1.
Chinese pagoda
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For the landmark in Birmingham, see Chinese Pagoda. Chinese pagodas are a part of Chinese architecture. Earliest base-structure type for Chinese pagodas were square-base and circular-base, by the 5th-10th centuries the Chinese began to build octagonal-base pagoda towers. Although it no longer stands, the tallest pre-modern pagoda in Chinese history was the 100-metre-tall wooden pagoda of Changan, iconography of Han is noticeable in architecture of the Chinese Pagoda. The image of the Shakyamuni Buddha in the abhaya mudra is also noticeable in some Chinese pagodas, Buddhist iconography is also inside of the symbolism in the pagoda. It was believed by some that they would influence the success of students taking the examinations for a civil service degree. From the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Southern and Northern Dynasties pagodas were built of wood. Wooden pagodas are resistant to earthquakes, however many have burnt down, examples of wooden pagodas, White Horse Pagoda at White Horse Temple, Luoyang. Futuci Pagoda in Xuzhou, built in the Three Kingdoms period, many of the pagodas in Stories About Buddhist Temples in Luoyang, a Northern Wei text, were wooden. The literature of subsequent eras also provides evidence of the domination of wooden construction in this period. The famous Tang Dynasty poet, Du Mu, once wrote,480 Buddhist temples of the Southern Dynasties, uncountable towers and pagodas stand in the misty rain. The oldest extant fully wooden pagoda standing in China today is the Pagoda of Fugong Temple in Ying County, Shanxi Province, during the Northern Wei and Sui dynasties experiments began with the construction of brick and stone pagodas. Even at the end of the Sui, however, wood was still the most common material, only the Songyue Pagoda has survived, a circular-based pagoda built out of stone in 523 AD. The earliest extant brick pagoda is the 40-metre-tall Songyue Pagoda in Dengfeng Country and this curved, circle-based pagoda was built in 523 during the Northern Wei Dynasty, and has survived for 15 centuries. Much like the later pagodas found during the following Tang Dynasty and its walls are 2.5 m thick, with a ground floor diameter of 10.6 m. Another early brick pagoda is the Sui Dynasty Guoqing Pagoda built in 597, the earliest large-scale stone pagoda is a Four Gates Pagoda at Licheng, Shandong, built in 611 during the Sui Dynasty. Like the Songyue Pagoda, it features a spire at its top. One of the earliest brick and stone pagodas was a construction built in the Jin Dynasty
2.
Stupa
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A stupa is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics that is used as a place of meditation. Stupas originated as pre-Buddhist tumuli in which śramaṇas were buried in a position called chaitya. After the parinirvana of the Buddha, his remains were cremated, the earliest archaeological evidence for the presence of Buddhist stupas dates to the late 4th century BCE in India. Buddhist scriptures claim that stupas were built at least a century earlier, however, some later stupas, such as at Sarnath and Sanchi, seem to be embellishments of earlier mounds. The earliest evidence of monastic stupas dates back to the 2nd century BCE and these are stupas that were built within Buddhist monastic complexes and they replicate in stone older stupas made of baked bricks and timber. Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati and Bharhut are examples of stupas that were shaped in stone imitating previously existing wooden parts, the stupa was elaborated as Buddhism spread to other Asian countries, becoming, for example, the chörten of Tibet and the pagoda in East Asia. The pagoda has varied forms that also include bell-shaped and pyramidal styles, in the Western context, there is no clear distinction between a stupa and a pagoda. Stupas were built in Sri Lanka soon after Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura converted to Buddhism, the first stupa to be built was the Thuparamaya. Later, many more were built over the years, some like the Jetavanaramaya in Anuradhapura being one of the tallest ancient structures in the world, the earliest archaeological evidence for the presence of Buddhist stupas dates to the late 4th century BCE. In India, Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati and Bharhut are among the oldest known stupas, the tallest is the Phra Pathommachedi in Nakhon Pathom Province, Thailand, at a height of 127 metres. The Swat Valley hosts a well-preserved stupa at Shingardar near Ghalegay, another stupa is located near Barikot, in Sri Lanka, the ancient city of Anuradhapura includes some of the tallest, most ancient and best preserved stupas in the world, such as Ruwanwelisaya. The most elaborate stupa is the 8th century Borobudur monument in Java, the upper rounded terrace with rows of bell-shaped stupas contained Buddha images symbolizing Arūpajhāna, the sphere of formlessness. The main stupa itself is empty, symbolizing complete perfection of enlightenment, borobudurs unique and significant architecture has been acknowledged by UNESCO as the largest buddhist monument in the world. It is also the world’s largest Buddhist temple, as well as one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world. Object stupa, in which the items interred are objects belonged to the Buddha or his disciples, such as a bowl or robe. Commemorative stupa, built to commemorate events in the lives of Buddha or his disciples, symbolic stupa, to symbolise aspects of Buddhist theology, for example, Borobudur is considered to be the symbol of the Three Worlds and the spiritual stages in a Mahayana bodhisattvas character. Votive stupa, constructed to commemorate visits or to gain spiritual benefits, the shape of the stupa represents the Buddha, crowned and sitting in meditation posture on a lion throne. His crown is the top of the spire, his head is the square at the base, his body is the vase shape, his legs are the four steps of the lower terrace
3.
Reliquary
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A reliquary is a container for relics. These may be the purported or actual physical remains of saints, such as bones, pieces of clothing, the authenticity of any given relic is often a matter of debate, for that reason, some churches require documentation of the relics provenance. Relics have long been important to Buddhists, Christians, Hindus, in these cultures, reliquaries are often presented in shrines, churches, or temples to which the faithful make pilgrimages in order to gain blessings. Relics are venerated in the Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, reliquaries provide a means of protecting and displaying relics. While frequently taking the form of caskets, they range in size from simple pendants or rings to very elaborate ossuaries, ivory was widely used in the Middle Ages for reliquaries, its pure white color an indication of the holy status of its contents. These objects constituted a form of artistic production across Europe. Many were designed with portability in mind, often being exhibited in public or carried in procession on the saints feast day or on holy days. Pilgrimages often centered on the veneration of relics, the faithful often venerate relics by bowing before the reliquary or kissing it. Those churches which observe the veneration of relics make a distinction between the honor given to the saints and the worship that is due to God alone. The feretrum was a form of reliquary or shrine containing the sacred effigies. In the late Middle Ages the craze for relics, many now fraudulent, became extreme, 16th-century reformers such as Martin Luther opposed the use of relics since many had no proof of historic authenticity, and they objected to the cult of saints. Nonetheless, the use and manufacture of reliquaries continues to this day, especially in Roman Catholic, post-Reformation reliquaries have tended to take the form of glass-sided caskets to display relics such as the bodies of saints. The earliest reliquaries were essentially boxes, either simply box-shaped or based on an architectural design and these latter are known by the French term chasse, and typical examples from the 12th to 14th century have wooden frameworks with gilt-copper plaques nailed on, decorated in champlevé enamel. Limoges was the largest centre of production, NB the English usage differs from that of the French châsse, relics of the True Cross became very popular from the 9th century onwards and were housed in magnificent gold and silver cross-shaped reliquaries, decorated with enamels and precious stones. Similarly, the bones of saints were often housed in reliquaries that recalled the shape of the body part. A philatory is a transparent reliquary designed to contain and exhibit the bones and this style of reliquary has a viewing portal by which to view the relic contained inside. During the later Middle Ages, the form, mostly used for consecrated hosts, was sometimes used for reliquaries. These housed the relic in a crystal or glass capsule mounted on a column above a base
4.
Buddhist temples in Japan
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Buddhist temples are, together with Shinto shrines, considered to be among the most numerous, famous, and important religious buildings in Japan. The Japanese word for a Buddhist temple is tera, and the same kanji also has the pronunciation ji, another ending, -in, is normally used to refer to minor temples. Such famous temples as Kiyomizu-dera, Enryaku-ji, and Kōtoku-in illustrate this naming pattern, in Japan, Buddhist temples co-exist with Shinto shrines, and both share the basic features of Japanese traditional architecture. Some shrines, for example Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū, have a Buddhist-style main gate called sōmon, many temples have a temizuya and komainu, like a shrine. Conversely, some make use of incense or have a shōrō belltower. Others – for example, Tanzan Jinja in Nara – may even have a pagoda, similarities between temples and shrines are also functional. Like a shrine, a Buddhist temple is not primarily a place of worship, its most important buildings are used for the safekeeping of sacred objects, unlike a Christian church, a temple is also a monastery. There are specialized buildings for certain rites, but these are open only to a limited number of participants. Religious mass gatherings do not take place with regularity as with Christian religions, if many people are involved in a ceremony, it will assume a festive character and will be held outdoors. The reason for the structural resemblances between the two lies in their common history. It is in fact normal for a temple to have also a shrine. Shrines enshrining local kami existed long before the arrival of Buddhism, with the arrival of Buddhism in Japan in the 6th century, shrines were subjected to its influence and adopted both the concept of permanent structures and the architecture of Buddhist temples. The successive development of shinbutsu-shūgō and of the honji suijaku theory brought to the almost complete fusion of kami worship and it became normal for shrines to be accompanied by temples in mixed complexes called jingū-ji or miyadera. The opposite was also common, most temples had at least a shrine dedicated to its tutelary kami. As a consequence, for centuries shrines and temples had a relationship where each influenced the other. The clear separation between Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines, which today is the norm, emerges only as a result of the shinbutsu bunri law of 1868. This separation was mandated by law, and many shrine-temples were forced to become just shrines, among them famous ones like Usa Hachiman-gū and Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū. For example, Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gūs giant Niō, being objects of Buddhist worship and therefore illegal where they were, were sold to Jufuku-ji, the shrine-temple also had to destroy Buddhism-related buildings, for example its tahōtō, its midō, and its shichidō garan
5.
