1.
Empire of Japan
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The Empire of Japan was the historical Japanese nation-state and great power that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 to the enactment of the 1947 constitution of modern Japan. Imperial Japans rapid industrialization and militarization under the slogan Fukoku Kyōhei led to its emergence as a world power, after several large-scale military successes during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War, the Empire also gained notoriety for its war crimes against the peoples it conquered. A period of occupation by the Allies followed the surrender, Occupation and reconstruction continued well into the 1950s, eventually forming the current nation-state whose full title is the State of Japan or simply rendered Japan in English. The historical state is referred to as the Empire of Japan or the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan in English. In Japanese it is referred to as Dai Nippon Teikoku, which translates to Greater Japanese Empire and this is analogous to Großdeutsches Reich, a term that translates to Greater German Empire in English and Dai Doitsu Teikoku in Japanese. This meaning is significant in terms of geography, encompassing Japan, due to its name in kanji characters and its flag, it was also given the exonym Empire of the Sun. After two centuries, the policy, or Sakoku, under the shoguns of the Edo period came to an end when the country was forced open to trade by the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854. The following years saw increased trade and interaction, commercial treaties between the Tokugawa shogunate and Western countries were signed. In large part due to the terms of these Unequal Treaties, the Shogunate soon faced internal hostility, which materialized into a radical, xenophobic movement. In March 1863, the Emperor issued the order to expel barbarians, although the Shogunate had no intention of enforcing the order, it nevertheless inspired attacks against the Shogunate itself and against foreigners in Japan. The Namamugi Incident during 1862 led to the murder of an Englishman, Charles Lennox Richardson, the British demanded reparations but were denied. While attempting to exact payment, the Royal Navy was fired on from coastal batteries near the town of Kagoshima and they responded by bombarding the port of Kagoshima in 1863. For Richardsons death, the Tokugawa government agreed to pay an indemnity, shelling of foreign shipping in Shimonoseki and attacks against foreign property led to the Bombardment of Shimonoseki by a multinational force in 1864. The Chōshū clan also launched the coup known as the Kinmon incident. The Satsuma-Chōshū alliance was established in 1866 to combine their efforts to overthrow the Tokugawa bakufu, in early 1867, Emperor Kōmei died of smallpox and was replaced by his son, Crown Prince Mutsuhito. On November 9,1867, Tokugawa Yoshinobu resigned from his post and authorities to the Emperor, however, while Yoshinobus resignation had created a nominal void at the highest level of government, his apparatus of state continued to exist. On January 3,1868, Satsuma-Chōshū forces seized the palace in Kyoto. On January 17,1868, Yoshinobu declared that he would not be bound by the proclamation of the Restoration, on January 24, Yoshinobu decided to prepare an attack on Kyoto, occupied by Satsuma and Chōshū forces
2.
Flag of Japan
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The national flag of Japan is a white rectangular flag with a red disc in the center. This flag is officially called Nisshōki in the Japanese language, but is commonly known as Hinomaru. The flag embodies Japans nickname as the Land of the Rising Sun, the Nisshōki flag is designated as the national flag in the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem, which was promulgated and became effective on August 13,1999. Although no earlier legislation had specified a flag, the sun-disc flag had already become the de facto national flag of Japan. Two proclamations issued in 1870 by the Daijō-kan, the body of the early Meiji period. A sun-disc flag was adopted as the flag for merchant ships under Proclamation No.57 of Meiji 3. Use of the Hinomaru was severely restricted during the years of the Allied occupation of Japan after World War II. The name of the country as well as the design of the flag reflect this importance of the sun. The ancient history Shoku Nihongi says that Emperor Monmu used a flag representing the sun in his court in 701, during the Meiji Restoration, both the sun disc and the Rising Sun Ensign of the Imperial Japanese Navy became major symbols in the emerging Japanese Empire. Propaganda posters, textbooks, and films depicted the flag as a source of pride, in Japanese homes, citizens were required to display the flag during national holidays, celebrations and other occasions as decreed by the government. Different tokens of devotion to Japan and its Emperor featuring the Hinomaru motif became popular during the Second Sino-Japanese War and these tokens ranged from slogans written on the flag to clothing items and dishes that resembled the flag. Public perception of the flag varies. Historically, both Western and Japanese sources claimed the flag was a powerful and enduring symbol to the Japanese, since the end of World War II, the use of the flag and the national anthem Kimigayo has been a contentious issue for Japans public schools. Disputes about their use have led to protests and lawsuits, the flag is not frequently displayed in Japan due to its association with ultranationalism. To Okinawans, the flag represents the events of World War II, for some nations that have been occupied by Japan, the flag is a symbol of aggression and imperialism. The Hinomaru was used as a tool against occupied nations for purposes of intimidation, asserting Japans dominance, several military banners of Japan are based on the Hinomaru, including the sunrayed Naval Ensign. The Hinomaru also serves as a template for other Japanese flags in public, the exact origin of the Hinomaru is unknown, but the rising sun seems to have had some symbolic meaning since the early 7th century. In 607, a correspondence that began with from the Emperor of the rising sun was sent to Chinese Emperor Yang of Sui
3.
Tomoyuki Yamashita
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Tomoyuki Yamashita was an Imperial Japanese Army general during World War II. The accomplishment earned Yamashita the sobriquet The Tiger of Malaya, after the war, following a trial in Manila, he was found guilty of war crimes and executed by hanging for his troops conduct during the Japanese defense of the occupied Philippines in 1944. Yamashita was the son of a local doctor in Osugi. He attended military schools in his youth. In November 1905 Yamashita graduated from the 18th class of the Imperial Japanese Army Academy and he was ranked 16th out of 920 cadets. In December 1908 he was promoted to lieutenant and fought against the German Empire in Shantung, in May 1916 he was promoted to captain. He attended the 28th class of the Army War College, graduating sixth in his class in 1916 and he married Hisako Nagayama, the daughter of retired Gen. Nagayama, in 1916. Yamashita became an expert on Germany, serving as assistant military attaché at Bern, Switzerland, in February 1922 he was promoted to major. In 1922, on his return to Japan, Maj. Yamashita served in the Imperial Headquarters, while posted to the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff, Yamashita unsuccessfully promoted a military reduction plan. Despite his ability, Yamashita fell into disfavor as a result of his involvement with political factions within the Japanese military, as a leading member of the Imperial Way group, he became a rival to Hideki Tōjō and other members of the Control Faction. In 1927 Yamashita was posted to Vienna, Austria, as a military attaché until 1930 and he was then promoted to the rank of Colonel. In 1930 Col. Yamashita was given command of the elite 3rd Imperial Infantry Regiment and he was promoted to major-general in August 1934. After the February 26 Incident of 1936, he fell into disfavor with Emperor Hirohito due to his appeal for leniency toward rebel officers involved in the attempted coup. He realized that he had lost the trust of the Emperor and he was eventually relegated to a post in Korea, being given command of a brigade. Yamashita was promoted to lieutenant-general in November 1937, from 1938-40 he was assigned to command the IJA 4th Division which saw some action in northern China against insurgents fighting the occupying Japanese armies. In December 1940 Yamashita was sent on a clandestine military mission to Germany and Italy. Such strategies caused much friction between himself and Gen. Hideki Tojo, the War Minister, who was not keen on implementing these proposals, on 6 November 1941 Lt. Gen. Yamashita was put in command of the Twenty-Fifth Army. On 8 December he launched an invasion of Malaya from bases in French Indochina, Yamashita remarked that only a driving charge would ensure victory in Malaya
4.
Arthur Percival
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Lieutenant-General Arthur Ernest Percival, CB, DSO & Bar, OBE, MC, OStJ, DL was a senior British Army officer. Percivals surrender to the invading Imperial Japanese Army force, the largest capitulation in British military history, Arthur Ernest Percival was born on 26 December 1887 in Aspenden Lodge, Aspenden near Buntingford in Hertfordshire, England, the second son of Alfred Reginald and Edith Percival. His father was the Land Agent of the Hamels Park estate, Percival was initially schooled locally in Bengeo. Then in 1901, he was sent to Rugby with his more successful brother. A moderate pupil, he studied Greek and Latin but was described by a teacher as not a good classic, Percivals only qualification on leaving in 1906 was a higher school certificate. He was a successful sportsman, playing cricket and tennis. He also rose to sergeant in the schools Volunteer Rifle Corps. Nearly one third of his fellow recruits would be dead by the end of the war, by November Percival had been promoted to captain. The following year he was dispatched to France with the newly formed 7th Battalion of the Bedfordshire Regiment, Percival took a regular commission as a captain with the Essex Regiment in October 1916, whilst recovering from his injuries in hospital. He was appointed a major in his original regiment. In 1917, he became battalion commander with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. During Germanys Spring Offensive, Percival led a counter-attack that saved a unit of French artillery from capture, for a short period in May 1918, he acted as commander of the 54th Brigade. He was given promotion to major, and awarded the Distinguished Service Order, with his citation noting his power of command. He ended the war as a soldier, described as very efficient and was recommended for the Staff College. Percivals studies were delayed in 1919 when he decided to volunteer for service with the Archangel Command of the British Military Mission during the North Russia Campaign of the Russian Civil War. Acting as second-in-command of the 45th Royal Fusiliers, he earned a bar to his DSO in August, during the enemy counter-attack from Selmenga on Gorodok he handled his men excellently. The enemy were repulsed with loss, leaving 400 prisoners in our hands. Percival proved himself an energetic and effective counter-guerrilla, noted for his aptitude for intelligence gathering, enemies in the Irish Republican Army and others accused him of brutality towards prisoners, among them Tom Barry, leader of the West Cork Flying Column
5.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
6.
