1.
Honorific speech in Japanese
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The Japanese language has many honorifics, parts of speech that show respect, and their use is mandatory in many social situations. Honorifics in Japanese may be used to social distance or disparity in rank. It includes both special vocabulary and special grammatical forms, honorific speech is often longer, and sometimes much longer, than more direct speech. 聞かせていただけると嬉しいのですが。 Kikasete-itadakeru to ureshii no desu ga, I would, however, be delighted if I may be permitted to ask. When asking for cooperation, the first is usual and polite, the latter is very formal, ご協力の程お願い申し上げます。 Go-kyōryoku no hodo o-negai mōshiagemasu. We respectfully request the favor of a measure of your cooperation and this latter example includes two honorific prefixes, nominalization of a verb, a respectful form, and two humble forms. Honorifics in Japanese are broadly referred to as keigo, and fall under three categories, sonkeigo, respectful language, kenjōgo, humble language, and teineigo. Linguistically, the two are referent honorifics, used for someone being talked about, and the last is an addressee honorific. Each type of speech has its own vocabulary and verb endings, for example, the standard form of the verb to do is suru. This form is appropriate with family members and close friends, the polite form of suru, the addressee honorific, is shimasu. This form is appropriate in most daily interactions and these respectful and humble words are referent honorifics, and thus can coexist with addressee honorific -masu. Polite language, teineigo, is characterized by the use of the sentence ending desu and the verb ending masu, television presenters invariably use polite language, and it is the form of the language first taught to most non-native learners of Japanese. Polite language can be used to refer to ones own actions or those of other people, respectful language, sonkeigo, is a special form or alternate word used when talking about superiors and customers. It is not used to talk about oneself, for example, when a Japanese hairdresser or dentist requests their client to take a seat, they say o kake ni natte kudasai to mean please sit down. However, they would use the verb rather than o kake ni naru to refer to themselves sitting down. The respectful version of language can only be used to refer to others, in general, respectful language is directed at those in positions of power, for example, a superior at work, or a customer. It also implies that the speaker is acting in a professional capacity and it is characterized by lengthy polite expressions. Common verbs may be replaced by more polite alternative verbs, for example suru by nasaru, some of these transformations are many-to-one, iku, kuru, and iru all become irassharu, and taberu and nomu both become meshiagaru
2.
Japanese language
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Japanese is an East Asian language spoken by about 125 million speakers, primarily in Japan, where it is the national language. It is a member of the Japonic language family, whose relation to language groups, particularly to Korean. Little is known of the prehistory, or when it first appeared in Japan. Chinese documents from the 3rd century recorded a few Japanese words, during the Heian period, Chinese had considerable influence on the vocabulary and phonology of Old Japanese. Late Middle Japanese saw changes in features that brought it closer to the modern language, the standard dialect moved from the Kansai region to the Edo region in the Early Modern Japanese period. Following the end in 1853 of Japans self-imposed isolation, the flow of loanwords from European languages increased significantly, English loanwords in particular have become frequent, and Japanese words from English roots have proliferated. Japanese is an agglutinative, mora-timed language with simple phonotactics, a vowel system, phonemic vowel and consonant length. Word order is normally subject–object–verb with particles marking the grammatical function of words, sentence-final particles are used to add emotional or emphatic impact, or make questions. Nouns have no number or gender, and there are no articles. Verbs are conjugated, primarily for tense and voice, but not person, Japanese equivalents of adjectives are also conjugated. Japanese has a system of honorifics with verb forms and vocabulary to indicate the relative status of the speaker, the listener. Japanese has no relationship with Chinese, but it makes extensive use of Chinese characters, or kanji, in its writing system. Along with kanji, the Japanese writing system uses two syllabic scripts, hiragana and katakana. Latin script is used in a fashion, such as for imported acronyms. Very little is known about the Japanese of this period, Old Japanese is the oldest attested stage of the Japanese language. Through the spread of Buddhism, the Chinese writing system was imported to Japan, the earliest texts found in Japan are written in Classical Chinese, but they may have been meant to be read as Japanese by the kanbun method. Some of these Chinese texts show the influences of Japanese grammar, in these hybrid texts, Chinese characters are also occasionally used phonetically to represent Japanese particles. The earliest text, the Kojiki, dates to the early 8th century, the end of Old Japanese coincides with the end of the Nara period in 794
3.
Honorific
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An honorific is a title that conveys esteem or respect when used in addressing or referring to a person. Sometimes, the honorific is used in a more specific sense to refer to an honorary academic title. It is also conflated with systems of honorific speech in linguistics. Typically, honorifics are used as a style in the third person. Use in the first person, by the honored dignitary, is uncommon or considered very rude, Some languages have anti-honorific first person forms whose effect is to enhance the relative honor accorded to the person addressed. The most common honorifics in modern English are usually placed immediately before a persons name, someone who does not want to express a gender with their honorific may occasionally use Mx, Ind. or Misc. Other honorifics may denote the persons occupation, for instance Doctor, Esquire, Captain, Coach, Officer, Reverend for all clergy and/or Father. Holders of an academic Doctorate such as PhD are addressed as Doctor, Some honorifics act as complete replacements for a name, as Sir or Maam, or Your Honor. Subordinates will often use honorifics as punctuation before asking a superior a question or after responding to an order, Yes, sir or even Sir, yes, sir. Judges are often addressed as Your Honor when on the bench, if the judge also has a higher title, that may be the correct honorific to use, Your Lordship. Similarly, a monarch and his consort may be addressed or referred to as Your/His/Her Majesty, Their Majesties, monarchs below kingly rank are addressed as Your/His/Her Highness, the exact rank being indicated by an appropriate modifier, e. g. His Serene Highness for a member of a dynasty, or Her Grand Ducal Highness for a member of a family that reigns over a grand duchy. There are differences between Your Highness and Your Royal Highness, between Princess Margaret and The Princess Margaret, all of these are correct, but apply to people of subtly different rank. An example of a style is Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, which was an official style. In music, a conductor or virtuoso instrumentalist may be known as Maestro. In aviation, pilots in command of a civil aircraft are usually addressed as Captain plus their full name or surname. This tradition is diminishing in the United States and most EU countries. In addition, such countries etiquette rules dictate that this title must be placed on all the letters and social invitations, business cards, identification documents
4.
Sociolinguistics
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Sociolinguistics overlaps to a considerable degree with pragmatics. It is historically related to linguistic anthropology and the distinction between the two fields has even been questioned. As the usage of a language varies from place to place, language usage also varies among social classes, the study of the social motivation of language change, on the other hand, has its foundation in the wave model of the late 19th century. The first attested use of the term sociolinguistics was by Thomas Callan Hodson in the title of his 1939 article Sociolinguistics in India published in Man in India. Sociolinguistics in the West first appeared in the 1960s and was pioneered by such as William Labov in the US. For example, a sociolinguist might determine through study of attitudes that a particular vernacular would not be considered appropriate language use in a business or professional setting. Sociolinguists might also study the grammar, phonetics, vocabulary, the study of language variation is concerned with social constraints determining language in its contextual environment. Code-switching is the given to the use of different varieties of language in different social situations. William Labov is often regarded as the founder of the study of sociolinguistics and he is especially noted for introducing the quantitative study of language variation and change, making the sociology of language into a scientific discipline. Also, sociolinguistics can study a gradual transition of individual values of a word in the context its semantics which occur in some ethnic, altyntsev studied the semantics of the word love among the Ashkenazi Jews from Udmurtia and Tatarstan. Sociolinguistic interviews are a part of collecting data for sociolinguistic studies. There is an interviewer, who is conducting the study, and a subject, or informant, who is the interviewee. In order to get a grasp on a linguistic form and how it is used in the dialect of the subject. There are five different styles, ranging from formal to casual, the most formal style would be elicited by having the subject read a list of minimal pairs. Minimal pairs are pairs of words differ in only one phoneme. Having the subject read a word list will elicit a formal register, the reading passage style is next down on the formal register, and the interview style is when an interviewer can finally get into eliciting a more casual speech from the subject. Of course, the most sought after type of speech is the casual style and this type of speech is difficult if not impossible to elicit because of the Observers Paradox. The closest one might come to CS in an interview is when the subject is interrupted by a friend or family member
5.
