeda was caught while fleeing along with the Nizam
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Adil Shahi dynasty
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Bijapur had been a province of the Bahmani Sultanate, before its political decline in the last quarter of the 15th century and eventual break-up in 1518. The Bijapur Sultanate was absorbed into the Mughal Empire on 12 September 1686, the founder of the dynasty, Yusuf Adil Shah, was appointed Bahmani governor of the province, before creating a de facto independent Bijapur state. Yusuf and his son, Ismail, generally used the title Adil Khan, Khan, meaning Chief in Mongolian and adopted in Persian, conferred a lower status than Shah, indicating royal rank. Only with the rule of Yusufs grandson, Ibrahim Adil Shah I, the Bijapur Sultanates borders changed considerably throughout its history. Its northern boundary remained relatively stable, straddling contemporary Southern Maharashtra, the Sultanate expanded southward, first with the conquest of the Raichur Doab following the defeat of the Vijayanagar Empire at the Battle of Talikota in 1565. Later campaigns, notably during the reign of Mohammed Adil Shah, extended Bijapurs formal borders, Bijapur was bounded on the West by the Portuguese state of Goa and on the East by the Sultanate of Golconda, ruled by the Qutb Shahi dynasty. The former Bahmani provincial capital of Bijapur remained the capital of the Sultanate throughout its existence, Bijapur was caught up in the instability and conflict resulting from the collapse of the Bahmani Empire. Bijapur eventually conquered the neighbouring Sultanate of Bidar in 1619, the Portuguese Empire exerted pressure on the major Adil Shahi port of Goa, until it was conquered during the reign of Ibrahim II. The Sultanate was thereafter relatively stable, although it was damaged by the revolt of Shivaji, Shivaji founded an independent Maratha Kingdom which went on to become the Maratha Empire, one of largest empires in India, just before the British conquered India. The greatest threat to Bijapurs security was, from the late 16th century, although it may be the case that the Mughals destroyed the Adilshahi it was Shivajis revolt which weakened the Adilshahi control. Various agreements and treaties imposed Mughal suzerainty on the Adil Shahs, by stages, the demands of their Mughal overlords sapped the Adil Shahs of their wealth until the Mughal conquest of Bijapur in 1686. The founder of the dynasty, Yusuf Adil Shah, may have been a Georgian slave who was purchased by Mahmud Gawan from Iran, yet, Salma Ahmed Farooqui, states, Yusuf was a son of the Ottoman Sultan Murad II. According to the historian Mir Rafi-uddin Ibrahim-i Shirazi, or Rafi, Yusufs full name was Sultan Yusuf Adil Shah Savah or Sawahi, the son of Mahmud Beg of Sawa in Iran. Rafis history of the Adil Shahi dynasty was written at the request of Ibrahim Adil Shah II, Rafi-uddin later became the governor of Bijapur for about 15 years. Yusufs bravery and personality raised him rapidly in Sultans favour, resulting in his appointment as the Governor of Bijapur and he built the Citadel or Arkilla and the Faroukh Mahal. Yusuf was a man of culture and he invited poets and artisans from Persia, Turkey and Rome to his court. Hes well known as a ruler who took advantage of the decline of the Bahmani power to himself as an independent sultan at Bijapur in 1498. He married Punji, the sister of a Maratha warrior, when Yusuf died in 1510, his son Ismail was still a boy
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Maratha Empire
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The Maratha Empire or the Maratha Confederacy was an Indian power that existed from 1674 to 1818 and ruled over much of the Indian sub-continent. The Marathas are credited to an extent for ending the Mughal rule in India. The Marathas are Hindu warrior group from the western Deccan Plateau that rose to prominence by establishing a Hindavi Swarajya, known for their mobility, the Marathas were able to consolidate their territory during the Mughal–Maratha Wars and later controlled a large part of India. Chhattrapati Shahu, grandson of Shivaji, was released by Mughals after the death of Emperor Aurangzeb, following a brief struggle with his aunt Tarabai, Shahu became ruler and appointed Balaji Vishwanath and later, his descendants, as the peshwas or prime ministers of the empire. Balaji and his descendants played a key role in expansion of Maratha rule, the empire at its peak stretched from Tamil Nadu in the south to Peshawar in the north, and Bengal and Andaman Islands in the east. In 1761, the Maratha Army lost the Third Battle of Panipat to Ahmad Shah Abdali of the Afghan Durrani Empire which halted their imperial expansion into Afghanistan, ten years after Panipat, the young Peshwa Madhavrao Is Maratha Resurrection reinstated Maratha authority over North India. In a bid to manage the large empire, Madhavrao I gave semi-autonomy to the strongest of the knights. They became known as the Gaekwads of Baroda, the Holkars of Indore and Malwa, the Scindias of Gwalior and Ujjain, the Bhonsales of the Nagpur and the Puars of Dhar and Dewas. In 1775, the East India Company intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in Pune, the Marathas remained the preeminent power in India until their defeat in the Second and Third Anglo-Maratha Wars which left the East India Company in control of most of India. A large portion of the Maratha empire was coastline, which had secured by the potent Maratha Navy under commanders such as Kanhoji Angre. He was very successful at keeping foreign naval ships, particularly of the Portuguese and British, securing the coastal areas and building land-based fortifications were crucial aspects of the Marathas defensive strategy and regional military history. The Maratha Empire is also referred to as the Maratha Confederacy, the historian Barbara Ramusack says that the former is a designation preferred by Indian nationalists, while the latter was that used by British historians. Maratha power was fragmented among several discrete fragments, although at present, the word Maratha refers to a particular caste of warriors and peasants, in the past the word has been used to describe Marathi people, including Marathas themselves. Shivaji was a Maratha aristocrat of the Bhosle clan who is considered to be the founder of the Maratha empire. Shivaji led a resistance to free the Maratha people from the Sultanate of Bijapur and he created an independent Maratha kingdom with Raigad as its capital and successfully fought against the Mughals to defend his kingdom. He was crowned as Chhatrapati of the new Maratha kingdom in 1674, the state Shivaji founded was a Maratha kingdom comprising about 4. 1% of the subcontinent, but spread over large tracts. At the time of his death is was dotted with about 300 forts, about 40,000 cavalry,50,000 foot soldiers and naval establishments all over the west coast. Over time, the kingdom would increase in size and heterogeneity, Shivaji had two sons, Sambhaji and Rajaram
