1.
Jauja (film)
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Jauja is a 2014 internationally co-produced historical drama film directed by Lisandro Alonso. It competed in the Un Certain Regard section at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival where it won the FIPRESCI Prize, in the 1880s, Danish Captain Gunnar Dinesen is in Argentina with his teenage daughter Ingeborg who asks him if she can have a dog. He is propositioned by Lieutenant Pittaluga who asks him for permission to take Inge to a dance in exchange for one of his horses, in clumsy Spanish Dinesen refuses, stating that Inge is his daughter. When Dinesen warns Inge that Pittaluga is too fond of girls and she should not go near him. Unbeknownst to her father, Inge is already involved with a soldier named Corto. Corto tells Pittaluga and Dinesen about the rumors that Zuluaga, an officer who inexplicably disappeared into the desert, is leading a group of bandits, the men tell Corto to go into the desert and bring them something tangible as proof that Zuluaga is still alive. During the night Inge and Corto run off together, though Pittaluga offers to help retrieve Inge, Dinesen insists on going alone. Heading out into the desert he eventually encounters a man whispering the name Zuluaga. He later finds a bloodied and dying Corto and asks him where his daughter is before beheading him, Corto appears to have been attacked by some indigenous people wearing white mud. While Dinesen is stooped over Corto, his horse, hat, driven onward in the search for his daughter, he continues on in the direction the indigenous man went. Dinesen contends with extreme thirst and possibly begins to hallucinate, as Dinesen wanders through the desert, he sees a dog who leads him first to a toy soldier belonging to Inge and then to a Danish-speaking elderly woman who lives in a cave. She tells him her husband died of a snake bite, Captain Dinesen tells the woman that he is looking for his daughter and, as the conversation unfolds, it is gradually revealed that the woman is his daughter. She tells him to come back whenever he likes and he wanders out into the desert again, in the present day, a young girl wakes up in a mansion in Denmark and goes to see her dogs. She is distressed by the fact that one dog has been scratching his fur off, the girl takes the dog for a walk in the woods around her home and finds a toy soldier on the ground. She picks it up and casts it into a pond, garmr Jauja at the Internet Movie Database
Jauja (film)
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Theatrical release poster
2.
Peru
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Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
Peru
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Sculpted
Chavin head embedded in one of the walls of the temple of
Chavín de Huantar
Peru
Peru
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A
Moche ceramic vessel from the 5th century depicting a man's head
Peru
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The citadel of
Machu Picchu, an iconic symbol of pre-Columbian Peru
3.
Regions of Peru
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The regions of Peru are the first-level administrative subdivisions of Peru. Since its 1821 independence, Peru had been divided into departments but faced the problem of a centralization of political and economic power in its capital. Under the new arrangement, the former 24 departments plus the Callao Province has become regional circumscriptions, the province of Lima has been excluded from this process and does not form part of any region. Unlike the earlier departments, regions have a government and have a wide array of responsibilities within their jurisdiction. Under the 2002 Organic Law of Regional Governments, there is a process of transfer of functions from the central government to the regions. A2005 referendum for the merger of several failed to get the necessary electoral support. Peruvian regions and departments are subdivided in provinces and districts, the 1979 Peruvian Constitution contained provisions for the decentralization of power through the creation of autonomous regions, but they were not implemented. As a way of creating a source of power, the regime established twelve autonomous regions on January 20,1989 in the hope of winning some elections at this level. However, due to the haste of their creation, these governments were not provided with fiscal resources of their own so they depended on the goodwill of the central government for funding. The 1990 presidential elections were marked by the discredit of political parties as evidenced in the election of Alberto Fujimori, Fujimori withheld financial transfers to regional governments and then, on December 29,1992, replaced them with government-designated Transitory Councils of Regional Administration. Having dissolved Congress in the 1992 Peruvian constitutional crisis, Fujimori called an election for a Constitutional Assembly which drafted the 1993 Constitution and this new text included provisions for the creation of regions with autonomous, elected governments but they were not carried out. A framework law on decentralization issued on January 30,1998, confirmed the permanence of transitory councils, Fujimori was forced to resign in November 2000 under accusations of authoritarianism, corruption, and human rights violations. After an interim government led by Valentín Paniagua, Alejandro Toledo was elected president for the 2001–2006 period on a platform that included creating regional governments. New regional governments were elected on November 20,2002, one in each of the former departments, the province of Lima, containing the capital, was excluded from the process thus it is not part of any region. In the 2002 elections, most regional governments went to parties in opposition, with going to the APRA and only one to Possible Peru. Thus, no merger was carried out, new elections for regional governments were held on November 19,2006, most regions went to local political movements rather than to national parties. The APRA, which had won the elections held on June 4,2006. The Regional Coordination Council has a role on planning and budget issues
Regions of Peru
4.
Provinces of Peru
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The provinces of Peru, known in Spanish as provincias, are the second-level administrative subdivisions of the country. There are 196 provinces in Peru, grouped into 25 regions except for the Lima Province which does not belong to any region and this makes an average of 7 provinces per region. The region with the fewest provinces is Callao and the region with the most is Ancash, while provinces in the sparsely populated Amazon rain forest of eastern Peru tend to be larger, there is a large concentration of them in the north-central area of the country. The province with the least number of districts is Purús Province, the province with the most districts is Lima Province, with 43 districts. The most common number of districts per province is 8, a total of 29 provinces share this number of districts, the table below shows all provinces with their capitals and the region in which they are located. The UBIGEO code uniquely identifies each province, capitals in bold are also a regional capital. Provinces in which the capital is located all have an UBIGEO code ending in 01. Administrative divisions of Peru Regions of Peru Districts of Peru Municipalities of Peru
Provinces of Peru
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Peru
5.
Jauja Province
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Jauja Province is a Peruvian province. It is one of the nine provinces of the Junín Region, to the north it borders with the Yauli, Tarma and Chanchamayo Provinces. To the east with the Satipo Province, to the south with the Concepción Province, the capital of the Jauja Province is the city of Jauja. The city was founded by Francisco Pizarro as the first capital of Peru, the province lies in the Nor Yauyos-Cochas Landscape Reserve. The Paryaqaqa mountain range traverses the province, one of the highest mountains of the province is Paryaqaqa at 5,750 metres. The Province of Jauja is divided into 34 districts, Quri Winchus Tipiqucha Tunanmarka Waqlamarka Information on Jauja Pictures and Information on Jauja
Jauja Province
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Coat of arms
6.
UTC-5
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UTC−05,00 is a time offset that subtracts five hours from Coordinated Universal Time. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, the western Caribbean uses it year round. The southwestern and northwestern portions of Indiana Mexico – Central Zone Central, in most of Mexico, daylight time starts a few weeks after the United States. Communities on the U. S. border that observe Central Time follow the U. S. daylight time schedule
UTC-5
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Behind (−)
7.