Pacific War
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The Pacific War, sometimes called the Asia-Pacific War, was the theater of World War II that was fought in the Pacific and East Asia. It was fought over a vast area that included the Pacific Ocean and islands, the South West Pacific, South-East Asia, and in China. The Pacific War saw the Allied powers pitted against the Empire of Japan, the formal and official surrender of Japan took place aboard the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1945. In Allied countries during the war, The Pacific War was not usually distinguished from World War II in general, or was known simply as the War against Japan. Japan used the name Greater East Asia War, as chosen by a decision on 10 December 1941. Japanese officials integrated what they called the Japan–China Incident into the Greater East Asia War, in Japan, the Fifteen Years War is also used, referring to the period from the Mukden Incident of 1931 through 1945. The Phayap Army sent troops to invade and occupy northeastern Burma, also involved were the Japanese puppet states of Manchukuo and Mengjiang, and the collaborationist Wang Jingwei regime. The official policy of the U. S. Government is that Thailand was not an ally of the Axis, Japan conscripted many soldiers from its colonies of Korea and Formosa. To a small extent, some Vichy French, Indian National Army, Germany and Italy both had limited involvement in the Pacific War. The German and the Italian navies operated submarines and raiding ships in the Indian, the Italians had access to concession territory naval bases in China, while the Germans did not. After Japans attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent declarations of war, mexico, Free France and many other countries also took part, especially forces from other British colonies. Between 1942 and 1945, there were four main areas of conflict in the Pacific War, China, the Central Pacific, South East Asia, U. S. sources refer to two theaters within the Pacific War, the Pacific theater and the China Burma India Theater. However these were not operational commands, in the Pacific, the Allies divided operational control of their forces between two supreme commands, known as Pacific Ocean Areas and Southwest Pacific Area. In 1945, for a period just before the Japanese surrender. By 1937, Japan controlled Manchuria and was ready to move deeper into China, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident on 7 July 1937 provoked full-scale war between China and Japan. In August 1937, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to fight about 300,000 Japanese troops in Shanghai, the Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937 and committed which was known as Nanking Massacre. In March 1938, Nationalist forces won their first victory at Taierzhuang, but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by Japanese in May. In June 1938, Japan deployed about 350,000 troops to invade Wuhan, the Japanese achieved major military victories, but world opinion—in particular in the United States—condemned Japan, especially after the Panay incident
7.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
8.
Surrender of Japan
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The surrender of Imperial Japan was announced on August 15 and formally signed on September 2,1945, bringing the hostilities of World War II to a close. By the end of July 1945, the Imperial Japanese Navy was incapable of conducting major operations, on August 6,1945, at 8,15 AM local time, the United States detonated an atomic bomb over the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Sixteen hours later, American President Harry S. Truman called again for Japans surrender, warning them to expect a rain of ruin from the air, later in the day, the United States dropped a second atomic bomb, this time on the Japanese city of Nagasaki. After several more days of negotiations and a failed coup détat. In the radio address, called the Jewel Voice Broadcast, he announced the surrender of Japan to the Allies, on August 28, the occupation of Japan by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers began. The role of the bombings in Japans unconditional surrender. The state of war ended when the Treaty of San Francisco came into force on April 28,1952. Four more years passed before Japan and the Soviet Union signed the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956, by 1945, the Japanese had suffered an unbroken string of defeats for nearly two years in the South West Pacific, the Marianas campaign, and the Philippines campaign. In July 1944, following the loss of Saipan, General Hideki Tōjō was replaced as minister by General Kuniaki Koiso. After the Japanese loss of the Philippines, Koiso in turn was replaced by Admiral Kantarō Suzuki, the Allies captured the nearby islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa in the first half of 1945. Okinawa was to be an area for Operation Downfall, the American invasion of the Japanese Home Islands. The Allied submarine campaign and the mining of Japanese coastal waters had largely destroyed the Japanese merchant fleet, the destruction of the Japanese merchant fleet, combined with the strategic bombing of Japanese industry, had wrecked Japans war economy. Production of coal, iron, steel, rubber, and other vital supplies was only a fraction of that before the war, as a result of the losses it had suffered, the Imperial Japanese Navy had ceased to be an effective fighting force. Although 19 destroyers and 38 submarines were still operational, their use was limited by the lack of fuel, the only course left is for Japans one hundred million people to sacrifice their lives by charging the enemy to make them lose the will to fight. As a final attempt to stop the Allied advances, the Japanese Imperial High Command planned an all-out defense of Kyūshū codenamed Operation Ketsugō and this was to be a radical departure from the defense in depth plans used in the invasions of Peleliu, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa. Instead, everything was staked on the beachhead, more than 3,000 kamikazes would be sent to attack the transports before troops. The strategy of making a last stand at Kyūshū was based on the assumption of continued Soviet neutrality, a set of caves were excavated near Nagano on Honshu, the largest of the Japanese islands. In the event of invasion, these caves, the Matsushiro Underground Imperial Headquarters, were to be used by the army to direct the war and to house the Emperor and his family
9.
British Military Administration (Malaya)
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The British Military Administration was the interim administrator of British Malaya between the end of World War II and the establishment of the Malayan Union in 1946. The BMA was under the command of the Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia. The administration had the function of maintaining basic subsistence during the period of reoccupation. The BMA was established by virtue of Proclamation No, admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten became the director of the administration in September 1945. By mid-1946, Malaya had been ruled by the returning British for nearly two years and it had not been a very pleasant experience for anyone. The British in short could no longer command the respect of the people of Malaya. Indeed, the Malays referred to the period of when the Japanese defeated the British as the time the man ran. Equally, while the British were clearly defeated by the Japanese in 1942, the civil colonial government took over from the BMA in April 1946, the civil government was faced with picking up the pieces of what the BMA left behind. It can not be entirely the fault of the BMA as it was a different organisation compared to the pre-War efficient administrative machinery. Proclamation No.1 is the document which legitimised the establishment of the BMA, the following lists the extent of the authority of the British Military Administration in Malaya. The returning British felt by reason of military necessity and for the prevention and suppression of disorder, delegation, the SAC has in his authority to delegate however he see fit in accordance with the authority vested in his position. Delegated tasks must be fulfilled and completed in a time frame. Orders to be Obeyed, All persons including non-BMA personnel will obey all order given by the SAC or under the authority of the SAC, existing laws to be respected All laws and customs existing immediately prior to the Japanese occupation will be respected. All rights and properties will be respected, suspension of Courts All courts and tribunals, other than military courts established under the authority, were suspended and deprived of all authority and jurisdiction until authorised. Revocation of all Japanese military administration proclamations, the BMA and by extension the British Supreme Allied Commander has board sweeping authoritative power in Malaya. In so far there has not been any academic works to illustrate the Malayans had a channel to voice their views and/or dissatisfaction. For the purpose of streamlining the administration, postwar Malaya was divided into 9 regions with Perlis-Kedah, Negeri Sembilan-Melaka, the regions were controlled by a Senior Civil Affairs Officer. Earlier, the planning for civil affairs in the Malayan Peninsula was done by the Deputy Chief Civil Affairs Officer, Brigadier H. C, the Federal Secretariat in Kuala Lumpur hosted the Civil Affairs Headquarters
10.
Straits Settlements
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The Straits Settlements were a group of British territories located in Southeast Asia. Originally established in 1826 as part of the controlled by the British East India Company. The colony was dissolved in 1946 as part of the British reorganisation of its Southeast Asian dependencies following the end of the Second World War, the Straits Settlements originally consisted of the four individual settlements of Malacca, Dinding, Penang and Singapore. The Penang territory included Penang Island, formerly known as Prince of Wales Island, christmas Island and the Cocos Islands were also included. The island of Labuan, off the coast of Borneo, was incorporated into the colony with effect from 1 January 1907. Most of the territories now form part of Malaysia, from which Singapore separated in 1965, the Cocos Islands were transferred to Australian control in 1955. Christmas Island was transferred in 1958 and their administration was combined in 1996 to form the Australian Indian Ocean Territories. This resulted in the exchange of the British settlement of Bencoolen for the Dutch colony of Malacca, the Settlements were largely Chinese in population, with a tiny but important European minority. Their capital was moved from Penang to Singapore in 1832 and their scattered nature proved to be difficult and, after the company lost its monopoly in the china trade in 1833, expensive to administer. During their control by the East India Company, the Settlements were used as penal settlements for Indian civilian and military prisoners, the years 1852 and 1853 saw minor uprisings by convicts in Singapore and Penang. As there was little or no vernacular press in the Settlements, such an act seemed irrelevant, earlier, on 4 February 1867, Letters Patent had granted the Settlements a colonial constitution. Penang and Malacca were administered, directly under the governor, by resident councillors, the Dindings, which included Pangkor Island as well as the towns of Lumut, and Sitiawan, were ceded by Perak to the British government under the Pangkor Treaty of 1874. Province Wellesley, on the mainland opposite the island of Penang, was ceded to Great Britain in 1800 by the Sultan of Kedah, on its northern and eastern border, the boundary with Kedah was rectified by treaty with Siam in 1867. It was administered by an officer, with some assistants. About a tenth of the area was covered by low hills with thick jungle. Large quantities of rice were grown by the Malay inhabitants, the governor of the Straits Settlements was also High Commissioner for the Federated Malay States on the peninsula, for British North Borneo, the sultanate of Brunei and Sarawak in Borneo. Since the administration of the colony of Labuan, which for a period was vested in the British North Borneo Company, was resumed by the British government he was governor of Labuan. During World War II, the Japanese invaded Malaya and the Straits Settlements by landing on Kelantan on 8 December 1941, on 16 December Penang became the first Straits Settlement to fall into Japanese hands
11.
