1.
Culture of Japan
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Japanese is the official and primary language of Japan. Japanese is relatively small but has a lexically distinct pitch-accent system, early Japanese is known largely on the basis of its state in the 8th century, when the three major works of Old Japanese were compiled. The earliest attestation of the Japanese language is in a Chinese document from 252 AD, Japanese is written with a combination of three scripts, hiragana, derived from the Chinese cursive script, katakana, derived as a shorthand from Chinese characters, and kanji, imported from China. The Latin alphabet, rōmaji, is often used in modern Japanese, especially for company names and logos, advertising. The Hindu-Arabic numerals are used for numbers, but traditional Sino-Japanese numerals are also very common. Early works of Japanese literature were influenced by cultural contact with China and Chinese literature. Indian literature also had an influence through the spread of Buddhism throughout Japan, eventually, Japanese literature developed into a separate style in its own right as Japanese writers began writing their own works about Japan. Since Japan reopened its ports to Western trading and diplomacy in the 19th century, Western and Eastern literature have strongly affected each other, the music of Japan includes a wide array of performers in distinct styles both traditional and modern. The word for music in Japanese is 音楽, combining the kanji 音 on with the kanji 楽 gaku. Japan is the second largest music market in the world, behind the United States, and the largest in Asia, local music often appears at karaoke venues, which is on lease from the record labels. Traditional Japanese music is different from Western Music and is based on the intervals of human breathing rather than mathematical timing. In 1873, a British traveler claimed that Japanese music, exasperates beyond all endurance the European breast. Painting has been an art in Japan for a long time, the brush is a traditional writing and painting tool. Japanese painters are often categorized by what they painted, as most of them constrained themselves solely to subjects such as animals, landscapes, Chinese papermaking was introduced to Japan around the 7th century. Later, washi was developed from it, native Japanese painting techniques are still in use today, as well as techniques adopted from continental Asia and from the West. Famous Japanese painters include Kanō Sanraku, Maruyama Ōkyo, and Tani Bunchō, the flowing, brush-drawn Japanese rendering of text itself is seen as a traditional art form as well as a means of conveying written information. The written work can consist of phrases, poems, stories, the style and format of the writing can mimic the subject matter, even to the point of texture and stroke speed. In some cases, it can take one hundred attempts to produce the desired effect of a single character
2.
Yogyakarta Sultanate
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Yogyakarta Sultanate is a Javanese monarchy in Yogyakarta Special Region, Indonesia. The current head of the Sultanate is Hamengkubuwono X, after Sultan Agung, the Sultanate of Mataram was declining due to power struggle within the sultanate. To make things worse, VOC exploited the power struggle to increase its control, at the peak of the conflict, the Mataram Sultanate was split in two based on the Treaty of Giyanti of 13 February 1755, Yogyakarta Sultanate and Surakarta Sunanate. During the era of Dutch occupation there were two principalities, the Yogyakarta Sultanate and the smaller Pakualaman Duchy / Principality, the Dutch Colonial Government arranged for the carrying out autonomous self-government, arranged under a political contract. When the Indonesian independence was proclaimed, the rulers, the Sultan of Yogyakarta, the Special Region of Yogyakarta was created after the independence war ended and legalised on 3 August 1950. In carrying out the government administration it considers three principles, decentralisation, deconcentration and assistance. The provincial government carries out the responsibilities and authorities of the central government, the Regional Government consists of the Head of the Region and the Legislative Assembly of the Region. Such construction guarantees good co-operation between the Head of Region and the Legislative Assembly of Region to achieve a sound regional government administration, the Head of the Special Region of Yogyakarta has got responsibility as the Head of the Territory and titled as a Governor. The first Governor was the late Hamengkubuwono IX, Sultan of Yogyakarta, paku Alam VIII as acting governor until Hamengkubuwono X ascended in 1998. However, in carrying out their duties, they have the same authority, the principal residence of the sultan is the kraton, sometimes called the Yogyakarta Kraton but otherwise known in formal terms Kraton Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat. List of Sunni Muslim dynasties Hamengkubuwono, including list of sultans List of monarchs of Java Kraton Yogyakarta Brotodiningrat, the Royal Palace of Yogyakarta, Its Architecture and Its Meaning, Yogyakarta, Karaton Museum Yogyakarta, OCLC12847099. Dwiyanto, Djoko, Kraton Yogyakarta, Sejarah, Nasionalisme & Teladan Perjuangan, Yogyakarta, Paradigma Indonesia, ISBN 978-979-17834-0-8
3.