Team sport
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A team sport includes any sport which involves two or more players working together towards a shared objective. A team sport is an activity in individuals are organized into opposing teams which compete to win. Examples are basketball, volleyball, water polo, handball, lacrosse, cricket, baseball, Team sports are practiced between opposing teams, where the players interact directly and simultaneously between them to achieve an objective. The objective generally involves teammates facilitating the movement of a ball or similar object in accordance with a set of rules, in order to score points. However, other types of team sports do not involve teammates facilitating the movement of a ball or similar item in accordance with a set of rules, for example, swimming, rowing, sailing, dragon boat racing, and track and field among others are also team sports. In other types of team sports there may not be a team or point scoring, for example. Instead of points scored against a team, the relative difficulty of the climb or walk is the measure of the achievement. In some sports where participants are entered by a team, they do not only compete against members of other teams, for example, motorsport, particularly Formula One. This process is known as team orders and although previously accepted was banned in Formula One between 2002 and 2010, after a controversy involving team orders at the 2010 German Grand Prix however, the regulation was removed as of the 2011 season. Organized sports in athletics, started in Greece in 796 BC, is recorded up to 393 BC and these games, which are Olympic games, were a form to test the skills of warriors, consisted of running, jumping or leaping, wrestling, and javelin throw. In the Bayankhongor Province of Mongolia cave paintings dating back to Neolithic age of 7000 BC depict a wrestling match surrounded by crowds, cave paintings of the Prehistoric times in Japan show a sport similar to sumo wrestling. In Wadi Sura, near Gilf Kebir in Libya, Neolithic in the cave of swimmers shows evidence of swimming in a rock painting, the name athletes is derived from Aethelius, the King of Elis in Olympia, Greece. Before the start of the gods were invoked by offering of mostly fruits. The winner of the race was crowned with a wreath of olive or laurel, in subsequent years monetary attractions were introduced as prize money. However, the practice of offering celery sticks is still in vogue in the 100 m sprint in the Olympics, the present pattern of Olympic Games is akin to the practice followed in the ancient days. The 200 m sprint is known in Greek as short foot race, the 400 m race is equivalent to two stades and called Diaulos in Greek. With the advent of computer gaming and the Internet, Esports which is in vogue for quite a few years was recorded in October 1972 as a video game. A Space war tournament was organized by Stanford University which was titled Intergalactic Spacewar Olympics with an offering of one-year subscription to Rolling Stone
6.
School
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A school is an institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of education, which is commonly compulsory. In these systems, students progress through a series of schools, the names for these schools vary by country but generally include primary school for young children and secondary school for teenagers who have completed primary education. An institution where higher education is taught, is called a university college or university. In addition to these schools, students in a given country may also attend schools before. Kindergarten or pre-school provide some schooling to young children. University, vocational school, college or seminary may be available after secondary school, a school may also be dedicated to one particular field, such as a school of economics or a school of dance. Alternative schools may provide nontraditional curriculum and methods, there are also non-government schools, called private schools. Private schools may be required when the government does not supply adequate, Schools for adults include institutions of corporate training, military education and training and business schools. In homeschooling and online schools, teaching and learning take place outside of a school building. Schools are commonly organized in several different organizational models, including departmental, small learning communities, academies, integrated, and schools-within-a-school. The word school derives from Greek σχολή, originally meaning leisure and also that in which leisure is employed, the concept of grouping students together in a centralized location for learning has existed since Classical antiquity. Formal schools have existed at least since ancient Greece, ancient Rome ancient India, the Byzantine Empire had an established schooling system beginning at the primary level. According to Traditions and Encounters, the founding of the education system began in 425 AD. The sometimes efficient and often large government of the Empire meant that citizens were a must. Although Byzantium lost much of the grandeur of Roman culture and extravagance in the process of surviving, the Byzantine education system continued until the empires collapse in 1453 AD. Beginning in the 5th century CE monastic schools were established throughout Western Europe. Islam was another culture developed a school system in the modern sense of the word
7.
Translation
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Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. While interpreting—the facilitating of oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages—antedates writing, translation began only after the appearance of written literature, there exist partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh into Southwest Asian languages of the second millennium BCE. Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-language idiom and usage into the target-language translation, on the other hand, spill-overs have imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched the target languages. Indeed, translators have helped substantially to shape the languages into which they have translated, because of the laboriousness of translation, since the 1940s engineers have sought to automate translation or to mechanically aid the human translator. The rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for services and has facilitated language localization. Translation studies systematically study the theory and practice of translation, the English word translation derives from the Latin word translatio, which comes from trans, across + ferre, to carry or to bring. Thus translatio is a carrying across or a bringing across, in this case, the Germanic languages and some Slavic languages have calqued their words for the concept of translation on translatio. The Romance languages and the remaining Slavic languages have derived their words for the concept of translation from an alternative Latin word, traductio, the Ancient Greek term for translation, μετάφρασις, has supplied English with metaphrase — as contrasted with paraphrase. Metaphrase corresponds, in one of the more recent terminologies, to formal equivalence, nevertheless, metaphrase and paraphrase may be useful as ideal concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation. Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back into antiquity, the ancient Greeks distinguished between metaphrase and paraphrase. Literally graceful, it were an injury to the author that they should be changed, Dryden cautioned, however, against the license of imitation, i. e. of adapted translation, When a painter copies from the life. He has no privilege to alter features and lineaments, despite occasional theoretical diversity, the actual practice of translation has hardly changed since antiquity. The grammatical differences between languages and free-word-order languages have been no impediment in this regard. The particular syntax characteristics of a source language are adjusted to the syntactic requirements of the target language. When a target language has lacked terms that are found in a language, translators have borrowed those terms. However, due to shifts in ecological niches of words, an etymology is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. For example, the English actual should not be confused with the cognate French actuel, the Polish aktualny, the Swedish aktuell, the translators role as a bridge for carrying across values between cultures has been discussed at least since Terence, the 2nd-century-BCE Roman adapter of Greek comedies. The translators role is, however, by no means a passive, mechanical one, the main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics such as Cicero
8.
Kansai dialect
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The Kansai dialect is a group of Japanese dialects in the Kansai region of Japan. In Japanese, Kansai-ben is the name and it is called Kinki dialect in technical terms. The dialects of Kyoto and Osaka, especially in the Edo period, are also called Kamigata dialect, the Kansai dialect is typified by the speech of Osaka, the major city of Kansai, which is referred to specifically as Osaka-ben. It is characterized as being more melodic and harsher by speakers of the standard language. However, technically, Kansai dialect is not a single dialect, each major city and prefecture has a particular dialect, and residents take some pride in their particular dialectical variations. The common Kansai dialect is spoken in Keihanshin and its surroundings, in this article, it is mainly discussed about the Keihanshin version of Kansai dialect in Shōwa period and Heisei period. Dialects of other areas have different features, some archaic, from the common Kansai dialect, Tajima and Tango dialects in northwest Kansai are too different to be regarded as Kansai dialect and are thus usually included in the Chūgoku dialect. Dialects spoken in Southeastern Kii Peninsula including Totsukawa and Owase are also far different from other Kansai dialects, the Shikoku dialect and the Hokuriku dialect share many similarities with the Kansai dialects, but are classified separately. Kansai dialect has over a years of history. When Kinai cities such as Nara and Kyoto were Imperial capitals, the Kinai dialect and it had an influence on all of the nation including the Edo dialect, the predecessor of modern Tokyo dialect. Literature style developed by the intelligentsia in Heian-kyō became the model of Classical Japanese language, when political and military center of Japan was moved to Edo under the Tokugawa Shogunate and the Kantō region grew in prominence, Edo dialect took the place of Kansai dialect. With Meiji Restoration and the transfer of the capital from Kyoto to Tokyo. As the Tokyo dialect was adopted with the advent of a national standard in Japan, some features. Kansai dialects idioms are sometimes introduced into other dialects and even standard Japanese, many Kansai people are attached to their own speech and have strong regional rivalry against Tokyo. Since the Taishō period, the form of Japanese comedy has been developed in Osaka. Because of such associations, Kansai speakers are often viewed as being funny or talkative than typical speakers of other dialects. Tokyo people even occasionally imitate Kansai dialect to provoke laughter or inject humor, in phonetic terms, Kansai dialect is characterized by strong vowels and contrasted with Tokyo dialect, characterized by its strong consonants, but the basis of the phonemes is similar. The specific phonetic differences between Kansai and Tokyo are as follows, /u/ is nearer to than to, as it is in Tokyo, in Standard, vowel reduction frequently occurs, but it is rare in Kansai
9.