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Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
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Yemen
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Yemen, officially known as the Republic of Yemen, is an Arab country in Western Asia, occupying South Arabia, the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. Yemen is the second-largest country in the peninsula, occupying 527,970 km2, the coastline stretches for about 2,000 km. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, the Gulf of Aden and Arabian Sea to the south, although Yemens constitutionally stated capital is the city of Sanaa, the city has been under rebel control since February 2015. Because of this, Yemens capital has been relocated to the port city of Aden. Yemens territory includes more than 200 islands, the largest of these is Socotra, Yemen was the home of the Sabaeans, a trading state that flourished for over a thousand years and probably also included parts of modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea. In 275 AD, the region came under the rule of the later Jewish-influenced Himyarite Kingdom, Christianity arrived in the fourth century, whereas Judaism and local paganism were already established. Islam spread quickly in the century and Yemenite troops were crucial in the expansion of the early Islamic conquests. Administration of Yemen has long been notoriously difficult, several dynasties emerged from the ninth to 16th centuries, the Rasulid dynasty being the strongest and most prosperous. The country was divided between the Ottoman and British empires in the twentieth century. The Zaydi Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen was established after World War I in North Yemen before the creation of the Yemen Arab Republic in 1962, South Yemen remained a British protectorate known as the Aden Protectorate until 1967 when it became an independent state and later, a Marxist state. The two Yemeni states united to form the modern republic of Yemen in 1990, Yemen is a developing country, and the poorest country in the Middle East. Under the rule of President Ali Abdullah Saleh, Yemen was described as a kleptocracy, according to the 2009 international corruption Perception Index by Transparency International, Yemen ranked 164 out of 182 countries surveyed. President Saleh stepped down and the powers of the presidency were transferred to Vice President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi, the transitional process was disrupted by conflicts between the Houthis and al-Islah, as well as the al-Qaeda insurgency. In September 2014, the Houthis took over Sanaa, later declaring themselves in control of the government in a coup détat, since then, a Saudi-led intervention has taken place, however, it could not stop the civil war. Instead, the Saudis and the others have destroyed some hospitals, schools and homes, Yemen was mentioned in Old South Arabian inscriptions as Yamnat. In Arabic literature, the term includes much greater territory than that of the republic of Yemen. It stretches from the northern Asir Region in southwestern Saudi Arabia to Dhofar Governorate in southern Oman, one etymology derives Yemen from yumn, meaning felicity, as much of the country is fertile. The Romans called it Arabia Felix, as opposed to Arabia Deserta, al-Yaman significantly plays on the notion of the land to the right, when in Mecca facing the dawn, complementary to Al-Sham, the Land to the Left, referring to the Levant
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Aceh
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Aceh, is a special region of Indonesia. The territory is located at the end of Sumatra. It is close to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India, there are 10 indigenous ethnic groups in this region, the largest being the Acehnese people, accounting for approximately 80% to 90% of the regions population. Aceh is thought to have been the place where the spread of Islam in Indonesia began, Islam reached Aceh around 1250 AD. In the early seventeenth century the Sultanate of Aceh was the most wealthy, powerful, Aceh has a history of political independence and resistance to control by outsiders, including the former Dutch colonists and the Indonesian government. Aceh has substantial natural resources, including oil and natural gas, relative to most of Indonesia, it is a religiously conservative area. It has the highest proportion of Muslims in Indonesia, who live according to Sharia customs. Aceh was the closest point of land to the epicenter of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, approximately 170,000 Indonesians were killed or went missing in the disaster. The disaster helped precipitate the peace agreement between the government of Indonesia and the Free Aceh Movement, Aceh was first known as Aceh Darussalam and then later as the Daerah Istimewa Aceh, Nanggroë Aceh Darussalam and Aceh. Past spellings of Aceh include Acheh, Atjeh, and Achin, according to several archaeological findings, the first evidence of human habitation in Aceh is from a site near the Tamiang River where shell middens are present. Stone tools and faunal remains were found on the site. Archeologists believe the site was first occupied around 10,000 BC, historic names such as Indrapurba, Indrapurwa, Indrapatra, and Indrapuri gave some hint of Indian influence on this region. However, there are no archaeological findings that link this region with Hinduism, evidence concerning the initial coming and subsequent establishment of Islam in Southeast Asia is thin and inconclusive. The historian Anthony Reid has argued that the region of the Cham people on the south-central coast of Vietnam was one of the earliest Islamic centers in Southeast Asia. Furthermore, as the Cham people fled the Vietnamese, one of the earliest locations that they established a relationship with was Aceh, furthermore, it is thought that one of the earliest centers of Islam was in the Aceh region. When Venetian traveller Marco Polo passed by Sumatra on his way home from China in 1292 he found that Peureulak was a Muslim town while nearby Basma, Basma and Samara are often said to be Pasai and Samudra but evidence is inconclusive. The gravestone of Sultan Malik as-Salih, the first Muslim ruler of Samudra, has found and is dated AH696. This is the earliest clear evidence of a Muslim dynasty in the Indonesia-Malay area, ibn Batutah, a Moroccan traveller, passing through on his way to China in 1345 and 1346, found that the ruler of Samudra was a follower of the Shafii school of Islam
26.