Singapore
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Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its size by 23%. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce. Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index. Although income inequality is high, 90% of homes are owner-occupied, 38% of Singapores 5.6 million residents are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger. There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in 1824 the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations
12.
Attack on Pearl Harbor
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The attack, also known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor, led to the United States entry into World War II. The Japanese military leadership referred to the attack as the Hawaii Operation and Operation AI, Japan intended the attack as a preventive action to keep the U. S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with military actions they planned in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States. Over the next seven hours there were coordinated Japanese attacks on the U. S. -held Philippines, Guam and Wake Island and on the British Empire in Malaya, Singapore, the attack commenced at 7,48 a. m. The base was attacked by 353 Imperial Japanese fighter planes, bombers, all eight U. S. Navy battleships were damaged, with four sunk. All but the USS Arizona were later raised, and six were returned to service, the Japanese also sank or damaged three cruisers, three destroyers, an anti-aircraft training ship, and one minelayer. 188 U. S. aircraft were destroyed,2,403 Americans were killed and 1,178 others were wounded. Important base installations such as the station, shipyard, maintenance. Japanese losses were light,29 aircraft and five midget submarines lost, one Japanese sailor, Kazuo Sakamaki, was captured. The surprise attack came as a shock to the American people. The following day, December 8, the United States declared war on Japan, the U. S. responded with a declaration of war against Germany and Italy. Domestic support for non-interventionism, which had been fading since the Fall of France in 1940, Roosevelt to proclaim December 7,1941, a date which will live in infamy. Because the attack happened without a declaration of war and without explicit warning, over the next decade, Japan continued to expand into China, leading to all-out war between those countries in 1937. Japan spent considerable effort trying to isolate China and achieve sufficient resource independence to attain victory on the mainland, from December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on USS Panay, the Allison incident, and the Nanking Massacre swung public opinion in the West sharply against Japan. Fearing Japanese expansion, the United States, the United Kingdom, in 1940, Japan invaded French Indochina in an effort to control supplies reaching China. The United States halted shipments of airplanes, parts, machine tools, and aviation gasoline to Japan, an invasion of the Philippines was also considered necessary by Japanese war planners. War Plan Orange had envisioned defending the Philippines with a 40 and this was opposed by Douglas MacArthur, who felt that he would need a force ten times that size, and was never implemented. By 1941, U. S. planners anticipated abandonment of the Philippines at the outbreak of war and orders to that effect were given in late 1941 to Admiral Thomas Hart, commander of the Asiatic Fleet
13.
Territory of Hawaii
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The Hawaii Admission Act specified that the State of Hawaii would not include Palmyra Atoll, The Midway Islands, Johnston Atoll, Sand Island, or Kingman Reef. The U. S. Congress passed the Newlands Resolution which annexed the Republic of Hawaii to the United States, Hawaiis territorial history includes a period from 1941 to 1944—during World War II—when the islands were placed under martial law. Civilian government was dissolved and a governor was appointed. Thurston actively lobbied Congress while the former monarchy lobbied Democrats to protest, First annexation proceedings began when Democrat Grover Cleveland took office. Cleveland was an anti-imperialist and was strongly against annexation and he withdrew the annexation treaty from consideration, mounted an inquiry, and recommended the restoration of Liliʻuokalani as queen. The provisional government convened a convention to establish the Republic of Hawaii. Thurston was urged to become the nations first president but he was worried his brazen personality would damage the cause of annexation, Dole, former Supreme Court Justice and friend of Queen Liliʻuokalani, was elected as the first and only president of the new regime. Hawaiis strategic location to support the Spanish–American War in the Philippines made it important to American interests. On July 4,1898, the United States Congress passed the Newlands Resolution and it was signed into law by President McKinley on July 7,1898, and came into effect on August 12,1898. Former President Sanford B. Dole was appointed Hawaiis first territorial governor, the Newlands Resolution established a five-member commission to study which laws were needed in the newly organized Territory of Hawaii. The commission included, Territorial Governor Sanford B, Dole, Senators Shelby M. Cullom and John T. Morgan, Representative Robert R. Hitt and former Hawaii Chief Justice and later succeeding Territorial Governor Walter F. Frear. The commissions final report was submitted to Congress for a debate which lasted over a year, the Organic Act established the Office of the Territorial Governor, an office appointed by the sitting American president and was usually from his own political party. The territorial governor served at the pleasure of the President of the United States and nominated by him and confirmed by the Senate, Representative in the U. S. House of Representatives Representation in the U. S. His transports encouraged him to purchase passenger steamships that would carry tourists hoping to vacation in Hawaii from the mainland United States, matsons fleet included the SS Wilhelmina, rivaling the best passenger ships serving traditional Atlantic routes. With the boom in interest of Hawaiian vacations by Americas wealthiest families in the late 1920s, Matson added the SS Mariposa, SS Monterey, Matson Navigation Company operated two resort hotels in Honolulu near royal grounds. The first hotel on Waikīkī was the Moana Hotel which opened in 1901, as the first hotel in Waikīkī, the Moana Hotel was nicknamed the First Lady of Waikīkī. The hotel gained international attention in 1920 when Edward, Prince of Wales and future King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom, in 1927, the luxurious Royal Hawaiian Hotel, informally called the Pink Palace of the Pacific, opened for business. It was the preferred Hawaii residence of President Franklin D. Roosevelt when he visited Hawaii during World War II, with annexation, the United States saw Hawaii as its most strategic military asset
14.
History of Singapore
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The written history of Singapore dates back to the third century. Evidence suggest a significant trading settlement existed in Singapore during the 14th century, in the late 14th century, Singapura was under the rule of Parameswara until he was expelled by the Majapahit or the Siamese. It then came under the Malacca Sultanate and then the Johor Sultanate, modern Singapore was founded in 1819, when Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles negotiated a treaty whereby Johor allowed the British to found a trading port on the island. During World War II, Singapore was conquered and occupied by the Japanese Empire from 1942 to 1945, but social unrest and disputes between Singapores ruling Peoples Action Party and Malaysias Alliance Party resulted in Singapores expulsion from Malaysia. Singapore became an independent republic on August 9,1965 and this was itself a transliteration from the Malay name Pulau Ujong, or island at the end. The Nagarakretagama, a Javanese epic poem written in 1365, referred to a settlement on the island called Temasik. The name Temasek is also given in Sejarah Melayu, which contains a tale of a prince of Srivijaya, Sri Tri Buana, when he saw a lion, the prince took this as an auspicious sign and founded a settlement called Singapura, which means Lion City in Sanskrit. The actual origin of the name Singapura however is unclear according to scholars, in 1320, the Mongol Empire sent a trade mission to a place called Long Ya Men, which is believed to be Keppel Harbour at the southern part of the island. The Chinese traveler Wang Dayuan, visiting the island around 1330, Ban Zu is thought to be present day Fort Canning Hill, and recent excavations in Fort Canning found evidence indicating that Singapore was an important settlement in the 14th century. Wang mentioned that that the natives of Long Ya Men and Chinese residents lived together in Long Ya Men, Singapore is one of the oldest locations where a Chinese community is known to exist outside China, and the oldest corroborated by archaeological evidence. By the 14th century, the empire of Srivijaya had already declined, according to the Malay Annals, Singapore was defeated in one Majapahit attack. The last king, Sultan Iskandar Shah ruled the island for several years, modern archaeological evidence suggests that the settlement on Fort Canning was abandoned around this time, although a small trading settlement continued in Singapore for some time afterwards. The Malacca Sultanate extended its authority over the island and Singapore became a part of the Malacca Sultanate, however, by the time Portuguese arrived in the early 16th century, Singapura had already become great ruins according to Alfonso de Albuquerque. The Portuguese seized Malacca in 1511, and the sultan escaped south and established the Johor Sultanate, the Portuguese however destroyed the settlement in Singapore in 1613, and the island sank into obscurity for the next two centuries. Between the 16th and 19th centuries, the Malay Archipelago was gradually taken over by the European colonial powers, the early dominance of the Portuguese was challenged during the 17th century by the Dutch, who came to control most of the ports in the region. The Dutch established a monopoly over trade within the archipelago, particularly in spices, other colonial powers, including the British, were limited to a relatively minor presence. In 1818, Sir Stamford Raffles was appointed as the Lieutenant Governor of the British colony at Bencoolen, the Dutch had been stifling British trade in the region by prohibiting the British from operating in Dutch-controlled ports or by subjecting them to a high tariff. Raffles hoped to challenge the Dutch by establishing a new port along the Straits of Malacca and he needed a third port since the British only had the ports of Penang and Bencoolen
15.