Shinbutsu bunri
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In a narrower sense, shinbutsu bunri refers to the policy of separating Shinto and Buddhism pursued by the new Meiji government with the Kami and Buddhas Separation Order of 1868. Even bronze bells were melted down to make cannons, the new government that seized power in 1868 saw shinbutsu bunri as a way to reduce the immense wealth and power of the Buddhist sects. At the same time, it was supposed to give Shinto, a first order issued by the Jingijimuka in April 1868 ordered the defrocking of shasō and bettō. A few days later, the Daijōkan banned the application of Buddhist terminology such as gongen to Japanese kami, next came a ban on applying the Buddhist term Daibosatsu to the syncretic kami Hachiman at the Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū and Usa Hachiman-gū shrines. In the final stage, all the defrocked bettō and shasō were told to become shrine priests, also, monks of the Nichiren sect were told not to refer to some deities as kami. The campaign ultimately failed to destroy the influence of Buddhism on the Japanese people, the states first attempt to influence religious life therefore resulted in failure. In 1873, the government admitted that the effort to elevate Shinto above Buddhism had failed, however, the government did cause the diffusion of the idea that Shinto was the true religion of the Japanese, finally revealed after remaining for a long time hidden behind Buddhism. In recent years, many historians have come to believe that the syncretism of kami, the government was successful in creating the impression that Shinto and Buddhism in Japan are completely independent religions. Most Japanese today are unaware that some of their religious practices cannot be understood outside the context of the syncretism of kami. The shinbutsu bunri policy was itself the cause of serious damage to important cultural properties. Because mixing the two religions was now forbidden, shrines and temples had to give some of their treasures. The shrine also had to destroy Buddhism-related buildings, for example its tahōtō tower, its midō, many Buddhist temples were simply closed, for example Zenkō-ji, to which the now-independent Meigetsu-in used to belong. Another consequence of the policy was the creation of so-called invented traditions, to avoid the destruction of material illegal under the new rules, Shinto and Buddhist priests invented traditions, genealogies and other information that justified its presence. Later, awareness of their origin was often lost, causing confusion among historians. The Urakami Incidencts and the Struggle for Religious Tolerance in Early Meiji Japan, archived from the original on June 22,2014. Japans Ignored Revolution, The Separation of Shinto and Buddhism and a case study, creating State Shinto, The Great Promulgation Campaign and the New Religions. Introduction, The Rise of Funerary Buddhism in Tokugawa Japan, Death and Social Order in Tokugawa Japan, Buddhism, Anti-Christianity, and the Danka System. The Fox and the Jewel, Shared and Private Meanings in Contemporary Japanese Inari Worship, review of Of Heretics and Martyrs in Meiji Japan, Buddhism and Its Persecution by James Edward Ketelaar
6.
Shinto shrine
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A Shinto shrine is a structure whose main purpose is to house one or more Shinto kami. Its most important building is used for the safekeeping of sacred objects, structurally, a Shinto shrine is usually characterized by the presence of a honden or sanctuary, where the kami is enshrined. The honden may however be completely absent, as for example when the stands on a sacred mountain to which it is dedicated. There may be a haiden and other structures as well, however, a shrines most important building is used for the safekeeping of sacred objects rather than for worship. Miniature shrines can occasionally be found on roadsides, large shrines sometimes have on their precincts miniature shrines. The portable shrines which are carried on poles during festivals enshrine kami and are therefore true shrines. in 927 CE and this work listed all of the 2,861 Shinto shrines existing at the time, and the 3,131 official-recognized and enshrined Kami. Certainly, that number has grown and greatly exceeded this figure through the following generations, in Agency for Cultural Affairs in Japan placed the number of shrines at 79,467, mostly affiliated with the Association of Shinto Shrines. Some shrines, such as the Yasukuni Shrine are totally independent of any outside authority, the number of Shinto shrines in Japan is estimated to be around 100,000. This figure may, or may not, include private shrines in homes and owned by groups, abandoned or derelict shrines. Ancestors are kami to be worshiped, yayoi-period village councils sought the advice of ancestors and other kami, and developed instruments to evoke them. Yoshishiro means approach substitute and were conceived to attract the kami to allow them physical space, village-council sessions were held in quiet spots in the mountains or in forests near great trees or other natural objects that served as yorishiro. These sacred places and their yorishiro gradually evolved into todays shrines, whose origins can be seen in the Japanese words for mountain and forest. Many shrines have on their grounds one of the original great yorishiro, the first buildings at places dedicated to worship were surely huts built to house some yorishiro. A trace of this origin can be found in the term hokura, deity storehouse, which evolved into hokora, true shrines arose with the beginning of agriculture, when the need arose to attract kami to ensure good harvests. These were, however, just temporary structures built for a particular purpose, Ōmiwa Shrine in Nara, for example, contains no sacred images or objects because it is believed to serve the mountain on which it stands. Those images or objects are therefore unnecessary, for the same reason, it has a worship hall but no place to house the kami. Archeology confirms that, during the Yayoi period, the most common shintai in the earliest shrines were nearby mountain peaks that supplied water to the plains where people lived. Besides the already mentioned Ōmiwa Shrine, another important example is Mount Nantai, significantly, the name Nantai means mans body
7.
Itsukushima Shrine
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Itsukushima Shrine is a Shinto shrine on the island of Itsukushima, best known for its floating torii gate. It is in the city of Hatsukaichi in Hiroshima Prefecture in Japan, the shrine complex is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and the Japanese government has designated several buildings and possessions as National Treasures. Itsukushima jinja was the chief Shinto shrine of Aki Province, the shrine has been destroyed several times, but the first shrine buildings were probably erected in the 6th century. The present shrine dates from the century, and is believed to follow an earlier design from the 12th century. That design was established in 1168, when funds were provided by the warlord Taira no Kiyomori, the shrine was devoted to the worship of goddesses to whom Kiyomori owed thanks, he felt, for his success in life. Originally it was a pure Shinto shrine where no births or deaths were allowed to cause pollution and its treasures include the celebrated Heike Nōkyō, or Sutras dedicated by the Taira House of Taira. These consist of scrolls, on which the Lotus and other sutras have been copied by Kiyomori, his sons. Kiyomori lavished great wealth upon Itsukushima, and he liked to show the place to his friends and colleagues, or even to royal personages. The shrine was designed and built on pier-like structures over the bay so that it would appear to be floating on the water, separate from the sacred island, near the main shrine is a noh stage which dates from 1590. Noh theater performances have long used to pay homage to the gods through the ritual acting out of key events in Shinto myth. Although a gate has been in place since 1168, the current gate dates back only to 1875, the gate, built of decay-resistant camphor wood, is about 16 metres high. The torii appears to be floating only at high tide, when the tide is low, it is approachable by foot from the island. Gathering shellfish near the gate is also popular at low tide, at night, powerful lights on the shore illuminate the torii. On September 5,2004, the shrine was damaged by Typhoon Songda. The boardwalks and roof were destroyed, and the shrine was temporarily closed for repairs. The shrine is dedicated to the three daughters of Susano-o no Mikoto, Shinto god of seas and storms, and brother of the sun goddess Amaterasu. Because the island itself has been considered sacred, commoners were not allowed to set foot on it much of its history to maintain its purity. To allow pilgrims to approach, the shrine was built like a pier over the water, so that it appeared to float, the red entrance gate, or torii, was built over the water for much the same reason
8.
