1.
Jasper Johns (book)
–
Jasper Johns is a non-fiction coffee table book written by Michael Crichton about the artist Jasper Johns. It was originally published in 1977 by Harry N. Abrams Inc in association with the Whitney Museum of American Art, the psychiatrist Janet Ross owned a copy of the painting Numbers by Jasper Johns in The Terminal Man, another book by Crichton. The technophobic antagonist of the found it odd that a person would paint numbers as they were inorganic. Michael Crichton himself had an art collection, including several important works by Jasper Johns. Most of them were sold at an auction Christie’s in 2010
2.
Three Flags
–
Three Flags is a 1958 painting by American artist Jasper Johns. The work comprises three canvases painted with hot wax, the three canvases form a tiered arrangement, with each canvas approximately 25% smaller than the one below, thereby creating a three-dimensional work. Each flag is rendered with the correct colors and proportions. In a sense, the perspective is reversed, with the smaller paintings projecting out towards the viewer, only the topmost smallest painting is fully visible, the two behind are only partially visible. The painting was acquired by the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York City for $1 million in 1980, to celebrate its 50th anniversary
3.
Whitney Museum of American Art
–
The Whitney Museum of American Art – known informally as the Whitney – is an art museum located in Manhattan. It was founded in 1931 by Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, a wealthy and prominent American socialite, the Whitney focuses on 20th- and 21st-century American art. Its permanent collection more than 21,000 paintings, sculptures, drawings, prints, photographs, films, videos. The museums Annual and Biennial exhibitions have long been a venue for younger, from 1966 to 2014, the Whitney was located at 945 Madison Avenue at East 75th Street in Manhattans Upper East Side. Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, the namesake and founder, was herself a well-regarded sculptor as well as a serious art collector. With the aid of her assistant, Juliana R. Force, in 1929, she offered to donate over 500 works of art to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, but the museum declined the gift. This, along with the apparent preference for European modernism at the recently opened Museum of Modern Art, led Whitney to start her own museum, exclusively for American art, in 1929. Force became the first director of the museum, and under her guidance, in 1954, the museum left its original location and moved to a small structure on 54th Street connected to and behind the Museum of Modern Art on 53rd Street. On April 15,1958, a fire on the floor of MOMA that killed one person forced the evacuation of paintings. Among the paintings moved in the evacuation was A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte which had been on loan from the Art Institute of Chicago, in 1961, the museum began seeking a site for a larger building. The Whitney settled in 1966 at the southeast corner of Madison Avenue at 75th Street in Manhattans Upper East Side, in 1967, Mauricio Lasansky showed The Nazi Drawings. The exhibition traveled to the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York, the institution grappled with space problems for decades. From 1973 to 1983 the Whitney operated its first branch at 55 Water Street, in 1983 Philip Morris installed a Whitney branch in the lobby of its Park Avenue headquarters. In 1981 the museum opened a space in Stamford, Connecticut. Each museum had its own director, and all plans were to be approved by a Whitney committee, but each time the effort was abandoned, either because of the cost or the design or both. In order to secure space for the museums collections, then-director Thomas N. Armstrong III developed plans for a 10-story. The proposed addition, designed by Michael Graves and announced in 1985, Graves had proposed demolishing the flanking brownstones down to the East 74th Street corner for a complementary addition. After the project gradually lost the support of many of the museum’s trustees, between 1995 and 1998, the building underwent a renovation and addition by Richard Gluckman
4.
Augusta, Georgia
–
It is in the piedmont section of the state. The city was named after Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, according to 2012 US Census estimates, the Augusta–Richmond County population was 197,872, not counting the unconsolidated cities of Hephzibah and Blythe. It is the 116th-largest city in the United States, internationally, Augusta is best known for hosting The Masters golf tournament each spring. The area along the river was inhabited by varying cultures of indigenous peoples. The site of Augusta was used by Native Americans as a place to cross the Savannah River, in 1735, two years after James Oglethorpe founded Savannah, he sent a detachment of troops to explore the upper Savannah River. He gave them an order to build at the head of the part of the river. The expedition was led by Noble Jones, who created the settlement to provide a first line of defense for coastal areas against potential Spanish or French invasion from the interior, Oglethorpe named the town Augusta, in honor of Princess Augusta, wife of Frederick, Prince of Wales. Oglethorpe visited Augusta once, in September 1739, Augusta was the second state capital of Georgia from 1785 until 1795. Augusta developed rapidly as a town as the Black Belt in the Piedmont was developed for cotton cultivation. Invention of the cotton gin made processing of cotton profitable. Cotton plantations were worked by labor, with hundreds of thousands of slaves shipped from the Upper South to the Deep South in the domestic slave trade. In the mid-20th century, it was a site of civil rights demonstrations, in 1970 Charles Oatman, a mentally disabled teenager, was killed by his cellmates in an Augusta jail. A protest against his death broke out in a riot involving 500 people, after six black men were killed by police, the noted singer and entertainer James Brown was called in to help quell lingering tensions, which he succeeded in doing. Augusta is located on the Georgia/South Carolina border, about 150 miles east of Atlanta and 70 miles west of Columbia, the city is located at 33°28′12″N 81°58′30″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the Augusta–Richmond County balance has an area of 306.5 square miles. Augusta is located halfway up the Savannah River on the fall line. The city marks the end of a waterway for the river. The Clarks Hill Dam is built on the line near Augusta
5.
Georgia (U.S. state)
–
Georgia is a state in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1733, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies, named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2,1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 19,1861 and it was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15,1870. Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States, from 2007 to 2008,14 of Georgias counties ranked among the nations 100 fastest-growing, second only to Texas. Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South, Atlanta is the states capital, its most populous city and has been named a global city. Georgia is bordered to the south by Florida, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina, to the west by Alabama, the states northern part is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, part of the Appalachian Mountains system. Georgias highest point is Brasstown Bald at 4,784 feet above sea level, Georgia is the largest state entirely east of the Mississippi River in land area. Before settlement by Europeans, Georgia was inhabited by the mound building cultures, the British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12,1733. The colony was administered by the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America under a charter issued by King George II. The Trustees implemented a plan for the colonys settlement, known as the Oglethorpe Plan. In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins Ear, in 1752, after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony, the Trustees turned over control to the crown. Georgia became a colony, with a governor appointed by the king. The Province of Georgia was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution by signing the 1776 Declaration of Independence, the State of Georgias first constitution was ratified in February 1777. Georgia was the 10th state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24,1778, in 1829, gold was discovered in the North Georgia mountains, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush and an established federal mint in Dahlonega, which continued its operation until 1861. The subsequent influx of white settlers put pressure on the government to land from the Cherokee Nation. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, sending many eastern Native American nations to reservations in present-day Oklahoma, including all of Georgias tribes. Despite the Supreme Courts ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that ruled U. S. states were not permitted to redraw the Indian boundaries, President Jackson and the state of Georgia ignored the ruling. In 1838, his successor, Martin Van Buren, dispatched troops to gather the Cherokee
6.
Printmaking
–
Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing, normally on paper. Printmaking normally covers only the process of creating prints that have an element of originality, except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print. Each print produced is not considered a copy but rather is considered an original, a print may be known as an impression. Printmaking is not chosen only for its ability to multiple impressions. Prints are created by transferring ink from a matrix or through a screen to a sheet of paper or other material. Screens made of silk or synthetic fabrics are used for the screenprinting process, other types of matrix substrates and related processes are discussed below. Multiple impressions printed from the matrix form an edition. Prints may also be printed in book form, such as illustrated books or artists books, Printmaking techniques are generally divided into the following basic categories, Relief, where ink is applied to the original surface of the matrix. Relief techniques include woodcut or woodblock as the Asian forms are known, wood engraving. Intaglio, where ink is applied beneath the surface of the matrix. Intaglio techniques include engraving, etching, mezzotint, aquatint, planographic, where the matrix retains its original surface, but is specially prepared and/or inked to allow for the transfer of the image. Planographic techniques include lithography, monotyping, and digital techniques, stencil, where ink or paint is pressed through a prepared screen, including screenprinting and pochoir. Other types of printmaking techniques outside these groups include collagraphy and viscosity printing, collagraphy is a printmaking technique in which textured material is adhered to the printing matrix. This texture is transferred to the paper during the printing process, Contemporary printmaking may include digital printing, photographic mediums, or a combination of digital, photographic, and traditional processes. Many of these techniques can also be combined, especially within the same family, for example, Rembrandts prints are usually referred to as etchings for convenience, but very often include work in engraving and drypoint as well, and sometimes have no etching at all. Woodcut, a type of print, is the earliest printmaking technique. It was probably first developed as a means of printing patterns on cloth, woodcuts of images on paper developed around 1400 in Japan, and slightly later in Europe. These are the two areas where woodcut has been most extensively used purely as a process for making images without text, the artist draws a design on a plank of wood, or on paper which is transferred to the wood
7.
Abstract expressionism
–
Action painting, sometimes called gestural abstraction, is a style of painting in which paint is spontaneously dribbled, splashed or smeared onto the canvas, rather than being carefully applied. The resulting work often emphasizes the act of painting itself as an essential aspect of the finished work or concern of its artist. The style was widespread from the 1940s until the early 1960s, a comparison is often drawn between the American action painting and the French tachisme. According to Rosenberg the canvas was an arena in which to act, to Greenberg, it was the physicality of the paintings clotted and oil-caked surfaces that was the key to understanding them. – Clement Greenberg, Post Painterly Abstraction and it is essential for the understanding of action painting to place it in historical context. Action painting took this a further, using both Jung and Freud’s ideas of the subconscious as its underlying foundations. The paintings of the Action painters were not meant to portray objects per se or even specific emotions, instead they were meant to touch the observer deep in the subconscious mind, evoking a sense of the primeval and tapping the collective sense of an archetypal visual language. This was done by the artist painting unconsciously, and spontaneously, creating an arena of raw emotion and action. Action painting was influenced by the surrealist emphasis on automatism which influenced by psychoanalysis claimed a more direct access to the subconscious mind. Important exponents of this concept of art making were the painters Joan Miró, however the action painters took everything the surrealists had done a step further. Action Writing, Jack Kerouacs Wild Form, Carbondale, IL, auction record including a color image of a 1960 action painting by Elaine Hamilton. 9th Street Art Exhibition-abstract expressionist artists reminisce—YouTube video
8.