Srivijaya
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Srivijaya was a dominant thalassocratic city-state based on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 8th to the 12th century, Srivijaya was the first unified kingdom to dominate much of Malay archipelago. In Sanskrit, śrī means fortunate, prosperous, or happy, the earliest reference to it dates from the 7th century. A Tang Chinese monk, Yijing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in 671 CE for six months, the earliest known inscription in which the name Srivijaya appears also dates from the 7th century in the Kedukan Bukit inscription found near Palembang, Sumatra, dated 16 June 682 CE. Between the late 7th and early 11th century, Srivijaya rose to become a hegemon in Southeast Asia and it was involved in close interactions, often rivalries, with the neighbouring Java, Kambuja and Champa. Srivijayas main foreign interest was nurturing lucrative trade agreements with China which lasted from the Tang to the Song dynasty, Srivijaya had religious, cultural and trade links with the Buddhist Pala of Bengal, as well as with the Islamic Caliphate in the Middle East. The kingdom ceased to exist in the 13th century by various factors, including the expansion of the rival Javanese Singhasari, after Srivijaya fell, it was largely forgotten. It was not until 1918 that French historian George Cœdès, of École française dExtrême-Orient, little physical evidence of Srivijaya remains. There had been no continuous knowledge of the history of Srivijaya even in Indonesia, Cœdès noted that the Chinese references to Sanfoqi, previously read as Sribhoja, and the inscriptions in Old Malay refer to the same empire. The Buddhist pilgrim Yijings account is important on describing Srivijaya. The 7th-century siddhayatra inscriptions discovered in Palembang and Bangka island are also vital primary historical sources, also, regional accounts that some might be almost tales and legends, such as the Legend of the Maharaja of Javaka and the Khmer King also provides a glimpse of the kingdom. Besides, some Indian and Arabic accounts also describes vaguely about the riches, Srivijaya had become a symbol of early Sumatran importance as a great empire to balance Javas Majapahit in the east. Srivijaya, and by extension Sumatra, had been known by different names to different peoples, the Chinese called it Sanfoqi or Che-li-fo-che, and there was an even older kingdom of Kantoli, which could be considered the predecessor of Srivijaya. Sanskrit and Pali texts referred to it as Yavades and Javadeh, the Arabs called it Zabag or Sribuza and the Khmers called it Melayu. While the Javanese called them Suvarnabhumi, Suvarnadvipa or Malayu and this is another reason why the discovery of Srivijaya was so difficult. While some of names are strongly reminiscent of the name of Java. According to the Kedukan Bukit inscription, dated 605 Saka, Srivijaya was first established in the vicinity of todays Palembang and it mentions that Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa came from Minanga Tamwan. The exact location of Minanga Tamwan is still a subject of discussion, the Palembang theory as the place where Srivijaya was first established was presented by Cœdes and supported by Pierre-Yves Manguin
16.
Temasek
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Temasek, also spelt Temasik, is an early recorded name of a settlement on the site of modern Singapore. The name appears in early Malay and Javanese literature, and it is recorded in Yuan. Two distinct settlements were recorded in Temasek – Long Ya Men, the name is used in modern day Singapore for national honours as well as institutions and corporations. The origin of the name Temasek is uncertain, but it has proposed that it was derived from the Malay word tasik meaning lake or sea. Another suggestion is that it may be a reference to a king of Srivijaya, the name appears as Tumasik in the Old Javanese epic poem written in 1365, Nagarakretagama. The name is mentioned twice in the Malay Annals. Temasek is described in the account by the Chinese traveller Wang Dayuan who visited the island around 1330 and wrote about a Malay settlement called Danmaxi, a transcription of the name Temasek. In a version of Marco Polos account of his travel, a place named Chiamassie that could be Temasik was mentioned in relation to the kingdom of Malayur. Temasek may have also mentioned in Vietnamese records as Sach Ma Tich in the 14th century. Some time in the 14th century, the name Temasek was replaced by Singapura, legend has it that the name was given by Sang Nila Utama when he visited the island in 1344 and saw an unknown creature, which he was informed was a lion. It was revived in colonial and more times, and is now used as names for institutions, corporations. While the early history of Singapore is obscured by myth and legend, some conclusions can be drawn from archaeological evidence, archaeology points to an urbanised settlement on the site by the 14th century. At its height, the city boasted a large earthen city wall and moat, many of the buildings were built with stone and brick foundations. Remains of old pottery, coins, jewellery and other artifacts have been found, with many of these believed to be imported from various parts of China, India, Sri Lanka. These are sometimes seen as evidence of the status as a regional trade centre. An aquatic route, part of the larger Silk route, passed through Temasek, from the 7th to the 13th centuries, the island of Singapore was controlled by the Srivijaya empire based in Sumatra. Diplomatic relationship between Temasek and Vietnam may have begun in the 13th century, Temasek was a fortified city and trading centre in the 14th century. It was recorded that during the Yuan dynasty, envoys were sent to Long Ya Men in 1320 to obtain tame elephants, the people of Long Ya Men then returned in 1325 with a tribute and trade mission to China
17.
Kingdom of Singapura
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The Kingdom of Singapura was a Malay kingdom thought to exist on the island of Singapore from 1299 until its fall in 1398. Archaeological evidence from Fort Canning and the banks of the Singapore River has nevertheless demonstrated the existence of a thriving settlement. The settlement developed in the 13th or 14th century and rose from a small Srivijayan trading outpost into a centre of trade with ties to the Yuan Dynasty. It was however claimed by two powers at that time, Ayuthaya from the north and Majapahit from the south. The last king, Parameswara or Iskandar Shah, fled to the west coast of the Malay Peninsula to establish the Malacca Sultanate in 1400, the name Singapura is derived from Sanskrit meaning Lion City. Singa comes from the Sanskrit word siṃha, which means lion, according to the Malay Annals, Sri Tri Buana and his men were exploring Tanjong Bemban while in Bintan when he spotted an island with white sandy beach from a high point. On learning that the island was called Temasek, they set sail for the island, after they managed to land safely on the island, they went to hunt for wild animals. He suddenly saw a strange animal with an red body, black head and it was a fine-looking animal and moved with great speed as it disappeared into the jungle. He asked his minister, Demang Lebar Daun, what animal it was. He then decided to stay in Temasek, named the city he founded Singapura or Lion City. Some scholars thought that the person Sri Tri Buana and the story of its founding to be fictional, and a number of alternative suggestions for the origin of the name of Singapore have been given. In this version of events, Parameswara had assassinated the local ruler of Temasek and usurped the throne, others linked the name to the Javanese kingdom Singhasari as well as a Majapahit Buddhist sect whose adherents were referred to as lions. Although it is believed that the name Singapura replaced Temasek some time in the 14th century, there is basically only one record which give some detail on the kingdoms of Singapura - the Malay Annals written during the heyday of Melaka and re-compiled in 1612 by the Johor court. It is the basis for accounts of its founding, the succession of rulers, however, Iskandar Shah/Parameswara, the last ruler of Singapura and founder of the Melaka Sultanate, is a figure that could be considered factual. Accounts of Singapura in its final years are also given in Portuguese sources, such as those by Tomé Pires, Brás de Albuquerque, Godinho de Erédia. For example the Suma Oriental, written shortly after the Portuguese conquest of Melaka, however, both accounts differ markedly when Suma Oriental identified the fleeing prince and the last king of Singapura as the same person known as Parameswara. On the other hand, the more detailed Malay Annals identified the fleeing prince, Portuguese source also named Iskandar Shah as Parameswaras son, Ming sources similar named Iskandar Shah as the second ruler of Melaka. There are also different opinions and many now accept Megat Iskandar Shah as the son of Parameswara, Wang also mentioned that the Siamese attacked the fortified city of Temasek with around 70 ships a few years before he visited, but Temasek successfully resisted the attack which lasted a month
18.
Malacca Sultanate
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The Malacca Sultanate was a Malay sultanate centred in the modern-day state of Malacca, Malaysia. Conventional historical thesis marks c.1400 as the year of the sultanate by a renegade Malay Raja of Singapura, Parameswara who was also known as Iskandar Shah. As a bustling trading port, Malacca emerged as a centre for Islamic learning and dissemination. The legacy of the political and cultural legacy remains to this day. For centuries, Malacca has been held up as an exemplar of Malay-Muslim civilisation, the series of raids launched by the Chola Empire in the 11th century had weakened the once glorious empire of Srivijaya. By the end of the 13th century, the already fragmented Srivijaya caught the attention of the expansionist Javanese King, in 1275, he decreed the Pamalayu expedition to overrun Sumatra. By 1288, Singhasari naval expeditionary forces successfully sacked Jambi and Palembang, the complete destruction of Srivijaya caused the diaspora of the Srivijayan princes and nobles. Rebellions against the Javanese rule ensued and attempts were made by the fleeing Malay princes to revive the empire, the Orang Laut, famous for their loyal services to Srivijaya, eventually made him king of a new kingdom called Singapura. In the 14th century, Singapura developed concurrently with the Pax Mongolica era and its wealth and success however, alarmed two regional powers at that time, Ayuthaya from the north and Majapahit from the south. As a result, the fortified capital was attacked by at least two major foreign invasions before it was finally sacked by Majapahit in 1398. The fifth and last king, Parameswara fled to the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, Parameswara fled north to Muar, Ujong Tanah and Biawak Busuk before reaching a fishing village at the mouth of Bertam river. Legend has it that the king saw a mouse deer outwit his hunting dog into the water when he was resting under the Malacca tree. He thought this boded well, remarking, this place is excellent, even the mouse deer is formidable, tradition holds that he named the settlement after the tree he was leaning against while witnessing the portentous event. Today, the deer is part of modern Malaccas coat of arms. The name Malacca itself was derived from the fruit-bearing Melaka tree scientifically termed as Phyllanthus emblica, following establishment of his new city in Malacca, Parameswara initiated the development of the place and laid the foundation of a trade port. The indigenous inhabitants of the straits, the Orang Laut, were employed to patrol the adjacent sea areas, to repel other petty pirates, within years, news about Malacca becoming a centre of trade and commerce began to spread all over the eastern part of the world. In 1405, Yongle Emperor of Ming Dynasty sent his envoy headed by Yin Qing to Malacca in 1403, Yin Qings visit opened the way for the establishment of friendly relations between Malacca and China. Two years later, the legendary Admiral Zheng He made his first of six visits to Malacca, Chinese merchants began calling at the port and pioneering foreign trading bases in Malacca
19.