Homophone
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A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in meaning, and may differ in spelling. The words may be spelled the same, such as rose and rose, or differently, such as carat, caret, homophones that are spelled the same are also both homographs and homonyms. Homophones that are spelled differently are also called heterographs, the term homophone may also apply to units longer or shorter than words, such as phrases, letters or groups of letters that are pronounced the same as another phrase, letter or group of letters. A word or unit with this property is said to be homophonous, homophone derives from the Greek homo-, same, and phōnḗ, voice, utterance. Homophones are often used to create puns and to deceive the reader or to suggest multiple meanings, the last usage is common in poetry and creative literature. An example of this is seen in Dylan Thomass radio play Under Milk Wood, some examples from English are, pin and pen in many southern American accents. Merry, marry, and Mary in most American accents, the pairs do, due and forward, foreword are homophonous in most American accents but not in most English accents. Wordplay is particularly common in English because the multiplicity of linguistic influences offers considerable complication in spelling and meaning, malapropisms, which often create a similar comic effect, are usually near-homophones. Homophones of multiple words or phrases are known as oronyms. This term was coined by Gyles Brandreth and first published in his book The Joy of Lex, and it was used in the BBC programme Never Mind the Full Stops, examples of oronyms include, ice cream vs. Notable examples include, Initiate, My wife ate two sandwiches, initiate a bag o tater chips, Mayonnaise, Mayonnaise a lot of people here tonight. Innuendo, Hey dude I saw a bird fly innuendo, Moustache, I Moustache you a question. There are differences in such lists due to dialect pronunciations and usage of old words, in English, there are approximately 88 triples,24 quadruples,2 quintuples,1 sextet and 1 septet. If proper names are allowed then a nonet is Ayr, Aire, Eyre, heir, air, err, ere, eer, are. An extreme example is kikō, which is the pronunciation of at least 22 words, including, 機構, 紀行, 稀覯, 騎行, 貴校 (, 奇功, 貴公, 起稿, 奇行, 機巧, 寄港, 帰校, 気功, 寄稿, 機甲, 帰航, 奇効, 季候, 気孔, 起工, 気候, 帰港. The Korean language contains a combination of words that belong to Korean. For example, 화장하다, to put on makeup and 화장하다, also, 유산, inheritance and 유산, miscarriage. There are heterographs, but far fewer, contrary to the tendency in English, for example, 학문, learning, and 항문, anus
10.
Shinto
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Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the written historical records of the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki in the 8th century. Still, these earliest Japanese writings do not refer to a unified Shinto religion, practitioners express their diverse beliefs through a standard language and practice, adopting a similar style in dress and ritual, dating from around the time of the Nara and Heian periods. The word Shinto was adopted, originally as Jindō or Shindō, from the written Chinese Shendao, the oldest recorded usage of the word Shindo is from the second half of the 6th century. Kami are defined in English as spirits, essences or gods, Kami and people are not separate, they exist within the same world and share its interrelated complexity. Shinto is the largest religion in Japan, practiced by nearly 80% of the population, Shinto has 81,000 shrines and 85,000 priests in the country. According to Inoue, In modern scholarship, the term is used with reference to kami worship and related theologies, rituals. In these contexts, Shinto takes on the meaning of Japans traditional religion, as opposed to religions such as Christianity, Buddhism, Islam. Shinto religious expressions have been distinguished by scholars into a series of categories, Shrine Shinto and it consists in taking part in worship practices and events at local shrines. Before the Meiji Restoration, shrines were disorganized institutions usually attached to Buddhist temples, the current successor to the imperial organization system, the Association of Shinto Shrines, oversees about 80,000 shrines nationwide. Folk Shinto includes the folk beliefs in deities and spirits. Practices include divination, spirit possession, and shamanic healing, some of their practices come from Buddhism, Taoism or Confucianism, but most come from ancient local traditions. Sect Shinto is a designation originally created in the 1890s to separate government-owned shrines from local organised religious communities. These communities originated especially in the Edo period, the basic difference between Shrine Shinto and Sect Shinto is that sects are a later development and grew self-consciously. They can identify a founder, a set of teachings. Sect Shinto groups are thirteen, and usually classified under five headings, pure Shinto sects, Confucian sects, mountain worship sects, purification sects, and faith-healing sects. Koshintō, literally Old Shinto, is a reconstructed Shinto from before the time of Buddhism, today based on Ainu religion and it continues the restoration movement begun by Hirata Atsutane. Many other sects and schools can be distinguished, Kami or shin is defined in English as god, spirit, spiritual essence, all these terms meaning the energy generating a thing. Since the Japanese language does not distinguish between singular and plural, kami refers to the divinity, or sacred essence, that manifests in multiple forms, rocks, trees, rivers, animals, places, and even people can be said to possess the nature of kami
11.
Kami
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Kami are the spirits or phenomena that are worshiped in the religion of Shinto. They can be elements of the landscape, forces of nature, as well as beings and the qualities that these beings express, and include the spirits of venerated dead persons. Many kami are considered the ancient ancestors of entire clans, traditionally, great or sensational leaders like the Emperor could be kami. In Shinto, kami are not separate from nature, but are of nature, possessing positive and negative, good and they are manifestations of musubi, the interconnecting energy of the universe, and are considered exemplary of what humanity should strive towards. Kami are believed to be “hidden” from this world, and inhabit a complementary existence that mirrors our own, to be in harmony with the awe-inspiring aspects of nature is to be conscious of kannagara no michi. Though the word kami is translated in multiple ways into English, in this way, the ambiguity of the meaning of kami is necessary, as it conveys the ambiguous nature of kami themselves. Kami is the Japanese word for a god, deity, divinity and it has been used to describe mind, God, supreme being, one of the Shinto deities, an effigy, a principle, and anything that is worshipped. Although deity is the interpretation of kami, some Shinto scholars argue that such a translation can cause a misunderstanding of the term. The wide variety of usage of the word can be compared to the Sanskrit Deva and the Hebrew Elohim, some etymological suggestions are, Kami may, at its root, simply mean spirit, or an aspect of spirituality. It is written with the kanji 神, Sino-Japanese reading shin or jin, in Chinese, the character means deity. In the Ainu language, the word refers to an animistic concept very similar to Japanese kami. In his Kojiki-den, Motoori Norinaga gave a definition of kami. any being whatsoever which possesses some eminent quality out of the ordinary, because Japanese does not normally distinguish grammatical number in nouns, it is sometimes unclear whether kami refers to a single or multiple entities. When a singular concept is needed, -kami or -kamisama is used as a suffix. The logograms for kami-sama are those used for shén yàng in Pŭtōnghuà, kami-sama can be used for a divinity, or for a human, such as Tezuka Osamu. The term generally used to refer to multiple kami is kamigami, gender is also not implied in the word kami, and as such it can be used to reference either male or female. The word megami, the use of female kami is a new tradition. The Kojiki also includes descriptions of various kami, in the ancient Shinto traditions there were 5 defining characteristics of kami. They can nurture and love when respected, or they can cause destruction, Kami must be appeased in order to gain their favor and avoid their wrath
12.