Pop art
–
Pop art is an art movement that emerged in the mid-1950s in Britain and the late 1950s in the United States. Pop art presented a challenge to traditions of art by including imagery from popular culture such as advertising. In pop art, material is sometimes removed from its known context, isolated. Pop art employs aspects of culture, such as advertising, comic books. One of its aims is to use images of popular culture in art, emphasizing the banal or kitschy elements of any culture and it is also associated with the artists use of mechanical means of reproduction or rendering techniques. Pop art is interpreted as a reaction to the then-dominant ideas of abstract expressionism. Due to its utilization of found objects and images, it is similar to Dada, Pop art and minimalism are considered to be art movements that precede postmodern art, or are some of the earliest examples of postmodern art themselves. Pop art often takes imagery that is currently in use in advertising, product labeling and logos figure prominently in the imagery chosen by pop artists, seen in the labels of Campbells Soup Cans, by Andy Warhol. Even the labeling on the outside of a box containing food items for retail has been used as subject matter in pop art. The origins of pop art in North America developed differently from Great Britain, in the United States, pop art was a response by artists, it marked a return to hard-edged composition and representational art. They used impersonal, mundane reality, irony, and parody to defuse the personal symbolism, in the U. S. some artwork by Larry Rivers, Alex Katz and Man Ray anticipated pop art. By contrast, the origins of pop art in post-War Britain, while employing irony, early pop art in Britain was a matter of ideas fueled by American popular culture when viewed from afar. Similarly, pop art was both an extension and a repudiation of Dadaism, among those artists in Europe seen as producing work leading up to pop art are, Pablo Picasso, Marcel Duchamp, and Kurt Schwitters. During the 1920s, American artists Gerald Murphy, Charles Demuth and Stuart Davis created paintings that contained pop culture imagery, the Independent Group, founded in London in 1952, is regarded as the precursor to the pop art movement. They were a gathering of young painters, sculptors, architects, writers and their group discussions centered on pop culture implications from elements such as mass advertising, movies, product design, comic strips, science fiction and technology. This material of found objects such as advertising, comic characters, magazine covers. One of the collages in that presentation was Paolozzis I was a Rich Mans Plaything, following Paolozzis seminal presentation in 1952, the IG focused primarily on the imagery of American popular culture, particularly mass advertising. Nevertheless, Alloway was one of the critics to defend the inclusion of the imagery of mass culture in the fine arts
9.
Venice Biennale
–
The Venice Biennale is an arts organization based in Venice, and also the original and principal exhibition it organizes. The organization changed its name to the Biennale Foundation in 2009, while the exhibition is called the Art Biennale to distinguish it from the organisation. The Art Biennale, a visual art exhibition, is so called as it is held biennially. A year later, the council decreed to adopt a by invitation system, to reserve a section of the Exhibition for foreign artists too, to works by uninvited Italian artists. The first Biennale, I Esposizione Internazionale dArte della Città di Venezia was opened on April 30,1895 by the Italian King and Queen, Umberto I, the first exhibition was seen by 224,000 visitors. In 1910 the first internationally well-known artists were displayed- a room dedicated to Gustav Klimt, a show for Renoir. A work by Picasso was removed from the Spanish salon in the central Palazzo because it was feared that its novelty might shock the public, by 1914 seven pavilions had been established, Belgium, Hungary, Germany, Great Britain, France, and Russia. During World War I, the 1916 and 1918 events were cancelled, in 1920 the post of mayor of Venice and president of the Biennale was split. The new secretary general, Vittorio Pica brought about the first presence of avant-garde art,1922 saw an exhibition of sculpture by African artists. Between the two World Wars, many important modern artists had their work exhibited there, in 1928 the Istituto Storico dArte Contemporanea opened, which was the first nucleus of archival collections of the Biennale. In 1930 its name was changed into Historical Archive of Contemporary Art, in 1933 the Biennale organised an exhibition of Italian art abroad. From 1938, Grand Prizes were awarded in the art exhibition section, during World War II, the activities of the Biennale were interrupted,1942 saw the last edition of the events. The Film Festival restarted in 1946, the Music and Theatre festivals were resumed in 1947, the Art Biennale was resumed in 1948 with a major exhibition of a recapitulatory nature. Peggy Guggenheim was invited to exhibit her famous New York collection,1949 saw the beginning of renewed attention to avant-garde movements in European—and later worldwide—movements in contemporary art. Abstract expressionism was introduced in the 1950s, and the Biennale is credited with importing Pop Art into the canon of art history by awarding the top prize to Robert Rauschenberg in 1964. From 1948 to 1972, Italian architect Carlo Scarpa did a series of interventions in the Biennales exhibition spaces. In 1954 the island San Giorgio Maggiore provided the venue for the first Japanese Noh theatre shows in Europe,1956 saw the selection of films following an artistic selection and no longer based upon the designation of the participating country. The 1957 Golden Lion went to Satyajit Rays Aparajito which introduced Indian cinema to the West,1962 included Arte Informale at the Art Exhibition with Jean Fautrier, Hans Hartung, Emilio Vedova, and Pietro Consagra
10.
Praemium Imperiale
–
These are areas of achievement not covered by the Nobel Prize. The prizes are awarded for outstanding contributions to the development, promotion, the Praemium Imperiale is awarded in the memory of His Imperial Highness Prince Takamatsu, younger brother of Emperor Shōwa who reigned from 1926 through 1989. Prince Takamatsu was famous for his support of the development, promotion. The laureates are announced each September, the presentation ceremony and related events are held in Tokyo, Japan. The prize presentation ceremony is held in the presence of His Imperial Highness Prince Hitachi, President of the Japan Art Association, Prince Hitachi presents the prizes to the selected laureates. The prize consists of a medal and 15 million Japanese yen, and was created by the Fujisankei Communications Group. The laureates are annually recommended by international advisers, and decided by a committee of the Japan Art Association. The advisers include Yasuhiro Nakasone, William H. Luers, Lamberto Dini, François Pinault, Chris Patten, honorary advisers include Jacques Chirac, David Rockefeller, David Rockefeller, Jr. Helmut Schmidt and Richard von Weizsäcker. Since 1997, a series of grants have been made to organizations which nourish young artists
11.
Presidential Medal of Freedom
–
The Presidential Medal of Freedom is an award bestowed by the President of the United States and is—along with the comparable Congressional Gold Medal—the highest civilian award of the United States. The award is not limited to U. S. citizens and, while it is an award, it can also be awarded to military personnel. It was established in 1963 by President John F. Kennedy, President John F. Kennedy established the current decoration in 1963 through Executive Order 11085, with unique and distinctive insignia, vastly expanded purpose, and far higher prestige. It was the first U. S. civilian neck decoration and, in the grade of Awarded With Distinction, is the only U. S. sash and star decoration. The Executive Order calls for the medal to be awarded annually on or around July 4, and at other convenient times as chosen by the president, Recipients are selected by the president, either on his own initiative or based on recommendations. The order establishing the medal also expanded the size and the responsibilities of the Distinguished Civilian Service Awards Board so it could serve as a source of such recommendations. The medal may be awarded to a more than once. It may also be awarded posthumously, examples include John F, golden American bald eagles with spread wings stand between the points of the star. It is worn around the neck on a ribbon with white edge stripes. When the medal With Distinction is awarded, the star may be presented descending from a neck ribbon, the sash and medal of the Presidential Medal of Freedom with distinction has never been worn in public since its inception. Andrew Presidential Medal of Freedom, an article from jfklibrary. org, Presidential Medal of Freedom Recipients, a list of recipients from May 5,1993, through August 19,2009, from senate. gov, the U. S. Senates official website. Hosted on georgewbush-whitehouse. archives. gov, a section of the U. S. National Archives, Medal of Freedom Ceremony, a news release, August 12,2009, from the White House Press Secretary at whitehouse. gov, the White Houses official website. War Figures Honored With Medal of Freedom, The New York Times, December 15,2004
12.