Johor Sultanate
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The Sultanate of Johor was founded by Malaccan Sultan Mahmud Shahs son, Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah II in 1528. Johor was part of the Malaccan Sultanate before the Portuguese conquered Malaccas capital in 1511, during the colonial era, the mainland part was administered by the British, and the insular part by the Dutch, thus breaking up the sultanate into Johor and Riau. In 1946, the British section became part of the Malayan Union, two years later, it joined the Federation of Malaya and subsequently, the Federation of Malaysia in 1963. In 1949, the Dutch section became part of Indonesia, in 1511, Malacca fell to the Portuguese and Sultan Mahmud Shah was forced to flee Malacca. The sultan made several attempts to retake the capital but his efforts were fruitless, the Portuguese retaliated and forced the sultan to flee to Pahang. Later, the sailed to Bintan and established a new capital there. With a base established, the sultan rallied the disarrayed Malay forces and organised several attacks and blockades against the Portuguese position. Based at Pekan Tua, Sungai Telur, Johor, the Johor Sultanate was founded by Raja Ali Ibni Sultan Mahmud Melaka, known as Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah, with his Queen Tun Fatimah in 1528. Frequent raids on Malacca caused the Portuguese severe hardship and it helped to convince the Portuguese to destroy the exiled sultans forces, a number of attempts were made to suppress the Malay but it was not until 1526 that the Portuguese finally razed Bintan to the ground. The sultan then retreated to Kampar in Sumatra and died two years later and he left behind two sons named Muzaffar Shah and Alauddin Riayat Shah II. Muzaffar Shah continued on to establish Perak while Alauddin Riayat Shah became the first sultan of Johor, the new sultan established a new capital by the Johor River and, from there, continued to harass the Portuguese in the north. He consistently worked together with his brother in Perak and the Sultan of Pahang to retake Malacca, on the northern part of Sumatra around the same period, Aceh Sultanate was beginning to gain substantial influence over the Straits of Malacca. With the fall of Malacca to Christian hands, Muslim traders often skipped Malacca in favour of Aceh or also of Johors capital Batu Sawar, therefore, Malacca and Aceh became direct competitors. With the Portuguese and Johor frequently locking horns, Aceh launched multiple raids against both sides to tighten its grip over the straits, the rise and expansion of Aceh encouraged the Portuguese and Johor to sign a truce and divert their attention to Aceh. The truce, however, was short-lived and with Aceh severely weakened, Johor, during the rule of Sultan Iskandar Muda, Aceh attacked Johor in 1613 and again in 1615. In the early 17th century, the Dutch reached Southeast Asia, at that time the Dutch were at war with the Portuguese and allied themselves to Johor. Two treaties were signed by Admiral Cornelis Matelief de Jonge on behalf of the Dutch Estates General and Raja Bongsu of Johor in May, finally in 1641, the Dutch and Johor forces headed by Bendahara Skudai, defeated the Portuguese. As per the agreement with Johor struck in May 1606, the Dutch took control of Malacca, finally in January 1641, the Dutch and Johor forces, defeated the Portuguese at Malacca
20.
Singapore in the Straits Settlements
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Singapore in the Straits Settlements refers to a period in the history of Singapore from 1826 to 1942, during which Singapore was part of the Straits Settlements together with Penang and Malacca. From 1830 to 1867, the Straits Settlements was a residency, or subdivision, of the Presidency of Bengal, in 1867, the Straits Settlements became a separate Crown colony, directly overseen by the Colonial Office in Whitehall in London. The period saw Singapore establish itself as an important trading port, British rule was suspended in February 1942, when the Imperial Japanese Army invaded Singapore during World War II. In 1819, British official Stamford Raffles landed in Singapore to establish a trading port, by 1822, it was made clear to the Dutch that the British had no intention of giving up the island. The status of Singapore as a British possession was cemented by the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824, which carved up the Malay archipelago between the two colonial powers. The area north of the Straits of Malacca, including Penang, Malacca and Singapore, was designated as the British sphere of influence, while the area south of the Straits was assigned to the Dutch. This division had far-reaching consequences for the region, modern-day Malaysia and Singapore correspond to the British area established in the treaty, and modern-day Indonesia to the Dutch. In 1826, Singapore was grouped together with Penang and Malacca into an administrative unit. In 1830, the Straits Settlements became a residency, or subdivision, of the Presidency of Bengal, during the subsequent decades, Singapore grew to become one of the most important ports in the world. Several events during this period contributed to its success, British intervention in the Malay peninsula from the 1820s onwards culminated, during the 1870s, in the formation of British Malaya. During this period, Malaya became an important producer of rubber and tin. Singapore also served as the centre for Malaya until the 1880s. In 1834, the British government ended the East India Companys monopoly on the China trade, allowing other British companies to enter the market, the trade with China was opened with the signing of the Unequal Treaties, beginning in 1842. The advent of ocean-going steamships, which were faster and had a larger capacity than sailing ships, reduced transportation costs, Singapore also benefited by acting as a coaling station for the Royal Navy and merchant ships. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 dramatically reduced the time from Europe to East Asia. By 1880, over 1.5 million tons of goods were passing through Singapore each year, with around 80% of it transported by steamships, the main commercial activity was entrepôt trade which flourished under no taxation and little restriction. Many merchant houses were set up in Singapore mainly by European trading firms, there were also many Chinese middlemen who handled most of the trade between the European and Asian merchants. Despite Singapores growing importance, the set up to govern the island was generally understaffed, poorly funded, weak
21.
Battle of Singapore
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Singapore was the major British military base in South-East Asia and was the keystone of British imperial interwar defence planning for South-East Asia as well as the South-West Pacific. The fighting in Singapore lasted from 8 to 15 February 1942 although this was preceded by two months of British resistance as Japanese forces advanced down the Malaya peninsula and it resulted in the Japanese capture of Singapore and the largest surrender of British-led military personnel in history. About 80,000 British, Indian and Australian troops became prisoners of war, the British prime minister, Winston Churchill, called it the worst disaster in British military history. During 1940 and 1941, the Allies had imposed an embargo on Japan in response to its continued campaigns in China. The Japanese were encouraged to choose war by their intelligence, in December 1940, the Germans handed over copies of the papers to the Japanese. As a part of process, the Japanese planners determined a broad scheme of manoeuvre that incorporated simultaneous attacks on the British. In addition, strikes would be made against the United States naval fleet at Pearl Harbor, as well as landings in the Philippines, and attacks on Guam, Wake Island and the Gilbert Islands. With this perimeter, it was intended to block Allied attempts to regain the lost territory, the Japanese 25th Army invaded from Indochina, moving into northern Malaya and Thailand by amphibious assault on 8 December 1941. This was virtually simultaneous with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor which precipitated the United States entry in to the war, Thailand initially resisted, but soon had to yield. The Japanese then proceeded overland across the Thai–Malayan border to attack Malaya, at this time, the Japanese began bombing strategic sites in Singapore. The Japanese 25th Army was resisted in northern Malaya by III Corps of the British Indian Army, although the 25th Army was outnumbered by Allied forces in Malaya and Singapore, Japanese commanders concentrated their forces. The Japanese were superior in close air support, armour, co-ordination, tactics, prior to the Battle of Singapore the most resistance was met at the Battle of Muar, which involved the Australian 8th Division and the Indian 45th Brigade. At the start of the campaign, the Allied forces had only 164 first-line aircraft on hand in Malaya and Singapore, and these aircraft were operated by two Royal Australian Air Force, two Royal Air Force, and one Royal New Zealand Air Force squadron. Major shortcomings included a slow rate of climb and the fuel system which required the pilot to hand pump fuel if flying above 6,000 feet. Their fighter aircraft were superior to the Allied fighters, which helped the Japanese to gain air supremacy, Japanese forces quickly isolated, surrounded, and forced the surrender of Indian units defending the coast. They advanced down the Malayan peninsula overwhelming the defences, despite their numerical inferiority, the Japanese forces also used bicycle infantry and light tanks, allowing swift movement through the jungle. The Allies, however, having thought the terrain made them impractical, had no tanks, and only a few armoured vehicles, although more Allied units—including some from the Australian 8th Division—joined the campaign, the Japanese prevented the Allied forces from regrouping. They also overran cities and advanced toward Singapore, the city was an anchor for the operations of the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command, the first Allied joint command of the Second World War
22.