Meiji Restoration
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The Meiji Restoration, also known as the Meiji Ishin, Renovation, Revolution, Reform, or Renewal, was an event of change that restored practical imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Although there were Emperors before the Meiji Restoration, the events restored practical abilities, Meiji government also made education compulsory for both boys and girls at minimal fees. The goals of the government were expressed by the new emperor in the Charter Oath. The Restoration led to changes in Japans political and social structure. In Japan however, unlike China, foreign ideas were not associated with opium addiction. Figures like Shimazu Nariakira concluded that if we take the initiative, we can dominate, if we do not, we will be dominated, leading Japan to throw open its doors to foreign technology. Observing Japans response to the powers, Li Hongzhang considered Japan Chinas principal security threat as early as 1863. The word Meiji means enlightened rule and the goal was to modern advances with traditional eastern values. The main leaders of this were Itō Hirobumi, Matsukata Masayoshi, Kido Takayoshi, Itagaki Taisuke, Yamagata Aritomo, Mori Arinori, Ōkubo Toshimichi, and Yamaguchi Naoyoshi. The foundation of the Meiji restoration was the 1866 Satsuma-Chōshū Alliance between Saigō Takamori and Kido Takayoshi, leaders of the reformist elements in the Satsuma Domain and Chōshū Domain. These two leaders supported the Emperor Kōmei and were brought together by Sakamoto Ryōma for the purpose of challenging the ruling Tokugawa shogunate, after Emperor Kōmeis death on January 30,1867, Emperor Meiji ascended the throne on February 3. This period also saw Japan change from being a society to having a market economy. The Tokugawa Shogunate came to its end on November 9,1867, when Tokugawa Yoshinobu. Shortly thereafter in January 1868, the Boshin War started with the Battle of Toba–Fushimi in which Chōshū and this forced the Emperor to strip Yoshinobu of all power, setting the stage for official restoration. We shall henceforward exercise supreme authority in all the internal and external affairs of the country, consequently the title of Emperor must be substituted for that of Taikun, in which the treaties have been made. Officers are being appointed by us to the conduct of foreign affairs and it is desirable that the representatives of the treaty powers recognize this announcement. All Tokugawa lands were seized and placed under control, thus placing them under the prerogative of the new Meiji government. With Fuhanken sanchisei, the areas were split into three types, urban prefectures, rural prefectures and the already existing domains
9.
Tower
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A tower is a tall structure, taller than it is wide, often by a significant margin. Towers are distinguished from masts by their lack of guy-wires and are therefore, along with tall buildings, Towers are specifically distinguished from buildings in that they are not built to be habitable but to serve other functions. Towers can be stand alone structures or be supported by adjacent buildings or can be a feature on top of a structure or building. Old English torr is from Latin turris via Old French tor, the Latin term together with Greek τύρσις was loaned from a pre-Indo-European Mediterranean language, connected with the Illyrian toponym Βου-δοργίς. The oldest known may be the stone tower in walls of Neolithic Jericho. Some of the earliest towers were ziggurats, which existed in Sumerian architecture since the 4th millennium BC, the most famous ziggurats include the Sumerian Ziggurat of Ur, built the 3rd millennium BC, and the Etemenanki, one of the most famous examples of Babylonian architecture. The latter was built in Babylon during the 2nd millennium BC and was considered the tallest tower of the ancient world, some of the earliest surviving examples are the broch structures in northern Scotland, which are conical towerhouses. These and other examples from Phoenician and Roman cultures emphasised the use of a tower in fortification, for example, the name of the Moroccan city of Mogador, founded in the first millennium BC, is derived from the Phoenician word for watchtower. The Romans utilised octagonal towers as elements of Diocletians Palace in Croatia, which monument dates to approximately 300 AD, while the Servian Walls, the Chinese used towers as integrated elements of the Great Wall of China in 210 BC during the Qin Dynasty. Towers were also an important element of castles, other well known towers include the Leaning Tower of Pisa in Pisa, Italy built from 1173 until 1372 and the Two Towers in Bologna, Italy built from 1109 until 1119. The Himalayan Towers are stone towers located chiefly in Tibet built approximately 14th to 15th century, up to a certain height, a tower can be made with the supporting structure with parallel sides. However, above a height, the compressive load of the material is exceeded. This can be avoided if the support structure tapers up the building. A second limit is that of buckling—the structure requires sufficient stiffness to avoid breaking under the loads it faces, many very tall towers have their support structures at the periphery of the building, which greatly increases the overall stiffness. A third limit is dynamic, a tower is subject to varying winds, vortex shedding and these are often dealt with through a combination of simple strength and stiffness, as well as in some cases tuned mass dampers to damp out movements. Varying or tapering the outer aspect of the tower with height avoids vibrations due to vortex shedding occurring along the building simultaneously. Although not correctly called towers many modern skyscraper are often called towers, in the United Kingdom, tall domestic buildings are referred to as tower blocks. In the United States, the original World Trade Center had the nickname the Twin Towers, the tower throughout history has provided its users with an advantage in surveying defensive positions and obtaining a better view of the surrounding areas, including battlefields
10.
Eiffel Tower
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The Eiffel Tower is a wrought iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed, the Eiffel Tower is the most-visited paid monument in the world,6.91 million people ascended it in 2015. The tower is 324 metres tall, about the height as an 81-storey building. Its base is square, measuring 125 metres on each side, due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres. Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second-tallest structure in France after the Millau Viaduct, the tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels. The top levels upper platform is 276 m above the ground – the highest observation deck accessible to the public in the European Union, tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift to the first and second levels. The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually only accessible by lift. Eiffel openly acknowledged that inspiration for a tower came from the Latting Observatory built in New York City in 1853, sauvestre added decorative arches to the base of the tower, a glass pavilion to the first level, and other embellishments. Little progress was made until 1886, when Jules Grévy was re-elected as president of France and Édouard Lockroy was appointed as minister for trade. On 12 May, a commission was set up to examine Eiffels scheme and its rivals, which, after some debate about the exact location of the tower, a contract was signed on 8 January 1887. Eiffel was to all income from the commercial exploitation of the tower during the exhibition. He later established a company to manage the tower, putting up half the necessary capital himself. The proposed tower had been a subject of controversy, drawing criticism from those who did not believe it was feasible and these objections were an expression of a long-standing debate in France about the relationship between architecture and engineering. And for twenty years … we shall see stretching like a blot of ink the hateful shadow of the column of bolted sheet metal. Gustave Eiffel responded to criticisms by comparing his tower to the Egyptian pyramids. Will it not also be grandiose in its way, and why would something admirable in Egypt become hideous and ridiculous in Paris. Indeed, Garnier was a member of the Tower Commission that had examined the various proposals, some of the protesters changed their minds when the tower was built, others remained unconvinced. Guy de Maupassant supposedly ate lunch in the restaurant every day because it was the one place in Paris where the tower was not visible
11.
Ken (unit)
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The ken is a traditional Japanese unit of length, equal to six Japanese feet. The exact value has varied over time and location but has generally been a shorter than 2 meters. It is now standardized as 1 9/11 meter, in this context, it is commonly translated as bay. The length also appears in contexts, such as the standard length of the bō staff in Japanese martial arts. As these are used to cover the floors of most Japanese houses, floor surfaces are commonly measured not in square meters. Among English loanwords of Japanese origin, both ken and ma are derived from readings of the same character 間 and this kanji graphically combines 門 door and 日 sun. The earlier variant character 閒 was written with 月 moon rather than sun, unlike most Japanese units, the ken is not based on a Chinese original but is a local development. A buildings proportions were measured in ken, as for example in the case of Enryaku-jis Konponchū-dō, inside buildings, available space was often divided in squares measuring one ken across, and each square was then called a ma, term written with the same Chinese character as ken. Traditional buildings usually measure an odd number of bays, for example 3×3 or 5×5, a type of temples gate called rōmon can have dimensions going from 5×2 bays to the more common 3×2 bays down to even 1×1 bay. The Zen butsuden in the illustration measures 5×5 ken across externally because its 3×3 ken core is surrounded by a 1-ken aisle called hisashi, the value of a ken could change from building to building, but was usually kept constant within the same structure. Kasuga Taishas tiny hondens dimensions, for example, are 1×1 in ken, in the case of Izumo Taishas honden, a ken is 6.32 m, well above its standard value. The distance between pillars was standardized very early and started being used as a unit of measurement, land area in particular was measured using the ken as a basis. The unit was born out of the necessity to measure land surface to calculate taxes, at the time of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the ken was about 1.97 m, but around 1650 the Tokugawa shogunate reduced it to 1.818 m specifically to increase taxes. After the Edo period, the ken started to be called kyōma, Japanese Art Net User System Dictionary of Japanese Architectural and Art Historical Terminology, articles Kasuga-zukuri, Ken and Kondō. Accessed on May 6,2009 Iwanami Kōjien Japanese dictionary, 6th Edition, DVD version
12.
Hokki-ji
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Hokki-ji or Hōki-ji – formerly known as Okamoto-dera and Ikejiri-dera – is a Buddhist temple in Okamoto, Ikaruga, Nara Prefecture, Japan. The temples honorary sangō prefix is Kōhonzan, although it is rarely used, the temple was constructed to honor Avalokitesvara, and an 11-faced statue of the goddess is the primary object of worship in the temple. Hokki-ji is often considered to be one of the seven great temples founded by Prince Shōtoku, however, in 1993, it was registered together with Hōryū-ji as an UNESCO World Heritage Site under the name Buddhist Monuments in the Hōryū-ji Area. Hokki-ji is located on a foothill to the northeast of Hōryū-ji Tō-in, the temple is laid out such that the main hall and the pagoda are aligned along the east-west axis, similar to the layout of Hōryū-ji Sai-in. However, Hokki-jis main hall is in the west, and the tower is in the east and this kind of temple layout has come to be known as Hokki-ji style. The only original 8th-century building remaining is the 24m-high three-storied pagoda, which is the oldest of its kind in Japan, the lecture hall is a 1694 reconstruction, and Shōten-do hall is an 1863 reconstruction. The shrine contains a wooden 3. 5m-tall 11-faced statue of Avalokitesvara that was constructed in the half of the 10th century. A copper image of a constructed in the latter half of the seventh century is currently entrusted to the Nara National Museum. Both of these items have been designated Important Cultural Properties, list of National Treasures of Japan For an explanation of terms concerning Japanese Buddhism, Japanese Buddhist art, and Japanese Buddhist temple architecture, see the Glossary of Japanese Buddhism. Much of the content of this comes from the equivalent Japanese-language article. Hokiji homepage Nara Prefectural Tourist Guide for Ikaruga
13.