Huancayo
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Huancayo is the capital of the Junín Region, in the central highlands of Peru. It is located in Huancayo Province, of which it is also capital, situated in the Mantaro Valley at an altitude of 3,271 meters, it belongs to the Quechua region. Depending on delimitation, the agglomeration has a population between 340,000 and 380,000 and is the fifth most populous city of the country, Huancayo is the cultural and commercial center of the whole central Peruvian Andes area. The area was inhabited by the Huancas. At around 500 BC, they were incorporated into the Wari Empire, despite efforts to defend its independence, the Huancas were eventually subdued by the Inca leader Pachacutec in 1460 and the region was incorporated into the Inca empire. It subsequently became a stopping point along the Inca Camino Real. In 1570, the viceroy Francisco de Toledo established the site as the center of his encomienda Guancayo, the town was officially established on 1 June 1572 with the title of Santísima Trinidad de Huancayo. In 1813, Huancayo celebrated the promulgation of the Constitution of Cadiz, during the war for independence, Huancayo was liberated on 20 November 1820. Construction on the cathedral commenced in 1831, in 1854, when Peru officially ended slavery, the accord was made law in Huancayo. There is a statue in the Plaza Constitución commemorating this, today, in addition to its importance as a center of commerce, Huancayo is known for the crafts and the many festivals of the surrounding towns. Having rapidly expanded in recent decades, it has few remaining colonial buildings, according to the national Census of 2007, the three main districts of Huancayo have a total population of about 340,000. However, the settlement area already reaches periurban districts. Hence, the population reaches at least 380,000 people. Amerindian and Mestizos are the two largest ethnic groups in the city, asian and European descendants are important minority groups. The huancayo metro has transportation connections by air, road and rail, first, the Francisco Carle Airport at Jauja offers daily connections to Lima. Second, the Carretera Central links Huancayo with La Oroya and Lima, third, the Ferrocarril Central Andino enables transport by rail. Huancayo was a break-of-gauge from 914 mm gauge to 1,435 mm gauge, in 2009, this line was being standardised. A light rail is currently under construction and expected to start operation in 2013
Huancayo
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The Huancayo Constitución Square and Huancayo Cathedral
Huancayo
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La Inmaculada church
Huancayo
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La Merced church
Huancayo
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Huancayo Cathedral
8.
Laguna de Paca
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Laguna de Paca, also known as Paca Lagoon, is a placid lake in Peru. It is located 4 kilometres north of the town of Jauja. The lake precincts is habitat for flora and fauna. The lake is sourced to springs, Laguna Paca is the only lake in the Paca valley which has water throughout the year. However, floating mats of rushes and sedges cover the side of the lake. The lake itself does not drain out, as like the lakes in the valleys, has been “filled up by interglacial fill. It flows near the Jauja town into an alluvial plain. Formation of this region and its system is attributed to diverse sedimentary, glacial. The valley formation is dated to the Late Pliocene and early Pleistocene uplift unconformity, Laguna de Paca covers an area of 21.4 square kilometres. The lagoon is located an elevation of 3,418 metres and its water spread area covers the districts of Paca, Chunán and Pancán. The lake has a capacity of 85,500 cubic metres. It is a popular tourist centre visited by people from the Mantaro Valley, the lake precincts have a variety of wild life, birds in particular. The west side of the lake has many popular restaurants catering to tourist traffic and it is conjectured that this culture existed even at the time of the birth of Christ. The legend of the lake has been glorified by Dennis Siluk. Part one I shall tell you a legend of long ago Of the sunken city of La Laguna de Paca, Wherein this region of Huancayo-Peru, Truth lies, but only the soul knows. Of the bells, the Great Bells, bells Of the sunken church of La Laguna de Paca Are heard, heard by the folks of the town, scorches the foliage to its bones…. Part Four And now I tell you of my tale— A tale that took place but a few days ago, By a misty embankment along the Laguna de Paca. Here, here I stood, stood within its grip, trance, Aloft in the eldritch dark—it lingered This shadowy configuration of the ghoul, The ghoul l…l… of the lake, Laguna de Paca--
Laguna de Paca
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Laguna de Paca
Laguna de Paca
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A resort on the bank of Laguna de Paca
9.
Battle of Cajamarca
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The Battle of Cajamarca was the unexpected ambush and seizure of the Inca ruler Atahualpa by a small Spanish force led by Francisco Pizarro, on November 16,1532. The Spanish killed thousands of Atahualpas counsellors, commanders and unarmed attendants in the plaza of Cajamarca. The capture of Atahualpa marked the stage of the conquest of the pre-Columbian Inca civilization of Peru. The confrontation at Cajamarca was the culmination of a struggle involving espionage, subterfuge. Atahualpa had received the invaders from a position of immense strength, in a calculated show of goodwill, Atahualpa had lured the adventurers deep into the heart of his mountain empire where any potential threat could be isolated and responded to with massive force. Pizarro and his men arrived on Friday November 15,1532, the town itself had been largely emptied of its two thousand inhabitants, upon the approach of the Spanish force of 180 men, guided by an Inca noble sent by Atahualpa as an envoy. Atahualpa himself was encamped outside Cajamarca, preparing for his march on Cuzco, the book History Of The Conquest Of Peru, written by 19th century author William H. Prescott, recounts the dilemma in which the Spanish force found itself. Any assault on the Inca armies overlooking the valley would have been suicidal, retreat was equally out of the question, because any show of weakness might have undermined their air of invincibility, and would invite pursuit and closure of the mountain passes. Once the great stone fortresses dotting their route of escape were garrisoned, argued Pizarro, but to do nothing, he added, was no better since prolonged contact with the natives would erode the fears of Spanish supernaturality that kept them at bay. Since this could not realistically be accomplished in an open field and he requested that accommodations be provided only for himself and his retinue, which would forsake its weapons in a sign of amity and absolute confidence. Shortly before sunset Atahualpa left the armed warriors who had accompanied him and his immediate party still numbered over seven thousand but were unarmed except for small battle axes intended for show. Atahualpas attendants were richly dressed in what were apparently ceremonial garments, many wore gold or silver discs on their heads and the main party was preceded by a group wearing livery of chequered colors, who sang while sweeping the roadway in front of Atahualpa. The Inca himself was carried in a litter lined with feathers and partly covered in silver. Atahualpas intention appears to have been to impress the small Spanish force with this display of splendor, the Spaniards had concealed themselves within the buildings surrounding the empty plaza at the centre of the town. Infantry and horsemen were concealed in the alleyways which opened onto this open square, Spanish infantry were deployed to guard the entrances to a stone building in the centre of the square while men armed with arquebuses and four small cannon took place within it. Pizarro ordered his men to remain silent and hidden until the guns were fired, during the hours of waiting tension rose amongst the greatly outnumbered Spanish and Pedro Pizarro recalls that many of his fellows urinated out of pure terror. Upon entering the square the leading Incans in attendance on Atahualpa divided their ranks to enable his litter to be carried to the centre, where all stopped. An Incan courtier carrying a banner approached the building where the artillery was concealed, while Atahualpa, after a brief pause Friar Vincente de Valverde, accompanied by an interpreter, emerged from the building where Pizarro was lodged
Battle of Cajamarca
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Contemporary engraving of the Battle of Cajamarca, showing Emperor Atahualpa surrounded on his palanquin.