Sook Ching
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The massacre took place from 18 February to 4 March 1942 at various places in the region. The operation was overseen by the Kempeitai secret police and subsequently extended to include the Chinese population in Malaya, scholars agree the massacre took place, but Japanese and Singaporean sources disagree about the number of deaths. According to Hirofumi Hayashi, the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs accepted that the Japanese military had carried out killings in Singapore. During negotiations with Singapore, the Japanese government rejected demands for reparations, officially Japan claims that fewer than 5,000 deaths occurred, while Lee Kuan Yew, Singapores first prime minister, said verifiable numbers would be about 70,000. In 1966 Japan agreed to pay S$50 million in compensation, half of which was a grant and they did not make an official apology. The Japanese referred to the Sook Ching as the Kakyō Shukusei or as the Shingapōru Daikenshō, the current Japanese term for the massacre is Shingapōru Kakyō Gyakusatsu Jiken. Singapores National Heritage Board uses the term Sook Ching in its publications and it is also clear from the passage below that the massacre was to be extended to the Chinese in Malaya as well. The purge was planned before Japanese troops landed in Singapore, the military government section of the 25th Army had already drawn up a plan entitled Implementation Guideline for Manipulating Overseas Chinese on or around 28 December 1941. This guideline stated that anyone who failed to obey or co-operate with the authorities should be eliminated. It is clear that the headquarters of the 25th Army had decided on a policy toward the Chinese population of Singapore. Although the exact date of this instruction is not known, the Army headquarters was stationed in Keluang from 28 January to 4 February 1942, after the Japanese military occupied Singapore, they were aware that the local Chinese population was loyal to the Republic of China. Some Chinese had been financing the National Revolutionary Army in the Second Sino-Japanese War through a series of fund-raising propagandist events, the Japanese military authorities, led by Tomoyuki Yamashita decided on a policy of eliminating those who harboured strong anti-Japanese sentiments. Tomoyuki Yamashita and staff officer Masanobu Tsuji were the masterminds behind the massacre,2 Field Kempeitai, set up his headquarters in the YMCA Building at Stamford Road as the Kempeitai East District Branch. The Kempeitai prison was in Outram with branches in Stamford Road, Chinatown, a residence at the intersection of Smith Street and New Bridge Road formed the Kempeitai West District Branch. Under Oishis command were 200 regular Kempeitai officers and another 1000 auxiliaries, Singapore was divided into sectors with each sector under the control of an officer. The Japanese set up designated screening centres all over Singapore to gather and those who were thought to be anti-Japanese would be eliminated. Sometimes, women and children were sent for inspection as well. The following passage is from an article from the National Heritage Board, The inspection methods were indiscriminate, sometimes, hooded informants identified suspected anti-Japanese Chinese, other times, Japanese officers singled out suspicious characters at their whim and fancy
23.
Colony of Singapore
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The Colony of Singapore was a British Crown colony that existed from 1946 until 1963, when Singapore became part of Malaysia. When the Empire of Japan surrendered to the Allies at the end of World War II, in 1946, the Straits Settlements were dissolved and Singapore together with the Cocos-Keeling and Christmas islands became a separate Crown colony. The colony was governed by the British Empire until it gained partial internal self-governance in 1955, incidents of looting and revenge-killing were widespread. When British troops returned to Singapore in September 1945, thousands of Singaporeans lined the streets to cheer them, Singapore was ruled by a British Military Administration between September 1945 and March 1946, during which it also served as the headquarters of the British governor general for Southeast Asia. However much of the infrastructure had been destroyed, including electricity and water systems, telephone services. There was also a shortage of food including rice, and this led to malnutrition, disease and rampant crimes, unemployment, high food prices, and workers discontent culminated into a series of strikes in 1947 causing massive stoppages in public transport and other services. By late 1947, the economy began to recover, facilitated by the demand for tin. But it would take several years before the economy returned to pre-war levels. On 1 April 1946, the Straits Settlements was dissolved and Singapore became a Crown Colony with an administration headed by a Governor. In July 1947, separate Executive and Legislative Councils were established, the failure of the British to defend Singapore had destroyed their credibility as infallible rulers in the eyes of the locals in Singapore. The British, on their part, were prepared to embark on a program of gradually increasing self-governance for Singapore, the Crown colony was dissolved on 16 September 1963 when Singapore became part of Malaysia, which ended the 144 years British rule of the island. On 9 August 1965, Singapore officially left Malaysia to become the independent Republic of Singapore, the first Singaporean elections, held in March 1948 to select members of the Legislative Council, were rather limited. The right to vote was restricted to adult British subjects, of which only 23,000 or about 10 percent of eligible registered to vote. In addition, only six of the seats on the Legislative Council were to be elected. The other three seats were won by independents, since the left-wing groups were the strongest critics of the colonial system, progress on self-government stalled for several years. The colonial government also tried to prevent contacts between Singaporean Chinese and China, which had just fallen under the rule of the Communist Party of China, tan Kah Kee, a local businessman and philanthropist, was denied re-entry into Singapore after he made a trip to China. A second Legislative Council election was held in 1951 with the number of elected seats increased to nine and this election was again dominated by the SPP which won six seats. This slowly contributed to the formation of a government of Singapore
24.
Maria Hertogh riots
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The Maria Hertogh riots began on 11 December 1950 in Singapore after a court decided that a child who had been raised by Muslims should be returned to her Catholic biological parents. A protest by outraged Muslims escalated into a riot when images were published showing 13-year-old Maria Hertogh kneeling before a statue of the Virgin Mary, Riots in Singapore lasted until noon on 13 December 1950. Eighteen people were killed and 173 injured, many properties were also damaged Hertogh had been in the care of Che Aminah binte Mohamed before being returned to her Dutch Catholic biological parents. Maria Hertogh was born on 24 March 1937 to a Dutch Catholic family living in Tjimahi, near Bandung, Java and her father, Adrianus Petrus Hertogh, came to Java in the 1920s as a sergeant in the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army. In the early 1930s, He married Adeline Hunter, a Eurasian of Scottish-Javanese descent brought up in Java, Maria was baptised in the Roman Catholic Church of Saint Ignatius at Tjimahi on 10 April by a Catholic priest. When World War II broke out, Adrianus Hertogh, as a sergeant in the Dutch Army, was captured by the Imperial Japanese Army and sent to a POW camp in Japan, where he was kept until 1945. Meanwhile, Adeline Hertogh stayed with her mother, Nor Louise, on 29 December 1942, Mrs. Hertogh gave birth to her sixth child, a boy. Three days later, Maria went to stay with Aminah binte Mohammad, a 42-year-old Malay woman from Kemaman, Terengganu, Malaya, consequently, Aminah arrived on 1 January 1943 to fetch Maria. When the child was not returned, Mrs. Hertogh borrowed a bicycle on 6 January and she claimed that she was arrested by a Japanese sentry on the outskirts of Bandung as she did not possess a pass and was therefore interned. From her internment camp, she smuggled a letter to her mother and this Nor Louise did, but Maria was not among them. So Mrs. Hertogh asked her mother to fetch Maria from Aminah and her mother later wrote and told her that Aminah wanted to keep Maria for two more days, after which she herself would bring the child to the camp. This did not materialise and Mrs. Hertogh did not see Maria throughout her internment, after her release, she could find neither Maria nor Aminah. Upon arriving with Aminah, Maria was given the name Nadra binte Maarof, for unknown reasons her new family moved to Jakarta for a period before moving back to Bandung, where Aminah worked for the Japanese military police as an interpreter until the end of the war. In 1947, fearing harm upon the family during the Indonesian National Revolution because Maria was a putih, Aminah moved back to her hometown of Kemaman, Terengganu, Malaya. By then Maria was the same as any other Malay Muslim girl of her age, she spoke only Malay, wore Malay clothes, in 1945, with the end of World War II, Sergeant Hertogh was released and returned to Java, where he reunited with his wife. The couple said that they enquired about Maria but could find neither their daughter nor Aminah and they then returned to the Netherlands after requesting the Dutch authorities in Java and Singapore to try to trace the child. Investigations were then made by the Red Cross Society, the Indonesian Repatriation Service, the Royal Netherlands Army, finally, in September 1949, Aminah and Maria were traced to the kampung in which they were living. Negotiations were opened to retrieve Maria in early 1950, the Dutch Consulate offered S$500 to make up for Aminahs expenses in bringing up the girl for eight years
25.