Ikaruga, Nara
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Ikaruga is a town in Ikoma District, Nara, Japan. Ikaruga is home to Hōryū-ji and Hokki-ji, ancient Buddhist temples collectively inscribed as UNESCO World Heritage, other ancient temples include Hōrin-ji, also in the vicinity of Hōryū-ji. The town was named after the Palace of Prince Shōtoku-Taishi, Ikaruga-no-Miya, whose grounds were at Hōryū-ji, as of April 1,2015, the town has an estimated population of 27,341, with 11,308 households. The total area is 14.27 km2
14.
Nara Prefecture
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Nara Prefecture is a prefecture in the Kansai region of Japan. The capital is the city of Nara, Nara Prefecture has the distinction of having more UNESCO World Heritage Listings than any other prefecture. Nara Prefecture region is considered one of the oldest regions in Japan spanning thousands of years, the present-day Nara Prefecture as it exists now officially was created in 1887, making it independent of Osaka Prefecture. Historically, Nara Prefecture was also known as Yamato-no-kuni or Yamato Province, at the dawn of history, Yamato was clearly the political center of Japan. Ancient capitals of Japan were built on the land of Nara, the capital cities of Fujiwara and Heijō are believed to have been modeled after Chinese capitals at the time, incorporating grid layout patterns. The royal court also established relations with Sui and then Tang Dynasty China, by 7th century, Nara accepted the many immigrants including refugees of Baekje who had escaped from war disturbances of the southern part of the Korean peninsula. The first high civilization with royal patronage of Buddhism flourished in todays Nara city, in 784, Emperor Kanmu decided to relocate the capital to Nagaoka-kyō in Yamashiro Province, followed by another move in 794 to Heian-kyō, marking the start of the Heian period. The temples in Nara remained powerful beyond the move of capital, thus giving Nara a synonym of Nanto as opposed to Heian-kyō. The movement led to a collision between the Taira and the Nara temples in 1180 and this clash eventually led to Kōfuku-ji and Tōdai-ji being set on fire, resulting in vast destruction of architectural heritage. At the rise of the Minamoto to its seat and the opening of Kamakura shogunate. Kōfuku-ji, being the temple to the Fujiwara since its foundation, not only regained the power it had before. With the reconstruction of Kōfuku-ji and Tōdai-ji, a town was growing again near the two temples, the Nanboku-chō period, starting in 1336, brought more instability to Nara. As Emperor Go-Daigo chose Yoshino as his base, a struggle arose in Kōfuku-ji with a group supporting the South. Likewise, local clans were split into two, later the whole province of Yamato got drawn into the confusion of the Sengoku period. With industry and commerce developing in the 18th century, the economy of the province was incorporated into prosperous Osaka, the economic dependency to Osaka even characterizes todays Nara Prefecture, for many inhabitants commute to Osaka to work or study there. Nara Prefecture is part of the Kansai, or Kinki, region of Japan and it is bordered to the west by Wakayama Prefecture and Osaka Prefecture, on the north by Kyoto Prefecture and on the east by Mie Prefecture. Nara Prefecture is 78.5 km from East to West and 103.6 km from North to South, most of the prefecture is covered by mountains and forests, leaving an inhabitable area of only 851 km². The ratio of area to total area is 23%, ranked 43rd among the 47 prefectures in Japan
15.
Buddhism
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Buddhism is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, from where it spread through much of Asia, two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars, Theravada and Mahayana. Buddhism is the worlds fourth-largest religion, with over 500 million followers or 7% of the global population, Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices. In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path, thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering. Theravada has a following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India, is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body. Buddhism is an Indian religion attributed to the teachings of Buddha, the details of Buddhas life are mentioned in many early Buddhist texts but are inconsistent, his social background and life details are difficult to prove, the precise dates uncertain. Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a king named Suddhodana, his mother queen Maya, and he was born in Lumbini gardens. Some of the stories about Buddha, his life, his teachings, Buddha was moved by the innate suffering of humanity. He meditated on this alone for a period of time, in various ways including asceticism, on the nature of suffering. He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree now called the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya in Gangetic plains region of South Asia. He reached enlightenment, discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way, as an enlightened being, he attracted followers and founded a Sangha. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his teaching the Dharma he had discovered. Dukkha is a concept of Buddhism and part of its Four Noble Truths doctrine. It can be translated as incapable of satisfying, the unsatisfactory nature, the Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism, we crave and cling to impermanent states and things, which is dukkha, incapable of satisfying and painful. This keeps us caught in saṃsāra, the cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha
16.
Kamakura period
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The Kamakura period is a period of Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura by the first shogun, Minamoto no Yoritomo. The period is known for the emergence of the samurai, the warrior caste, the Kamakura period marks the transition to land-based economies and a concentration of advanced military technologies in the hands of a specialized fighting class. Lords required the services of vassals, who were rewarded with fiefs of their own. The fief holders exercised local military rule, once Minamoto Yoritomo had consolidated his power, he established a new government at his family home in Kamakura. He called his government a bakufu, but because he was given the ancient high military title Seii Tai-shōgun by the Emperor, Yoritomo followed the Fujiwara form of house government and had an administrative board Mandokoro, a board of retainers, and a board of inquiry. After confiscating estates in central and western Japan, he appointed stewards for the estates and constables for the provinces, as shogun, Yoritomo was both the steward and the constable general. The Kamakura shogunate was not a regime, however, and although it controlled large tracts of land. The regime continued warfare against the Northern Fujiwara, but never brought either the north or the west under complete military control, however, the 4th leader of the Northern Fujiwara Fujiwara no Yasuhira was defeated by Yoritomo in 1189, and the 100-year-long prosperity of the north disappeared. The old court resided in Kyoto, continuing to hold the land over which it had jurisdiction, despite a strong beginning, Yoritomo failed to consolidate the leadership of his family on a lasting basis. Intrafamily contention had long existed within the Minamoto, although Yoritomo had eliminated most serious challengers to his authority. When he died suddenly in 1199, his son Minamoto no Yoriie became shogun and nominal head of the Minamoto, but Yoriie was unable to control the other eastern warrior families. By the early century, a regency had been established for the shogun by Hōjō Tokimasa—a member of the Hōjō clan. Often the Shikken was also the Tokuso and Rensho, under the Hōjō, the shogun became a powerless figurehead. The Hōjō forces easily won the war, and the court was brought under the direct control of the shogunate. The shoguns constables gained greater powers, and the court was obliged to seek Kamakuras approval for all of its actions. Although deprived of power, the court retained extensive estates. Several significant administrative achievements were made during the Hōjō regency, in 1225 the third regent Hōjō Yasutoki established the Council of State, providing opportunities for other military lords to exercise judicial and legislative authority at Kamakura. The Hōjō regent presided over the council, which was a form of collective leadership
17.
Zen
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Zen is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty as Chan Buddhism. Zen school was influenced by Taoism and developed as a distinguished school of Chinese Buddhism. From China, Chan Buddhism spread south to Vietnam, northeast to Korea and east to Japan, the term Zen is derived from the Japanese pronunciation of the Middle Chinese word 禪 which traces its roots to the Indian practice of Dhyana. Zen emphasizes rigorous self-control, meditation-practice, insight into Buddha-nature, as such, it de-emphasizes mere knowledge of sutras and doctrine and favors direct understanding through zazen and interaction with an accomplished teacher. The Prajñāpāramitā literature and, to an extent, Madhyamaka have also been influential in the shaping of the paradoxical language of the Zen-tradition. Central to Zen is the practice of dhyana or meditation, during sitting meditation, practitioners usually assume a position such as the lotus position, half-lotus, Burmese, or seiza postures, using the dhyāna mudrā. To regulate the mind, awareness is directed towards counting or watching the breath or by bringing that awareness to the center below the navel. Often, a square or round cushion placed on a mat is used to sit on, in some other cases. This practice may simply be called sitting dhyāna, which is zuòchán in Chinese, in the Sōtō school of Zen, meditation with no objects, anchors, or content, is the primary form of practice. The meditator strives to be aware of the stream of thoughts, allowing them to arise, in the Japanese language, this practice is called Shikantaza. Intensive group meditation may be practiced occasionally in some temples, in the Japanese language, this practice is called Sesshin. While the daily routine may require monks to meditate for hours each day. In modern Buddhist practice in Japan, Taiwan, and the West, lay students often attend these intensive practice sessions and these are held at many Zen centers, especially in commemoration of the Buddhas attainment of Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi. One distinctive aspect of Zen meditation in groups is the use of a kyosaku, at the beginning of the Sòng dynasty, practice with the kōan method became popular, whereas others practiced silent illumination. This became the source of differences in practice between the Línjì and Cáodòng schools. A kōan, literally public case, is a story or dialogue and these anecdotes give a demonstration of the masters insight. Koans emphasize the non-conceptional insight that the Buddhist teachings are pointing to, koans can be used to provoke the great doubt, and test a students progress in Zen practice. Kōan-inquiry may be practiced during zazen, kinhin, and throughout all the activities of daily life, kōan practice is particularly emphasized by the Japanese Rinzai school, but it also occurs in other schools or branches of Zen depending on the teaching line
18.