Museum of Modern Art
–
The Museum of Modern Art is an art museum located in Midtown Manhattan in New York City, on 53rd Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues. MoMA has been important in developing and collecting modernist art, and is identified as one of the largest and most influential museums of modern art in the world. The MoMA Library includes approximately 300,000 books and exhibition catalogs, over 1,000 periodical titles, the archives holds primary source material related to the history of modern and contemporary art. The idea for The Museum of Modern Art was developed in 1929 primarily by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller and they became known variously as the Ladies, the daring ladies and the adamantine ladies. They rented modest quarters for the new museum in the Heckscher Building at 730 Fifth Avenue in Manhattan, and it opened to the public on November 7,1929, nine days after the Wall Street Crash. Abby had invited A. Conger Goodyear, the president of the board of trustees of the Albright Art Gallery in Buffalo, New York. At the time, it was Americas premier museum devoted exclusively to art. One of Abbys early recruits for the staff was the noted Japanese-American photographer Soichi Sunami. Goodyear enlisted Paul J. Sachs and Frank Crowninshield to join him as founding trustees, Sachs, the associate director and curator of prints and drawings at the Fogg Museum at Harvard University, was referred to in those days as a collector of curators. Goodyear asked him to recommend a director and Sachs suggested Alfred H. Barr, under Barrs guidance, the museums holdings quickly expanded from an initial gift of eight prints and one drawing. Its first successful exhibition was in November 1929, displaying paintings by Van Gogh, Gauguin, Cézanne. Abbys husband was opposed to the museum and refused to release funds for the venture. Nevertheless, he donated the land for the current site of the museum, plus other gifts over time. During that time it initiated many more exhibitions of noted artists, the museum also gained international prominence with the hugely successful and now famous Picasso retrospective of 1939–40, held in conjunction with the Art Institute of Chicago. In its range of presented works, it represented a significant reinterpretation of Picasso for future art scholars, Boy Leading a Horse was briefly contested over ownership with the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. In 1941, MoMA hosted the exhibition, Indian Art of the United States. His brother, David Rockefeller, also joined the board of trustees in 1948. David subsequently employed the noted architect Philip Johnson to redesign the garden and name it in honor of his mother
13.
New York City
–
The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
14.
Map (painting)
–
Map is a 1961 oil-on-canvas painting by Jasper Johns. The names of the states and ocean areas are stencilled, the painting measures 198.2 centimetres by 314.7 centimetres. Johns was inspired by a gift from Robert Rauschenberg of some mimeographed outline maps of US states, Johns was attracted to an image that is ubiquitous but seen and not looked at, not examined, effectively an found object. He copied the outlines to a canvas, to which he added bright splashes of red, yellow. His rough brushwork resembles an Abstract Expressionist style or the works of Cézanne. It has been suggested that the painting may be a visual pun, Johns considered that he was painting a map, not making a painting of a map. The painting was donated by Mr. and Mrs. Robert C, scull to the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. Johns continued to make map paintings through the 1960s, including versions in 1962 and 1963, a white map in 1965
15.
Flag of the United States
–
The flag of the United States, often referred to as the American flag, is the national flag of the United States. S. Nicknames for the flag include The Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, the current design of the U. S. flag is its 27th, the design of the flag has been modified officially 26 times since 1777. The 48-star flag was in effect for 47 years until the 49-star version became official on July 4,1959, the 50-star flag was ordered by the then president Eisenhower on August 21,1959, and was adopted in July 1960. It is the version of the U. S. flag and has been in use for over 56 years. At the time of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776, the flag contemporaneously known as the Continental Colors has historically been referred to as the first national flag. The name Grand Union was first applied to the Continental Colors by George Preble in his 1872 history of the American flag, the flag closely resembles the British East India Company flag of the era, and Sir Charles Fawcett argued in 1937 that the company flag inspired the design. Both flags could have been constructed by adding white stripes to a British Red Ensign. However, an East India Company flag could have nine to 13 stripes. In any case, both the stripes and the stars have precedents in classical heraldry, Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year. While scholars still argue about this, tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment. The first official U. S. flag flown during battle was on August 3,1777, Massachusetts reinforcements brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag to Fort Schuyler. A voucher is extant that Capt. Swartwout of Dutchess County was paid by Congress for his coat for the flag, the 1777 resolution was most probably meant to define a naval ensign. In the late 18th century, the notion of a flag did not yet exist. The flag resolution appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee, on May 10,1779, Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters expressed concern it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States. However, the term, Standard, referred to a standard for the Army of the United States. Each regiment was to carry the standard in addition to its regimental standard. The national standard was not a reference to the national or naval flag, the appearance was up to the maker of the flag. Some flag makers arranged the stars into one big star, in a circle or in rows, one arrangement features 13 five-pointed stars arranged in a circle, with the stars arranged pointing outwards from the circle, the so-called Betsy Ross flag
16.
The New York Times
–
The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
17.
Allendale, South Carolina
–
Allendale is a town in Allendale County, South Carolina, United States. The population was 3,482 at the 2010 census, a decline from 4,052 in 2000 and it is the county seat of Allendale County. In his 2015 book entitled Deep South, Four Seasons on Back Roads, author Paul Theroux describes Allendale as a ghost town, poor, neglected, hopeless-looking, a vivid failure. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 3.3 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 4,052 people,1,542 households, the population density was 1,225.2 people per square mile. There were 1,763 housing units at a density of 533.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 18. 19% White,80. 03% African American,0. 17% Asian,0. 17% Pacific Islander,0. 96% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 25% of the population. 31. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.34. In the town, the population was out with 32. 6% under the age of 18,9. 7% from 18 to 24,24. 0% from 25 to 44,21. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 32 years, for every 100 females there were 84.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 73.7 males, the median income for a household in the town was $16,632, and the median income for a family was $21,167. Males had an income of $22,800 versus $20,873 for females. The per capita income for the town was $10,433, about 36. 7% of families and 41. 2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 59. 5% of those under age 18 and 21. 1% of those age 65 or over. University of South Carolina Salkehatchie was established in 1965, wEBA-TV/DT, a PBS station serving the South Carolina side of the Central Savannah River Area, is located here. History of Allendale, from Allendale County website Official website
18.
South Carolina
–
South Carolina /ˌsaʊθ kærəˈlaɪnə/ is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state is bordered to the north by North Carolina, to the south and west by Georgia across the Savannah River, South Carolina became the eighth state to ratify the U. S. Constitution, doing so on May 23,1788. South Carolina became the first state to vote to secede from the Union on December 20,1860, after the American Civil War, it was readmitted into the United States on June 25,1868. South Carolina is the 40th most extensive and the 23rd most populous U. S. state and its GDP as of 2013 was $183.6 billion, with an annual growth rate of 3. 13%. The capital and largest city is Columbia with a 2013 population of 133,358, South Carolina is named in honor of King Charles I of England, under whose reign the English colony was first formed, with Carolus being Latin for Charles. There is evidence of activity in the area about 12000 years ago. Along the Savannah River were the Apalachee, Yuchi, and the Yamasee, further west were the Cherokee, and along the Catawba River, the Catawba. These tribes were village-dwellers, relying on agriculture as their food source. The Cherokee lived in wattle and daub houses made with wood and clay, about a dozen separate small tribes summered on the coast harvesting oysters and fish, and cultivating corn, peas and beans. Travelling inland as much as 50 miles mostly by canoe, they wintered on the plain, hunting deer and gathering nuts. The names of these survive in place names like Edisto Island, Kiawah Island. The Spanish were the first Europeans in the area, in 1521, founding San Miguel de Gualdape, established with 500 settlers, it was abandoned within a year by 150 survivors. In 1562 French settlers established a settlement at what is now the Charlesfort-Santa Elena archaeological site on Parris Island, three years later the Spanish built a fort on the same site, but withdrew following hostilities with the English navy. In 1629, King Charles I of England established the Province of Carolina an area covering what is now South and North Carolina, Georgia, in the 1670s, English planters from the Barbados established themselves near what is now Charleston. Settlers built rice plantations in the South Carolina Lowcountry, east of the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, settlers came from all over Europe. Plantation labor was done by African slaves who formed the majority of the population by 1720, another cash crop was the Indigo plant, a plant source of blue dye, developed by Eliza Lucas. Meanwhile, in Upstate South Carolina, west of the Fall Line, was settled by farmers and traders. Colonists overthrew the rule, seeing more direct representation
19.
Columbia, South Carolina
–
Columbia is the capital and largest city of the U. S. state of South Carolina, with a population of 133,803 as of 2015. The city serves as the county seat of Richland County, the name Columbia is a poetic term used for the United States, originating from the name of Christopher Columbus. The city is located approximately 13 miles northwest of the center of South Carolina. It lies at the confluence of the Saluda River and the Broad River, in 1860, the city was the location of the South Carolina Secession Convention, which marked the departure of the first state from the Union in the events leading up to the Civil War. At the time of European encounter, the inhabitants of the area that became Columbia were a people called the Congaree, in May 1540, a Spanish expedition led by Hernando de Soto traversed what is now Columbia while moving northward. The expedition produced the earliest written records of the area. From the creation of Columbia by the South Carolina General Assembly in 1786, the Congarees, a frontier fort on the west bank of the Congaree River, was the head of navigation in the Santee River system. A ferry was established by the government in 1754 to connect the fort with the growing settlements on the higher ground on the east bank. Like many other significant early settlements in colonial America, Columbia is on the line from the Piedmont region. The fall line is the spot where a river becomes unnavigable when sailing upstream, State Senator John Lewis Gervais of the town of Ninety Six introduced a bill that was approved by the legislature on March 22,1786, to create a new state capital. There was considerable argument over the name for the new city, according to published accounts, Senator Gervais said he hoped that in this town we should find refuge under the wings of COLUMBIA, for that was the name which he wished it to be called. One legislator insisted on the name Washington, but Columbia won by a vote of 11–7 in the state senate, the site was chosen as the new state capital in 1786, due to its central location in the state. The State Legislature first met there in 1790, after remaining under the direct government of the legislature for the first two decades of its existence, Columbia was incorporated as a village in 1805 and then as a city in 1854. Columbia received a stimulus to development when it was connected in a direct water route to Charleston by the Santee Canal. This canal connected the Santee and Cooper rivers in a 22-mile-long section and it was first chartered in 1786 and completed in 1800, making it one of the earliest canals in the United States. With increased railroad traffic, it ceased operation around 1850, the commissioners designed a town of 400 blocks in a 2-mile square along the river. The blocks were divided into lots of 0.5 acres and sold to speculators, buyers had to build a house at least 30 feet long and 18 feet wide within three years or face an annual 5% penalty. The perimeter streets and two streets were 150 feet wide
20.