10.
Pachacamac
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Pachacamac is an archaeological site 40 kilometres southeast of Lima, Peru in the Valley of the Lurín River. The site was first settled around A. D.200 and was named after the Earth Maker creator god Pacha Kamaq, the site flourished for about 1,300 years until the Spanish invaded. Pachacamac covers about 600 hectares of land, Pacha Kamaq was considered the creator god by the people who lived in this part of Peru before the Inca conquest. The Inca took him into their pantheon, but was not an equal of Viracocha, Virachocha was seen as being more powerful, in the 1890s archaeologists first began exploring Pachacamac. They found many enormous buildings and burials that had been previously looted, the first section of the site includes temples of religious significance and a large cemetery. The second section includes several buildings which are mainly secular pyramids, in this complex of buildings were mud-brick stepped pyramids with ramps and plazas. These buildings were dated between the late 1300s and the mid-1400s, the three most famous pyramids are all found in the first sacred section. These are the Painted Temple, the Temple of the Sun, peter Eekhout is an archaeologist who studied and excavated the site of Pachacamac. However, Eekhout came to a different conclusion after his work at the site, Eekhout and his team found that the structures lacked the features that characterized religious centers of the time. He concluded that the structures were used as palaces for the Ychsma lords who ruled Pachacamac, the Temple of the Sun is 30, 000m squared in size and is in the shape of a trapezoid. It has the common step pyramid architecture which forms terraces around the structure and this temple has been dated to the time of Inca control over Pachacamac. Even though there is no proof, some archaeologists believe human sacrifices may have taken place at this the Temple. Sacrifices of women and children were found in an Inca cemetery within a portion of the structure, burial goods found with the sacrifices point to the sacrifices originating from coastal societies. Most of the buildings and temples were built c. 800-1450 CE, shortly before the arrival and conquest by the Inca Empire, archaeologists had uncovered multiple grave sites. Each site may date back to different time periods of Pachacamacs history, in the Southeastern part of the city in the Temple of Inti, archeologists had found a cemetery that was set apart for the mamacuna, women who had important status. These women wove textiles for priests, and brewed corn beer which was used in Inca festivals, the women were sacrificed in the highest ritual, they had been strangled with cotton garrote, and some women still had the cotton twisted around their neck. They were wrapped in cloth and they were buried in stone tombs and each have been surround by offering found in the highlands of Peru area such as coca, quinoa
Pachacamac
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View of Pachacamac
Pachacamac
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Shown within Peru
Pachacamac
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Recinto de Mamacones
Pachacamac
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Temple of the Sun, front side, facing the sea
11.
Chalcuchimac
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Chalcuchimac was, along with Quizquiz and Rumiñawi one of the leading Inca generals of the north and a supporter of Atahualpa, for whom he had won five battles against the Spaniards. In April 1532, he and his defeated and captured Huáscar in the battle of Quipaipan. Hernando Pizarro convinced Chalcuchimac, camped with an army of 35,000 in the Jauja Valley, Chalcuchimac was also arrested by the Spaniards, who feared he might resume hostilities. The natives attacked these troops several times with such spirit and discipline that they suspected Chialiquichiama was in communication with the Indians. The suspicions, though not sufficiently proved to justify his fate, were enough to decide it, the Spaniards later routed the forces of Quizquiz and captured Cuzco in late 1533. Vidas de los españoles célebres, Tomo II, El Gran Capitán - Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, archived from the original on 22 February 1992
Chalcuchimac
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Chalkuchimac,
Inca general and companion of
Atahualpa
12.
Rill
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For use in record technology, see gramophone record. For grooves on the moon, see rille, in hillslope geomorphology, a rill is a shallow channel cut into soil by the erosive action of flowing water. Similar but smaller incised channels are known as microrills, larger incised channels are known as gullies, artificial rills are channels constructed to carry a water supply from a distant water source. In landscape or garden design, constructed rills are a water feature. Rills are narrow and shallow channels which are eroded into unprotected soil by hillslope runoff, since soil is regularly left bare during agricultural operations, rills may form on farmland during these vulnerable periods. Rills may also form when bare soil is exposed following deforestation. Rills are fairly easily visible when first incised, so they are often the first indication of an erosion problem. Unless soil conservation measures are put into place, rills on regularly eroding areas may develop into larger erosional features such as gullies or even into badlands. Rills are created when water erodes the topsoil on hillsides, and they tend to appear more often in rainier months. This begins the process as water breaks soil particles free. These forces explain why sandy, loamy soils are susceptible to the formation of rills. Rills cannot form on every surface, and their formation is connected to the steepness of the hillside slope. Gravity determines the force of the water, which provides the required to start the erosional environment necessary to create rills. Therefore, the formation of rills is primarily controlled by the slope of the hillside, slope controls the depth of the rills, while the length of the slope and the soil’s permeability control the number of incisions in an area. Each type of soil has a value, a slope angle below which water velocity cannot produce sufficient force to dislodge enough soil particles for rills to form. For instance, on many slopes, this threshold value hovers around an angle of 2 degrees with a shear velocity between 3 and 3.5 cm/s. After rills begin forming, they are subjected to variety of erosional forces which may increase their size. Up to 37% of erosion in an area may derive from mass movement, or collapse
Rill
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Water flowing in an actively-
eroding rill on bare
farmland in
County Tyrone,
Northern Ireland
Rill
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A downslope view of part of the
eroding rill network from
County Tyrone,
Northern Ireland. See left for a close-up view of a single rill
Rill
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Rill initiation: the finger is pointing at a
headcut which has just been incised by
runoff which is flowing from right to left
Rill
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An artificial rill, part of the Falaj
water transportation system, at
Al Ain Oasis, in the
Abu Dhabi Emirate.
13.