Christianity in Japan
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Christianity in Japan is among the nations minority religions. Around 1 percent of the population claims Christian belief or affiliation, most large Christian denominations, including Roman Catholicism, Protestantism and Orthodox Christianity, are represented in Japan today. Japan remains one of the most secular nations in the according to the World Values Survey. While there may be up to 3 million Japanese Christians, Christianity in Japan is spread among many denominational affiliations,70 percent of Japanese churches have an average attendance of less than 30, though membership is often double this figure. Except in Japans minority Christian communities, Easter is not typically marked by any form of celebration. Christmas in Japan is celebrated on a larger scale as a commercial and secular festival. Rather than being a family or religious occasion, Christmas is seen as a time to spend with friends or a significant other, Christmas Eve is celebrated as a couples holiday on which romantic gifts are exchanged. It is not as common for couples to go out on dates together, christian-style weddings have become prominent as an alternative to traditional Shinto ceremonies. Architecturally resembling churches, wedding chapels have sprung up across Japan, black gospel music has had an enthusiastic reception in Japan. Stylistic elements from this genre are employed in many J-pop songs, Catholicism in Japan exists in communion with the worldwide Roman Catholic Church under the authority of the Pope in Rome. Presently there are about 509,000 Catholics in 16 dioceses in Japan, the patron saints of Japan are Francis Xavier and Peter Baptist. Christianity was proclaimed initially by the Society of Jesus, joined later on by the less cautious Franciscan order, in 1570 there were 20 Catholic missionaries in Japan. Nagasaki became the center of Japanese Catholicism, and maintained close cultural, a multitude of Japanese Catholics were brutally tortured and killed for their faith, thus becoming martyrs. Many of these martyrs have been canonized, and their memorial is celebrated by each year on February 6 in honor of their fidelity to Christ. Maximilian Kolbe in Nagasaki, and other places, Hepburn went to Japan initially as a medical missionary with the American Presbyterian Mission opening a clinic in Kanagawa Prefecture, near present-day Tokyo. He later founded the Hepburn School, which developed into Meiji Gakuin University, in the dictionarys third edition, published in 1886, Hepburn adopted a new system for romanization of the Japanese language. This system is known as Hepburn romanization because Hepburns dictionary popularized it. Hepburn also contributed to the Protestant translation of the Bible into Japanese, Hepburn returned to the United States in 1892
13.
Emperor of Japan
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The Emperor of Japan is the head of the Imperial Family and is the ceremonial head of state of Japans system of constitutional monarchy. According to the 1947 constitution, he is the symbol of the State, in Japanese, the Emperor is called Tennō, which means heavenly sovereign. In English, the use of the term Mikado for the Emperor was once common, currently, the Emperor of Japan is the only remaining monarch in the world reigning under the title of Emperor. The Imperial House of Japan is the oldest continuing hereditary monarchy in the world, in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, it is said that Japan was founded in 660 BC by Emperor Jimmu. He acceded the Chrysanthemum Throne upon the death of his father, Emperor Shōwa, the role of the Emperor of Japan has historically alternated between a largely ceremonial symbolic role and that of an actual imperial ruler. Since the establishment of the first shogunate in 1192, the Emperors of Japan have rarely taken on a role as supreme battlefield commander, Japanese Emperors have nearly always been controlled by external political forces, to varying degrees. In fact, between 1192 and 1867, the shoguns, or their shikken regents in Kamakura, were the de facto rulers of Japan, although they were nominally appointed by the Emperor. After the Meiji Restoration in 1867, the Emperor was the embodiment of all power in the realm. His current status as a figurehead dates from the 1947 Constitution, since the mid-nineteenth century, the Imperial Palace has been called Kyūjō, later Kōkyo, and is located on the former site of Edo Castle in the heart of Tokyo. Earlier, Emperors resided in Kyoto for nearly eleven centuries, the Emperors Birthday is a national holiday. Unlike most constitutional monarchies, the Emperor is not the nominal Chief Executive, article 65 of the Constitution explicitly vests executive power in the Cabinet, of which the Prime Minister is the leader. The Emperor is also not the commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces, the Japan Self-Defense Forces Act of 1954 also explicitly vests this role with the Prime Minister. The Emperors powers are limited only to important ceremonial functions, article 4 of the Constitution stipulates that the Emperor shall perform only such acts in matters of state as are provided for in the Constitution and he shall not have powers related to government. It also stipulates that the advice and approval of the Cabinet shall be required for all acts of the Emperor in matters of state, article 4 also states that these duties can be delegated by the Emperor as provided for by law. Article 6 of the Constitution delegates the Emperor the following ceremonial roles, Appointment of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court as designated by the Cabinet. Dissolution of the House of Representatives, proclamation of general election of members of the Diet. Attestation of the appointment and dismissal of Ministers of State and other officials as provided for by law, attestation of general and special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights. Attestation of instruments of ratification and other documents as provided for by law
14.
Empress of Japan
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Empress of Japan or Japanese Empress means a female imperial ruler. The term can mean an empress consort. The current empress consort is Empress Michiko, there were eight female imperial reigns in Japans early history between 593 and 770, and two more in the early modern period. After many centuries, female reigns came to be prohibited only when the Imperial Household Law was issued in 1889 alongside the new Meiji Constitution. 206–269 —legendary/mythical, removed from the list of Emperors in the 19th century Empress Suiko, 593–628—first ruling empress Empress Kōgyoku, r. 642–645—previously Princess Takara Empress Saimei, r, 715–724—previously Princess Hidaka Empress Kōken, r. 1762–1771—most recent ruling empress In ancient Japan, most of the consorts were princesses. After Kōmyō Kōgō, daughters of Fujiwara clan or other clans could become empresses consort, originally Chūgū meant the palace for Kōgō, Kōtaigō, or Tai-Kōtaigō. Until mid-Heian Period, Emperor had only one consort. Since Emperor Ichijō, because some Emperors had two empresses Consort, one of them was called Kōgō and another one was called Chūgū, after maiden Princess Yasuko became Kōgō as the mother-in-law of Emperor Horikawa, maiden princesses also became Kōgō. Kōgō is the title of an empress consort. The title, still in use, is conferred on an emperors wife who had given birth to the heir to the throne. The title was first awarded posthumously in 806 to the mother of Emperor Heizei. Chūgū was a term which evolved during the Heian period, for a time, chūgū replaced kōgō, and then the titles became interchangeable. The numbers of kōgō varied, but there was only one Chūgū at a time, the title kōtaigō was given to the wife of an ex-emperor, and the title tai-kōtaigō came to be used by a dowager empress
15.