Lake Murray (South Carolina)
–
Lake Murray is a reservoir in the U. S. state of South Carolina. It is approximately 50,000 acres in size, and has roughly 500 miles of shoreline and it was impounded in the late 1920s to provide hydroelectric power to the state of South Carolina. Lake Murray is fed by the Saluda River, which flows from upstate South Carolina near the North Carolina state line, the Saluda Dam was an engineering feat at the time of its construction. The dam, using the red clay soil and bedrock, was the largest earthen dam in the world when it was completed in 1930. Lake Murray itself is named after the chief engineer, William S. Murray. The Saluda Dam is approximately 1.5 miles long and 220 feet high, Lake Murray is 41 miles long, and 14 miles wide at its widest point. At the time when the lake was finished, it was the worlds largest man-made reservoir, since its construction, Lake Murray has been the focal point of the region. Many different communities in four counties are all tied to the lake, considering Lake Murray now covers an area that was once populated, the story of what lies beneath its surface is the story of Lake Murray itself. In addition to serving as a source of power for the region. Also, Dreher Island State Recreation Area, located in the Western part of the lake, the Saluda River was named after the Saluda Indian tribe, which lived along the banks of the river. For reasons unclear, the Saluda tribe migrated to Pennsylvania beginning in the early 18th century and were replaced by Cherokee from the north, the lower Saluda River valley was settled in the early 1750s by German, Dutch, and Swiss emigrants. The region had two major settlements, the Dutch Fork and the Saxe-Gotha township, in 1755, the Cherokee signed a peace treaty with the British and the Cherokee withdrew from the area, leaving much of the land for open settlement. The Dutch Fork was the most densely settled, becoming home to 483 settler families by 1760 and it has been estimated that by the year 1765 there were about 8000 Dutch-Germans and German-Swiss and an additional 1000 Moravians of German origin who had come to the province of South Carolina. A total of 9000 Germans was the number or 8. 4% of population in 1765, because of this common nationality and language, the Dutch Fork community remained very cohesive and somewhat isolated through the years. Many of these groups live on land that is under the original land grant from the King of England still today. During the American Revolution, the Dutch Fork area was mostly patriot, the only major engagement of the Revolution that was fought in the vicinity occurred in the nearby town of Ninety-Six, located up the Saluda River. It was the first land south of New England in the war. The most important of these ferries were Wyses Ferry and Kimpsons Ferry, during the war, Hessian mercenaries came to South Carolina to fight for the British
21.
Sumter, South Carolina
–
Sumter /ˈsʌmtər/ is the county seat of Sumter County, South Carolina, United States. The U. S. Census Bureau estimated the population was 39,643 at the 2000 census. The 2010 census puts the city at 40,524, incorporated as Sumterville in 1845, the citys name was shortened to Sumter in 1855. It has grown and prospered from its beginnings as a plantation settlement. The city and county of Sumter bear the name of General Thomas Sumter, during the Civil War, the town was an important supply and railroad repair center for the Confederacy. After the war, Sumter grew and prospered, using its large railroad network to supply cotton, timber, during the 20th century, Sumter grew into a major industrial center. Starting with the opening of Shaw Air Force Base in 1941, industry grew, the J. Clinton Brogdon House, Carnegie Public Library, Heriot-Moise House, Charles T. Known as the Gamecock City, Sumter lies near the center of the state of South Carolina at 33°55′37″N 80°21′49″W. Sumter is 100 miles west of Myrtle Beachs Grand Strand and 175 miles east of the Blue Ridge Mountains, columbia, the state capital, lies approximately 45 miles to the west, and Charleston is approximately 100 miles to the south. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 26.8 square miles. As of 2007, there were 59,180 people,34,717 households, the population density was 4,469.5 people per square mile. There were 46,032 housing units at a density of 603.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 45. 3% Caucasian,49. 1% African American,1. 24% Native American,1. 6% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,1. 12% from other races, and 1. 41% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 98% of the population,17. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 1. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the family size was 3.14. In the city, the population was out with 37. 6% under the age of 18,12. 28% from 18 to 24,26. 04% from 25 to 44,19. 55% from 45 to 64. The median age was 33.3 years, for every 100 females there were 89.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.9 males, the median income for a household in the city was $39,264, and the median income for a family was $55,328
22.
University of South Carolina
–
The University of South Carolina is a public, co-educational research university located in Columbia, South Carolina, United States, with seven satellite campuses. Its campus covers over 359 acres in downtown Columbia not far from the South Carolina State House, the University is categorized by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching as having highest research activity. It also houses the largest collection of Robert Burns and Scottish literature materials outside Scotland, the University of South Carolina has an enrollment of approximately 49,220 students, with 33,575 on the main Columbia campus as of fall 2015. USC also has several thousand students in feeder programs at surrounding technical colleges. Professional schools on the Columbia campus include business, engineering, law, medicine, pharmacy, on January 10,1805, having an initial enrollment of nine students, the college commenced classes with a traditional classical curriculum. The first president was the Baptist minister and theologian Reverend Jonathan Maxcy and he was an alumnus of Brown University, with an honorary degree from Harvard University. Before coming to the college, Maxcy had served as the president of Brown. Maxcys tenure lasted from 1804 through 1820, when South Carolina College opened its doors in 1801, the building now known as Rutledge College was the only building on campus. Located one block southeast of the State Capitol, it served as an office, academic building, residence hall. However, the plan for the original campus called for a total of eleven buildings. In 1807, the original Presidents House was the building to be erected. The building now known as DeSaussure College followed shortly thereafter, when completed, all eleven buildings formed a U-shape open to Sumter Street. This modified quadrangle became known as the Horseshoe, as with other southern universities in the antebellum period, the most important organizations for students were the two literary societies, the Clariosophic Society and the Euphradian Society. These two societies, which arose from a split in a literary society known as the Philomathic. The College became a symbol of the South in the period as its graduates were on the forefront of secession from the Union. Despite the depletion of students, the professors issued a notice that the college would temporarily close and would reopen to those under eighteen. When the college reopened on March 17, only nine students showed up for classes, on June 25 with the consent of the state government, the Confederate authorities took possession of the college buildings and converted them into a hospital. After many unsuccessful attempts to reopen the college, the trustees passed a resolution on December 2,1863 that officially closed the college
23.
Parsons School of Design
–
Parsons School of Design is a private art and design college located in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Lower Manhattan in New York City. It is one of the five colleges of The New School, Parsons was the first school in the United States to offer programs in fashion design, advertising, interior design, and graphic design. Parsons offers 13 undergraduate bachelors programs and 17 graduate masters programs and it is currently ranked as the #1 art and design school in the United States and #2 in the world, just behind the Royal College of Art in London. Parsons is a member of the National Association of Schools of Art and Design, First established as the Chase School, the institution was founded in 1896 by the American impressionist painter William Merritt Chase. Chase led a group of Progressives who seceded from the Art Students League of New York in search of a more free, more dramatic. The Chase School changed its name in 1898 to the New York School of Art, a few years later, he became president of the New York School of Art. Anticipating a new wave of the Industrial Revolution, Parsons predicted that art and his vision was borne out in a series of firsts for the School, establishing the first program in Fashion Design, Interior Design, Advertising, and Graphic Design in the United States. In 1909, the school was renamed the New York School of Fine, Parsons became sole director in 1911, a position which he maintained to his death in 1930. William M. Odom, who established the schools Paris Ateliers in 1921, as the modern curriculum developed, many successful designers remained closely tied to the School, and by the mid-1960s, Parsons had become the training ground for Seventh Avenue. In 1970, the School became a division of the New School for Social Research, the campus moved from Sutton Place to Greenwich Village in 1972. The merger with a vigorous, fully accredited university was a source of new funding and energy, in 2005, when the parent institution was renamed The New School, Parsons School of Design was renamed Parsons The New School for Design. As of 2015, the School has been renamed The New Schools Parsons School of Design, like most universities in New York City, Parsons campus is spread among scattered buildings, but the main building is located at 13th Street and 5th Avenue. Many other facilities are in buildings shared by other colleges in The New School, Parsons also has a campus abroad located in Paris’s First Arrondissement, known as Parsons Paris. 2 West 13th Street is most commonly known as the Sheila Johnson Design Center, the main Parsons campus is located at 2 West 13th Street in Greenwich Village in the borough of Manhattan. The renovation of the existing structures first and mezzanine levels was made possible in part by a $7 million gift from New School Trustee, the Urban Quad was designed by Lyn Rice Architects and encompasses a total area of 32,800 square feet. In addition to classrooms, the building includes the Anna-Maria and Stephen Kellen Gallery and Auditorium, the renovated ground floor also provides a new home for the Anna-Maria and Stephen Kellen Archives, a collection of drawings, photographs, letters, and objects documenting 20th-century design. The building hosts the Adam and Sophie Gimbel Design Library, a resource collection supporting art, architecture, the collection consists of approximately 45,000 book volumes,350 periodical titles,70,000 slides and 45,000 picture files. Special collections holdings number over 4,000, including many rare, in 2014 the fashion department moved from its Garment District location, the David M Schwartz Fashion Education Center, to the main campus in Greenwich Village
24.