Shingon Buddhism
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For that reason, it is often called Japanese Esoteric Buddhism, or Orthodox Esoteric Buddhism. The word Shingon is the Japanese reading of Chinese, 真言 Zhēnyán True Words, Kūkai returned to Japan as Huiguos lineage- and Dharma-successor. Shingon followers usually refer to Kūkai as Kōbō-Daishi or Odaishi-sama, the name given to him years after his death by Emperor Daigo. Before he went to China, Kūkai had been an independent monk in Japan for over a decade and he was extremely well versed in classical Chinese prose, calligraphy and Buddhist texts. Esoteric Buddhism was not considered to be a different sect or school yet at that time, Huiguo was the first person to gather the still scattered elements of Indian and Chinese Esoteric Buddhism into a cohesive system. When Kūkai was 22, he learned this mantra from Gonsō and he persevered in this mantra practice for seven years and mastered it. According to tradition, this brought him siddhis of superhuman memory retention. Kūkai would later praise the power and efficacy of Kokuzō-Gumonjiho practice, kūkais respect for Ākāśagarbha was so great that he regarded him as his honzon for the rest of his life. It was also during this period of intense mantra practice that Kūkai dreamt of a man telling him to out the Mahavairocana Tantra for the doctrine that he sought. The Mahavairocana Tantra had only recently made available in Japan. He was able to obtain a copy in Chinese but large portions were in Sanskrit in the Siddhaṃ script, which he did not know, and even the Chinese portions were too arcane for him to understand. He believed that teaching was a door to the truth he sought. Thus, Kūkai resolved to travel to China to spend the necessary to fully understand the Mahavairocana Tantra. When Kūkai reached China and first met Huiguo on the month of 805, Huiguo was age sixty. Huiguo exclaimed to Kūkai in Chinese, At last, you have come, I have been waiting for you. Quickly, prepare yourself for initiation into the mandalas, Huiguo had foreseen that Esoteric Buddhism would not survive in India and China in the near future and that it was Kukais destiny to see it continue in Japan. In the short space of three months, Huiguo initiated and taught Kūkai everything he knew on the doctrines and practices of the Mandala of the Two Realms as well as mastery of Sanskrit and Chinese. Huiguo declared Kūkai to be his disciple and proclaimed him a Dharma successor
19.
Eaves
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The eaves are the edges of the roof which overhang the face of a wall and, normally, project beyond the side of a building. The eaves form an overhang to throw water clear of the walls and may be decorated as part of an architectural style. Eaves is derived from Old English efes meaning edge, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, eaves is both the singular and plural form of the word. However, the Merriam-Webster website lists the word as eave and states that it is used in plural. The word was used before the 12th century in the form efes, the primary function of the eaves is to keep rain water off the walls and to prevent the ingress of water at the junction where the roof meets the wall. The eaves may also protect a pathway around the building from the rain, prevent erosion of the footings, the eaves overhang may also shelter openings to ventilate the roof space. Aesthetic, traditional or purely decorative considerations may prevail over the functional requirements of the eaves. At the gables the eaves may extend beyond the end wall by projecting the purlins and are usually capped off by bargeboards to protect the wall. Eaves must be designed for wind speeds as the overhang can significantly increase the wind loading on the roof. Chhajja Eavesdrip Eavesdropping Gargoyle Lookout Rainhead Soffit Media related to Eaves at Wikimedia Commons
20.
Finial
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A finial or hip-knob is an element marking the top or end of some object, often formed to be a decorative feature. Where there are several such elements they may be called pinnacles and these are frequently seen on top of bed posts or clocks. Decorative finials are also used to fasten lampshades, and as an ornamental element at the end of the handles of souvenir spoons. The charm at the end of a chain is also known as a finial. During the various dynasties in China, a finial was worn on the top of the civil or military officials wore during formal court ceremonies. The finial was changed to a knob for other daily usage, in Java and Bali, a rooftop finial is known as mustaka or kemuncak. A ball-style finial is often mounted to the top of a stationary flagpole, the United States Army, Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard employ a variety of different finials depending on the flag in question, the Marines and Coast Guard deferring to the Navys protocols. Bed posts often end in finials, wooden posts tend to have turned wood finials. While the purpose of finials on bed posts is mostly decorative, they serve a purpose on curtain rods, curtain rod finials can be seen to act much like a barometer of public taste. Many designs hark back to the gothic and neo-gothic of architectural finials, while other contemporary finials reflect minimalist, art nouveau, the durability, strength and machinability of modern alloys have lent themselves to increasingly intricate and dazzling designs. Some lampshades or light fittings, especially in glass, typically terminate in a finial which also serves to affix the shade to the lamp or fixture, finials are twisted onto the lamp harp. Typically the finial is externally decorative whilst hiding an internal screw thread, there are several standard thread sizes which are used. Acroterion Alem Crocket Souvenir spoon Word-of-the-day on finial
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Main Hall (Japanese Buddhism)
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Main hall is the term used in English for the building within a Japanese Buddhist temple compound which enshrines the main object of veneration. Because the various denominations deliberately use different terms, this single English term translates several Japanese words, among them Butsuden, Butsu-dō, kondō, konpon-chūdō, and hondō. Hondō is its exact Japanese equivalent, while the others are more specialized words used by particular sects or for edifices having a particular structure, the term kondō, literally golden hall, started to be used during the Asuka and Nara periods. A kondō is the centerpiece of an ancient Buddhist temples garan in Japan, the origin of the name is uncertain, but it may derive from the perceived preciousness of its content, or from the fact that the interior was lined with gold. This is the used by the oldest temples in the country. The second story has the dimensions as the temples core at the first story. Some temples, for example Asuka-dera or Hōryū-ji, have more than one kondō, because of its limited size, worshipers were not allowed to enter the building and had to stand outside. The kondō and a pagoda were usually surrounded by a corridor called kairō, the use of kondō declined after the 10th century, when it was replaced by a hondō divided in naijin and gejin. The term remained in use even up to the Edo period. The term hondō, literally means hall and it enshrines the most important objects of veneration. The term is thought to have evolved during the 9th century to avoid the early term kondō and it became common after the introduction of the two Mikkyo sects to Japan. Various new types of buildings, including the hondō, were built during the Heian period. Different buildings were called hondō depending on the sect, for example, the kondō, the chudō, mieidō, a notable evolution of the hondō during this period is the inclusion of a space for worshipers inside the hondō itself, called gejin. Other names such as Konpon-chūdō, literally cardinal central hall are used as well, the Tokugawa funeral temple of Kanei-ji, which had been built explicitly to imitate Enryaku-ji, also had one, though it has not survived. Yama-dera in Yamagata is another example of a temple using this name, the Butsuden or Butsu-dō, literally Buddha Hall, is the main hall of Zen temples of schools such as the Sōtō 曹洞 and Rinzai 臨済. This architectonic style arrived together with Zen during the Kamakura period and it is also known that during the 13th and 14th centuries very large butsuden measuring 5x5 bays square having a mokoshi were built, but none survives. Large size 3x3 bay butsuden with a mokoshi however still exist, in the case of the Ōbaku Zen school that arrived late in Japan, the architecture retained the Ming Chinese style. The hondō of Ōbaku Zen temples is usually called daiyū-hōden, literally ‘the Treasured Hall of the Mahāvīra ’, an example can be found at Mampuku-ji
22.
Asuka-dera
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Asuka-dera, also known as Hōkō-ji, is a Buddhist temple in Asuka, Nara. Asuka-dera is regarded as one of the oldest temples in Japan, a number of records refer to the origin of the temple, such as the Nihongi and Fusō-ryakuki. The original site of the Hōkō-ji was also maintained as a temple which survives into modern times, the main object of worship at Asuka-dera is the bronze Great Buddha, which said to be made by Kuratsukuri no Tori in the early seventh century. The statue is a designated an Important Cultural Property, aston, William G. Nihongi, Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A. D.697. ISBN 0-8048-3674-4 Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds, ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Martin, John H. and Phyllis G. Martin. Nara, A Cultural Guide to Japans Ancient Capital, ISBN 978-4-00-080111-9 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. OCLC194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. Nipon o daï itsi ran, ou, paris, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul, ed. Jinnō Shōtōki, ISBN 0-231-04940-4 Asuka Historical Museum website Gango-ji as world heritage site Gango-ji in context of Nara tourism
23.