Singapore in Malaysia
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Singapore was one of the 14 states of Malaysia from 1963 to 1965. Malaysia was formed on 16 September 1963 as a new political entity from the merger of the Federation of Malaya with former British colonies of North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore. This marked the end of a 144-year period of British rule in Singapore, the union, however, was unstable due to distrust and ideological differences between leaders of the State of Singapore and the federal government of Malaysia. Such issues resulted in frequent disagreements relating to economics, finance, there were also major racial riots that year involving the majority Chinese community and the Malay community in Singapore. During a 1965 Singaporean by-election, UMNO threw its support behind the opposition Barisan Sosialis candidate, in 1965, Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman decided upon the expulsion of Singapore from the Federation, leading to the independence of Singapore on 9 August 1965. The Peoples Action Party won the first election in Singapore after the merger, Racial tensions increased dramatically within a year. These included financial and economic benefits that were given to Malays. Malays and Muslims in Singapore were being increasingly incited by the Federal Governments accusations that the PAP was mistreating the Malays, numerous racial riots resulted, and curfews were frequently imposed to restore order. The external political situation was tense at the time, with Indonesia actively against the establishment of the Federation of Malaysia. Indonesia also conducted seditious activities to provoke the Malays against the Chinese, one of the more notorious riots was the 1964 race riots that took place on Prophet Muhammads birthday on 21 July, near Kallang Gasworks, twenty-three were killed and hundreds injured. More riots broke out in September 1964, the price of food skyrocketed when the transport system was disrupted during this period of unrest, causing further hardship. The Singapore Government later named 21 July each year as Racial Harmony Day, another contributor was the fear that the economic dominance of Singapores port would inevitably shift political power away from Kuala Lumpur in time, should Singapore remain in the Federation. The state and federal governments also had disagreements on the economic front, despite an earlier agreement to establish a common market, Singapore continued to face restrictions when trading with the rest of Malaysia. In retaliation, Singapore did not extend to Sabah and Sarawak the full extent of the agreed to for economic development of the two eastern states. The situation escalated to such an intensity that talks broke down and abusive speeches. UMNO extremists called for the arrest of Lee Kuan Yew, on 7 August 1965, Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman, seeing no alternative to avoid further bloodshed, advised the Parliament of Malaysia that it should vote to expel Singapore from Malaysia. On that day, a tearful Lee announced that Singapore was a sovereign, independent nation and his speech included this quote, For me it is a moment of anguish because all my life…. you see the whole of my adult life…. I have believed in merger and the unity of two territories
26.
Singaporean integration referendum, 1962
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Voters were offered three options, but did not have the choice of opposing integration. Option A, which provided for the highest level of autonomy was chosen by 96% of voters, in Singapore, the PAP sought formation of Malaysia on the basis of the strong mandate it obtained during the general elections of 1959 when PAP won 43 of the 51 seats. However, this mandate became questionable when dissension within the party led to a split, the ruling PAP was not legally obliged to call for a referendum, but did so to secure the mandate of the people. The referendum did not have an option of objecting to the idea of merger because no one had legitimately raised the issue in the Legislative Assembly before then, however, the methods had been debatable. The referendum was called to resolve the issue as an effort to decide objectively which option the people backed. The legitimacy of the referendum was challenged by Singaporean left-wingers. The Council of Joint Action founded by 19 members of the Assembly to block the merger, the CJA also criticized the terms, and the lack of choice in the referendum. Being strongly against the referendum, the Barisan Sosialis called for a boycott of the referendum, over 144,000 blank votes were cast, over a quarter of all votes. The media campaign fielded by both sides was extremely heated, many of the leaders on both sides broadcast radio shows in several languages, Singapore entered into merger with Malaya on 16 September 1963, marking the birth of Malaysia. Singapore ceased to be a state of Malaysia on 9 August 1965 when it became an independent state, proclamation of Malaysia Singapore in Malaysia Independence of Singapore Agreement 1965 Singapore-elections - a site documenting the various election results in Singapores history. Referendum alternatives - documents the referendum options
27.
History of the Republic of Singapore
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The history of the Republic of Singapore began when Singapore became an independent republic following an ejection from Malaysia on 9 August 1965. After the separation, the nation had to become self-sufficient. During Lee Kuan Yews term as minister from 1959 to 1990, his administration curbed unemployment, raised the standard of living. The countrys economic infrastructure was developed, racial tension was eliminated, Singapore evolved from a developing nation to first world status towards the end of the 20th century. In 1990, Goh Chok Tong succeeded Lee as Prime Minister, in 2004 Lee Hsien Loong, the eldest son of Lee Kuan Yew, became the third prime minister. Singapore became part of Malaysia on 16 September 1963 following a merger with Malaya, North Borneo, the merger was thought to benefit the economy by creating a common, free market, and to improve Singapores internal security. However, it was an uneasy union, Singapores chief minister, Lee Kuan Yew, and other political leaders began advocating for equal treatment of all races in Malaysia, with a rallying cry of Malaysian Malaysia. Racial tensions between Chinese and Malays increased dramatically resulting in numerous racial riots, the most notorious riots were the 1964 Race Riots that first took place on the Prophet Muhammads birthday on 21 July with twenty-three people killed and hundreds injured. The price of food increased greatly when the system was disrupted during the unrest. The state and federal governments also had conflicts on the economic front, UMNO leaders feared that the economic dominance of Singapore would inevitably shift political power away from Kuala Lumpur. Despite an earlier agreement to establish a market, Singapore continued to face restrictions when trading with the rest of Malaysia. In retaliation, Singapore refused to provide Sabah and Sarawak the full extent of the previously agreed to for economic development of the two eastern states. The situation escalated to such intensity that talks broke down and abusive speeches. UMNO extremists called for the arrest of Lee Kuan Yew, seeing no alternative to avoid further bloodshed, the Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman decided to expel Singapore from the federation. The Parliament of Malaysia voted 126-0, with all Singaporean MPs boycotting the vote, on that day, a tearful Lee Kuan Yew announced on a televised press conference that Singapore was a sovereign, independent nation. In a widely remembered quote, he uttered that, I mean for me, I have believed in Merger and the unity of the two territories. You know its a people connected by geography, economics, the new state became the Republic of Singapore. After gaining independence abruptly, Singapore sensed the need for international recognition of its sovereignty
28.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
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ASEAN covers a land area of 4.4 million square kilometres, 3% of the total land area of Earth. ASEAN territorial waters cover an area three times larger than its land counterpart. Member countries have a population of approximately 625 million people,8. 8% of the worlds population. In 2015, the organisations combined nominal GDP had grown to more than US$2.8 trillion, if ASEAN were a single entity, it would rank as the sixth largest economy in the world, behind the USA, China, Japan, India and Germany. ASEAN shares land borders with India, China, Bangladesh, East Timor, and Papua New Guinea, and maritime borders with India, China, Palau, both East Timor and Papua New Guinea are backed by certain ASEAN members for their membership in the organisation. As set out in the ASEAN Declaration, the aims and purposes of ASEAN are, To accelerate economic growth, social progress, to promote regional peace and stability. To promote collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common interest, to provide assistance to each other in the form of training and research facilities. To collaborate for the better utilisation of agriculture and industry to raise the standards of the people. To maintain close, beneficial co-operation with existing international organisations with similar aims, ASEAN was preceded by an organization formed in 1961 called the Association of Southeast Asia, a group consisting of the Philippines, Malaysia, and Thailand. The creation of ASEAN was motivated by a fear of communism. ASEAN grew when Brunei Darussalam became its sixth member on 7 January 1984, ASEAN achieved greater cohesion in the mid-1970s following the changed balance of power in Southeast Asia after the end of the Vietnam War. The regions dynamic economic growth during the 1970s strengthened the organization, on 28 July 1995, Vietnam became ASEANs seventh member. Laos and Myanmar joined two years later on 23 July 1997, Cambodia was to have joined at the same time as Laos and Burma, but its entry was delayed due to the countrys internal political struggle. It later joined on 30 April 1999, following the stabilization of its government, however, the proposal failed because of heavy opposition from the US and Japan. Member states continued to work for integration, and ASEAN Plus Three was created in 1997. This law would act as the framework for the ASEAN Free Trade Area, AFTA is an agreement by member nations concerning local manufacturing in ASEAN countries. The AFTA agreement was signed on 28 January 1992 in Singapore, after the East Asian Financial Crisis of 1997, a revival of the Malaysian proposal, known as the Chiang Mai Initiative, was put forward in Chiang Mai, Thailand. It called for integration of the economies of ASEAN as well as the ASEAN Plus Three countries, China, Japan
29.
1969 race riots of Singapore
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The 1969 race riots of Singapore were one of the two riots encountered in post-independence Singapore. The seven days of riots of 1969, a result of the spillover of the 13 May Incident in Malaysia. Singapore did not experience a riot until 44 years later, the precursor of the 1969 race riots can be traced to the 13 May Incident in Kuala Lumpur and Petaling Jaya in Malaysia. The real figures could be higher than officially revealed. The Malaysian government declared a state of emergency and suspended Parliament until 1971, the disturbances had nothing to do with Singapore but there was an inexorable spillover of the communal violence in Malaysia into Singapore. The 1969 riots occurred not long after the communal riots in 1964. It was said that the 1964 racial disturbances in Singapore contributed towards the separation of Singapore from Malaysia on 9 August 1965. The dissatisfaction of the Malays over their social and economic condition, rumours began to spread in Singapore about Malay atrocities against the Chinese in Malaysia. Over 500 people were injured and 36 lives were lost in the clashes between Chinese and Malays, the Internal Security Department or ISD, together with the Police, helped contain a volatile situation. Sino-Malay tensions surfaced again in Singapore in 1969 following the outbreak of the 1969 racial riots in Malaysia after the General Election, many incidents of Sino-Malay clashes erupted and the situation was brought under control following security sweeps by the Police and armed forces throughout Singapore. The vigilance of the security forces in Singapore and the persistent efforts of ISD officers in making island-wide coverage contributed to the return of normalcy in Singapore. After 1971, when all had settled down, the Malaysian government was able to follow an affirmative action policy marked particularly by the New Economic Policy favouring the Malays. To this day, there is still an unease about the potential of violence as the struggles between groups continue. In Apr 1987, four silat exponents were arrested by the ISD for actively spreading rumours of impending racial clashes on or around 13 May 1987, list of riots in Singapore 13 May Incident 1964 Race Riots Maria Hertogh riots ISD Heritage Centre, Singapore
30.