Sendai
–
Sendai is the capital city of Miyagi Prefecture, Japan, and the largest city in the Tōhoku region, and the second largest city north of Tokyo. In 2010, the city had a population of one million, the city was founded in 1600 by the daimyō Date Masamune, and is nicknamed the City of Trees, there are about 60 zelkova trees on Jōzenji Street and Aoba Street. In the summer, the Sendai Tanabata Festival, the largest Tanabata festival in Japan, is held, in winter, the trees are decorated with thousands of lights for the Pageant of Starlight, lasting through most of December. On March 11,2011, coastal areas of the city suffered damage from a magnitude 9.0 offshore earthquake which triggered a destructive tsunami. Although the Sendai area was inhabited as early as 20,000 years ago, the history of Sendai as a city begins from 1600, Masamune was not happy with his previous stronghold, Iwadeyama. Iwadeyama was located to the north of his territories and was difficult to access from Edo. Sendai was a location, being in the centre of Masamunes newly defined territories, upon a major road from Edo. Tokugawa Ieyasu gave Masamune permission to build a new castle in Aoba-yama, the previous ruler of the Sendai area had used a castle located on Aobayama. At this time Sendai was written as 千代, because a temple with a thousand Buddha statues used to be located in Aobayama, Masamune changed the kanji to 仙臺, which later became 仙台. The kanji came from a Chinese poem that praised a palace created by the Emperor Wen of Han China, tradition says that Masamune chose this kanji so that the castle would prosper as long as a mountain inhabited by an immortal hermit. Masamune ordered the construction of Sendai Castle in December 1600 and the construction of the town of Sendai in 1601, the grid plan roads in present-day central Sendai are based upon his plans. The first railway line between Sendai and Tokyo, now the Tōhoku Main Line, opened in 1887, bringing the area within a days travel from Tokyo for the first time in history. Tohoku Imperial University, the regions first university, was founded in Sendai in 1907, Sendai was incorporated as a city on 1 April 1889, as a result of the abolition of the han system. At the time of incorporation the citys area was 17.45 square kilometres, the city grew, however, through seven annexations that occurred between 1928 and 1988. The city became a city on 1 April 1989, the citys population exceeded one million in 1999. Sendai was considered to be one of Japans greenest cities, mostly because of its numbers of trees. Sendai became known as The City of Trees before the Meiji Restoration, as a result, many houses, temples, and shrines in central Sendai had household forests, which were used as resources for wood and other everyday materials. In 1925, the Senseki Line to Sendai Station became the first underground railway segment in Japan, the 2nd Infantry Division was known as the Sendai Division as it was based in Sendai, and recruited locally
25.
Japan
–
Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
26.
Korean War
–
The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
27.
Robert Rauschenberg
–
Milton Ernest Robert Rauschenberg was an American painter and graphic artist whose early works anticipated the pop art movement. Rauschenberg is well known for his Combines of the 1950s, in which non-traditional materials, Rauschenberg was both a painter and a sculptor and the Combines are a combination of both, but he also worked with photography, printmaking, papermaking, and performance. He was awarded the National Medal of Arts in 1993 and he became the recipient of the Leonardo da Vinci World Award of Arts in 1995 in recognition of his more than 40 years of fruitful artmaking. Rauschenberg lived and worked in New York City as well as on Captiva Island, Rauschenberg was born as Milton Ernest Rauschenberg in Port Arthur, Texas, the son of Dora Carolina and Ernest R. Rauschenberg. His father was of German and Cherokee ancestry and his mother of Anglo-Saxon descent, at 16, Rauschenberg was admitted to the University of Texas where he began studying pharmacy. He was drafted into the United States Navy in 1943, based in California, he served as a mental hospital technician until his discharge in 1945. Rauschenberg subsequently studied at the Kansas City Art Institute and the Académie Julian in Paris, France, in 1948 Rauschenberg and Weil decided to attend Black Mountain College in North Carolina. Josef Albers, a founder of the Bauhaus, became Rauschenbergs painting instructor at Black Mountain, Albers preliminary courses relied on strict discipline that did not allow for any uninfluenced experimentation. Rauschenberg described Albers as influencing him to do exactly the reverse of what he was being taught, from 1949 to 1952 Rauschenberg studied with Vaclav Vytlacil and Morris Kantor at the Art Students League of New York, where he met fellow artists Knox Martin and Cy Twombly. Rauschenberg married Susan Weil in the summer of 1950 at the Weil family home in Outer Island and their only child, Christopher, was born July 16,1951. The two separated in June 1952 and divorced in 1953, according to a 1987 oral history by the composer Morton Feldman, after the end of his marriage, Rauschenberg had romantic relationships with fellow artists Cy Twombly and Jasper Johns. An article by Jonathan D. Katz states that Rauschenbergs affair with Twombly began during his marriage to Susan Weil, Rauschenberg died on May 12,2008, on Captiva Island, Florida. He died of heart failure after a decision to go off life support. Rauschenberg is survived by his partner of 25 years, artist Darryl Pottorf, Rauschenberg is also survived by his son, photographer Christopher Rauschenberg, and his sister, Janet Begneaud. Rauschenbergs approach was sometimes called Neo Dadaist, a label he shared with the painter Jasper Johns, at the same time, Johns paintings of numerals, flags, and the like, were reprising Duchamps message of the role of the observer in creating arts meaning. Alternatively, in 1961, Rauschenberg took a step in what could be considered the direction by championing the role of creator in creating arts meaning. Rauschenberg was invited to participate in an exhibition at the Galerie Iris Clert, Rauschenbergs submission consisted of a telegram sent to the gallery declaring This is a portrait of Iris Clert if I say so. From the fall of 1952 to the spring of 1953 Rauschenberg traveled through Europe and North Africa with his fellow artist, in Morocco, he created collages and boxes out of trash
28.
Merce Cunningham
–
Mercier Philip Merce Cunningham was an American dancer and choreographer who was at the forefront of the American modern dance for more than 50 years. He is also notable for his frequent collaborations with artists of other disciplines, including musicians John Cage and David Tudor, works that he produced with these artists had a profound impact on avant-garde art beyond the world of dance. As a choreographer, teacher and leader of the Merce Cunningham Dance Company, many dancers who trained with Cunningham formed their own companies. They include Paul Taylor, Remy Charlip, Viola Farber, Charles Moulton, Karole Armitage, Robert Kovich, Foofwa d’Imobilité, Kimberly Bartosik, Flo Ankah, Jan Van Dyke, and Jonah Bokaer. In 2009, the Cunningham Dance Foundation announced the Legacy Plan, a plan for the continuation of Cunningham’s work. Cunningham earned some of the highest honors bestowed in the arts, including the National Medal of Arts and he also received Japans Praemium Imperiale, a British Laurence Olivier Award, and was named Officier of the Légion dhonneur in France. Merce Cunningham was born in Centralia, Washington in 1919, the second of three sons, both his brothers followed their father, Clifford D. Cunningham, into the legal profession. Cunningham first experienced dance while living in Centralia and he took tap class from a local teacher, Mrs. Maude Barrett, whose energy and spirit taught him to love dance. Her emphasis on precise timing and rhythm provided him a clear understanding of musicality that he implemented in his later dance pieces. He attended the Cornish School in Seattle, headed by Nellie Cornish, from 1937 to 1939 to study acting, Cunningham preferred the ambiguous nature of dance, which gave him an outlet for exploration of movement. During this time, Martha Graham saw Cunningham dance and invited him to join her company, in 1939, Cunningham moved to New York and danced as a soloist in the Martha Graham Dance Company for six years. He presented his first solo concert in New York in April 1944 with composer John Cage, in the summer of 1953, as a teacher in residence at Black Mountain College, Cunningham formed the Merce Cunningham Dance Company. Over the course of his career, Cunningham choreographed more than 200 dances and over 800 “Events, in 1963 he joined with Cage to create the Walker Art Centers first performance, instigating what would be a 25-year collaborative relationship with the Walker. In his performances, he used the I Ching in order to determine the sequence of his dances and, often. In addition to his role as choreographer, Cunningham performed as a dancer in his company into the early 1990s, in 1968 Cunningham and Francis Starr published a book, Changes, Notes on Choreography, containing various sketches of their choreography. He continued to lead his company until his death, and presented a new work, Nearly Ninety, in April 2009, at the Brooklyn Academy of Music, New York, Cunningham lived in New York City, and was Artistic Director of the Merce Cunningham Dance Company. He died in his home at the age of 90, Cunningham formed Merce Cunningham Dance Company at Black Mountain College in 1953. The original company included dancers Carolyn Brown, Viola Farber, Paul Taylor, and Remy Charlip, in 1964 the Cunningham Dance Foundation was established to support his work
29.
John Cage
–
John Milton Cage Jr. was an American composer, music theorist, writer, philosopher, and artist. A pioneer of indeterminacy in music, electroacoustic music, and non-standard use of musical instruments, critics have lauded him as one of the most influential American composers of the 20th century. He was also instrumental in the development of dance, mostly through his association with choreographer Merce Cunningham. The content of the composition is not four minutes and 33 seconds of silence, as is often assumed, the works challenge to assumed definitions about musicianship and musical experience made it a popular and controversial topic both in musicology and the broader aesthetics of art and performance. Cage was also a pioneer of the piano, for which he wrote numerous dance-related works. The best known of these is Sonatas and Interludes and his teachers included Henry Cowell and Arnold Schoenberg, both known for their radical innovations in music, but Cages major influences lay in various East and South Asian cultures. Through his studies of Indian philosophy and Zen Buddhism in the late 1940s, Cage came to the idea of aleatoric or chance-controlled music, the I Ching, an ancient Chinese classic text on changing events, became Cages standard composition tool for the rest of his life. Cage was born September 5,1912, at Good Samaritan Hospital in downtown Los Angeles and his father, John Milton Cage, Sr. was an inventor, and his mother, Lucretia Harvey, worked intermittently as a journalist for the Los Angeles Times. The familys roots were deeply American, in a 1976 interview, John Milton Sr. taught his son that if someone says cant that shows you what to do. In 1944–45 Cage wrote two small character pieces dedicated to his parents, Crete and Dad, the latter is a short lively piece that ends abruptly, while Crete is a slightly longer, mostly melodic contrapuntal work. During high school, one of his teachers was Fannie Charles Dillon. By 1928, though, Cage was convinced that he wanted to be a writer and he graduated that year from Los Angeles High School as a valedictorian, having also in the spring given a prize-winning speech at the Hollywood Bowl proposing a day of quiet for all Americans. By being hushed and silent, he said, we should have the opportunity to hear other people think. Cage enrolled at Pomona College in Claremont as a major in 1928. Instead of doing as they did, I went into the stacks, I received the highest grade in the class. That convinced me that the institution was not being run correctly, Cage persuaded his parents that a trip to Europe would be more beneficial to a future writer than college studies. He subsequently hitchhiked to Galveston and sailed to Le Havre, where he took a train to Paris, Cage stayed in Europe for some 18 months, trying his hand at various forms of art. First he studied Gothic and Greek architecture, but decided he was not interested enough in architecture to dedicate his life to it and he then took up painting, poetry and music
30.