Ottoman expedition to Aceh
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The Ottoman expedition to Aceh started from around 1565 when the Ottoman Empire endeavoured to support the Aceh Sultanate in its fight against the Portuguese Empire in Malacca. An informal Ottoman-Aceh alliance had existed since at least the 1530s, Sultan Alauddin wished to develop these relations, both to attempt the expulsion of the Portuguese in Malacca, and to extend his own power in Sumatra. Following the 1562 embassy, Aceh appeared to have already received Ottoman reinforcements building its capacity and allowing it to conquer the Sultanates of Aru, the 1564 embassy to Constantinople was sent by Sultan Hussain Ali Riayat Syah. In his message to the Ottoman Porte, the Sultan of Aceh referred to the Ottoman ruler as Khalifah of Islam, after the death of Suleiman the Magnificent in 1566, his son Selim II ordered that ships be sent to Aceh. A number of soldiers, gunsmiths and engineers were sent in an Ottoman fleet, together with ample supplies of weapons, a first fleet was sent, consisting of 15 galleys equipped with artillery. It had to be diverted to fight an uprising in Yemen, only two ships eventually arrived in 1566–67, but numerous other fleets and shipments would follow. The first expedition was led by Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis, the Acehnese paid for the shipments in pearls, diamonds and rubies. In 1568, the Acehnese, besieged Malacca, although the Ottomans do not seem to have participated directly. It seems however that the Ottomans were able to supply cannoneers for the campaign, but were unable to provide due to the ongoing invasion of Cyprus. The Ottomans taught the Acehnese how to forge their own cannon, the craft of making such weapons had spread throughout the Maritime Southeast Asia. Famous cannons were made in Makassar, Mataram, Java, Minangkabau, Melaka, many of these rare artillery pieces were captured by the European colonialists, the bells of several Dutch churches in Aceh were made from melted Ottoman weapons. Some of these still carry the Ottoman crest which were originally on the barrels. By the beginning of the 17th century, Aceh boasted about 1200 medium-sized bronze cannons, the expeditions led to increased exchanges between Aceh and the Ottoman Empire in military, commercial, cultural and religious fields. Subsequent Acehnese rulers continued these exchanges with the Ottoman Empire, the relationship between Aceh and the Ottoman Empire was a major threat to the Portuguese and prevented them establishing a monopolistic trade position in the Indian Ocean. The Portuguese tried to destroy the Aceh–Ottoman–Venetian trade axis for their own benefit, the Portuguese established plans to attack the Red Sea and Aceh, but failed due to a lack of manpower in the Indian Ocean. When Aceh was attacked by the Dutch in 1873, triggering the Aceh War, the claim was rejected by Western powers who feared a precedent being set. Once again Aceh requested military reinforcements from the Ottomans, but the fleet originally designated to help was diverted to Yemen to suppress the Zaidi rebellion there. List of Ottoman sieges and landings Ottoman naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean Dutch East India Company Dutch East Indies Kayadibi, “Ottoman Connections to the Malay World, Islam, Law and Society, ” ISBN 978-983-9541-77-9
27.
Batak
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Batak is a collective term used to identify a number of ethnic groups predominantly found in North Sumatra, Indonesia. The term is used to include the Karo, Pakpak, Simalungun, Toba, Angkola, while the archaeology of southern Sumatra testifies to the existence of neolithic settlers, it seems that the northern part of Sumatra was settled by agriculturalists at a considerably later stage. Reliable historical records of the Batak before 1800 are virtually non-existent, the Batak may be mentioned in Zhao Ruguas 13th-century Description of the Barbarous People, which refers to a Ba-ta dependency of Srivijaya. The Suma Oriental, of the 15th century, also refers to the kingdom of Bata, bounded by Pasai and it has been suggested that the important port of Barus in Tapanuli was populated primarily by Batak people. Tamil remains have been found on key trade routes to the Batak lands, tamil influence on Karo religious practices are also noted, with the pekualuh secondary cremation ritual being specific to the Karo and Dairi people. Moreover the Pustaka Kembaren, a story of the Sembiring Kembaren suggests linkages with Pagarruyung in Minangkabau Highlands. From the 16th century onward, Aceh increased the production of pepper, an important export commodity, in exchange for rice, which grew well in the Batak wetlands. Batak people in different areas cultivated either sawah or ladang, the increasing importance of rice had religious significance, which increased the power of the Batak high priests, who had responsibility for ensuring agricultural success. The Batak speak a variety of related languages, all members of the Austronesian language family. Simalungun is an offspring of the southern branch. Some Simalungun dialects can be understood by speakers of Batak Karo and this is due to the existence of a linguistic continuum that often blurs the lines between the Batak dialects. Batak dialect still influences the dialects in Medan city today, the Batak possess their own script known as the Surat Batak. The writing has chiefly ceremonial importance within traditional religious ceremonies, and was subject to change for this reason. It is likely that the Batak people originally received their writing system from southern Sumatra, the traditional occupation of the Batak was agriculture, hunting and farming. The great lake of Toba provided vast opportunity for freshwater aquaculture since ancient times, the port of Barus on the western coast of Batak lands has become famous as the source of kapur barus. In ancient times, Batak warriors were recruited by neighboring Malay courts as mercenaries. In the colonial era, the Dutch introduced commercial cash crops, such as coffee, sawit palm oil, throughout the history of modern Indonesia, the Batak community has been a significant contributor. Batak people have filled a range of occupations, from running modest tire service workshops to serving as state ministers
28.
Frigate
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A frigate /ˈfrɪɡᵻt/ is any of several types of warship, the term having been used for ships of various sizes and roles over the last few centuries. In the 17th century, this term was used for any warship built for speed and maneuverability and these could be warships carrying their principal batteries of carriage-mounted guns on a single deck or on two decks. The term was used for ships too small to stand in the line of battle. In the late 19th century, the frigate was a type of ironclad warship that for a time was the most powerful type of vessel afloat. The term frigate was used because such ships still mounted their principal armaments on a continuous upper deck. Ship classes dubbed frigates have more closely resembled corvettes, destroyers, cruisers. The rank frigate captain derives from the name of type of ship. The term frigate originated in the Mediterranean in the late 15th century, referring to a lighter galleass type ship with oars, sails and a light armament, built for speed and maneuverability. The etymology of the word is unknown, although it may have originated as a corruption of aphractus, aphractus was, in turn, derived from the Ancient Greek phrase ἄφρακτος ναῦς, or undefended ship. In 1583, during the Eighty Years War, Habsburg Spain recovered the Southern Netherlands from the rebellious Dutch and this soon led to the occupied ports being used as bases for privateers, the Dunkirkers, to attack the shipping of the Dutch and their allies. To achieve this they developed small, maneuverable, sailing vessels that came to be referred to as frigates, in French, the term frigate became a verb, meaning to build long and low, and an adjective, adding further confusion. Even the huge English Sovereign of the Seas could be described as a frigate by a contemporary after her upper decks were reduced in 1651. The navy of the Dutch Republic was the first navy to build the larger ocean-going frigates, the first two tasks required speed, shallowness of draft for the shallow waters around the Netherlands, and the ability to carry sufficient supplies to maintain a blockade. The third task required heavy armament, sufficient to fight against the Spanish fleet, the first of these larger battle-capable frigates were built around 1600 at Hoorn in Holland. The effectiveness of the Dutch frigates became most visible in the Battle of the Downs in 1639, encouraging most other navies, especially the English, to adopt similar designs. The fleets built by the Commonwealth of England in the 1650s generally consisted of ships described as frigates, the largest of which were two-decker great frigates of the third rate. Carrying 60 guns, these vessels were as big and capable as great ships of the time, however, most other frigates at the time were used as cruisers, independent fast ships. The term frigate implied a long hull design, which relates directly to speed and also, in turn, in Danish, the word fregat is often applied to warships carrying as few as 16 guns, such as HMS Falcon which the British classified as a sloop
29.