Imperial House of Japan
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Under the present Constitution of Japan, the Emperor is the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people. Other members of the family perform ceremonial and social duties. The duties as an Emperor are passed down the line to their children, the Japanese monarchy is the oldest continuous hereditary monarchy in the world. The imperial house recognizes 125 monarchs beginning with the legendary Emperor Jimmu and continuing up to the current emperor, Akihito, see its family tree. Historical evidence for the first 29 emperors is marginal by modern standards, in English, shinnō and ō are both translated as prince as well as shinnōhi, naishinnō, ōhi and joō as princess. There are currently 19 members of the Imperial Family, The Emperor was born at Tokyo Imperial Palace on 23 December 1933 and he was married on 10 April 1959 to Michiko Shōda. Emperor Akihito succeeded his father as emperor on 7 January 1989 and he became heir apparent upon his fathers accession to the throne. Crown Prince Naruhito was married on 9 June 1993 to Masako Owada, the Crown Princess was born on 9 December 1963, the daughter of Hisashi Owada, a former vice minister of foreign affairs and former permanent representative of Japan to the United Nations. The Crown Prince and Crown Princess have one daughter, The Princess Toshi The Prince Akishino, the Emperors second son and his childhood title was Prince Aya. He received the title Prince Akishino and permission to start a new branch of the family upon his marriage to Kiko Kawashima on 29 June 1990. The Princess Akishino was born on 11 September 1966, the daughter of Tatsuhiko Kawashima and his childhood title was Prince Yoshi. He received the title Prince Hitachi and permission to set up a new branch of the family on 1 October 1964. The Princess Hitachi was born on 19 July 1940, the daughter of former Count Yoshitaka Tsugaru, Prince and Princess Hitachi have no children. The Princess Mikasa is the widow of the Prince Mikasa, the son of Emperor Taishō and Empress Teimei. The Princess was born on 4 June 1923, the daughter of Viscount Masanori Takagi. Princess Mikasa has two daughters and three sons with the late Prince Mikasa, Princess Tomohito of Mikasa is the widow of Prince Tomohito of Mikasa, the eldest son of the Prince and Princess Mikasa and a first cousin of Emperor Akihito. The Princess was born on 9 April 1955, the daughter of Takakichi Asō, chairman of Asō Cement Co. and his wife, Kazuko, the Princess was born 10 July 1953, the eldest daughter of Shigejiro Tottori. She married the prince on 6 December 1984, originally known as Prince Norihito of Mikasa, he received the title Prince Takamado and permission to start a new branch of the imperial family on 1 December 1984
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National Diet
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The National Diet is Japans bicameral legislature. It is composed of a house called the House of Representatives. Both houses of the Diet are directly elected under parallel voting systems, in addition to passing laws, the Diet is formally responsible for selecting the Prime Minister. The Diet was first convened as the Imperial Diet in 1889 as a result of adopting the Meiji Constitution, the Diet took its current form in 1947 upon the adoption of the post-war constitution and is considered by the Constitution to be the highest organ of state power. The National Diet Building is located in Nagatachō, Chiyoda, Tokyo, the houses of the Diet are both elected under parallel voting systems. Voters are also asked to cast two votes, one for a candidate in a constituency, and one for a party list. Any national of Japan at least 18 years of age may vote in these elections, Japans parallel voting system is not to be confused with the Additional Member System used in many other nations. House of Councillors, Of 242 members,146 are elected from 47 prefectural constituencies by means of the Single Non-Transferable Vote, the remaining 96 are elected by open list PR from a single national list. However it does guarantee universal adult suffrage and a secret ballot and it also insists that the electoral law must not discriminate in terms of race, creed, sex, social status, family origin, education, property or income. Generally, the election of Diet members is controlled by statutes passed by the Diet and this is a source of contention concerning re-apportionment of prefectures seats in response to changes of population distribution. For example, the Liberal Democratic Party had controlled Japan for most of its post-war history, in recent elections the malapportionment ratio amounted to 4.8 in the House of Councillors and 2.3 in the House of Representatives. Candidates for the house must be 25 years old or older and 30 years or older for the upper house. All candidates must be Japanese nationals, under Article 49 of Japans Constitution, Diet members are paid about ¥1.3 million a month in salary. Article 41 of the Constitution describes the National Diet as the highest organ of State power and this statement is in forceful contrast to the Meiji Constitution, which described the Emperor as the one who exercised legislative power with the consent of the Diet. The Diets responsibilities include not only the making of laws but also the approval of the national budget that the government submits. It can also initiate draft constitutional amendments, which, if approved, the Diet may conduct investigations in relation to government. The Prime Minister must be designated by Diet resolution, establishing the principle of legislative supremacy over executive government agencies, the government can also be dissolved by the Diet if it passes a motion of no confidence introduced by fifty members of the House of Representatives. Government officials, including the Prime Minister and Cabinet members, are required to appear before Diet investigative committees, the Diet also has the power to impeach judges convicted of criminal or irregular conduct
17.
Takako Doi
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Takako Doi was a prominent Japanese politician from 1980 until her retirement in 2005. She was the first female Lower House Speaker in Japan, the highest position a female politician has ever held in the modern history. Doi was born in Hyōgo Prefecture and graduated from Doshisha University and she was elected to the House of Representatives, the lower house of the Diet, as a member of the Japan Socialist Party in 1969, representing the 2nd district of Hyōgo. She pressured the Diet to sign the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women in 1985. Doi became Vice Chair of the JSP in 1984 and the first female leader of a party division in Japanese history in 1986. In 1994, no party held a majority in the House, the JSPs president, Tomiichi Murayama, became Prime Minister. However, the collapsed in 1996 and, following a disastrous electoral defeat for the JSP later that year. Doi was an opposition politician, but as party leader she saw her party collapse. Her chief act as leader was to rename the JSP as the Social Democratic Party, moderating the characters for Socialism by adding Democratic to the party name, Doi said that she wanted to form a more moderate party and bring more women into politics. Doi was responsible for recruiting young women with grass-roots activist backgrounds, in 1998, former members of the JSP and of other parties formed the Democratic Party of Japan, and the SDP became a third-tier opposition party, watching its numbers steadily decline. The SDP was a party by the time the reality of the Japanese abductees taken by North Korea came to light in 2003. Doi apologized to the families and claimed that North Korean authorities had been deceiving her all along, Doi lost her directly elected seat in the House of Representatives in the 2003 election but remained in the House, having won a seat under the proportional representation system. She lost this seat in 2005 elections and she died in a hospital in Hyogo Prefecture of pneumonia on September 20,2014. On the North Korea Question An interview with Fuwa Tetsuzo, JCP Central Committee Chair, Japan Press Weekly, January 2004
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Kawaii
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Kawaii is the quality of cuteness in the context of Japanese culture. It has become a prominent aspect of Japanese popular culture, entertainment, clothing, food, toys, personal appearance, behavior, and mannerisms. The word kawaii originally derives from the phrase 顔映し kao hayushi, the second morpheme is cognate with -bayu in mabayui dazzling, glaring, blinding, too bright. Over time, the meaning changed into the meaning of cute. It is most commonly written in hiragana, かわいい, but the ateji, the kanji in the ateji literally translates to able to be loved, can/may love, lovable. The original definition of kawaii came from Lady Murasakis The Tale of Genji where it referred to pitiable qualities, the rise of cuteness in Japanese culture emerged in the 1970s as part of a new style of writing. Many teenage girls began to write laterally using mechanical pencils and these pencils produced very fine lines, as opposed to traditional Japanese writing that varied in thickness and was vertical. The girls would write in big, round characters and they added little pictures to their writing, such as hearts, stars, emoticon faces. These pictures would be inserted randomly and made the difficult to read. As a result, this writing style caused a lot of controversy and was banned in many schools, during the 1980s, however, this new cute writing was adopted by magazines and comics and was put onto packaging and advertising. From 1984 to 1986, Kazuma Yamane studied the development of cute handwriting and his conclusion was based on an observation that cute handwriting predates the availability of technical means for producing rounded writing in comics. Tomoyuki Sugiyama, author of Cool Japan, claims cute fashion in Japan can be traced back to the Edo Period with the popularity of netsuke, because of this growing trend, companies such as Sanrio came out with merchandise like Hello Kitty. Hello Kitty was a success and the obsession with cute continued to progress in other areas as well. The 1980s also saw the rise of cute idols, such as Seiko Matsuda, women began to emulate Seiko Matsuda and her cute fashion style and mannerisms, which emphasized the helplessness and innocence of young girls. The market for cute merchandise in Japan used to be driven by Japanese girls between 15 and 18 years old. No longer limited to teenagers, however, the spread of making things as cute as possible, soichi Masubuchi, in his work Kawaii Syndrome, claims cute and neat have taken precedence over the former Japanese aesthetics of beautiful and refined. As a cultural phenomenon, cuteness is increasingly accepted in Japan as a part of Japanese culture, Japanese women who feign kawaii behaviors that could be viewed as forced or inauthentic are called burikko and this is considered a gender performance. The term burikko is formed with buri, a pun on furi and it was a neologism developed in the 1980s by comedian Kuniko Yamada
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Moe anthropomorphism