Yakushi-ji
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Yakushi-ji is one of the most famous imperial and ancient Buddhist temples in Japan, that was once one of the Seven Great Temples of Nanto, located in Nara. The temple is the headquarters of the Hossō school of Japanese Buddhism, Yakushi-ji is one of the sites that are collectively inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, under the name of Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara. The main object of veneration, Yakushi Nyorai, also named The Medicine Buddha, was one of the first Buddhist Deities to arrive in Japan from China in 680, and gives the temple its name. This act of building temples in devotion to Buddhist figures was a practice among Japanese nobility when Buddhism was first imported from China. It has been believed that the temple was moved to its present location in 718. However, excavations of the Fujiwara-kyō Yakushi-ji site in the 1990s suggest that there may have been two Yakushi-ji at one time, the Fujiwara-kyō Yakushi-ji is also referred to as Moto Yakushi-ji. Fires destroyed most buildings of the complex in 973, and the hall in 1528. Much hard work has put into restoration, the main hall was rebuilt in the 1970s. The East Pagoda, completed in 730 during the Nara period, is the only original 8th-century structure at Yakushi-ji, the structure stands at 34 metres, and is regarded as one of the finest pagodas in Japan, representing Hakuhō to Tenpyō period architecture. The East Pagoda has just three stories, but seems to have six because of the presence of inter-storey pent roofs, the structure is topped by a distinctive globe-shaped finial. The East Pagoda was disassembled for repair work from 1898-1900, the central pillar of the pagoda had corroded, and edges of the eaves of the pagoda had sagged. A seven-storey scaffold completely surrounds the East Tower, and repair work will continue to 2018, yakushi-jis layout is symmetrical, with two main halls and two three-story pagodas. The unique layout is sometimes referred to as yakushiji-style. Bussokusekika Shinbashira, the central, usually suspended wooden column inside Nanto Shichi Daiji, Yakushi-ji Homepage Yakushiji Temple, from The Official Nara Travel Guide Yakushiji - An Imperial Healer Japan Guide Yakushiji Annual Events Photos of Yakushiji
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Kamakura
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Kamakura is a city in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan, about 50 kilometres south-south-west of Tokyo. Kamakura was designated as a city on November 3,1939, as of September 1,2016, the modern city has an estimated population of 172,302 and a population density of 4,358.77 persons per km². The total area is 39.53 km2, as a coastal city with a high number of seasonal festivals, as well as ancient Buddhist and Shinto shrines and temples, Kamakura is a popular tourist destination within Japan. Surrounded to the north, east and west by hills and to the south by the water of Sagami Bay. The natural fortification made Kamakura an easily defensible stronghold, to the north of the city stands Mt. Genji, which then passes behind the Daibutsu and reaches Inamuragasaki and the sea. From Kamakuras alluvional plain branch off numerous narrow valleys like the Urigayatsu, Shakadōgayatsu, Ōgigayatsu, Kamegayatsu, Hikigayatsu, Kamakura is crossed by the Namerigawa river, which goes from the Asaina Pass in northern Kamakura to the beach in Yuigahama for a total length of about 8 kilometres. The river marks the border between Zaimokuza and Yuigahama, in administrative terms, the municipality of Kamakura borders with Yokohama to the north, with Zushi to the east, and with Fujisawa to the west. North-west of Kamakura lies Yamanouchi, commonly called Kita-Kamakura because of the presence of East Japan Railway Companys Kita-Kamakura Station, Yamanouchi, however, was technically never a part of historical Kamakura since it is outside the Seven Entrances. Yamanouchi was the border of the city during the shogunate. Its name at the used to be Sakado-gō. The border post used to lie about a hundred meters past todays Kita-Kamakura train station in Ofunas direction. Although very small, Yamanouchi is famous for its traditional atmosphere and these three great temples were built here because Yamanouchi was the home territory of the Hōjō clan, a branch of the Taira clan which ruled Japan for 150 years. Among Kita-Kamakuras most illustrious citizens were artist Isamu Noguchi and movie director Yasujirō Ozu, Kamakuras defining feature is Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū, a Shinto shrine in the center of the city. A1. 8-kilometre road runs from Sagami Bay directly to the shrine and this road is known as Wakamiya Ōji, the citys main street. Built by Minamoto no Yoritomo as an imitation of Kyotos Suzaku Ōji, Wakamiya Ōji used to be much wider, delimited on both sides by a 3 metre deep canal and flanked by pine trees. Walking from the beach toward the shrine, one passes through three torii, or Shinto gates, called respectively Ichi no Torii, Ni no Torii and San no Torii. Between the first and the second lies Geba Yotsukado which, as the name indicates, was the place where riders had to get off their horses in deference to Hachiman and his shrine. Approximately 100 metres after the second torii, the dankazura, a raised pathway flanked by trees that marks the center of Kamakura
25.
Apatite
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Apatite is a group of phosphate minerals, usually referring to hydroxylapatite, fluorapatite and chlorapatite, with high concentrations of OH−, F− and Cl− ions, respectively, in the crystal. The formula of the admixture of the four most common endmembers is written as Ca1062, apatite is a mineral that is often mistaken for other minerals. This tendency is reflected in the name, which is derived from the Greek word απατείν. Apatite is one of a few minerals produced and used by biological micro-environmental systems, apatite is the defining mineral for 5 on the Mohs scale. Hydroxyapatite, also known as hydroxylapatite, is the component of tooth enamel. A relatively rare form of apatite in which most of the OH groups are absent and containing many carbonate, fluoridated water allows exchange in the teeth of fluoride ions for hydroxyl groups in apatite. Similarly, toothpaste typically contains a source of fluoride anions, too much fluoride results in dental fluorosis and/or skeletal fluorosis. Fission tracks in apatite are commonly used to determine the history of orogenic belts. /He dating of apatite is also established for use in determining thermal histories and other. Phosphorite is a sedimentary rock, that contains between 18% and 40% P2O5. The apatite in phosphorite is present as cryptocrystalline masses referred to as collophane, the primary use of apatite is in the manufacture of fertilizer – it is a source of phosphorus. It is occasionally used as a gemstone, green and blue varieties, in finely divided form, are pigments with excellent covering power. During digestion of apatite with sulfuric acid to phosphoric acid. This byproduct is an industrial source of hydrofluoric acid. Fluoro-chloro apatite forms the basis of the now obsolete Halophosphor fluorescent tube phosphor system and this system has been almost entirely replaced by the Tri-Phosphor system. In the United States, apatite-derived fertilizers are used to supplement the nutrition of many agricultural crops by providing a source of phosphate. Apatites are also a proposed host material for storage of nuclear waste, apatite is infrequently used as a gemstone. Transparent stones of clean color have been faceted, and chatoyant specimens have been cabochon-cut, chatoyant stones are known as cats-eye apatite, transparent green stones are known as asparagus stone, and blue stones have been called moroxite
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Granite
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Granite is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in texture. Granites can be white, pink, or gray in color. The word granite comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the structure of such a holocrystalline rock. By definition, granite is a rock with at least 20% quartz. The term granitic means granite-like and is applied to granite and a group of igneous rocks with similar textures and slight variations in composition. Occasionally some individual crystals are larger than the groundmass, in case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a texture is known as a granite porphyry. Granitoid is a general, descriptive field term for lighter-colored, coarse-grained igneous rocks, petrographic examination is required for identification of specific types of granitoids. The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite, Granite is nearly always massive, hard and tough, and therefore it has gained widespread use throughout human history, and more recently as a construction stone. The average density of granite is between 2.65 and 2.75 g/cm3, its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa, and its viscosity near STP is 3–6 •1019 Pa·s. The melting temperature of dry granite at ambient pressure is 1215–1260 °C, it is reduced in the presence of water. Granite has poor primary permeability, but strong secondary permeability, true granite according to modern petrologic convention contains both plagioclase and alkali feldspars. When a granitoid is devoid or nearly devoid of plagioclase, the rock is referred to as alkali feldspar granite, when a granitoid contains less than 10% orthoclase, it is called tonalite, pyroxene and amphibole are common in tonalite. A granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called a binary or two-mica granite, two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites. A worldwide average of the composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses. Much of it was intruded during the Precambrian age, it is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin veneer of the continents. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors and rounded massifs, granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels. Granite often occurs as small, less than 100 km² stock masses
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Sanskrit
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
28.