Man-of-war
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The man-of-war was a British Royal Navy expression for a powerful warship or frigate from the 16th to the 19th century. The term often refers to an armed with cannon and propelled primarily by sails. The man-of-war was developed in England in the early 16th century from earlier roundships with the addition of a second mast to form the carrack, the 16th century saw the carrack evolve into the galleon and then the ship of the line. The evolution of the term has been given thus, Man-of-war, a phrase applied to a line of battle ship, contrary to the usual rule in the English language by which all ships are feminine. It probably arose in the manner, Men of war were heavily armed soldiers. A ship full of them would be called a man-of-war ship, in process of time the word ship was discarded as unnecessary and there remained the phrase a man-of-war. The man-of-war design developed by Sir John Hawkins, had three masts, each three to four sails. The ship could be up to 60 metres long and could have up to 124 guns, four at the bow, eight at the stern, all these cannons required three gun decks to hold them, one more than any earlier ship. It had a maximum sailing speed of eight or nine knots
30.
East India Company
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The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India. The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the Companys shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control, during its first century of operation the focus of the Company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its own armies, exercising military power. Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances, the official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies. Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean, one of them, Edward Bonventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594. In 1596, three ships sailed east, however, these were all lost at sea. Two days later, on 24 September, the Adventurers reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project, the Adventurers convened again a year later. For a period of fifteen years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Anybody who traded in breach of the charter without a licence from the Company was liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo, the governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or committees, who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolphs church in Bishopsgate. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601, in March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the Companys Ascension, thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607–8. Initially, the company struggled in the trade because of the competition from the already well-established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, the factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat. In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal
31.
Rupee
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In the Maldives, the unit of currency is known as the rufiyah, which is a cognate of the Sanskrit rupya. The Indian rupees and Pakistani rupees are subdivided into one hundred paise or pice, the Mauritian and Sri Lankan rupees subdivide into 100 cents. The Nepalese rupee subdivides into one hundred paisas or four sukas or two mohors and it is derived from the noun rūpa shape, likeness, image. The word rūpa is further identified as having sprung from the Dravidian root uruppu, rūpiya was first named to a silver coin weighing 178 grains minted in northern India by Emperor Sher Shah Suri during his brief rule between 1540 and 1545. Suri also introduced copper coins called dam and gold coins called mohur that weighed 169 grains, the Indian rupee was first introduced, issued and termed as rupiya, the silver coin, by Sher Shah Suri, continued by the Mughal rulers. The history of the rupee traces back to Ancient India circa 3rd century BC, Ancient India was one of the earliest issuers of coins in the world, along with the Lydian staters, several other Middle Eastern coinages and the Chinese wen. The term is from rūpya, a Sanskrit term for silver coin, from Sanskrit rūpá, both the Kabuli rupee and the Kandahari rupee were used as currency in Afghanistan prior to 1891, when they were standardized as the Afghan rupee. The Afghan rupee, which was subdivided into 60 paisas, was replaced by the Afghan afghani in 1925, until the middle of the 20th century, Tibets official currency was also known as the Tibetan rupee. The Indian rupee was the currency of Dubai and Qatar until 1959. The Gulf rupee was legal tender until 1966, when India significantly devalued the Indian rupee, in East Africa, Arabia, and Mesopotamia, the rupee and its subsidiary coinage was current at various times. The usage of the rupee in East Africa extended from Somalia in the north, in Mozambique, the British India rupees were overstamped, and in Kenya, the British East Africa Company minted the rupee and its fractions, as well as pice. The rise in the price of silver immediately after the first world war caused the rupee to rise in value to two shillings sterling. In 1920 in British East Africa, the opportunity was taken to introduce a new florin coin. Shortly after that, the florin was split into two East African shillings and this assimilation to sterling did not, however, happen in British India itself. In Somalia, the Italian colonial authority minted rupia to exactly the same standard, the Straits Settlements were originally an outlier of the British East India Company. The Spanish dollar had already taken hold in the Straits Settlements by the time the British arrived in the 19th century, the East India Company tried to introduce the rupee in its place. Formerly, the rupee was divided into 16 annas,64 paise, each circulating coin of British India, until the rupee was decimalised, had a different name in practice. A paisa was equal to two dhelas, three pies and six damaris, other coins for two paisas, two annas, four annas, eight annas were widely in use until decimalization in 1961
32.