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Moe anthropomorphism is a form of anthropomorphism where moe qualities are given to non-human beings, objects, concepts, or phenomena. In addition to moe features, moe anthropomorphisms are also characterized by their accessories, the characters here, usually in a kind of cosplay, are drawn to represent an inanimate object or popular consumer product. This form of anthropomorphism is very common in otaku subcultures, with the exception of kemonomimi, many moe anthropomorphizations started as dōjin efforts. At first many were the results of discussions on Japanese internet forums such as 2channel or Futaba Channel, the trend spread out of dōjin circles as commercial anime and manga also prominently feature characters who are personifications of inanimate objects. Kemonomimi, literally meaning animal ears, is the concept of drawing animals as bishōjo or bishōnen, catgirls and catboys are the most prolific in this category, although bunnygirls, foxgirls, and dog girls are also common. Kemonomimi characters typically appear human except for added animal-like qualities, the concept has some connection to furry fandom. The idea of Shiitake-chan came in 2001 on 2channel, starting with a poster who claims he saw the Stop button as a shiitake. When Microsoft released Windows 7 in Japan, they included a theme centered around a personification of the OS named Nanami Madobe with voice samples from Nana Mizuki. Microsoft used another personification involving two girls named Yū Madobe and Ai Madobe to promote Windows 8 in Japan, since the creation of the OS-tans, other software and websites have been anthropomorphized as well. For example, the free encyclopedia Wikipedia has its own Wikipe-tan, chinese netizens have created a Green Dam Girl to parody Chinas content-control software Green Dam Youth Escort. In 2010, Taiwanese illustrator known as shinia on Pixiv created a personification of Microsoft Silverlight named Hikaru Aizawa, in 2013, Microsoft Singapore introduced Inori Aizawa, a mascot for Internet Explorer. The manga and anime series Aoi Sekai no Chūshin de features characters who are personifications of computer games, video games with characters based on them include Sonic the Hedgehog, Super Mario and Tetris. SeHa Girl features personifications of video game hardware by Sega, elements of the Japanese constitution have been anthropomorphised into moe girls, such as Article 9, which prevents Japan from waging war, is portrayed as a peace-loving girl. In 2015, Internet users created ISIS-chan, a moe anthropomorphized character of the jihadist group Islamic State of Iraq, images of her have been used by Anonymous to dilute the Islamic States online propaganda. Other things have also been given moe characteristics, Cells The manga Cells at Work, depicts the cells of the human body as both male and female characters. Charcoal Based on binchōtan and other types of charcoal, the anime, countries As with national personifications, moe versions of various countries are present. For example, Japan is Nihon-chan, Afghanistan is Afuganisu-tan — both have their own webcomics in Japan, food Habanero-tan, the unofficial mascot of Bōkun Habanero, and Bisuke-tan for biscuits that KFC sells in Japan. The light novel series Akikan. has soda cans that magically turn into girls, jelly flavours have also been anthropomorphised
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Afghanis-tan
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Afghanis-tan or Afghanistan is a Japanese yonkoma manga, originally published as a webcomic, by Timaking. It is also the name of the heroine of the manga, the title character, a short and clumsy bishōjo, is a national personification of Afghanistan. Other female characters personify the nearby nations of Central Asia, such as Pakistan and Uzbekistan, nations that have fought wars in Afghanistan at various times, such as Britain, the Soviet Union and the United States also make appearances. The Taliban government and Al-Qaeda terrorist group are represented in the comic. Each yonkoma strip is accompanied by an Afghan Memo that explains in some of the background. Additional pages give short biographies of the characters, the fact that it is a moe manga depicting international conflict, and the fact that it personifies countries, have drawn a little criticism. However, it has drawn attention for its attempt to blend an appropriate depiction of the history. Afghanis-tan has finished, and work on its sequel, Pakis-tan, was suspended after four editions, on July 26,2005, after several delays, the series went on sale as a comic book, Afghanis-tan. According to her description, she trips and falls a lot. Her design appears to be based on Sharbat Gula, an Afghan woman whose iconic photo appeared on the cover of the June 1985 issue of National Geographic, Pakis-tan Boastful, and often feels lonely, especially without Kashmir. Uzbekis-tan Stubborn and a sore loser, often quarrels with Pakis-tan. idolizes Older-Sister Russia. Tajikis-tan A salt-of-the-earth Edokko type, quick to argue and quick to make up, always riding on a wooden horse. Turkmenis-tan A girl with a mysterious personality - one never knows her true thoughts, meriken The richest person in the neighborhood. Al-Nyaida A group of feral cats causing trouble in the neighborhood, come to live in Afghanis-tans house while she is out. As it makes it easy for readers to learn about the history and geography of Central Asia, topics which Japanese people are not very familiar with, it could be thought of as an educational text. Around the time when the book was published by Sansai Books, again, there is criticism that using the style of moe trivializes the situation. Hetalia, Axis Powers — a series with a similar premise, much of this article was translated from the equivalent article in the Japanese Wikipedia, accessed on September 1,2006. Popular Web Mangaka Vanishes After Winny Incident, 5-2-06 Partial archive of Afghanis-tan site Afghanis-tan at Anime News Networks encyclopedia
21.
OS-tan
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The OS-tan is an Internet phenomenon or meme that originated within the Japanese Futaba Channel. The OS-tan are the moe anthropomorphism/personification of several operating systems by various amateur Japanese artists, the OS-tan are typically depicted as women, with the OS-tan representative of Microsoft Windows operating systems usually depicted as sisters of varying ages. The concept of the OS-tan is reported to have begun as a personification of the perception of Windows Me as unstable. Discussions on Futaba Channel likened this to the stereotype of a fickle, troublesome girl, one of the early works to predominantly feature the OS-tan was an interactive Flash animation showing a possible intro to an imaginary anime show known as Trouble Windows. A fansub of this was created and is partly responsible for the spread of the OS-tan to English language imageboards. The OS-tan are not a concept and are predated by Toys iMac Girl. Ohzora Publishing produced one book based on OS-tan characters, titled Trouble Windows OS-tan FanBook and it includes illustrations by over 25 contributors. It also includes 95-tan, ME-tan, XP-tan figures, titled OS Girl 95, OS Girl me, OS Girl XP respectively, ME-tan, 2K-tan, XP-tan were designed by GUHICO of Stranger Workshop, while 95-tan was designed by Fujisaki Shiro from H. B. Company. Parthenon Production Limited, company had commercialized Pink Companys OS-tan products, MALINO from Deja Vu ArtWorks produced the Me Document and Shared Folder. Trilogy, which were sold in digital format, Japanese version of Windows 7 Ultimate DSP Edition includes the unofficial Nanami Madobe mascot. This inspired Microsoft Taiwan to launch an official mascot for Microsoft Silverlight and this was followed up by giving Hikaru sisters, Lei, Aoi, and Yu. In 2009, an Ubuntu-based comic titled Ubunchu. was serialized in Kantan Ubuntu and it was authored by Hiroshi Seo, with English version translated by Fumihito Yoshida, Hajime Mizuno, Martin Owens, Arturo Silva, and Anton Ekblad. The Japanese suffix Tan is a mispronunciation of Chan, an informal, intimate, and diminutive honorific suffix for a used for friends, family. Normal suffixes including San, Chan, and Kun are also used with OS-tan depending on the character, the name of Windows 10 mascot is officially introduced as Touko Madobe on 31 July 2015. The Internet Explorer mascot confirmed Tōkos name on its official Facebook page and her name is a homonym for one of the readings for ten in Japanese, too/とお. Her name is named by fans through an online poll, according to her profile, her origins are the Madobe family and she’s set 100 years in the future. She likes online gaming and supporting others and her personal traits are being an excellent student, and expanding her knowledge on technology. Her manager often worries since she’s a bit spontaneous and she also enjoys cheering on people who are working hard and doing their best
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Martial arts
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Although the term martial art has become associated with the fighting arts of eastern Asia, it originally referred to the combat systems of Europe as early as the 1550s. The term is derived from Latin, and means arts of Mars, Martial arts may be categorized along a variety of criteria, including, Traditional or historical arts vs. contemporary styles of folk wrestling and modern hybrid martial arts. Such traditions include eskrima, silat, kalaripayat, kobudo, and historical European martial arts, Many Chinese martial arts also feature weapons as part of their curriculum. Similarly, modern Western martial arts and sports include fencing, stick-fighting systems like canne de combat or singlestick. Combat-oriented Health-oriented Many martial arts, especially those from Asia, also teach side disciplines which pertain to medicinal practices and this is particularly prevalent in traditional Asian martial arts which may teach bone-setting, herbalism, and other aspects of traditional medicine. Spirituality-oriented Martial arts can also be linked with religion and spirituality, numerous systems are reputed to have been founded, disseminated, or practiced by monks or nuns. Throughout Asia, meditation may be incorporated as part of training, in those countries influenced by Hindu-Buddhist philosophy, the art itself may be used as an aid to attaining enlightenment. Japanese styles, when concerning non-physical qualities of the combat, are strongly influenced by Mahayana Buddhist philosophy. Concepts like empty mind and beginners mind are recurrent, aikido, for instance, can have a strong philosophical belief of the flow of energy and peace fostering, as idealised by its founder Morihei Ueshiba. Traditional Korean martial arts place emphasis on the development of the spiritual and philosophical development. A common theme in most Korean styles, such as taekkyeon and taekwondo, is the value of peace in a practitioner. The Koreans believe that the use of force is only justified through defense. Many such martial arts incorporate music, especially strong percussive rhythms, the oldest works of art depicting scenes of battle are cave paintings from Spain dated between 10,000 and 6,000 BCE that show organized groups fighting with bows and arrows. Chinese martial arts originated during the Xia Dynasty more than 4000 years ago and it is said the Yellow Emperor Huangdi introduced the earliest fighting systems to China. The Yellow Emperor is described as a general who, before becoming Chinas leader, wrote lengthy treatises on medicine, astrology. One of his opponents was Chi You who was credited as the creator of jiao di. The foundation of modern Asian martial arts is likely a blend of early Chinese, during the Warring States period of Chinese history extensive development in martial philosophy and strategy emerged, as described by Sun Tzu in The Art of War. Legendary accounts link the origin of Shaolinquan to the spread of Buddhism from India during the early 5th century AD, with the figure of Bodhidharma, to China