Leo Castelli
–
Leo Castelli was an Italian-American art dealer. His gallery showcased contemporary art for five decades, Leo Castelli was born Leo Krausz, in Trieste, Austria-Hungary, the second of three children of Italian and Austro-Hungarian Jewish origin. After World War I, which the spent in Vienna. The family changed its name to “Krausz-Castelli” and then “Castelli” in the mid-1930s, after earning a law degree at the University of Milan in 1924, Castelli returned to Trieste, where his father managed to gain him a job with an insurance company. In 1932, he went to work for a company in Bucharest. After their marriage, the couple honeymooned in Vienna and bought their first artwork, Castellis father-in-law, Mihai Schapira, helped him to be transferred in 1935 to the Banca dItalia in Paris. Ileana’s connections enabled the couple to flee to America at the start of World War II, Castellis parents did not escape but died in Budapest, hounded by members of Hungary’s fascist Arrow Cross Party. The couple would remain married for more than 25 years, and were friends and partners even after their divorce, when Ileana married Michael Sonnabend, Castelli arrived in the United States in 1941, by way of Marrakesh, Tangier, Algeciras, Vigo and Havana. He took graduate courses in economic history at Columbia University until volunteering for the Army. After the liberation of France, he was sent to Bucharest as an interpreter for the Allied commission that controlled the city, as a result of Castellis military service, he was given American citizenship. Returning to New York, Castelli took a position with his father-in-law’s clothing factory. Castellis first exercise as a private dealer came through Drouin, in 1947, some hundred canvases by Kandinsky, consigned by his widow and his first American curatorial effort was the Ninth Street Show of 1951, a seminal event in the emergence of Abstract Expressionism. He soon attached himself to the pioneering gallerist Sidney Janis, one of the proponents of the school. In 1957, he opened the Leo Castelli Gallery in a townhouse at 4 E. 77th Street between Madison and Fifth Avenues in New York City, from the mid-1960s through the 1970s, the gallery was perhaps the most prominent commercial venue for art in the world. Initially the gallery showcased European Surrealism, Wassily Kandinsky, and other European artists, however the gallery also exhibited American Abstract Expressionism. Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Cy Twombly, Friedel Dzubas, in 1958, Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns joined the gallery, signaling a turning away from Abstract Expressionism, towards Pop Art, Minimalism and Conceptual Art. He gave Johns, Stella and Lichtenstein their first one-man shows, in the 1980s, Castelli opened a second larger downtown exhibition space at a 142 Greene Street also in SoHo. He later mounted joint shows with Mary Boone, of Julian Schnabel, in 1981, Castelli also pioneered a stipend system that was unknown in New York when he opened his gallery
31.
Sharon, Connecticut
–
Sharon is a town located in Litchfield County, Connecticut, in the northwest corner of the state. It is bounded on the north by Salisbury, on the east by the Housatonic River, on the south by Kent, and on the west by Dutchess County, New York. At the time of the 2010 census, the town had a population of 2,782. The ZIP code for Sharon is 06069, the first inhabitants of the area they called Poconnuck were the Mattabesec Indians. These were part of what became known as the Wappinger confederacy which in turn belonged to the loose Algonquian confederacy and it is named after the Plain of Sharon. 1765, John Cotton Smith, a prominent Connecticut politician, is born in Sharon,1782, The population of Sharon grows to over 2,230 people. 1960, Young Americans for Freedom is founded at the estate of William F. Buckley, the founding statement of this group will thus be known as the Sharon Statement. The following is a description of Sharon and its surroundings from a 1919 guide book to New England travel, the Street,200 feet wide and two miles long, is bordered by grand old elms forming a natural arbor. The Soldiers Monument with a cannon, and a stone clock tower are the modern features of the village. The Governor John Cotton Smith House, a specimen of Georgian architecture, is still perfectly preserved. The fine old George King brick house is at the head of the street, tiffany house is perhaps the oldest in the town. The old Pardee brick house stands by the Stone Bridge, the Prindle house is a spacious gambrel roof dwelling on Gay St. near the charming lakelet which furnishes a natural reservoir for the village water supply. The picturesque old Gay House has the builders initials M. G.1765 on a stone in the gable, in the early days Sharon was a place of busy and varied industries. Iron was manufactured here as early as 1743, and continued an important industry up to fifty years ago, to the north of the village is Mudge Pond, or Crystal Lake, and beyond, Indian Mountain. At the western foot of the mountain, on the State line, lies Indian Pond, on the edge of this lake was an Indian village where the Moravians early established a mission that did great work among the Indians. To the Moravians it was known as Gnadensee, the Lake of Grace, from Sharon the route runs northward past Lake Wononpakook and Lake Wononskopomuc, the latter an Indian word meaning sparkling water. Between the lakes, as the road forks right, is situated the widely known Hotchkiss School, on the right, half a mile from Lakeville, is the residence of Hon. Wm. Travers Jerome, formerly District Attorney of New York City. Sharon has 6 sites listed on the U. S. National Register of Historic Places, Ebenezer Gay House, Main St. Sharon Gov. Smith Homestead, South Main St. Sharon James Pardee House,129 N
32.
Saint Martin
–
Saint Martin is an island in the northeast Caribbean, approximately 300 km east of Puerto Rico. It is the smallest inhabited island divided between two nations, the southern Dutch part comprises Sint Maarten and is one of four constituent countries that form the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The northern French part comprises the Collectivité de Saint-Martin and is an overseas collectivity of France. On 1 January 2009, the population of the island was 77,741 inhabitants, with 40,917 living on the Dutch side. Collectively, the two territories are known as St-Martin / St Maarten, sometimes SXM, the IATA identifier for Princess Juliana International Airport, is used to refer to the island. St. Martin received the ISO 3166-1 code MF in October 2007, the Dutch part changed in status to a country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 2010 and was given the code SX. Saint Martin has an area of 87 km2,53 km2 of which is under the sovereignty of France. This is the land border shared by France and the Kingdom of the Netherlands anywhere on Earth. The main cities are Philipsburg and Marigot, the Dutch side is more heavily populated. The largest settlement on the island is Lower Princes Quarter. The highest hilltop is the Pic Paradis in the center of a chain on the French side. Both sides are hilly with large mountain peaks and this forms a valley where many houses are located. There are no rivers on the island, but many dry guts, hiking trails give access to the dry forest covering tops and slopes. The island is located south of Anguilla, separated from the British territory by the Anguilla Channel, Saint Martin is northwest of Saint Barthélemy, separated from the French territory by the Saint-Barthélemy Channel. It is one of the Renaissance Islands, under the Köppen climate classification, the island has a tropical monsoon climate with a dry season from January to April and a rainy season from August to December. The precipitation patterns are due to the movement of the Azores high during the year, with the wind direction predominantly from the east or the northeast, temperatures remain stable throughout the year and temperatures rarely exceed 34 °C or fall below 20 °C. Temperatures remain steady throughout the year with a mean temperature of 27.2 °C. The average sea temperature is 27.2 °C ranging from a low of 25.9 °C in February to a high of 28.4 °C in October, the total average yearly rainfall is 1,047 mm, with 142 days of measurable rainfall
33.
Stony Point, New York
–
Stony Point is a triangle-shaped town in Rockland County, New York, United States. It is part of the New York City Metropolitan Area, the town is located north of the town of Haverstraw, east and south of Orange County, New York, and west of the Hudson River and Westchester County. The population was 15,059 at the 2010 census, the name of the town is derived from a prominent projection into the Hudson River. The town is in the northeast part of the county, U. S. Route 9W, U. S. Route 202, and the Palisades Interstate Parkway are major north-south routes through the town. Stony Point is included in the North Rockland Central School District and it is the most rural out of the 5 towns in Rockland County. The Americans were unable to hold the fort for more than a few days and this may or may not have contributed to Anthony Wayne earning his nickname of Mad Anthony Wayne. The economy of the town increased upon the rediscovery of limestone deposits in the 19th century, the town of Stony Point was founded in 1865 from the northern part of the town of Haverstraw. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 31.6 square miles, of which 27.6 square miles is land and 4.0 square miles. The western town line is the border of Orange County, New York, as of the census of 2000, there were 14,245 people,4,832 households, and 3,802 families residing in the town. The population density was 511.7 people per square mile, there were 4,951 housing units at an average density of 177.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 94. 33% White,1. 27% Black or African American,0. 19% Native American,1. 29% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,1. 66% from other races, and 1. 24% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6. 84% of the population,17. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.92 and the family size was 3.33. In the town, the population was out with 26. 1% under the age of 18,6. 6% from 18 to 24,30. 6% from 25 to 44,24. 9% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 97.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.0 males, the median income for a household in the town was $71,940, and according to CNN Money the median income for a family was $97,633. Males had an income of $55,727 versus $36,424 for females. The per capita income for the town was $28,244, in comparison, the average salary in 2010 for a full-time Stony Point police officer was $126,895
34.