Blangkon
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A blangkon or belangkon is a traditional Javanese headdress worn by men and made of batik fabric. There are 4 different types of blangkons according to their shapes and origins, Ngayogyakarta blangkons, Surakarta blangkons, Kedu blangkons, in ancient Javanese society, blangkons are believed to originate from the legendary story of Aji Saka. In the story, Aji Saka defeated Dewata Cengkar, a giant who owns the land of Java, Aji Saka was also believed to be the founder of the Javanese calendar. There are theories stating that the use of blangkon is the influence of Hindu, the first Muslims who entered Java are people from mainland Arab and Gujarati traders. Blangkons are believed to derive from turbans worn by Gujarati traders
4.
Kris
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The kris is an asymmetrical dagger with distinctive blade-patterning achieved through alternating laminations of iron and nickelous iron. The kris is famous for its wavy blade, although many have straight blades as well. A kris can be divided into three parts, blade, hilt, and sheath and these parts of the kris are objects of art, often carved in meticulous detail and made from various materials, metal, precious or rare types of wood, or gold or ivory. A kriss aesthetic value covers the dhapur, the pamor, and tangguh referring to the age, depending on the quality and historical value of the kris, it can fetch thousands of dollars or more. Both a weapon and spiritual object, kris are considered to have an essence or presence, considered to possess magical powers, with some blades possessing good luck. Legendary kris that possess supernatural power and extraordinary ability were mentioned in traditional folktales, such as those of Empu Gandring, Taming Sari, in 2005, UNESCO gave the title Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity to the kris of Indonesia. In return, UNESCO urged Indonesia to preserve their heritage, the word kris derives from the Old Javanese term ngiris which means to slice, wedge or sliver. Kris is the frequently used spelling in the West, but keris is more popular in the daggers native lands. Two notable exceptions are the Philippines, where it is usually called kalis or kris, and Thailand, Other spellings used by European colonists include cryse, crise, criss, kriss and creese. Kris history is traced through the study of carvings and bas-relief panels found in Southeast Asia. It is believed that the earliest kris prototype can be traced to Dongson bronze culture in Vietnam circa 300 BC that spread to parts of Southeast Asia. Another theory is that the kris was based on daggers from India, some of the most famous renderings of a kris appear on the bas-reliefs of Borobudur and Prambanan temple. However, Raffles study of the Candi Sukuh states that the kris recognized today came into existence around 1361 AD in the kingdom of Majapahit, East Java. The scene in bas relief of Sukuh Temple in Central Java, dated from 15th century Majapahit era, shows the workshop of a Javanese keris blacksmith. The scene depicted Bhima as the blacksmith on the forging the metal, Ganesha in the center. The wall behind the blacksmith displays various items manufactured in the forge and these representations of the kris in the Candi Sukuh established the fact that by the year 1437 the kris had already gained an important place within Javanese culture. In Yingyai Shenglan—a record about Zheng Hes expedition —Ma Huan describes that all men in Majapahit, from the king to commoners, the daggers are made entirely of steel with intricate motifs smoothly drawn. The handles are made of gold, rhinos horn or ivory carved with a depiction of human or demon and this Chinese account also reported that public execution by stabbing using this type of dagger is common
5.