Spanish conquest of Peru
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The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. It was the first step in a campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory in 1572. The conquest of the Inca Empire led to spin-off campaigns into present-day Chile and Colombia, when the Spanish arrived at the borders of the Inca Empire in 1528, it spanned a considerable area, by far the largest of the four grand pre-Columbian civilizations. In less than a century, the Inca had expanded their empire from about 400,000 km² in 1448, to 1,800,000 km² in 1528 and this vast area of land varied greatly in cultures and in climate. Because of the cultures and geography, the Inca allowed many areas of the empire to be governed under the control of local leaders. However, under the administrative mechanisms established by the Inca, all parts of the empire answered to, and were ultimately under the control of. Scholars estimate that the population of the Inca Empire numbered more than 16,000,000, in 1528, Emperor Huayna Capac ruled the Inca Empire. He could trace his lineage back to a king named Manco Cápac, the mythical founder of the Inca clan. On his accession to the throne, Huayna Capac had continued the policy of expansion by conquest, while he had to put down a number of rebellions during his reign, by the time of his death, his legitimacy was as unquestioned as was the primacy of Inca power. However, expansion had resulted in its own problems, many parts of the empire maintained distinctive cultures and these were at best resistive participants in the imperial project. Huayna Capac relied on his sons to support his reign, while he had many legitimate and illegitimate children, two sons are historically important. Prince Túpac Cusi Hualpa, also known as Huáscar, was the son of Coya Mama Rahua Occllo of the royal line and these two sons would play pivotal roles in the final years of the Inca Empire. The Spanish conquistador Pizarro and his men were greatly aided in their enterprise by invading when the Inca Empire was in the midst of a war of succession between the princes Huáscar and Atahualpa. Atahualpa seems to have spent more time with Huayna Capac during the years when he was in the north with the army conquering Ecuador, Atahualpa was thus closer to, and had better relations with the army and its leading generals. Huayna had died before he could nominate the new heir, at the time of Huayna Capacs death, Huáscar was in the capital Cuzco, while Atahualpa was in Quitu with the main body of the Inca army. Huáscar had himself proclaimed Sapa Inca in Cuzco, but the army declared loyalty to Atahualpa, the resulting dispute led to the Inca Civil War. The civil war between Atahualpa and Huascar weakened the empire prior to its struggle with the Spanish. Atahualpa appeared to be popular with the people than his brother, and he was certainly more valued by the army
Spanish conquest of Peru
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Inca Empire
Spanish conquest of Peru
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Francisco Pizarro meets with Atahualpa, 1532
Spanish conquest of Peru
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The Inca–Spanish confrontation in the
Battle of Cajamarca left thousands of natives dead
Spanish conquest of Peru
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Pizarro and his followers founding Lima
14.
Cusco
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Cuzco, often spelled Cusco, is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region as well as the Cusco Province, in 2013, the city had a population of 435,114. Located on the end of the Knot of Cuzco, its elevation is around 3,400 m. The site was the capital of the Inca Empire from the 13th until the 16th-century Spanish conquest. In 1983 Cusco was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and it has become a major tourist destination, hosting nearly 2 million visitors a year. The Constitution of Peru designates it as the Historical Capital of Peru, the indigenous name of this city is Qusqu. Although the name was used in Quechua, its origin is found in the Aymara language, the word is derived from the phrase qusqu wanka, related to the citys foundation myth of the Ayar Siblings. According to this legend, Ayar Awqa acquired wings and flew to the site of the future city, there he was transformed into a rock to mark the possession of the land by his ayllu. Then Ayar Oche stood up, displayed a pair of large wings, then they went up on top of the hill. Now at the site where he was to remain as an idol and he returned and told Ayar Manco that from then on he was to be named Manco Capac. Ayar Oche came from where the Sun was and the Sun had ordered that Ayar Manco take that name, after this had been stated by the idol, Ayar Oche turned into a stone, just as he was, with his wings. Later Manco Capac went down with Ayar Auca to their settlement. he liked the place now occupied in this city Cuzco, Manco Capac and his companion, with the help of the four women, made a house. Having done this, Manco Capac and his companion, with the four women and it is said that they took the maize from the cave, which this lord Manco Capac named Pacaritambo, which means those of origin because. they came out of that cave. The Spanish conquistadors adopted the name, transliterating it into Spanish phonetics as Cuzco or, less often. Cuzco was the spelling on official documents and chronicles in colonial times. Cuzco, pronounced as in 16th-century Spanish, seems to have been an approximation to the Cusco Quechua pronunciation of the name at the time. As both Spanish and Quechuan pronunciation have evolved since then, the Spanish pronunciation of z is no longer close to the Quechuan pronunciation of the consonant represented by z in Cuzco. In 1976, the city signed an ordinance banning the traditional spelling and ordering the use of a new one, Cusco
Cusco
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The first image of Cuzco in Europe.
Pedro Cieza de León. Cronica del Peru, 1553.
Cusco
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Cristo Blanco in the surrounding mountains of Cusco
Cusco
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Night view of Plaza Regocijo, Cusco
Cusco
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Night view of the
Qurikancha and Convent of
St. Dominic
15.
Conquistador
–
Conquistadors /kɒŋˈkɪstəˌdɔːrz/ is a term used to refer to the soldiers and explorers of the Spanish Empire or the Portuguese Empire in a general sense. During the Age of Discovery, conquistadors sailed beyond Europe to the Americas, Oceania, Africa and Asia, conquering territory and they colonized much of the world for Spain and Portugal in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Portugal established a route to China in the early 16th century, sending ships via the southern coast of Africa, human infections gained worldwide transmission vectors for the first time, from Africa and Eurasia to the Americas and vice versa. The spread of diseases, including smallpox, flu and typhus. In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Europeans entered American ports, by the late 16th century silver imports from America provided one-fifth of Spains total budget. The conquistadors were professional warriors, using European tactics, firearms and their units would often specialize in forms of combat that required long periods of training that were too costly for informal groups. Their armies were composed of Iberian and other European soldiers. Native allied troops were largely equipped with armament and armour that varied geographically. Some groups consisted of men without military experience, Catholic clergy which helped with administrative duties. These native forces often included African slaves and Native Americans and they not only fought in the battlefield but served as interpreters, informants, servants, teachers, physicians, and scribes. India Catalina and Malintzin were Native American women slaves who worked for the Spaniards, Castilian law prohibited foreigners and non-Catholics from settling in the New World. However, not all conquistadors were Castilian, many foreigners Hispanicised their names and/or converted to Catholicism to serve the Castilian Crown. For example, Ioánnis Fokás was a Castilian of Greek origin who discovered the strait that bears his name between Vancouver Island and Washington State in 1592, german-born Nikolaus Federmann, Hispanicised as Nicolás de Federmán, was a conquistador in Venezuela and Colombia. The origin of people in mixed expeditions was not always distinguished. Castilian law banned Spanish women from travelling to America unless they were married and accompanied by a husband, women who travelled thus include María de Escobar, María Estrada, Marina Vélez de Ortega, Marina de la Caballería, Francisca de Valenzuela, Catalina de Salazar. Some conquistadors married Native American women or had illegitimate children, European young men enlisted in the army because it was one way out of poverty. Catholic priests instructed the soldiers in mathematics, writing, theology, Latin, Greek, and history, Kings army officers taught military arts. An uneducated young recruit could become a leader, elected by their fellow professional soldiers
Conquistador
–
Conquistadors and their native
Tlaxcalan allies enter Tenochtitlan
Conquistador
–
The surrender of
Granada in 1492. The last
Moorish sultan of Granada,
Muhammad XII, before
Ferdinand and Isabella.