Southeast Asian haze
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Southeast Asian haze is a fire-related large-scale air pollution problem that occurs regularly. These haze events have caused adverse health and economic impact on Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and to a lesser degree, the problem flares up every dry season, in varying degrees. Transboundary haze in Southeast Asia has been recorded since 1972, burned land can be sold at a higher price illegally, and eventually used for activities including oil palm and pulpwood production. Burning is also cheaper and faster compared to cutting and clearing using excavators or other machines, most haze events have resulted from smoke from fires that occurred on peatlands in Sumatra and the Kalimantan region of Borneo island. Undisturbed humid tropical forests are considered to be resistant to fire. A study published in 2005 concluded that there is no single dominant cause of fire in a particular site, fire is used to clear the plant material left over from logging or old crops. Mechanically raking the plant material into long piles and letting them rot over time, is expensive and slow, clearing land with machines and chemicals can cost up to US$200 per hectare while using fire costs US$5 per hectare. After a peat swamp forest has been cleared and drained, the soil is still unsuitable for agriculture, because peat soil is nutrient-poor. To make the soil suitable for agriculture, the pH has to be neutralised, pests and plant diseases also have to be removed. One method is to use such as limestone to neutralise the acidity, as well as fertilisers. This method costs about Rupiah 30 -40 million per hectare, alternatively, fire is used to clear the plant material left over from logging. The fire kills pests and the resulting ash serves to fertilise the soil and this method costs Rupiah 2 million per hectare. In Indonesia, the Basic Forestry Law grants the Ministry of Forestry authority over all land classified as forests, approximately 49% of the nation is covered by actual forest, although the government classifies 69% of the land area as forest. The land rights of communities that live on land classified as forest cannot be registered and are generally unrecognised by the state. Competing claims in turn leads to land conflicts, as the number of new, external actors increases, so does the likelihood that fire will be used as a weapon. A peatland is an area where organic material such as leaves and this layer of organic material, known as peat, can be up to 20m deep. Indonesia has 265,500 km2 of peatland, which comprises 13. 9% of its land area, Malaysia also has significant peatland, at 26,685 km2, covering 8. 1% of its land area. Although originally a wetland ecosystem, much of the peatland in Southeast Asia have been drained for human activities such as agriculture, forestry and urban development
31.
1997 Asian financial crisis
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At the time, Thailand had acquired a burden of foreign debt that made the country effectively bankrupt even before the collapse of its currency. As the crisis spread, most of Southeast Asia and Japan saw slumping currencies, devalued stock markets and other asset prices, Indonesia, South Korea and Thailand were the countries most affected by the crisis. Hong Kong, Laos, Malaysia and the Philippines were also hurt by the slump, brunei, China, Singapore, Taiwan and Vietnam were less affected, although all suffered from a loss of demand and confidence throughout the region. Foreign debt-to-GDP ratios rose from 100% to 167% in the four large Association of Southeast Asian Nations economies in 1993–96, in South Korea, the ratios rose from 13% to 21% and then as high as 40%, while the other northern newly industrialized countries fared much better. Only in Thailand and South Korea did debt service-to-exports ratios rise, the efforts to stem a global economic crisis did little to stabilize the domestic situation in Indonesia, however. After 30 years in power, President Suharto was forced to step down on 21 May 1998 in the wake of rioting that followed sharp price increases caused by a drastic devaluation of the rupiah. The effects of the crisis lingered through 1998, in 1998 the Philippines growth dropped to virtually zero. By 1999, however, analysts saw signs that the economies of Asia were beginning to recover, after the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, economies in the region are working toward financial stability on financial supervision. Until 1999, Asia attracted almost half of the capital inflow into developing countries. The economies of Southeast Asia in particular maintained high interest rates attractive to investors looking for a high rate of return. As a result, the regions received a large inflow of money. At the same time, the economies of Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore. This achievement was widely acclaimed by financial institutions including IMF and World Bank, the causes of the debacle are many and disputed. Thailands economy developed into an economic bubble fueled by hot money, more and more was required as the size of the bubble grew. The same type of situation happened in Malaysia, and Indonesia, the short-term capital flow was expensive and often highly conditioned for quick profit. Development money went in an uncontrolled manner to certain people only, not particularly the best suited or most efficient. As the U. S. economy recovered from a recession in the early 1990s, the U. S. Federal Reserve Bank under Alan Greenspan began to raise U. S. interest rates to head off inflation. S. dollar. For the Southeast Asian nations which had pegged to the U. S. dollar
32.
2013 Little India riot
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About 300 migrant labourers were involved in the riot which lasted for around two hours. This was the riot in post-independence Singapore, and the first in over 40 years since the 1969 race riots. The riot continued for two hours, and the situation was brought under control before midnight. Officers from the Special Operations Command and Gurkha Contingent were deployed, an estimated 300 police officers were dispatched to deal with the rioting. A witness reported that rioters at the scene were intoxicated with alcohol, by 23,45, all rioters had dispersed to the surrounding areas. Twenty-five emergency vehicles were damaged in the riots, alongside five that were set on fire, video footage uploaded on the Internet shows rioters pushing police cars on their sides and setting an ambulance on fire. 39 police, four civil defence and auxiliary officers were injured, early estimates put the number of rioters at 400, later reduced to 300 in the aftermath of the riot. The Singapore Police Force dispatched 300 riot police, the police made 27 arrests in relation to the riots. Subsequent investigations revealed that the two Bangladeshis and the Singaporean permanent resident were not involved in the incident, from 11 to 14 December 2013, nine more labourers from Tamil Nadu were similarly charged in court for their involvement in the riot. Three were charged on 11 December, four on 12 December, on 10 February 2014, an Indian construction worker was sentenced to 15 weeks imprisonment on charges related to riots. The victim was identified as Sakthivel Kumaravelu, a 33-year-old construction worker from Tamil Nadu, Sakthivel succumbed to his injuries and was pronounced dead at the scene. The 55-year-old Singaporean bus driver who caused the traffic accident was not found to be at fault. The subsequent riots that led to the 27 arrests were classified by the Singapore police under rioting with dangerous weapons, preliminary investigations found that Sakthivel, while intoxicated, attempted to board the private bus, which was believed to be ferrying foreign workers to the Avery Lodge dormitory. The accident occurred shortly after Sakthivel alighted from the bus, Singapores Prime Minister, Lee Hsien Loong, stated that the police will spare no effort to identify the culprits and deal with them with the full force of the law. Later, he told Singaporeans to refrain from negative comments against migrant workers, the countrys Deputy Prime Minister, Teo Chee Hean, similarly stated that no effort will be spared in capturing the perpetrators. The Transport Minister, Lui Tuck Yew, who is also a member of parliament for that district, since May 2014, a total ban of alcohol with closing of night schools and limitation of nightlife areas took effect. The incident has raised debate online by Singaporeans on the issues of overcrowding and increasing numbers of migrant workers in Singapore. It also highlighted ongoing ethnic tensions within Singapore, rising inequality, the countrys heavy reliance on foreign labour
33.
British Raj
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The British Raj was the rule by the British Crown in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947. The rule is also called Crown rule in India, or direct rule in India, the resulting political union was also called the Indian Empire and after 1876 issued passports under that name. It lasted until 1947, when the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two sovereign states, the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The British Raj extended over almost all present-day India, Pakistan and this area is very diverse, containing the Himalayan mountains, fertile floodplains, the Indo-Gangetic Plain, a long coastline, tropical dry forests, arid uplands, and the Thar desert. In addition, at times, it included Aden, Lower Burma, Upper Burma, British Somaliland. Burma was separated from India and directly administered by the British Crown from 1937 until its independence in 1948, among other countries in the region, Ceylon was ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens. Ceylon was part of Madras Presidency between 1793 and 1798, the kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan, having fought wars with the British, subsequently signed treaties with them and were recognised by the British as independent states. The Kingdom of Sikkim was established as a state after the Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty of 1861, however. The Maldive Islands were a British protectorate from 1887 to 1965, India during the British Raj was made up of two types of territory, British India and the Native States. In general, the term British India had been used to also to the regions under the rule of the British East India Company in India from 1600 to 1858. The term has also used to refer to the British in India. The terms Indian Empire and Empire of India were not used in legislation, the monarch was known as Empress or Emperor of India and the term was often used in Queen Victorias Queens Speeches and Prorogation Speeches. The passports issued by the British Indian government had the words Indian Empire on the cover, in addition, an order of knighthood, the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire, was set up in 1878. At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a Governor or a Lieutenant-Governor, during the partition of Bengal the new provinces of Assam and East Bengal were created as a Lieutenant-Governorship. In 1911, East Bengal was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became, Assam, Bengal, Bihar, there were 565 princely states when India and Pakistan became independent from Britain in August 1947. The princely states did not form a part of British India, the larger ones had treaties with Britain that specified which rights the princes had, in the smaller ones the princes had few rights. Within the princely states external affairs, defence and most communications were under British control, the British also exercised a general influence over the states internal politics, in part through the granting or withholding of recognition of individual rulers. Although there were nearly 600 princely states, the majority were very small
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