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Dojo
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Dojo is a Japanese term which literally means place of the way. Initially, dōjōs were adjunct to temples, the term can also refer to a formal training place for any of the Japanese arts ending in do, meaning way. A proper Japanese martial arts dōjō is considered special and is cared for by its users. Shoes are not worn in a dōjō, in many styles it is traditional to conduct a ritual cleaning of the dōjō at the beginning and/or end of each training session. This attitude has become lost in many modern dōjō that are founded, in fact, it is not uncommon that in traditional schools, dōjō are rarely used for training at all, instead being reserved for more symbolic or formal occasions. The actual training is conducted typically outdoors or in a formal area. Many traditional dōjō follow a pattern with shomen and various entrances that are used based on student. Typically students will enter in the corner of the dōjō with instructors in the upper right corner. Shomen typically contains a Shintō shrine with a sculpture, flower arrangement, the term kamiza means place of honor and a related term, kamidana refers to the shrine itself. Other artifacts may be displayed throughout the dōjō, such as kanban that authorize the school in a style or strategy and it is not uncommon to find the name of the dōjō and the dōjō kun displayed prominently at shomen as well. Visitors may have a place reserved, depending on their rank. Weapons and other training gear will normally be found on the back wall, a hombu dōjō is the central training facility and administrative headquarters of a particular martial arts style. The alternative term zendo is more specific, and more widely used, european Sōtō Zen groups affiliated with the International Zen Association prefer to use dōjō instead of zendo to describe their meditation halls as did their founding master, Taisen Deshimaru
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Doctor of Philosophy
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A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
25.
Katakana
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Katakana is a Japanese syllabary, one component of the Japanese writing system along with hiragana, kanji, and in some cases the Latin script. The word katakana means fragmentary kana, as the characters are derived from components of more complex kanji. Katakana and hiragana are both kana systems, with one or two minor exceptions, each syllable in the Japanese language is represented by one character, or kana, in each system. Katakana are characterized by short, straight strokes and sharp corners, there are two main systems of ordering katakana, the old-fashioned iroha ordering, and the more prevalent gojūon ordering. The gojūon inherits its vowel and consonant order from Sanskrit practice, in vertical text contexts, which used to be the default case, the grid is usually presented as 10 columns by 5 rows, with vowels on the right hand side and ア on top. Katakana glyphs in the row or column do not share common graphic characteristics. The 50-sound table is often amended with a character, the nasal stop ン. This can appear in positions, most often next to the N signs or, because it developed from one of many mu hentaigana. It may also be appended to the row or the a column. Here, it is shown in a table of its own, the script includes two diacritic marks that change the initial sound of a syllabogram. Both appear mutually exclusive at the right of the base character. A double dot, called dakuten, indicates a primary alteration, most often it voices the consonant, k→g, s→z, t→d and h→b, for example, secondary alteration, where possible, is shown by a circular handakuten, h→p, For example, ハ becomes パ. Diacritics, though used for over a thousand years, only became mandatory in the Japanese writing system in the half of the 20th century. Their application is limited in proper writing systems, but may be more extensive in academic transcriptions. Furthermore, some characters may have special semantics when used in smaller size after a normal one, but this does not make the script truly bicameral. The layout of the gojūon table promotes a systematic view of kana syllabograms as being pronounced with the same single consonant followed by a vowel. As a particle, it is written in hiragana and the katakana form. A small version of the katakana for ya, yu or yo may be added to katakana ending in i and this changes the i vowel sound to a glide to a, u or o, e. g. キャ /kja/
26.
Italic type
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In typography, italic type is a cursive font based on a stylized form of calligraphic handwriting. Owing to the influence from calligraphy, italics normally slant slightly to the right, italics are a way to emphasise key points in a printed text, or when quoting a speaker a way to show which words they stressed. One manual of English usage described italics as the print equivalent of underlining, the name comes from the fact that calligraphy-inspired typefaces were first designed in Italy, to replace documents traditionally written in a handwriting style called chancery hand. Aldus Manutius and Ludovico Arrighi were the type designers involved in this process at the time. Different glyph shapes from roman type are usually used – another influence from calligraphy –, an alternative is oblique type, in which the type is slanted but the letterforms do not change shape, this less elaborate approach is used by many sans-serif typefaces. Italic type was first used by Aldus Manutius and his press in Venice in 1500, Manutius used italic not for emphasis but for the text of small, easily carried editions of popular books, replicating the style of handwritten manuscripts of the period. The choice of using italic type, rather than the type in general use at the time, was apparently made to suggest informality in editions designed for leisure reading. Manutius italic type, cut and conceived by his employee, punchcutter Francesco Griffo, replicated handwriting of the following from the style of Niccolò de Niccoli. The first use in a volume was a 1501 edition of Virgil dedicated to Italy. Manutius italic was different in some ways from modern italics, unlike the italic type of today, the capital letters were upright capitals on the model of Roman square capitals, shorter than the ascending lower-case italic letters. While modern italics are more condensed than roman types, historian Harry Carter describes Manutius italic as about the same width as roman type. To replicate handwriting, Griffo cut at least sixty-five tied letters in the Aldine Dante, Italic typefaces of the following century used varying but reduced numbers of ligatures. Manutius type rapidly became popular in its own day and was widely imitated. The Venetian Senate gave Aldus exclusive right to its use, a patent confirmed by three successive Popes, but it was widely counterfeited as early as 1502. Griffo, who had left Venice in a dispute, cut a version for printer Girolamo Soncino. The Italians called the character Aldino, while called it Italic. Italics spread rapidly, historian Hendrik Vervliet dates the first production of italics in Paris to 1512, chancery italics faded as a style over the course of the sixteenth century, although revivals were made beginning in the twentieth century. Chancery italics may have backward-pointing serifs or round terminals pointing forwards on the ascenders, Vervliet comments that among punchcutters the main name associated with the change is Granjons
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Megalomania
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People affected by it often spend a lot of time thinking about achieving power or success, or about their appearance. They often take advantage of the people around them, the behavior typically begins by early adulthood, and occurs across a variety of situations. The cause of narcissistic personality disorder is unknown and it is a personality disorder classified within cluster B by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Diagnosis is by a healthcare professional interviewing the person in question, the condition needs to be differentiated from mania and substance use disorder. Treatments have not been well studied, therapy is often difficult as people with the disorder frequently do not consider themselves to have a problem. The personality was first described in 1925 by Robert Waelder while the current name for the condition came into use in 1968, about one percent of people are believed to be affected at some point in their life. It appears to more often in males than females and affects young people more than older people. People with narcissistic personality disorder are characterized by their persistent grandiosity, excessive need for admiration, and these individuals often display arrogance, a sense of superiority, and power-seeking behaviors. In addition, people with NPD may exhibit fragile egos, an inability to tolerate criticism, and it is not uncommon for children and teens to display some traits similar to NPD, but these are typically transient without meeting full criteria for the diagnosis. True NPD symptoms are pervasive, apparent in various situations, and rigid, the symptoms must be severe enough that they significantly impair the individuals ability to develop meaningful relationships with others. Symptoms also generally impair an individuals ability to function at work, school, according to the DSM-5, these traits must differ substantially from cultural norms in order to qualify as symptoms of NPD. People with NPD tend to exaggerate their skills and accomplishments as well as their level of intimacy with people they consider to be high-status and their sense of superiority may cause them to monopolize conversations and to become impatient or disdainful when others talk about themselves. In the course of a conversation, they may purposefully or unknowingly disparage or devalue the other person by overemphasizing their own success, when they are aware that their statements have hurt someone else, they tend to react with contempt and to view it as a sign of weakness. When their own ego is wounded by a real or perceived criticism, their anger can be disproportionate to the situation, despite occasional flare-ups of insecurity, their self-image is primarily stable. Narcissistic individuals use various strategies to protect the self at the expense of others and they tend to devalue, derogate, insult, blame others and they often respond to threatening feedback with anger and hostility. They usually mask these feelings from others with feigned humility, isolating socially or they may react with outbursts of rage, defiance, the merging of the inflated self-concept and the actual self is seen in the inherent grandiosity of narcissistic personality disorder. Also inherent in this process are the mechanisms of denial. According to the DSM-5, Many highly successful individuals display personality traits that might be considered narcissistic, only when these traits are inflexible, maladaptive, and persisting and cause significant functional impairment or subjective distress do they constitute narcissistic personality disorder
28.