Conquistador
–
Christopher Columbus 's first landing in the Americas in 1492
Conquistador
–
Hernando De Soto and Spanish Conquistadores seeing the Mississippi River for the first time.
16.
Francisco Pizarro
–
Francisco Pizarro González was a Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that conquered the Inca Empire. He captured and killed Incan emperor Atahualpa and claimed the lands for Spain, Francisco Pizarro was born in Trujillo, Spain in modern-day Extremadura, Spain. He was the son of infantry colonel Gonzalo Pizarro and Francisca González. His date of birth is uncertain, but it is believed to be sometime in the 1470s, little attention was paid to his education and he grew up illiterate. His father was a colonel of infantry who served in Navarre and his mother married late in life and had a son Francisco Martín de Alcántara, who was at the conquest of Peru with his half-brother from its inception. Through his father, Francisco was a cousin, once removed. On 10 November 1509, Pizarro sailed from Spain to the New World with Alonso de Ojeda on an expedition to Gulf of Urabá in Tierra Firme, Pizarro became a participant in Ojedas failed colony, commanding the remnants until he abandoned it with the survivors. He sailed to Cartagena and joined the fleet of Martín Fernández de Enciso in 1513, in 1513, Pizarro accompanied Vasco Núñez de Balboa in his crossing of the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific coast. The following year, Pedrarias Dávila became the appointed governor of Castilla de Oro. During the next five years, Pizarro became an associate of Dávila. When Dávila decided to get rid of Balboa out of distrust, he instructed Pizarro to personally arrest him, Balboa was beheaded in January 1519. For his loyalty to Dávila, Pizarro was rewarded with the positions of mayor, on 10 November 1509, Pizarro sailed from Spain to the New World with Alonso de Ojeda on an expedition to Urabá. He sailed to Cartagena and joined the fleet of Martín Fernández de Enciso and, in 1513, reports of Perus riches and Cortéss success in Mexico tantalized Pizarro. He undertook two expeditions to conquer the Incan Empire in 1524 and in 1526, both failed as a result of native hostilities, bad weather and lack of provisions. Pedro de los Ríos, the Governor of Panama, made an effort to recall Pizarro, in April 1528, he reached northern Peru and found the natives rich with precious metals. This discovery gave Pizarro the motivation to plan an expedition to conquer the area. He returned to Panama to make arrangements, but the Governor refused to grant permission for the project, Pizarro returned to Spain to appeal directly to King Charles I. His plea was successful and he received not only a license for the proposed expedition and he was joined by family and friends and the expedition left Panama in 1530
Francisco Pizarro
–
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Francisco Pizarro
–
Marquess Francisco Pizarro
Francisco Pizarro
–
Francisco Pizarro's route of exploration during the conquest of Peru (1531–1533)
Francisco Pizarro
–
Pizarro and his followers in
Lima in 1535
17.
Quechuan languages
–
Quechua /ˈkɛtʃwə/, also known as runa simi, is an indigenous language family, with variations spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Andes and highlands of South America. Derived from an ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken language family of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Approximately 13% of Peruvians speak Quechua and it is perhaps most widely known for being the main language of the Inca Empire, and was disseminated by the colonizers throughout their reign. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire, the Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke forms of Quechua. In the Cusco region, Quechua was influenced by languages such as Aymara. The Cuzco variety of Quechua developed as quite distinct, in similar ways, diverse dialects developed in different areas, related to existing local languages, when the Inca Empire ruled and imposed Quechua as the official language. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century and it was officially recognized by the Spanish administration and many Spanish learned it in order to communicate with the local peoples. Clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as the language of evangelization, given its use by the Catholic missionaries, the range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended administrative and religious use of Quechua, the Crown banned even loyal pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vegas Comentarios Reales. Despite a brief revival of the immediately after the Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century. Gradually its use declined so that it was mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated. Nevertheless in the 21st century, those speaking Quechua language speakers number 8 to 10 million people across South America, the oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua de los indios de los reynos del Perú in 1560. In 1975 Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages, the major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua is the lack of written materials in that language, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language. In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural education in Bolivia, Ecuador. Even in these areas, the governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations, some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for the purposes of social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings, Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua
Quechuan languages
–
Quechua
18.
Cockaigne
–
Specifically, in poems like The Land of Cockaigne, Cockaigne is a land of contraries, where all the restrictions of society are defied, sexual liberty is open, and food is plentiful. Writing about Cockaigne was a commonplace of Goliard verse and it represented both wish fulfillment and resentment at the strictures of asceticism and death. In Ireland it was mentioned in the Kildare Poems composed c.1350, in Spain an equivalent place is named Jauja, after a rich mining region of the Andes, and País de Cucaña may also signify such a place. From Swedish dialect lubber comes Lubberland, popularized in the ballad An Invitation to Lubberland, in the 1820s, the name Cockaigne came to be applied jocularly to London, as the land of Cockneys, and thus Cockaigne, though the two are not linguistically connected otherwise. The composer Edward Elgar used the title Cockaigne for his concert overture and suite evoking the people of London, the Dutch villages of Kockengen and Koekange were named after Cockaigne. The surname Cockayne also derives from the land, and was originally a nickname for an idle dreamer. Like Atlantis and El Dorado, the land of Cockaigne was a utopia, the weather is always mild, the wine flows freely, sex is readily available, and all people enjoy eternal youth. Cockaigne was a medieval peasant’s dream, offering relief from backbreaking labor, the Brothers Grimm collected and retold the fairy tale in Das Märchen vom Schlaraffenland. A Neapolitan tradition, extended to other Latin-culture countries, is the Cockaigne pole, the pole is covered with grease or soap and planted during a festival. Then, daring people try to climb the pole to get the prize. The crowd laughs at the failed attempts to hold on to the pole. Ego sum abbas Cucaniensis is one of the songs found in the 13th-century manuscript of Songs from Benediktbeuern, better known for its inclusion in Carl Orffs secular cantata. Cockaigne was depicted by Pieter Bruegel the Elder in The Land of Cockaigne, the Land of Toys from The Adventures of Pinocchio is said to be located in Cockaigne. The album Land of Cockayne by Soft Machine,1981, Cockaigne is a concert overture composed by Edward Elgar in 1901. Cockaigne, a 2003 painting by Vincent Desiderio Cockaigne is the home of Narda, Mandrake and Narda are visiting Kit The Ghost Who Walks and Diana Walker. A ski resort in Cherry Creek, New York bore the name Cockaigne until its 2011 closure, mischief in Wonderland, a 1957 German fantasy film starring Alexander Engel. Arcadia Paradise Shangri-La Utopia Original text and translations of poems of Cokaygne Occultopedia entry Reference. com Word of the Day entry Encyclopedia. com entry Encyclopædia Britannica entry
Cockaigne
–
Pieter Bruegel the Elder 's "
Luilekkerland " (
The Land of Cockaigne), 1567. Oil on panel. (
Alte Pinakothek,
Munich)
Cockaigne
–
"Accurata Utopiae Tabula", an "accurate map of
Utopia ",
Johann Baptist Homann 's map of Schlaraffenland published by
Matthäus Seutter, Augsburg, 1730
Cockaigne
–
Greasing the pole during the
Tomatina festival of
Buñol, Spain.