Kanhoji Angre
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Kanhoji Angré or Conajee Angria or Sarkhel Angré was one of the first notable chief of the Maratha Navy in 18th century India. He fought against the British, Dutch and Portuguese naval interests on the coasts of India during the 18th century, as a result, his European enemies labeled him a pirate. Despite the attempts of the British and Portuguese to subdue Angre, Angre was born in the village of Angarwadi, six miles from Pune in the year of 1669, in a Sankapal Kshatriya family. They were the guardians of small state named Vir Rana Sank and were known as Sankapal. His mothers name was Ambabai and his father, Tukoji, served at Suvarnadurg under Shivaji with a command of 200 posts, little is known about his early life except that he was involved in daring exploits at sea with his father. He spent much of his childhood in the Suvarnadurg Fort, where he would become the governor. He was originally appointed as Surkhel or Darya-Saranga by the chief of Satara in c, Kanhoji started his career by attacking merchant ships of the British East India Company and slowly gained respect from all the colonial powers. In 1702, he abducted a merchant vessel from Calicut with six English sailors, in 1707, he attacked the frigate Bombay which blew up during the fight. In time, the British feared as he could take any merchant ship except large European ships, when Maratha Chattrapati Shahu ascended the leadership of the Maratha Empire, he appointed Balaji Viswanath Bhatt as his Senakarta and negotiated an agreement with Angre around 1707. This was partly to appease Angre who supported the other ruler, Tarabai, as per agreement, Angre became head of the Maratha Navy. Angre planned to march to Satara where Sahoojee was acting as a head of state, Angre was also placed as chief of 26 forts and fortified places of Maharashtra. In 1720, Angre captured the vessel Charlotte along its owner, Curgenven would be imprisoned for 10 years. Angre employed Europeans, generally Dutch, to command his best vessels and he also employed a Jamaican pirate named James Plantain and entrusted him with significant responsibilities such as the chief gunner post. Angre reemployed Manuel de Castro, who was considered as a traitor and punished by the Bombay Council for his failure in capturing Khanderi Island, in 1698, Angre located his first base at Vijayadurg, Devgad Taluka, located about 485 km from Mumbai. Angre created a base from the fortified islands of Kolaba at Alibaug. Khanderi and Underi off the coast of Thal, Alibaug, and he established a township called Alibag on seashore at southern tip of Mumbai. The main village at that time, was todays Ramnath, Kanhoji even issued his own currency in the form of a silver coin called the Alibagi rupaiya. In 1724, Angre built a port at Puranagad, located in Ratnagiri District, seven guns and 70 cannonballs were found in the port
33.
Baji Rao I
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Pantpradhan Shreemant Peshwa Bajirao Ballal Balaji Bhat was a general of the Maratha Empire in India. He served as Peshwa to the fourth Maratha Chhatrapati Shahu from 1720 until Bajiraos death and he is also known by the names Bajirao Ballal and Thorale Bajirao. Bajirao is credited with expanding the Maratha Empire, especially in the north, in his brief military career spanning 20 years, Bajirao never lost a battle and won 41 battles. According to the British Army officer Bernard Montgomery, Bajirao was possibly the finest cavalry general ever produced by India, Bajirao was born into the Bhat family of Kokanastha Chitpavan Brahmin lineage. His father Balaji Vishwanath was the first Peshwa of Chhatrapati Shahu, Bajirao had a younger brother Chimaji Appa and two sisters, Bhiubai Joshi and Anubai Ghorpade. He spent his childhood in his fathers newly acquired fiefdom of Saswad, Bajirao would often accompany his father on military campaigns. He was with his father when the latter was imprisoned by Damaji Thorat before being released for a ransom, when Vishwanath died in 1720, Shahu appointed the 20-year old Bajirao as the Peshwa. He is said to have preached the ideal of Hindu Pad Padshahi, Bajirao intended to plant the Maratha flag upon the walls of Delhi and other cities governed by the Mughals and he intended to replace the Mughal Empire and create a Hindu-Pat-Padshahi. By the time Bajirao became the Peshwa, Chhatrapati Shahu was almost a titular ruler, the Maratha confederacy was run in his name, but the real power lay in the hands of the Peshwa. By the time of Bajiraos appointment, Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah had recognized Marathas rights over the territories possessed by Shivaji at his death, in 1719, the Mughals had also recognized the Maratha rights to collect taxes in the six provinces of Deccan. Bajirao believed that the Mughal Empire was in decline and wanted to take advantage of this situation with aggressive expansion in north India. Sensing the declining fortune of the Mughals, he is reported to have said, Strike, strike at the trunk and the branches will fall off themselves. Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I, the Mughal viceroy of Deccan, had created his own independent kingdom in the region. For example, the Siddis controlled the Janjira fort, on January 4,1721, Bajirao met Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I at Chikhalthan to settle their disputes through agreement. However, Nizam refused to recognize the Maratha rights to collect taxes from the Deccan provinces, Nizam was made Vizier of Mughal Empire in 1721, but alarmed at his growing power, emperor Muhammad Shah transferred him from Deccan to Awadh in 1723. Nizam rebelled against the order, resigned as the Vizier and marched towards Deccan, the emperor sent an army against him, which the Nizam defeated in the Battle of Sakhar-kheda. In response, Mughal emperor was forced to recognize him as the viceroy of Deccan, the Marathas, led by Bajirao, helped Nizam win this battle. In fact, for his bravery in the battle, Bajirao was honored with a robe, a mansabdari of 7,000, an elephant, after the battle, Nizam tried to appease both the Maratha Chhatrapati Shahu as well as the Mughal emperor
34.
Deccan States Agency
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The agency was created 1933 with the merger of the Kolhapur Agency, Poona Agency, Bijapur Agency, Dharwar Agency and Kolaba Agency. It was composed of a number of states and jagirs in Western India, located in the present-day Indian states of Maharashtra and Karnataka. The princely states included in the agency were under the suzerainty, after Indian Independence in 1947, the states all acceded to the Dominion of India, and were integrated into the Indian state of Bombay. In 1956 the Kannada language speaking southern portion of Bombay state, Bombay State was divided into the new states of Maharashtra and Gujarat in 1960
35.