Philip Johnson
–
In 1978 he was awarded an American Institute of Architects Gold Medal and in 1979 the first Pritzker Architecture Prize. Johnson was born in Cleveland, Ohio on July 8,1906 and he was descended from the Jansen family of New Amsterdam, and included among his ancestors the Huguenot Jacques Cortelyou, who laid out the first town plan of New Amsterdam for Peter Stuyvesant. In 1928 he met Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, who was at the time designing the German Pavilion for the 1929 Barcelona International Exposition. The meeting formed the basis for a relationship of both collaboration and competition In 1930, Johnson joined the architecture department of the Museum of Modern Art in New York. There he arranged for American visits by Gropius and Le Corbusier, in 1932, working with Hitchcock and Alfred H. Barr, Jr. and Henry-Russell Hitchcock, he organized the first exhibition on Modern architecture at the Museum of Modern Art in 1932. The show and their published book International Style, Modern Architecture Since 1922 played an important part in introducing modern architecture to the American public. When the rise of the Nazis in Germany forced the modernists Marcel Breuer and Mies van der Rohe to leave Germany, in 1936, in the depths of the Great Depression, he left the Museum of Modern Art for a brief venture into journalism and politics. In his 1994 biography of Johnson, Schultze wrote, In politics he proved to be a model of futility and he was never much of a political threat to anyone, still less an effective doer of either political good or political evil. In 1941, at the age of 35, Johnson abandoned politics and journalism and enrolled in the Harvard Graduate School of Design, in 1941, Johnson designed and actually built his first building, a house still existing at 9 Ash Street in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The house, strongly influenced by Mies van der Rohe, has a wall around the lot which merges with the structure, after the United States entered World War II in December 1941, Johnson enlisted in the Army. He spent his service during the war in the United States. In 1946, after he completed his service, Johnson returned to the Museum of Modern Art as a curator. At the same time, he began working to establish his architectural practice and he built a small house, in th style of Mies, in Saaponack, Long Island in 1946. This was followed by one of this most famous buildings, which he built for himself, the Glass House in New Canaan, Connecticut, completed in 1949, which has become a landmark of modern architecture. Johnson had curated an exhibit of Mies van der Rohes at the Museum of Modern Art in 1947, the house is a 56 foot by 32 foot glass rectangle, sited at the edge of a crest on Johnsons estate overlooking a pond. The buildings sides are glass and charcoal-painted steel, the floor, of brick, is not flush with the ground, the interior is an open space divided by low walnut cabinets, a brick cylinder contains the bathroom and is the only object to reach floor to ceiling. The New York Times described it in 2005 as one of the 20th centurys greatest residential structures, Johnson continued to add to the Glass House estate during each period of his career. After completing the Glass House, he completed two more houses in New Canaan in a similar to that of Mies, the Hodgson House
35.
Flag (painting)
–
Flag is an encaustic painting by the American artist Jasper Johns. Created when Johns was 24, two years after he was discharged from the US Army, this painting was the first of many works that Johns has said were inspired by a dream of the U. S. flag in 1954. It is arguably the painting for which Johns is best known, the US flag was in the news repeatedly in 1954. The McCarthy hearings came to a close on 17 June 1954, on Flag Day, U. S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed an amendment to the pledge of allegiance to add the words under God. Francis Scott Key, composer of The Star Spangled Banner, was born in 1779,175 years before 1954, the Iwo Jima Marine Memorial at Arlington National Cemetery, with its large US flag, was dedicated on 11 November 1954. Johns and his father were named after Sergeant William Jasper, who saved the fallen flag of the Americans at Fort Moultrie in the American Revolutionary War. The work measures 107.3 centimetres by 153.8 centimetres and it is made using encaustic, oil paint, and newsprint collage on three separate canvases, mounted on a plywood board. Newsprint is visible under the stripes, reading the texts, it is clear that the newsprint was not selected at random, Johns steered clear of headlines, or national or political news, and used inconsequential articles or adverts. The painting has a surface, and the 48 stars are not identical. It is dated 1954 on its reverse, Johnss selection of the US flag allows him to explore a familiar two-dimensional object, with its simple internal geometric structure and a complex symbolic meaning. Critics were unsure whether it was a flag or a painting of a flag. His work is described as Neo-Dadaist and anticipates aspects of pop art, minimal art. Johns made over 40 works based on the US flag, including a large and monochrome White Flag in 1955, in November 2014 the encaustic Flag was auctioned off for $36,000,000 at Sothebys New York. The painting was included in Johnss first solo exhibition at the Leo Castelli Gallery in early 1958, Alfred Barr, director of the Museum of Modern Art, wanted to buy the work, but was concerned that it might be considered unpatriotic. He persuaded a friend, Philip Johnson, to buy it instead, Johnson bought it, an Americanization in Modern Art, the 50s and 60s, Sidra Stich, p.19 The Target, Alain Robbe-Grillet, Jasper Johns, Ben Stoltzfus, p. 80-81
36.
Encaustic painting
–
Encaustic painting, also known as hot wax painting, involves using heated beeswax to which colored pigments are added. The liquid or paste is applied to a surface—usually prepared wood, though canvas. Pure, powdered pigments can be used, though some mixtures use oil paints or other forms of pigment. Metal tools and special brushes can be used to shape the paint before it cools, today, tools such as heat lamps, heat guns, and other methods of applying heat allow artists to extend the amount of time they have to work with the material. Because wax is used as the pigment binder, encaustics can be sculpted as well as painted, other materials can be encased or collaged into the surface, or layered, using the encaustic medium to stick them to the surface. The word encaustic originates from the Greek word enkaustikos which means to burn in, kut-kut, a lost art of the Philippines, employs sgraffito and encaustic techniques. It was practiced by the tribe of Samar island around 1600 to 1800. Artists in the Mexican muralism movement, such as Diego Rivera, the Belgian artist James Ensor also experimented with encaustic. The wax encaustic painting technique was described by the Roman scholar Pliny the Elder in his Natural History from the 1st Century AD, the oldest surviving encaustic panel paintings are the Romano-Egyptian Fayum mummy portraits from the 1st Century BC. Faiss held two German patents related to the preparation of waxes for encaustic painting, one covered a method for treating beeswax so that its melting point was raised from 60 to 100 °C. This occurred after boiling the wax in a solution of sea water, the resulting harder wax is the same as the Punic wax referred to in ancient Greek writings on encaustic painting. Encaustic art has seen a resurgence in popularity since the 1990s with people using electric irons, hotplates and heated styli on different surfaces including card, paper, the iron makes producing a variety of artistic patterns easier. The medium is not limited to just simple designs, it can be used to create paintings, just as in other media such as oil. Although technically difficult to master, attractions of this medium for artists are its dimensional quality. Artists specializing in encaustic painting include the following, the Mysterious Fayum Portraits, Faces from Ancient Egypt. El Primer Fresco de Jean Charlot, La Masacre en el Templo Mayor, congreso Internacional de Muralismo, San Ildefonso cuna del muralismo mexicano, Reflexiones historiográficas y artísticas. The Artists Handbook of Materials and Techniques, unique Wax Paintings by Immigrant Artist should Endure 10,000 Years. Los Angeles Times, Oct.19,1952 Birgit Hüttemann-Holz, gedichte und Malerei in Enkaustik - poems and encaustic paintings
37.
Paradox
–
A paradox is a statement that, despite apparently sound reasoning from true premises, leads to a self-contradictory or a logically unacceptable conclusion. A paradox involves contradictory yet interrelated elements that exist simultaneously and persist over time, some logical paradoxes are known to be invalid arguments but are still valuable in promoting critical thinking. Some paradoxes have revealed errors in definitions assumed to be rigorous, others, such as Currys paradox, are not yet resolved. Examples outside logic include the Ship of Theseus from philosophy, paradoxes can also take the form of images or other media. Escher featured perspective-based paradoxes in many of his drawings, with walls that are regarded as floors from other points of view, and staircases that appear to climb endlessly. In common usage, the word often refers to statements that may be both true and false i. e. ironic or unexpected, such as the paradox that standing is more tiring than walking. Common themes in paradoxes include self-reference, infinite regress, circular definitions, patrick Hughes outlines three laws of the paradox, Self-reference An example is This statement is false, a form of the liar paradox. The statement is referring to itself, another example of self-reference is the question of whether the barber shaves himself in the barber paradox. One more example would be Is the answer to this question No, contradiction This statement is false, the statement cannot be false and true at the same time. Another example of contradiction is if a man talking to a genie wishes that wishes couldnt come true, vicious circularity, or infinite regress This statement is false, if the statement is true, then the statement is false, thereby making the statement true. Another example of vicious circularity is the group of statements. Other paradoxes involve false statements or half-truths and the biased assumptions. This form is common in howlers, for example, consider a situation in which a father and his son are driving down the road. The car crashes into a tree and the father is killed, the boy is rushed to the nearest hospital where he is prepared for emergency surgery. On entering the suite, the surgeon says, I cant operate on this boy. The apparent paradox is caused by a hasty generalization, for if the surgeon is the boys father, the paradox is resolved if it is revealed that the surgeon is a woman — the boys mother. Paradoxes which are not based on a hidden error generally occur at the fringes of context or language, paradoxes that arise from apparently intelligible uses of language are often of interest to logicians and philosophers. Russells paradox, which shows that the notion of the set of all sets that do not contain themselves leads to a contradiction, was instrumental in the development of modern logic
38.