Cockaigne
–
La Cucaña,
Francisco Goya
19.
Lima
–
Lima is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, in the coastal part of the country. Together with the seaport of Callao, it forms an urban area known as the Lima Metropolitan Area. With a population of almost 10 million, Lima is the most populous area of Peru. Lima was founded by Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro on January 18,1535 and it became the capital and most important city in the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru. Following the Peruvian War of Independence, it became the capital of the Republic of Peru, around one-third of the national population lives in the metropolitan area. Lima is home to one of the oldest higher-learning institutions in the New World, the National University of San Marcos, founded on May 12,1551 during the Spanish colonial regime, is the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas. In October 2013 Lima was chosen to host the 2019 Pan American Games and it also hosted the December 2014 United Nations Climate Change Conference and the Miss Universe 1982 pageant. In October 2015 Lima hosted the 2015 Annual Meetings of the World Bank Group, according to early Spanish articles the Lima area was once called Itchyma, after its original inhabitants. However, even before the Inca occupation of the area in the 15th century and this oracle was eventually destroyed by the Spanish and replaced with a church, but the name persisted, the chronicles show Límac replacing Ychma as the common name for the area. Modern scholars speculate that the word Lima originated as the Spanish pronunciation of the native name Limaq, linguistic evidence seems to support this theory as spoken Spanish consistently rejects stop consonants in word-final position. Non-Peruvian Spanish speakers may mistakenly define the city name as the direct Spanish translation of lime, the city was founded in 1535 under the name City of the Kings because its foundation was decided on January 6, date of the feast of the Epiphany. This name quickly fell into disuse and Lima became the name of choice, on the oldest Spanish maps of Peru. The river that feeds Lima is called Rímac and many people assume that this is because its original Inca name is Talking River. However, the inhabitants of the valley were not Incas. This name is an innovation arising from an effort by the Cuzco nobility in colonial times to standardize the toponym so that it would conform to the phonology of Cuzco Quechua, later, as the original inhabitants died out and the local Quechua became extinct, the Cuzco pronunciation prevailed. Nowadays, Spanish-speaking locals do not see the connection between the name of their city and the name of the river runs through it. They often assume that the valley is named after the river, however, historically, the Flag of Lima has been known as the «Banner of Perus Kings City»
Lima
–
Collage of Lima
Lima
–
Flag
Lima
–
Pachacamac was an important religious centre before the arrival of Spanish conquistadors
Lima
–
Balconies were a major feature of Lima's architecture during the colonial period.
20.
Callao
–
El Callao is the chief seaport of Peru. The city is also called Provincia Constitucional, the province of the Callao Region. The Historic Centre of Callao is located 15 km west of Historic Centre of Lima, the countrys capital, Callao borders Lima Province on the north, east and south, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. El Callao was founded by Spanish colonists in 1537, just two years after Lima and it soon became the main port for Spanish commerce in the Pacific. The origin of its name is unknown, both Indian and Spanish sources are credited, but it is certain that it was known by name since 1550. Other sources point to the similarity with the Portuguese word calhau, on 20 August 1836, during the Peru-Bolivian Confederacy, President Andrés de Santa Cruz mandated the creation of the Callao Littoral Province, which had political autonomy in its internal affairs. During the government of President Ramón Castilla, Callao was given the name of Constitutional Province, on 22 April 1857, before that, all of the other Peruvian provinces had been given their names by law, while Callao was given it by constitutional mandate. Callao was never part of the Lima Department nor of any other departments, the provinces first mayor was Col. Manuel Cipriano Dulanto. By 1949, Callao was known as one of the biggest centers of coca-based products, on 28 October 1746, a tsunami caused by the 1746 Lima–Callao earthquake destroyed the entire port of Callao. On 22 January 22,1826, besieged by nationalist forces backed by Simón Bolívar, on 2 May 1866, during the Battle of Callao, the Spanish fleet tried to reconquer independent Peru. Kon-Tiki left Callao, Peru, on the afternoon of April 28,1947, on 19 June 1986, dozens of Sendero Luminoso terrorists tried to escape but encountered the governments naval forces on El Frontón, resulting in the so-called Peruvian prison massacres. Callao is built on and around a peninsula, the district of La Punta, a historical fortress, the Castillo de Real Felipe, stands on the promontory overlooking the harbor. A large naval base is sited in Callao and its prison holds Abimael Guzmán, the leader of the Shining Path terrorist organization, and Vladimiro Montesinos, the ex-director of internal security during the Fujimori regime. Jorge Chávez International Airport is located in Callao, on a bluff overlooking the harbor sits Colegio Militar Leoncio Prado, the military high school. The city also has a university, the National University of Callao, the main Naval Hospital, Centro Medico Naval is located on Avenida Venezuela in Bellavista. It contains the U. S. Navy command Naval Medical Research Unit Six, residents of Callao are known as chalacos. Callaos professional football teams are Sport Boys and Atlético Chalaco, Callao has several islands, San Lorenzo, El Frontón, the Cavinzas Islands, and the Palomino Islands, where numerous sea lions and sea birds live in a virtually untouched ecosystem. There are proposed plans to build a naval, terrestrial
Callao
–
Mozaico Callao
Callao
–
Aero Cóndor and
LAN Airlines planes
21.