Indian independence movement
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The Indian independence movement encompassed all activities and ideas aiming to end the East India Company rule and the British Indian Empire in the Indian subcontinent. The movement spanned a total of 190 years, the early part of the 20th century saw a more radical approach towards political self-rule proposed by leaders such as the Lal, Bal, Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh, V. O. Chidambaram Pillai. The last stages of the struggle from the 1920s onwards saw Congress adopt Mohandas Karamchand Gandhis policy of nonviolence and civil resistance. Nationalist like Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, Bhagat Singh and Vinayak Damodar Sawarkar preached armed revolution to achieve self-rule, feminists such as Sarojini Naidu and Begum Rokeya promoted the emancipation of Indian women and their participation in national politics. Babasaheb Ambedkar championed the cause of the sections of Indian society within the larger self-rule movement. The period of the Second World War saw the peak of the campaigns by the Quit India Movement led by Congress, the Indian self-rule movement was a mass-based movement that encompassed various sections of society. It also underwent a process of constant ideological evolution, in 1971, East Pakistan declared independence as the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh. European traders first reached Indian shores with the arrival of the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in 1498 AD at the port of Calicut, in search of the lucrative spice trade. Just over a century later, the Dutch and English established trading outposts on the subcontinent, the decline of the Mughal empire in the first half of the eighteenth century provided the British with the opportunity to establish a firm foothold in Indian politics. After the defeat of Tipu Sultan, most of South India came either under the Companys direct rule, the Company subsequently gained control of regions ruled by the Maratha Empire, after defeating them in a series of wars. The Punjab was annexed in 1849, after the defeat of the Sikh armies in the First, in 1835, English was made the medium of instruction in Indias schools and many Indians increasingly disliked British rule. With the British now dominating most of the subcontinent, many British increasingly disregarded local customs, Puli Thevan was one of the opponents of the British rule in India. He was in conflict with the Nawab of Arcot who was supported by the British and his prominent exploits were his confrontations with Marudhanayagam, who later rebelled against the British in the late 1750s and early 1760s. Nelkatumseval the present Tirunelveli Dist of Tamil Nadu state of India was the headquarters of Puli Thevan, kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja was one of the earliest freedom fighters in India. He was the regent of the princely state of Kottiyur or Cotiote in North Malabar, near Kannur. He fought a war with tribal people from Wynad supporting him. He was caught by the British and his fort was razed to the ground, Rani Velu Nachiyar, was a queen of Indian Sivaganga in 1760–1790. She was the first queen to fight against the British in India, Rani Nachiyar was trained in war match weapons usage, martial arts like Valari, Silambam, horse riding and archery
36.
Ethiopian Empire
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The Ethiopian Empire, also known as Abyssinia, was a kingdom that spanned a geographical area covered by the northern half of the current state of Ethiopia. It existed from approximately 1137 until 1974, when the Solomonic dynasty was overthrown in a coup détat, the country was one of the founding members of the United Nations in 1945. It was the second-to-last country in Africa to use the title of Emperor, the one later was the Central African Empire. Ethiopias human occupation began early, as evidenced by the findings and it is believed that the ancient Egyptians claimed that Punt, known as gold country, was in Ethiopia in 980 BC, according to the report of the Kebra Nagast Menelik I founded the Ethiopian empire. In the 1st century BC. settled the Axumite empire that existed from the 7th century and this kingdom was founded in the 4th century with the Ethiopian Orthodox Church as the state religion and was thus one of the first Christian states. After the conquest of Aksum by Queen Gudit or Yodit, a period began which some refer to as the Ethiopian Dark Ages. According to Ethiopian tradition, she ruled over the remains of the Aksumite Empire for 40 years before transmitting the crown to her descendants, very little is known about the queen or the state, if indeed there even was one she set up. What is evident, however, is that her reign marked the end of Aksumite control in Ethiopia, the last of Queen Yodits successors were overthrown by Mara Takla Haymanot. He founded the Zagwe dynasty in 1137, and married a descendant of the last Aksumite emperor to stake his claim as the legitimate heir to the long dead empire. The kingdoms capital was at Adafa, not far from modern day Lalibela in the Lasta mountains, the Zagwe continued the Christianity of Aksum and constructed many rock-hewn churches such as those at Lalibela. The dynasty would last until its overthrow by a new regime claiming descent from the old Aksumite kings, in 1270 the Zagwe dynasty was overthrown by a king claiming lineage from the Aksumite kings and, hence, Solomon. The thus-named Solomonic dynasty was founded and ruled by the Habesha, the Habesha reigned with only a few interruptions from 1270 until the late 20th century. It was under this dynasty that most of Ethiopias modern history occurred, during this time, the empire conquered and incorporated virtually all the peoples within modern Ethiopia. They successfully fought off Italian, Arab and Turkish armies and made contacts with some European powers. In 1529 Adal forces, led by Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, during the conflict, Adal employed cannons provided by the Ottoman Empire. In the aftermath of the war, Adal annexed Ethiopia, uniting it with territories in what is now Somalia, in 1543, with the help of the Portuguese Empire, the Solomonic dynasty was restored. From 1769 to 1855 the Ethiopian empire was passed through the period of Princes Era and this was a period of Ethiopian history with numerous conflicts between the ras the emperor had a limited power, only dominated the area around the former capital of Gondar. Both the development of society and culture stagnated in this period, religious conflicts, both within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and the Muslims were often used as a pretext for mutual strife
37.
Salute
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A salute is a gesture or other action used to display respect. Salutes are primarily associated with armed forces, but other organizations and civilians also use salutes, the French salute is almost identical to the British Armys. The customary salute in the Polish Armed Forces is the two-fingers salute, in the Russian military, the right hand, palm down, is brought to the right temple, almost, but not quite, touching, the head has to be covered. In the Swedish armed forces, the salute is identical to that of the U. S. armed forces, in the Hellenic Army salute the palm is facing down and the fingers point to the coat of arms. It should be noted that when outdoors, a cover is to be worn at all times when wearing Battle Dress Uniforms/Army Combat Uniforms, but is not required when wearing physical training gear. When the presence of enemy snipers is suspected, military salutes are generally forbidden, others also note that the raising of ones visor was a way to identify oneself saying This is who I am, and I am not afraid. Medieval visors were, to end, equipped with a protruding spike that allowed the visor to be raised using a saluting motion. As late as the American Revolution, a British Army soldier saluted by removing his hat, over time, it became conventionalized into something resembling our modern hand salute. During the Napoleonic Wars, British crews saluted officers by touching a clenched fist to the brow as though grasping a hat-brim between fingers and thumb, when carrying a sword, European military forces and their cultural descendants use a two-step gesture. The sword is first raised, in the hand, to the level of. The blade is inclined forward and up 30 degrees from the vertical, then the sword is slashed downward to a position with the point close to the ground in front of the right foot. The blade is inclined down and forward with the edge to the left. This gesture originated in the Crusades, the hilt of a sword formed a cross with the blade, so if a crucifix was not available, a Crusader could kiss the hilt of his sword when praying, before entering battle, for oaths and vows, and so on. The lowering of the point to the ground is an act of submission. In fencing, the fencers salute each other before putting their masks on to begin a bout. There are several methods of doing this, but the most common is to bring the sword in front of the face so that the blade is pointing up in front of the nose, the fencers also salute the referee and the audience. When armed with a rifle, two methods are available when saluting, the usual method is called present arms, the rifle is brought to the vertical, muzzle up, in front of center of the chest with the trigger away from the body. The hands hold the stock close to the positions they would have if the rifle were being fired, less formal salutes include the order arms salute and the shoulder arms salutes
38.