Nara, Nara
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Nara is the capital city of Nara Prefecture located in the Kansai region of Japan. The city occupies the part of Nara Prefecture, bordering Kyoto Prefecture. By the Heian period, a variety of different characters had been used to represent the name Nara, 乃楽, 乃羅, 平, 平城, 名良, 奈良, 奈羅, 常, 那良, 那楽, 那羅, 楢, 諾良, 諾楽, 寧, 寧楽 and 儺羅. A number of theories for the origin of the name Nara have been proposed, the second theory in the list, by notable folklorist Kunio Yanagita, is most widely accepted at present. The Nihon shoki suggests that Nara was derived from narasu, according to this account, in September in the tenth year of Emperor Sujin. leading selected soldiers went forward, climbed Nara-yama and put them in order. Now the imperial forces gathered and flattened trees and plants, therefore the mountain is called Nara-yama. This word gives rise to the verb narasu, adverb narashi, of course, the fact that historically Nara was also written 平 or 平城 as above is further support for this theory. The idea that Nara is derived from 楢 nara is the next most common opinion and this idea was suggested by a linguist, Yoshida Togo. This noun for the plant can be seen as early as in Manyōshū, the latter book states the place name Narahara in Harima derives from this nara tree, which might support Yoshidas theory. Note that the name of the city of Kashihara contains a semantically similar morpheme. Then, there is the idea that Nara is a word from Korean nara. This idea was put forward by a linguist Matsuoka Shizuo, however, almost nothing about the Old Korean language is known today. These 15th-century books used narah, an old form of nara in Korean, beckwith infers the Korean narak derives from the late Middle Old Chinese 壌, from early *narak, and has no connection with Goguryoic and Japanese na. Kusuhara et al. also points out this hypothesis cannot account for the fact there are lots of places named Nara, Naru, there is the idea that Nara is akin to Tungusic na. In some Tungusic languages such as Orok, na means earth, some have speculated about a connection between these Tungusic words and Old Japanese nawi, an archaic and somewhat obscure word that appears in the verb phrases nawi furu and nawi yoru. The Flat land theory is adopted by Nihon Kokugo Daijiten, various dictionaries for place names, history books on Nara and the like today, Nara was the capital of Japan from 710 to 794, lending its name to the Nara period. In 2010, Nara celebrated the 1, 300th anniversary of its ascension as Japans imperial capital, in the modern age, as the seat of the prefectural government, Nara has developed into a local center of commerce and government. The city was incorporated on February 1,1898
29.
Ankokuron-ji
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Myōhōkekyōzan Ankokuron-ji is a Buddhist temple of the Nichiren sect in Kamakura, Kanagawa, Japan. It is one of a group of three built near the site in Matsubagayatsu (Valley of Pine Needles where Nichiren, founder of the Buddhist sect that bears his name, is supposed to have had his hut. Kamakura is known among Buddhists for having been during the 13th century the cradle of Nichiren Buddhism and he settled down in a hut in the Matsubagayatsu district where three temples, have been fighting for centuries for the honor of being the sole heir of the master. All three say they lie on the spot where he used to have his hut, however none of them can prove its claims. The Shinpen Kamakurashi, a book to Kamakura commissioned by Tokugawa Mitsukuni in 1685. However, when the two temples finally went to court, with a sentence emitted in 1787 by the shogunates tribunals Myōhō–ji won the right to claim to be the place where Nichiren had had his hermitage. Ankokuron-ji is named after the Risshō Ankoku Ron, Nichirens first major treatise, because of it, he was almost executed, pardoned and banished to Sado Island. The essay is said to have actually written in the small cave visible at the right of the temples entrance. This is the place later, for three years beginning in 1257, he wrote his essay Risshō Ankoku Ron in a cave. The stone lanterns near the gate were brought here from Tokyos Zōjō-ji, to their right lies the so-called Goshoan, built on the place where Nichiren wrote the Risshō Ankoku Ron. The old tree in front of it is said to have been planted by Nichiren himself, further ahead lies the main hall, rebuilt in 1963 after having been destroyed by fire. Beyond the main hall, in the cemetery lies Nichiros funerary pavilion, nichiro was one of Nichirens best followers, and he chose to be cremated and buried here. Above it, the Nanmenkutsu is the place where Nichiren is supposed to have hidden in 1260 when attackers burned his hut down, the statue of a white monkey in it commemorates his salvation at the hands of the animal, who led him to safety and fed him. The white monkey is an attendant of the Sannō Gongen, a kami who is a manifestation of Buddhist god Taishakuten, from it are visible, besides the volcano, the city of Kamakura, its beach, and Hakone. Going down the stairs the visitor returns to the entrance. For an explanation of terms concerning Japanese Buddhism, Japanese Buddhist art, Kamakura Kankō Bunka Kentei Kōshiki Tekisutobukku. Fukaku Aruku - Kamakura Shiseki Sansaku Vol.1 &2
30.
Mokoshi
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In Japanese architecture a mokoshi, literally skirt storey or cuff storey, is a decorative pent roof surrounding a building below the true roof. Since it does not correspond to any division, the mokoshi gives the impression of there being more floors than there really are. It is usually a ken deep and is most commonly seen in Buddhist temples and pagodas. The mokoshi normally covers a hisashi, a walled aisle surrounding a building on one or more sides, the roofing material for the mokoshi can be the same or different as in the main roof. The name derives from the fact that it surrounds and hides the main building like the cuff of a pair of pants and its purpose was in fact to hide the thick sustaining pillars of the structure, making it look lighter and simpler. It has been used extensively by the Zen sects in various structures of its temple complexes, another name for a mokoshi is yuta, hence the name yuta-zukuri given to the style of a building featuring it. This name started being used during the Middle Ages, and stems from the idea that its presence offered protection from snow, the three storied east pagoda of Yakushi-ji seems to have six stories because of the presence of a mokoshi between each story. The first of the two stories at Hōryū-ji has a mokoshi, which was added in the Nara period with extra posts. These were needed to hold up the original first roof, which extended more than four meters past the building, hōryū-jis is the oldest extant example of mokoshi. The butsuden of a Zen temple usually has a mokoshi, and therefore looks like a two-story building, the following structures all have a mokoshi
31.
Heian period
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The Heian period is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. The period is named after the city of Heian-kyō, or modern Kyōto. It is the period in Japanese history when Buddhism, Taoism, the Heian period is also considered the peak of the Japanese imperial court and noted for its art, especially poetry and literature. Although the Imperial House of Japan had power on the surface, the power was in the hands of the Fujiwara clan. Many emperors actually had mothers from the Fujiwara family, the Heian period was preceded by the Nara period and began in 794 A. D. after the movement of the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō, by the 50th emperor, Emperor Kanmu. Kanmu first tried to move the capital to Nagaoka-kyō, but a series of disasters befell the city, prompting the emperor to relocate the capital a second time, a rebellion occurred in China in the last years of the 9th century, making the political situation unstable. The Japanese missions to Tang China was suspended and the influx of Chinese exports halted, therefore the Heian Period is considered a high point in Japanese culture that later generations have always admired. The period is noted for the rise of the samurai class. Nominally, sovereignty lay in the emperor but in power was wielded by the Fujiwara nobility. However, to protect their interests in the provinces, the Fujiwara and other noble families required guards, police, the warrior class made steady political gains throughout the Heian period. Still, a military takeover of the Japanese government was centuries away. The entry of the class into court influence was a result of the Hōgen Rebellion. At this time Taira no Kiyomori revived the Fujiwara practices by placing his grandson on the throne to rule Japan by regency and their clan, the Taira, would not be overthrown until after the Genpei War, which marked the start of the shogunate. The Kamakura period began in 1185 when Minamoto no Yoritomo seized power from the emperors, Nara was abandoned after only 70 years in part due to the ascendancy of Dōkyō and the encroaching secular power of the Buddhist institutions there. Kyōto had good access to the sea and could be reached by land routes from the eastern provinces. The early Heian period continued Nara culture, the Heian capital was patterned on the Chinese Tang capital at Changan, as was Nara, Kanmu endeavoured to improve the Tang-style administrative system which was in use. Known as the ritsuryō, this attempted to recreate the Tang imperium in Japan. Despite the decline of the Taika–Taihō reforms, imperial government was vigorous during the early Heian period, Kanmus avoidance of drastic reform decreased the intensity of political struggles, and he became recognized as one of Japans most forceful emperors
32.
Tendai
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Tendai is a Japanese school of Mahayana Buddhism, a descendant of the Chinese Tiantai or Lotus Sutra school. David W. Philosophically, the Tendai school did not deviate substantially from the beliefs that had created by the Tiantai school in China. However, what Saichō transmitted from China was not exclusively Tiantai, but also included Zen, the esoteric Mikkyō, the tendency to include a range of teachings became more marked in the doctrines of Saichōs successors, such as Ennin and Enchin. However, in years, this range of teachings began to form sub-schools within Tendai Buddhism. By the time of Ryōgen, there were two groups on Mt. Hiei, the Sammon Mountain Group who followed Ennin and the Jimon Temple Group who followed Enchin. The Tendai sect flourished under the patronage of the Imperial House, in 794, the Imperial capital was moved to Kyoto. Tendai Buddhism became the dominant form of mainstream Buddhism in Japan for many years, nichiren, Hōnen, Shinran and Dōgen—all famous thinkers in non-Tendai schools of Japanese Buddhism—were all initially trained as Tendai monks. Japanese Buddhism was dominated by the Tendai school to a greater degree than Chinese Buddhism was by its forebearer. Due to its patronage and growing popularity among the classes, the Tendai sect became not only respected. Enryaku-ji, the complex on Mt. Hiei, became a sprawling center of power, attended not only by ascetic monks. As a result, in 1571 Enryaku-ji was razed by Oda Nobunaga as part of his campaign to unify Japan, Nobunaga regarded the Mt. Hiei monks as a potential threat or rival, as they could employ religious claims to attempt to rally the populace to their side. The temple complex was rebuilt, and continues to serve as the head temple of the Tendai school today. Chih-i, founder of Tien-tai philosophy and practice attempted this synthesis on the basis of the doctrine of the Lotus Sutra. Tendai Buddhism has several philosophical insights which allow for the reconciliation of Buddhist doctrine with aspects of Japanese culture such as Shinto and it is rooted in the idea, fundamental to Mahayana Buddhism, that Buddha-hood, the capability to attain enlightenment, is intrinsic in all things. Also central to Mahayana is the notion that the phenomenal world and this notion poses the problem of how we come to have many differentiated experiences. Tendai Buddhism claims that each and every sense phenomenon just as it is is the expression of Dharma, for Tendai, the ultimate expression of Dharma is the Lotus Sutra. Therefore, the nature of all sense experiences consists in the Buddhas preaching of the doctrine of Lotus Sutra. The existence and experience of all unenlightened beings is fundamentally equivalent, more specifically, Shimaji used original enlightenment thought to designate the intellectual mainstream of medieval Japanese Tendai Buddhism
33.