Tarma
–
Santa Ana de la Ribera de Tarma is the capital city of Tarma Province in Junín Region, Perú. The city of Tarma is located in the center of the Tarma Province,232 kilometers east of the city of Lima and its location is the point of nexus between the central coast, the Andean provinces of the department of Junín and the Central Forest. The city is situated within a valley, where many important civilizations lived in the past. Evidence can be found through archaeological remains, recent archaeological excavations show that prior to Inca occupation, the gorges of Tarma were settled by many ethnic groups. The Chinchaycocha were to the northwest, mainly what is today Oroya, the xauxa settled to the southern part, south of Tarma river. A small group called Palcamayo settled to the east section, when the Inca arrived, they built up a new province in Tarma. Tarma became a sort of puffer zone for the Inca, the capital of the Inca province was Tarmatambo. Tarma was founded during the policy of reducciones under the rule of fifth viceking Francisco de Toledo, the Spaniards moved the capital or head of the province from Tarmatambo, located at a slope of a mountain, to the bottom of the valley, called Pampas. Originally its name was Santa Ana de Pampas, and was a town of natural people, with the introduction of the Intendencias in 1784, the first Intendente Don Juan Maria Gálvez, converted or elevated the status of the village to that of a villa or town. This meant that the Cabildo or city administration was no longer in the hand of the local indians, thus, was also the name of the town change to Tarma. Indeed, throughout the Colonial time, since the 17th century, in 1815 the first cadastre was made in Tarma, concluding that the town had 775 houses and approximately 3500 inhabitants. In the beginning of November,1820, during the war of independence that took ahead general Don Jose of San Martín, on the 25th of November, General Arenales reached Tarma, being welcomed with celebrations in the city. On 31 December 1855, Tarma officially became a province, during the War of the Pacific, Tarma supported the Peruvian army, and later supported the resistance commanded by Marshal Andrés Avelino Cáceres. Notas sobre el indígena en la Intendencia de Tarma, una evaluación de la visita de 1786. Apuntes históricos sobre la Provincia de Tarma en la sierra central del Perú, el kuraka y los ayllus bajo la dominación colonial española, siglos XVI-XVIII. ISBN 3-931419-47-9 Parsons, J. C. Hastings & R. Matos Mendieta Prehispanic settlement patterns in the upper Mantaro and Tarma drainages, Junín, Peru, los peregrinos del Señor de Muruhuay. Espacio, culto e identidad en los Andes, ZIP Places, Events, News and Topics of Tarma Tarma Information Tarma Information Go2Peru Information Website Information on the city
Tarma
–
Tarma
22.
Mantaro River
–
The Mantaro River is a long river running through the central region of Peru. Its Quechua name means great river, the word Mantaro may be a word originally from the Ashaninka language, who live downstream along the Ene River. The Mantaro, along with the Apurimac River, holds the distinction of being the source of the Amazon River, depending on the criteria used for definition. The river nominally has its source at Lake Junin at a height of 4,080 m, the river runs through the provinces Junín, Yauli, Jauja, Concepción and Huancayo in the Junín Region, then through the Huancavelica Region and the Ayacucho Region. The river then returns to the Junín Region in Satipo Province and its hydrographic basin also includes some of the Pasco Region. The river belongs to the basin of the Amazon River. Its principal tributaries are the Cunas River, the Vilca/Moya River, the Ichhu River, the river runs from northeast to southeast through the Mantaro Valley. This valley is the most important food source for the capital Lima, the Mantaro Hydroelectric Complex is located in the Tayacaja Province of the Huancavelica Region, and produces 31% of all electrical energy generated in Peru. The first complete paddling descent of the river from the source was accomplished by Rocky Contos, previously, the lower 140 km of the river were descended in cataraft by Richard Pethigal in 2002. The lower section of the river is known for Sendero Luminoso camps, the definition for the distinction used at the time of survey was based on absolute length which the tributary added to the river, given a continuous and year-round flow of water. With the Tablachaca Dam built in 1974, a portion of the Mantaro River suffers a dry spell for five months of the year, the new measurements add approximately 75–92 km to the original Amazon River length
Mantaro River
–
Mantaro River
23.
Glacial
–
A glacial period is an interval of time within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances. Interglacials, on the hand, are periods of warmer climate between glacial periods. The last glacial period ended about 15,000 years ago, the Holocene epoch is the current interglacial. A time when there are no glaciers on Earth is considered a greenhouse climate state, within the Quaternary glaciation, there have been a number of glacials and interglacials. The last glacial period was the most recent glacial period within the current ice age, occurring in the Pleistocene epoch, the glacial advance reached its maximum extent about 18,000 BP. In Europe, the ice sheet reached northern Germany, since orbital variations are predictable, computer models that relate orbital variations to climate can predict future climate possibilities. Work by Berger and Loutre suggests that the current warm climate may last another 50,000 years
Glacial
–
Glacial and
interglacial cycles as represented by atmospheric
CO2, measured from ice core samples going back 800,000 years. The stage names are part of the North American and the European Alpine subdivisions. The correlation between both subdivisions is tentative.
24.
Pliocene
–
The Pliocene Epoch is the epoch in the geologic timescale that extends from 5.333 million to 2.58 million years BP. It is the second and youngest epoch of the Neogene Period in the Cenozoic Era, the Pliocene follows the Miocene Epoch and is followed by the Pleistocene Epoch.588 to 1.806 million years ago, and is now included in the Pleistocene. As with other geologic periods, the geological strata that define the start and end are well identified but the exact dates of the start. The boundaries defining the Pliocene are not set at an easily identified worldwide event, the upper boundary was set at the start of the Pleistocene glaciations. The Pliocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell, the name comes from the Greek words πλεῖον and καινός and means roughly continuation of the recent, referring to the essentially modern marine mollusc faunas. H. W. Fowler called the term a regrettable barbarism, in the official timescale of the ICS, the Pliocene is subdivided into two stages. From youngest to oldest they are, Piacenzian Zanclean The Piacenzian is sometimes referred to as the Late Pliocene, in the system of North American Land Mammal Ages include Hemphillian, and Blancan. The Blancan extends forward into the Pleistocene, South American Land Mammal Ages include Montehermosan, Chapadmalalan and Uquian. In the Paratethys area the Pliocene contains the Dacian and Romanian stages, as usual in stratigraphy, there are many other regional and local subdivisions in use. In Britain the Pliocene is divided into the stages, Gedgravian, Waltonian, Pre-Ludhamian, Ludhamian, Thurnian, Bramertonian or Antian, Pre-Pastonian or Baventian, Pastonian and Beestonian. The exact correlations between these stages and the ICS stages is still a matter of detail. The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by a shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic. Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch, the global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas. Continents continued to drift, moving from positions possibly as far as 250 km from their present locations to positions only 70 km from their current locations, africas collision with Europe formed the Mediterranean Sea, cutting off the remnants of the Tethys Ocean. The border between the Miocene and the Pliocene is also the time of the Messinian salinity crisis, Sea level changes exposed the land-bridge between Alaska and Asia. Pliocene marine rocks are exposed in the Mediterranean, India. Elsewhere, they are exposed largely near shores, the change to a cooler, dry, seasonal climate had considerable impacts on Pliocene vegetation, reducing tropical species worldwide. Deciduous forests proliferated, coniferous forests and tundra covered much of the north, tropical forests were limited to a tight band around the equator, and in addition to dry savannahs, deserts appeared in Asia and Africa
Pliocene
–
The
gastropod Oliva sayana, from the Pliocene of
Florida.