Sachin State
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The Sachin State was a princely state belonging to the Surat Agency, former Khandesh Agency, of the Bombay Presidency during the era of the British Raj. Its capital was in Sachin, the southernmost town of present-day Surat district of Gujarat State, Sachin state was founded on 6 June 1791. Although over 85% of the subjects were Hindu, the state was ruled by Sunni Muslim Sufis of the Sidi dynasty of Danfa-Rajpuri, the Sidi dynasty is of African origin. Sachin State was under the protection of the Maratha Peshwa until it became a British protectorate, the state became bankrupt in 1829 and during the period between 1835 and 1864 the state was under British civil administration. It had its own cavalry, currency, and stamped paper, Fatima Begum, one of the early superstars in Indian cinema and Indias first female film director, was allegedly married to Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Muhammad Yakut Khan III of Sachin State. Sultana, the daughter of Fatima Begum, became a figure in early Indian movies. Zubeida, leading actress of Indias first talkie film Alam Ara, was her younger sister, Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Muhammad Yakut Khan III, Sachin States last ruler, signed the accession to join the Indian Union on 8 March 1948. The state then became part of Surat district in Bombay Province, the rulers of Sachin State bore the title Nawab and were granted the right of a 9 gun salute by the British authorities. -Regent 7 Feb 1887 -19 Nov 1930 Ibrahim Mohammad Yakut Khan III7 Feb 1887 -4 May 1907. -Regent 19 Nov 1930 -15 Aug 1947 Haydar Mohammad Yakut Khan Fatima Begum Surat Agency Political integration of India Media related to Sachin State at Wikimedia Commons Early Indian Movies
39.
Political integration of India
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In addition, there were several colonial enclaves controlled by France and Portugal. The political integration of these territories into India was an objective of the Indian National Congress. Through a combination of factors, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V. P. Menon convinced the rulers of the princely states to accede to India. The early history of British expansion in India was characterised by the co-existence of two approaches towards the existing princely states, the first was a policy of annexation, where the British sought to forcibly absorb the Indian princely states into the provinces which constituted their Empire in India. The second was a policy of rule, where the British assumed suzerainty and paramountcy over princely states. A more ambitious aim was a scheme of federation contained in the Government of India Act 1935 and this scheme came close to success, but was abandoned in 1939 as a result of the outbreak of the Second World War. Neither paramountcy nor the subsidiary alliances could continue after Indian independence, the British government therefore decided that paramountcy, together with all treaties between them and the princely states, would come to an end upon the British departure from India. Early British plans for the transfer of power, such as the produced by the Cripps Mission. As a result, it insisted on the incorporation of the states into India in its negotiations with British. A few British leaders, particularly Lord Mountbatten, the last British viceroy of India, were uncomfortable with breaking links between independent India and the princely states. The development of trade, commerce and communications during the 19th and 20th centuries had bound the states to the British India through a complex network of interests. Agreements relating to railways, customs, irrigation, use of ports, the result was that Mountbatten personally favoured and worked towards the accession of princely states to India following the transfer of power, as proposed by the Congress. The rulers of the states were not uniformly enthusiastic about integrating their domains into independent India. Bhopal, Travancore and Hyderabad announced that they did not intend to either dominion. Some states proposed a confederation of princely states, as a third entity in addition to India. Bhopal attempted to build an alliance between the states and the Muslim League to counter the pressure being put on rulers by the Congress. A number of factors contributed to the collapse of initial resistance. An important factor was the lack of unity among the princes, others, believing integration to be inevitable, sought to build bridges with the Congress, hoping thereby to gain a say in shaping the final settlement
40.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
41.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
42.
Baroda State
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With the city of Baroda as its capital, during the British Raj its relations with the British were managed by the Baroda Residency. Baroda formally acceded to the Union of India, on 1 May 1949, Baroda derives its native name Vadodara from the Sanskrit word vatodara, meaning in the heart of Banyan tree. It also has another name, Virakshetra or Virawati, mentioned alongside Vadodara by 17th century Gujarati poet Premanand Bhatt and its name has been mentioned as Brodera by early English travellers and merchants, from which its later name Baroda was derived. The Marathas first attacked Gujarat in 1705, by 1712, a Maratha leader Khande Rao Dabhade grew powerful in the region and when he returned to Satara in 1716, he was made the senapati. Thereafter during the Battle of Balapur in 1721, one of his officers, Damaji died in 1721 and was succeeded by his nephew Pilajirao. Thus the Baroda State was founded in 1721, when the Maratha general Pilaji Gaekwad conquered Songadh from the Mughals, Songadh remained the headquarters of the House of Gaekwad until 1866. After the Second Anglo-Maratha War, the East India Company wrested control of much of Gujarat from the Marathas, although the Gaekwads trace their origins to 1720, it was not until considerably later that Baroda can be truly thought of as an independent state. Manaji, for example, placed a Nagari letter ma on his coins, the legends on these coins were still in Persian and the coins themselves were still hand-struck. Finally, in stages during the 1870s, Nagari legends and different designs were introduced and also milled coins began to be issued, eventually featuring the portrait of the Gaekwad on them. Following the death of Sir Khanderao Gaekwad, the popular Maharaja of Baroda, in 1870, it was expected that his brother, Malharrao, however, Malharrao had already proven himself to be of the vilest character and had been imprisoned earlier for conspiring to assassinate Khanderao. As Khanderaos widow, Maharani Jamnabai was already pregnant with a posthumous child, the child proved to be a daughter, and so upon her birth on 5 July 1871, Malharrao ascended the throne. Malharrao spent money liberally, nearly emptying the Baroda coffers and soon reached the Resident of Malharraos gross tyranny. Malharrao further attempted to cover up his deeds by poisoning the Resident, by order of the Secretary of State for India, Lord Salisbury, Malharrao was deposed on 10 April 1875 and exiled to Madras, where he died in obscurity in 1882. Kashirao and his three sons, Anandrao, Gopalrao and Sampatrao walked to Baroda from Kavlana-a distance of some 600 kilometers-to present themselves to Jamnabai, eventually Gopalrao was selected by the British Government as successor and was accordingly adopted by Maharani Jamnabai, on 27 May 1875. He was also given a new name, Sayajirao and he ascended the gaddi at Baroda,16 June 1875 but being a minor reigned under a Council of Regency until he came of age and was invested with full ruling powers on 28 December 1881. The Maharajah of Baroda, Sir Sayajirao Gaekwad III, became one of the most important rulers of the state, founding numerous institutions, including the Bank of Baroda on 20 July 1908. The bank, along with 13 other major banks of India, was nationalised on 19 July 1969, by the Government of India. In 1911, Baroda State spanned 8,182 km2, dr. B. R. Ambedkar writes about his experience with untouchability in Baroda in the second chapter of his autobiographical book, Waiting for a Visa
43.