Marcel Duchamp
–
Duchamp has had an immense impact on twentieth-century and twenty first-century art. By World War I, he had rejected the work of many of his artists as retinal art. Instead, Duchamp wanted to use art to serve the mind, Marcel Duchamp was born at Blainville-Crevon in Normandy, France, and grew up in a family that enjoyed cultural activities. The art of painter and engraver Émile Frédéric Nicolle, his grandfather, filled the house, and the family liked to play chess, read books, paint. Of Eugene and Lucie Duchamps seven children, one died as an infant, Marcel Duchamp was the brother of, Jacques Villon, painter, printmaker Raymond Duchamp-Villon, sculptor Suzanne Duchamp-Crotti, painter. At 8 years old, Duchamp followed in his brothers footsteps when he left home and began schooling at the Lycée Pierre-Corneille, two other students in his class also became well-known artists and lasting friends, Robert Antoine Pinchon and Pierre Dumont. For the next 8 years, he was locked into a regime which focused on intellectual development. Though he was not a student, his best subject was mathematics. He also won a prize for drawing in 1903, and at his commencement in 1904 he won a coveted first prize and he learned academic drawing from a teacher who unsuccessfully attempted to protect his students from Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, and other avant-garde influences. However, Duchamps true artistic mentor at the time was his brother Jacques Villon, whose fluid, at 14, his first serious art attempts were drawings and watercolors depicting his sister Suzanne in various poses and activities. That summer he painted landscapes in an Impressionist style using oils. Duchamps early art works align with Post-Impressionist styles and he experimented with classical techniques and subjects. He studied art at the Académie Julian from 1904 to 1905, during this time Duchamp drew and sold cartoons which reflected his ribald humor. Many of the drawings use verbal puns, visual puns, or both, such play with words and symbols engaged his imagination for the rest of his life. In 1905, he began his military service with the 39th Infantry Regiment. There he learned typography and printing processes—skills he would use in his later work, due to his eldest brother Jacques membership in the prestigious Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture Duchamps work was exhibited in the 1908 Salon dAutomne. The following year his work was featured in the Salon des Indépendants, of Duchamps pieces in the show, critic Guillaume Apollinaire—who was to become a friend—criticized what he called Duchamps very ugly nudes. The group came to be known as the Puteaux Group, or the Section dOr, uninterested in the Cubists seriousness or in their focus on visual matters, Duchamp did not join in discussions of Cubist theory, and gained a reputation of being shy
39.
Dada
–
Dada or Dadaism was an art movement of the European avant-garde in the early 20th century, with early centers in Zürich, Switzerland at the Cabaret Voltaire, in New York, and after 1920, in Paris. The art of the movement spanned visual, literary, and sound media, including collage, sound poetry, cut-up writing, Dadaist artists expressed their discontent with violence, war, and nationalism, and maintained political affinities with the radical left. Others note that it suggests the first words of a child, evoking a childishness, still others speculate that the word might have been chosen to evoke a similar meaning in any language, reflecting the movements internationalism. The roots of Dada lay in pre-war avant-garde, the term anti-art, a precursor to Dada, was coined by Marcel Duchamp around 1913 to characterize works which challenge accepted definitions of art. Cubism and the development of collage and abstract art would inform the movements detachment from the constraints of reality, the work of French poets, Italian Futurists and the German Expressionists would influence Dadas rejection of the tight correlation between words and meaning. Works such as Ubu Roi by Alfred Jarry, and the ballet Parade by Erik Satie would also be characterized as proto-Dadaist works, the Dada movements principles were first collected in Hugo Balls Dada Manifesto in 1916. The movement influenced later styles like the avant-garde and downtown music movements, Dada was an informal international movement, with participants in Europe and North America. The beginnings of Dada correspond to the outbreak of World War I, avant-garde circles outside France knew of pre-war Parisian developments. Futurism developed in response to the work of various artists, many Dadaists believed that the reason and logic of bourgeois capitalist society had led people into war. They expressed their rejection of that ideology in artistic expression that appeared to reject logic and embrace chaos, for example, George Grosz later recalled that his Dadaist art was intended as a protest against this world of mutual destruction. According to Hans Richter Dada was not art, it was anti-art, Dada represented the opposite of everything which art stood for. Where art was concerned with aesthetics, Dada ignored aesthetics. If art was to appeal to sensibilities, Dada was intended to offend, as Hugo Ball expressed it, For us, art is not an end in itself. But it is an opportunity for the perception and criticism of the times we live in. A reviewer from the American Art News stated at the time that Dada philosophy is the sickest, most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man. Art historians have described Dada as being, in large part, a systematic work of destruction and demoralization. In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege, to quote Dona Budds The Language of Art Knowledge, Dada was born out of negative reaction to the horrors of the First World War. This international movement was begun by a group of artists and poets associated with the Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich, Dada rejected reason and logic, prizing nonsense, irrationality and intuition
40.
Intaglio (printmaking)
–
Intaglio is the family of printing and printmaking techniques in which the image is incised into a surface and the incised line or sunken area holds the ink. It is the direct opposite of a relief print, normally, copper or zinc plates are used as a surface or matrix, and the incisions are created by etching, engraving, drypoint, aquatint or mezzotint. Collagraphs may also be printed as intaglio plates, in etching, for example, the plate is covered in a resin ground or an acid-resistant wax material. Using an etching needle, or a tool, the image is engraved into the ground. The plate is dipped into acid. The acid bites into the surface of the plate where it was exposed, biting is a printmaking term to describe the acids etching, or incising, of the image. After the plate is bitten, the plate is removed from the acid bath. To print an intaglio plate, ink is applied to the surface by wiping and/or dabbing the plate to push the ink into the recessed lines, the plate is then rubbed with tarlatan cloth to remove most of the excess ink. The final smooth wipe is often done with newspaper or old public phone book pages, a damp piece of paper is placed on top of the plate, so that when going through the press the damp paper will be able to be squeezed into the plates ink-filled grooves. The paper and plate are covered by a thick blanket to ensure even pressure when going through the rolling press. The rolling press applies very high pressure through the blanket to push the paper into the grooves on the plate, the blanket is then lifted, revealing the paper and printed image. Martin Schongauer was one of the earliest known artists to exploit the copper-engraving technique, italian and Netherlandish engraving began slightly after the Germans, but were well developed by 1500. Drypoint and etching were also German inventions of the century, probably by the Housebook Master. In the nineteenth century, Viennese printer Karel Klíč introduced a combined intaglio, photogravure retained the smooth continuous tones of photography but was printed using a chemically-etched copper plate. This permitted a photographic image to be printed on regular paper, at one time intaglio printing was used for all mass-printed materials including banknotes, stock certificates, newspapers and magazines, fabrics, wallpapers and sheet music. Today intaglio engraving is largely used for paper or plastic currency, banknotes, passports, photogravure, an intaglio photo-printmaking process Rotogravure Line engraving Viscosity printing History of printing Intaglio and other printmaking definitions
41.
Sculpture
–
Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts, a wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. However, most ancient sculpture was painted, and this has been lost. Those cultures whose sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, the Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and passions of the Christian faith, the revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelos David. Relief is often classified by the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-relief, high relief, sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient Egypt. Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs, usually of stone, techniques such as casting, stamping and moulding use an intermediate matrix containing the design to produce the work, many of these allow the production of several copies. The term sculpture is used mainly to describe large works. The very large or colossal statue has had an enduring appeal since antiquity, another grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades. The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the head, showing just that, or the bust, small forms of sculpture include the figurine, normally a statue that is no more than 18 inches tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal or coin. Sculpture is an important form of public art, a collection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden. One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in form of association with religion. Cult images are common in cultures, though they are often not the colossal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek art. The actual cult images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples, of which none have survived, were rather small. The same is true in Hinduism, where the very simple. Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines, the Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, from the 20th century the relatively restricted range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or representation of any type of subject now common. Today much sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and museums, small sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram ivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun
42.
Lithography
–
Lithography is a method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone or a plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by German author and actor Alois Senefelder as a method of publishing theatrical works. Lithography can be used to print text or artwork onto paper or other suitable material, Lithography originally used an image drawn with oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth, level lithographic limestone plate. The stone was treated with a mixture of acid and gum arabic, when the stone was subsequently moistened, these etched areas retained water, an oil-based ink could then be applied and would be repelled by the water, sticking only to the original drawing. The ink would finally be transferred to a paper sheet. This traditional technique is used in some fine art printmaking applications. In modern lithography, the image is made of a coating applied to a flexible aluminum plate. The image can be printed directly from the plate, or it can be offset, by transferring the image onto a sheet for printing. In fact, photolithography is used synonymously with offset printing, the technique as well as the term were introduced in Europe in the 1850s. Beginning in the 1960s, photolithography has played an important role in the fabrication, Lithography uses simple chemical processes to create an image. For instance, the part of an image is a water-repelling substance. Thus, when the plate is introduced to a printing ink and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image. This allows a flat print plate to be used, enabling much longer, Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder in the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1796. In the early days of lithography, a piece of limestone was used. After the oil-based image was put on the surface, a solution of gum arabic in water was applied, during printing, water adhered to the gum arabic surfaces and was repelled by the oily parts, while the oily ink used for printing did the opposite. Lithography works because of the repulsion of oil and water. The image is drawn on the surface of the print plate with a fat or oil-based medium such as a wax crayon, which may be pigmented to make the drawing visible
.jpg)