Pliocene
–
Mid-Pliocene reconstructed annual sea surface temperature anomaly
Pliocene
–
The
coral Cladocora from the Pliocene of
Cyprus.
Pliocene
–
A gastropod and attached serpulid wormtube from the Pliocene of Cyprus.
25.
Pleistocene
–
The Pleistocene is the geological epoch which lasted from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago, spanning the worlds most recent period of repeated glaciations. The end of the Pleistocene corresponds with the end of the last glacial period, the Pleistocene is the first epoch of the Quaternary Period or sixth epoch of the Cenozoic Era. In the ICS timescale, the Pleistocene is divided into four stages or ages, all of these stages were defined in southern Europe. In addition to this subdivision, various regional subdivisions are often used. Charles Lyell introduced the term pleistocene in 1839 to describe strata in Sicily that had at least 70% of their molluscan fauna still living today and this distinguished it from the older Pliocene Epoch, which Lyell had originally thought to be the youngest fossil rock layer. The Pleistocene has been dated from 2.588 million to 11,700 years before present and it covers most of the latest period of repeated glaciation, up to and including the Younger Dryas cold spell. The end of the Younger Dryas has been dated to about 9640 BC, the IUGS has yet to approve a type section, Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point, for the upper Pleistocene/Holocene boundary. The proposed section is the North Greenland Ice Core Project ice core 75°06 N 42°18 W, the lower boundary of the Pleistocene Series is formally defined magnetostratigraphically as the base of the Matuyama chronozone, isotopic stage 103. Above this point there are notable extinctions of the calcareous nanofossils, Discoaster pentaradiatus, the Pleistocene covers the recent period of repeated glaciations. The name Plio-Pleistocene has, in the past, been used to mean the last ice age. The revised definition of the Quaternary, by pushing back the date of the Pleistocene to 2.58 Ma. Pleistocene climate was marked by repeated glacial cycles in which continental glaciers pushed to the 40th parallel in some places and it is estimated that, at maximum glacial extent, 30% of the Earths surface was covered by ice. In addition, a zone of permafrost stretched southward from the edge of the sheet, a few hundred kilometres in North America. The mean annual temperature at the edge of the ice was −6 °C, during interglacial times, such as at present, drowned coastlines were common, mitigated by isostatic or other emergent motion of some regions. The effects of glaciation were global, antarctica was ice-bound throughout the Pleistocene as well as the preceding Pliocene. The Andes were covered in the south by the Patagonian ice cap, there were glaciers in New Zealand and Tasmania. The current decaying glaciers of Mount Kenya, Mount Kilimanjaro, glaciers existed in the mountains of Ethiopia and to the west in the Atlas mountains. In the northern hemisphere, many glaciers fused into one, the Cordilleran ice sheet covered the North American northwest, the east was covered by the Laurentide
Pleistocene
–
The maximum extent of
glacial ice in the north polar area during the Pleistocene period.
Pleistocene
–
Ice ages as reflected in atmospheric CO 2, stored in bubbles from glacial ice of
Antarctica.
Pleistocene
–
Pleistocene of
Northern Spain showing
woolly mammoth,
cave lions eating a
reindeer,
tarpans, and
woolly rhinoceros.
Pleistocene
–
Pleistocene of
South America showing
Megatherium and two
Glyptodon.
26.
La Oroya
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La Oroya is a city of about 33,000 people on the River Mantaro in central Peru. It is situated on the Andes some 176 km east-north-east of the capital, Lima. La Oroya is the location of an operation that earned the town a place on the Blacksmith Institutes 2007 report. Settlement at La Oroya dates to about 10,000 years BC, in 1533, the Spanish established a small settlement and started small-scale mining for precious metals in the area, but isolation and transport difficulties hindered extraction. In 1861, the settlement was named San Jeronímo de Callapampa, in 1925, La Oroya was designated the capital of the Yauli province and finally, in 1942, it was elevated to city status. Mining in the area developed gradually, and did not greatly expand until the railway from Lima to La Oroya was completed in 1893. The railway, a feat of engineering, was planned by the Polish railway builder Ernest Malinowski, and crosses the Ticlio Pass. Until the recent completion of the Qinghai-Tibet Railway it was the highest standard railway in the world. In 1993, the Peruvian government decided to privatize Centromin, in 1997,99. 97% of the La Oroya smelter was acquired by Doe Run Peru, a subsidiary of the Renco Group, for approximately US$247 million. The acquisition consisted of a contribution to Centromins Metaloroya of US$126.5 million. Doe Run Peru also bought the Cobriza copper mine for US$7.5 million to maintain concentrate supplies to the copper smelter, first to be built was the copper smelter in 1922, followed by the lead smelter in 1928 and the zinc refinery in 1952. A number of local mines produce dirty concentrates that contain metallic impurities that cannot be separated by the flotation process. Over the years, the La Oroya metallurgists have devised methods to separate and recover these metals as byproducts, La Oroya is one of few smelting operations in the world with this capability. As a result, La Oroya produces gold and silver, antimony, arsenic trioxide, bismuth, cadmium, indium, selenium, tellurium, sulfuric acid, with the acquisition of La Oroya, Doe Run inherited a complicated and partially semi-obsolescent smelter complex. The operation had suffered from disrepair, previous owners had invested little in modernization or clean operations, as a result of years of pollution, the hills immediately around the smelter became completely denuded, the river became more toxic, and the health of area inhabitants suffered. Residents have been found to have high concentrations of lead in their blood and in the drinking water. A1999 study showed high levels of air pollution, with 85 times more arsenic,41 times more cadmium, when Doe Run bought La Oroya, it took over Centromins PAMA, an environmental contract requiring environmental remediation measures. However, Doe Run Peru has been indemnified by Centromin against any environmental liability arising out of Centromins prior operations, Doe Runs original commitment to this program was US$107 million but it is now expected that it will cost at least US$244 million
La Oroya
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Rail station
Peru