Wuyue
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Wuyue, 907–978, was an independent coastal kingdom founded during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms of Chinese history. It was ruled by the Qian family, which remains widespread in the former territory. The Qian family had been providing military leaders to the Tang Dynasty beginning in 887, Qian Liu was named Prince of Yue in 902, with the title of Prince of Wu added two years later. In 907, when the Tang Dynasty fell and was replaced in the north by the Later Liang, Qian Liu used his position to proclaim himself the King of Wuyue. This signaled the beginning of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period which would last until the founding of the Song Dynasty in 960. The name Wuyue comes from the combination of Wu Kingdom and Yue Kingdom, with its capital in Hangzhou, also called Xifu, the kingdom included present-day Zhejiang, Shanghai, along with the southern portion of Jiangsu Province. It would also absorb some of the northern part of Fujian when the Min Kingdom fell in 945. In the early decades of its existence, Wuyue bordered the Min Kingdom on its south, with the rebellion of Yin from the Min from 943 to 945, it briefly gave Wuyue a third border. However, before long, Wuyue would be completely encircled as both Yin and Min were absorbed by the Southern Tang, the population was approximately 550,700 households, with many people living in commercial centers and major seaports. Wuyue was not a large kingdom compared to many of its neighbors, although initially 12 prefectures, it later consisted of 13 prefectures and 86 counties or sub-prefectures. Fuzhou was incorporated into Wuyue as its 13th prefecture, after the Min court declared allegiance to it as they were besieged by Southern Tang and he developed the coastal kingdoms agriculture, built seawalls, expanded Hangzhou, dredged rivers and lakes, and encouraged sea transport and trade. On his death-bed he urged a benign administration of state affairs, in 935, Wuyue established official diplomatic relations with Japan. The kingdom also took advantage of its location to maintain diplomatic contacts with north China, the Khitans, Bohai, and the Korean states of Later Baekje, Goryeo. Buddhism played a role in the diplomatic relations with Japan. Japanese and Korean monks traveled to Wuyue, while monks from Wuyue went to Japan, the rulers of Wuyue also tried to find sutras that had been lost during the turbulent final years of the Tang. In 947, Qian Zuo sent gifts to Japan and offering to buy any sutras, in 961, Qian Chu sent fifty precious objects and a letter to Goryeo inquiring about the missing sutras, and Gwangjong sent the monk Jegwan with a complete set of Tiantai sutras. While Qian Chu nominally remained king, Wuyue was absorbed into the Song Dynasty, the last king died in 988. The leaders of the kingdom were noted patrons of Buddhism, and architecture, temple decoration, the cultural distinctiveness that began developing over this period persists to this day as the Wuyue region speaks a dialect called Wu, has distinctive cuisine and other cultural traits
34.
Qian Liu
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Qian Liu, known as Qian Poliu during his childhood, was a warlord of the late Tang dynasty who founded the Wuyue kingdom. Qian Liu was born in Linan County in 852, during the reign of Emperor Xuānzong of Tang and his father was named Qian Kuan, and his mother, who was from the same clan as his paternal grandmother, was Qian Kuans wife Lady Shuiqiu. In his childhood neighborhood, there was a huge tree, after he grew up, he did not have a legitimate job, so he became a salt privateer. He befriended several sons of the county secretary Zhong Qi and often drank, only after that did Zhong allow his sons to associate with Qian. Zhongs sons often gave Qian money, during this time, Qian was described to be good at archery and using spears, and he had a basic understanding of mystical texts. During the rebellion of the army officer Wang Ying in 876-877, Qian and Dong Chang, also from Linan, after Wangs rebellion was defeated, Dong, for his contributions during the campaign, was made the defender of Shijing Base, and Qian became a commander under Dong. Dong and seven became the militia commanders, and their troops became known as the Eight Corps of Hang Prefecture. Subsequently, when soldiers under the agrarian rebel Huang Chao pillaged Zhenhai. As part of that, he summoned Dong to Huainans capital Yang Prefecture as well, however, Qian discerned that Gao had no real intentions to attack Huang, and he advised Dong to claim that he needed to return to Hang Prefecture to defend it. Dong did so, and Gao agreed to let him leave, meanwhile, the imperial government had just recently commissioned a new prefect of Hang Prefecture, Lu Shenzhong. Before Lu could get to Hang Prefecture, however, Dong took his troops from Shijing into Hang Prefecture to intimidate Lu, Lu, fearful of Dong, did not take office. Dong then claimed the title of acting prefect, and had his officers submit petitions to the governor of Zhenhai, Zhou Bao. Zhou, believing that he could not control Dong otherwise, made Dong the prefect of Hang Prefecture, in 882, Liu Hanhong the governor of Zhedong, who wanted to take over Zhenhai, sent his brother Liu Hanyou and officer Xin Yue to attack Hang Prefecture. Dong sent Qian to resist the Zhedong army, and Qian defeated them, Liu made another attack in 883, and Dongs army, under Qian, again defeated the Zhedong army, killing Xin and Liu Hanhongs brother Liu Hanrong. Qian agreed, responding, You are right, If Yue were not captured, it will eventually be harmful to us. Qian thus launched the Hang Prefecture army and attacked Liu Hanhong, by winter 886, Qian had captured Yue Prefecture, and Liu Hanhong was captured by his own subordinate Du Xiong the prefect of Tai Prefecture. Dong executed Liu, and moved his headquarters to Yue, claiming the title of acting governor, in 887, Emperor Xizong commissioned Dong as the governor of Zhedong and Qian as the prefect of Hang Prefecture. Later, Dong was made the governor of Yisheng, which was then renamed to Weisheng
35.
Asuka period
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The Asuka period was a period in the history of Japan lasting from 538 to 710, although its beginning could be said to overlap with the preceding Kofun period. The Yamato polity evolved greatly during the Asuka period, which is named after the Asuka region, the introduction of Buddhism marked a change in Japanese society. The Asuka period is distinguished by the change in the name of the country from Wa to Nihon. The term Asuka period was first used to describe a period in the history of Japanese fine-arts and it was proposed by fine-arts scholars Sekino Tadasu and Okakura Kakuzō around 1900. Sekino dated the Asuka period as ending with the Taika Reform of 646, Okakura, however, saw it as ending with the transfer of the capital to the Heijō Palace of Nara. Although historians generally use Okakuras dating, many historians of art and architecture prefer Sekinos dating, the Yamato polity was distinguished by powerful great clans or extended families, including their dependents. Each clan was headed by a patriarch who performed sacred rites for the kami to ensure the long-term welfare of the clan. Clan members were the High Nobility, and the Imperial line that controlled the Yamato polity was at its pinnacle, the Yamato polity was concentrated in the Asuka region and exercised power over clans in Kyūshū and Honshū, bestowing titles, some hereditary, on clan chieftains. The Yamato name became synonymous with all of Japan as the Yamato rulers suppressed other clans, based on Chinese models, they developed a central administration and an imperial court attended by subordinate clan chieftains but with no permanent capital. By the mid-seventh century, the lands had grown to a substantial public domain. The basic administrative unit of the Gokishichidō system was the county, most people were farmers, others were fishers, weavers, potters, artisans, armorers, and ritual specialists. Suiko, the first of eight sovereign empresses, was merely a figurehead for Umako, Shōtoku, recognized as a great intellectual of this period of reform, was a devout Buddhist and was well-read in Chinese literature. He was influenced by Confucian principles, including the Mandate of Heaven, under Shōtokus direction, Confucian models of rank and etiquette were adopted, and his Seventeen-article constitution prescribed ways to bring harmony to a chaotic society in Confucian terms. Six official missions of envoys, priests, and students were sent to China in the seventh century, some remained twenty years or more, many of those who returned became prominent reformers. The sending of such scholars to learn Chinese political systems showed significant change from envoys in the Kofun period, as a result, Japan in this period received no title from Chinese dynasties, while they did send tribute. From the Chinese point of view, the class or position of Japan was demoted from previous centuries in which the kings received titles, on the other hand, Japan loosened its political relationships with China and consequently established extraordinary cultural and intellectual relationships. The revolt was led by Prince Naka no Ōe and Nakatomi no Kamatari, the Japanese era corresponding to the years 645–649 was thus named Taika, referring to the Reform, and meaning great change. The revolt leading to the Taika Reform is commonly called the Isshi Incident, ritsu was a code of penal laws, while ryō was an administrative code
Media related to tasōtō at Wikimedia Commons