Corporate title
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Corporate titles or business titles are given to company and organization officials to show what duties and responsibilities they have in the organization. Such titles are used in publicly and privately held for-profit corporations, in addition, many non-profit organizations, educational institutions, partnerships, and sole proprietorships also confer corporate titles. There are considerable variations in the composition and responsibilities of corporate titles, typically, senior managers are higher than vice presidents, although many times a senior officer may also hold a vice president title, such as Executive Vice President and Chief Financial Officer. The board of directors is not part of management itself. A corporation often consists of different businesses, whose senior executives report directly to the CEO or COO, if organized as a division then the top manager is often known as an Executive Vice President. If that business is a subsidiary which has more independence, then the title might be chairman. In many countries, particularly in Europe and Asia, there is an executive board for day-to-day business. In these countries, the CEO presides over the board and the chairman presides over the supervisory board. This ensures a distinction between management by the board and governance by the supervisory board. This seemingly allows for clear lines of authority, there is a strong parallel here with the structure of government, which tends to separate the political cabinet from the management civil service. State laws in the United States traditionally required certain positions to be created within every corporation, such as president, secretary, some states that do not employ the MBCA continue to require that certain offices be established. Under the law of Delaware, where most large US corporations are established, every corporation incorporated in California must have a chairman of the board or a president, as well as a secretary and a chief financial officer. LLC-structured companies are run directly by their members, but the members can agree to appoint officers such as a CEO. American companies are generally led by an executive officer. In some companies, the CEO also has the title of president, in other companies, the president is a different person, and the primary duties of the two positions are defined in the companys bylaws. The next level, which are not executive positions, is middle management and may be called president, director or manager, depending on the size. In British English, the title of managing director is generally synonymous with that of executive officer. These titles are the titles that are used on business cards
29.
Japanese tea ceremony
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The Japanese tea ceremony, also called the Way of Tea, is a Japanese cultural activity involving the ceremonial preparation and presentation of matcha, powdered green tea. In Japanese, it is called chanoyu or sadō, chadō, while the manner in which it is performed, Zen Buddhism was a primary influence in the development of the Japanese tea ceremony. Much less commonly, Japanese tea ceremony uses leaf tea, primarily sencha, in case it is known in Japanese as senchadō as opposed to chanoyu or chadō, see sencha tea ceremony. Tea gatherings are classified as a tea gathering chakai and a formal tea gathering chaji. A chakai is a simple course of hospitality that includes confections, thin tea. A chaji is a more formal gathering, usually including a full-course kaiseki meal followed by confections, thick tea. A chaji can last up to four hours, chadō is counted as one of the three classical Japanese arts of refinement, along with kōdō for incense appreciation, and kadō for flower arrangement. The first documented evidence of tea in Japan dates to the 9th century, the entry in the Nihon Kōki states that Eichū personally prepared and served sencha to Emperor Saga who was on an excursion in Karasaki in the year 815. It was practiced by Japanese nobles, by imperial order in the year 816, tea plantations began to be cultivated in the Kinki region of Japan. However, the interest in tea in Japan faded after this, in China, tea had already been known, according to legend, for more than a thousand years. The form of tea popular in China in Eichūs time was cake tea or brick tea —tea compressed into a nugget in the manner as Pu-erh. This then would be ground in a mortar, and the resulting ground tea mixed together various other herbs. The custom of drinking tea, first for medicinal, and then largely also for reasons, was already widespread throughout China. In the early 9th century, Chinese author Lu Yu wrote The Classic of Tea, Lu Yus life had been heavily influenced by Buddhism, particularly the Zen–Chán school. His ideas would have an influence in the development of the Japanese tea ceremony. He also took tea seeds back with him, which eventually produced tea that was considered to be the most superb quality in all of Japan and this powdered green tea was first used in religious rituals in Buddhist monasteries. This period, approximately 1336 to 1573, saw the budding of what is regarded as Japanese traditional culture as we know it today. The Japanese tea ceremony developed as a practice, and began to evolve its own aesthetic
30.
History of Japan
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It is widely accepted that first Human habitation in the Japanese archipelago traced back to prehistoric times. The Jōmon period, named after its cord-marked pottery, was followed by the Yayoi in the first millennium BC, during this period, in the first century AD, the first known written reference to Japan was recorded in the Chinese Book of Han. Between the fourth century and the century, Japans many kingdoms and tribes gradually came to be unified under a centralized government. The imperial dynasty established at this time continues to reign over Japan to this day, in 794, a new imperial capital was established at Heian-kyō, marking the beginning of the Heian period, which lasted until 1185. The Heian period is considered an age of classical Japanese culture. Japanese religious life from time and onwards was a mix of Buddhism. Over the following centuries the power of the Emperor and the imperial court gradually declined and passed to the military clans, the Minamoto clan under Minamoto no Yoritomo emerged victorious from the Genpei War of 1180–85. After seizing power, Yoritomo set up his capital in Kamakura, in 1274 and 1281, the Kamakura shogunate withstood two Mongol invasions, but in 1333 it was toppled by a rival claimant to the shogunate, ushering in the Muromachi period. During the Muromachi period regional warlords called daimyō grew in power at the expense of the shogun, eventually, Japan descended into a period of civil war. Over the course of the sixteenth century, Japan was reunified under the leadership of the daimyō Oda Nobunaga. After Hideyoshis death in 1598, Tokugawa Ieyasu came to power and was appointed shogun by the Emperor, the Tokugawa shogunate, which governed from Edo, presided over a prosperous and peaceful era known as the Edo period. The Tokugawa shogunate imposed a strict class system on Japanese society, the American Perry Expedition in 1853–54 ended Japans seclusion, this in turn contributed to the fall of the shogunate and the return of power to the Emperor in 1868. The new national leadership of the following Meiji period transformed their isolated, underdeveloped island country into an empire that closely followed Western models and became a world power. Although democracy developed and modern civilian culture prospered during the Taishō period, Japans powerful military had great autonomy, the military invaded Manchuria in 1931, and from 1937 the conflict escalated into a prolonged war with China. Japans attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 led to war with the United States, Japans forces soon became overextended, but the military held out in spite of Allied air attacks that inflicted severe damage on population centers. Japans unconditional surrender was announced by Emperor Hirohito on 14 August 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The Allies occupied Japan until 1952, during which a new constitution was enacted in 1947 that transformed Japan into a constitutional monarchy, after 1955, Japan enjoyed very high economic growth, and became a world economic powerhouse. Since the 1990s, economic stagnation has been a major issue, an earthquake and tsunami in 2011 caused massive economic dislocations and a serious nuclear power disaster
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