Gwalior State
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Gwalior State was an Indian kingdom and princely state during the British Raj. It was ruled In subsidiary alliance with the British by the Scindia dynasty of the Marathas and was entitled to a 21-gun salute. The state took its name from the old town of Gwalior, which, although never the capital, was an important place because of its strategic location. The state was founded in the early 18th century by Ranoji Sindhia, under Mahadji Sindhia Gwalior State became a leading power in northern India, and dominated the affairs of the confederacy. The Anglo-Maratha Wars brought Gwalior State under British suzerainty, so that it became a state of the British Indian Empire. Gwalior was the largest state in the Central India Agency, under the supervision of a Resident at Gwalior. In 1936, the Gwalior residency was separated from the Central India Agency, after Indian Independence in 1947, the Sindhia rulers acceded to the new Union of India, and Gwalior state was absorbed into the new Indian state of Madhya Bharat. The state had an area of 64,856 km2, and was composed of several detached portions. The northern section consisted of a block of territory with an area of 44,082 km2. The Malwa section, which included the city of Ujjain, had an area of 20,774 km2 and it was made up of several detached districts, between which portions of other states were interposed, and which were themselves intermingled in bewildering intricacy. In 1940 Gwalior State had 4,006,159 inhabitants, the predecessor state of Gwalior was founded in the 10th century. It was annexed by the Delhi Sultanate and was a part of it till 1398 and it again became a part of the Mughal empire from 1528 to 1731. The head of the received a patent of rank from the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. Ranoji fixed his headquarters in the ancient city of Ujjain, which became the capital of the Sindhia dominion, and on 19 July 1745 he died near Shujalpur. He left three sons, Jayappa, Dattaji, and Jotiba, and two illegitimate, Tukaji and Mahadji. Jayappa succeeded to the territories of Ranoji, but was killed at Nagaur in 1759 and he was followed by his son Jankoji, who was taken prisoner at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 and put to death, and Mahadji succeeded. Madhavrao I, popularly known as Mahadji, and his successor Daulatrao took a part in shaping the history of India during their rule. Mahadji returned from the Deccan to Malwa in 1764, and by 1769 reestablished his power there, in 1772 Madhavrao Peshwa died, and in the struggles which ensued Mahadji took an important part, and seized every chance of increasing his power and augmenting his possessions
44.
Hyderabad State
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Hyderabad State, also known as Hyderabad Deccan, was an Indian princely state located in the south-central region of India with its capital at the city of Hyderabad. It is now divided into Telangana state, Hyderabad-Karnataka region of Karnataka, the state was ruled from 1724 until 1948 by a hereditary Nizam who was initially a Mughal governor of the Deccan before becoming independent. Hyderabad gradually became the first princely state to come under British paramountcy signing an alliance agreement. However, with the rise of militant razakars, India found it necessary to station Indian troops, subsequently, the Nizam signed an instrument of accession, joining India. Hyderabad State was founded by Mir Qamar-ud-din Khan who was the governor of Deccan under the Mughals from 1713 to 1721, in 1724, he once again resumed rule under the title of Asaf Jah. His other title Nizam ul-Mulk, became the title of his position Nizam of Hyderabad, by the end of his rule, the Nizam had become independent from the Mughals, and had founded the Asaf Jahi dynasty. Following the decline of the Mughal power, the region of Deccan saw the rise of Maratha Empire, the Nizam himself saw many invasions by the Marathas in the 1720s, which resulted in the Nizam paying a regular tax to the Marathas. The major battles fought between the Marathas and the Nizam include Palkhed, Rakshasbhuvan, and Kharda, in all of which the Nizam lost. Following the conquest of Deccan by Bajirao I and the imposition of chauth by him, Nizam remained a tributary of the Marathas for all intent, from 1778, a British resident and soldiers were installed in his dominions. In 1795, the Nizam lost some of his own territories to the Marathas, the territorial gains of the Nizam from Mysore as an ally of the British were ceded to the British to meet the cost of maintaining the British soldiers. In 1798, Nizam ʿĀlī Khan was forced to enter into an agreement which put Hyderabad under British protection and he was the first Indian prince to do so. Hyderabad under Nizam Ali Khan was a British ally in the second and third Maratha Wars, by 1918 Nizam Mīr Us̄mān ʿĀlī was given British titles, but the Crown retained the right to intervene in case of misrule. Hyderabad was considered backward, but peaceful, during this time, hyderabad’s Muslim nizams ruled over a predominantly Hindu population. The last Nizam, Osman Ali Khan, was one of the worlds richest men in the 1930s. In 1947 India gained independence and Pakistan came into existence, the British left the rulers of the princely states the choice of whether to join one or the other. On 11 June 1947, the Nizam issued a declaration to the effect that he had decided not to participate in the Constituent Assembly of either Pakistan or India, India insisted that the great majority of residents wanted to join India. The Nizam was in a position as his army numbered only 24,000 men. On 4 September the Prime Minister of Hyderabad Mir Laiq Ali announced to the Hyderabad Assembly that a delegation was about to leave for Lake Success, headed by Moin Nawaz Jung
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Janjira". Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 152.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
Media related to Janjira State at Wikimedia Commons