Javanese people
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The Javanese are an ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Java. With approximately 100 million people, they form the largest ethnic group in Indonesia and they are predominantly located in the central to eastern parts of the island. There are also significant numbers of people of Javanese descent in most Provinces of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Suriname, Saudi Arabia, the Javanese ethnic group has many sub-groups, such as the Mataram, Cirebonese, Osing, Tenggerese, Samin, Naganese, Banyumasan, etc. A majority of the Javanese people identify themselves as Muslims, with a minority identifying as Christians, Hindu and Buddhist influences arrived through trade contacts with the Indian subcontinent. Hindu and Buddhist - traders and visitors, arrived in the 5th century, the Hindu, Buddhist and Javanese faiths blended into a unique local philosophy. The cradle of Javanese culture is described as being in Kedu. The earliest Sanjaya and Sailendra dynasties had their base there. The move was most likely caused by the eruption of Merapi and/or invasion from Srivijaya. The major spread of Javanese influence occurred under King Kertanegara of Singhasari in the late 13th century, the expansionist king launched several major expeditions to Madura, Bali in 1284, Borneo and most importantly to Sumatra in 1275. Following the defeat of the Melayu Kingdom, Singhasari controlled trade in the Strait of Malacca, Singhasari dominance was cut short in 1292 by Kediris rebellion under Jayakatwang, killing Kertanegara. However, Jayakatwangs reign as king of Java soon ended as he was defeated by Kertanegaras son-in-law, Raden Wijaya would later establish Majapahit near the delta of the Brantas River in modern-day Mojokerto, East Java. Kertanegara policies were continued by the Majapahits under King Hayam Wuruk. Various kingdoms of Java were actively involved in the trade in the sea route of the Silk Road. Although not major producers, these kingdoms were able to stockpile spice by trading for it with rice. Majapahit is usually regarded as the greatest of these kingdoms and it was both an agrarian and a maritime power, combining wet-rice cultivation and foreign trade. The ruin of their capital can be found in Trowulan, Islam gained its foothold in port towns on Javas northern coast such as Gresik, Ampel Denta, Tuban, Demak and Kudus. The spread and proselytising of Islam among the Javanese was traditionally credited to Wali Songo, Java underwent major changes as Islam spread. Following succession disputes and civil wars, Majapahit power collapsed, after this collapse, its various dependencies and vassals broke free
6.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
7.
Culture of Indonesia
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The culture of Indonesia has been shaped by long interaction between original indigenous customs and multiple foreign influences. The result is a cultural mixture very different from the original indigenous cultures. Balinese dances have stories about ancient Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms, while Islamic art forms and architecture are present in Sumatra, especially in the Minangkabau, traditional art, music and sport are combined in a martial art form called Pencak Silat. The Western world has influenced Indonesia in science, technology and modern entertainment such as shows, film and music, as well as political system. India has notably influenced Indonesian songs and movies, a popular type of song is the Indian-rhythmical dangdut, which is often mixed with Arab and Malay folk music. Despite the influences of culture, some remote Indonesian regions still preserve uniquely indigenous culture. Indigenous ethnic groups Mentawai, Asmat, Dani, Dayak, Toraja and many others are still practising their ethnic rituals, customs, Indonesia is home to with those from the islands of Java, Sumatra and Bali being frequently recorded. The traditional music of central and East Java and Bali is the gamelan, on 29 June 1965, Koes Plus, a leading Indonesian pop group in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, was imprisoned in Glodok, West Jakarta, for playing Western-style music. After the resignation of President Sukarno, the law was rescinded, Kroncong is a musical genre that uses guitars and ukulele as the main musical instruments. This genre had its roots in Portugal and was introduced by Portuguese traders in the 15th century, There is a traditional Keroncong Tugu music group in North Jakarta and other traditional Keroncong music groups in Maluku, with strong Portuguese influences. This music genre was popular in the first half of the 20th century, the soft Sasando music from the province of East Nusa Tenggara in West Timor is completely different. Sasando uses an instrument made from a leaf of the Lontar palm. Indonesian dance reflects the diversity of culture from ethnic groups that composed the nation of Indonesia, each ethnic group has their own distinct dances, makes total dances in Indonesia are more than 3000 Indonesian original dances. However, the dances of Indonesia can be divided into three eras, the Prehistoric Era, the Hindu/Buddhist Era and the Era of Islam, and into two genres, court dance and folk dance. There is a continuum in the traditional dances depicting episodes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata from India, ranging through Thailand, There is a marked difference, though, between the highly stylised dances of the courts of Yogyakarta and Surakarta and their popular variations. While the court dances are promoted and even performed internationally, the forms of dance art. During the last few years, Saman from Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam has become popular and is often portrayed on TV. Reog Ponorogo is also a dance that originated from the district Ponorogo, East Java, which is a visualisation of the legendary story Wengker kingdom and the kingdom of Kediri
8.
Central Java
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Central Java is a province of Indonesia. This province is located in the middle of Java, the province is 32,800.69 km2 in area, approximately a quarter of the total land area of Java. Its population was 33,753,023 at the 2015 Census, Central Java is also a cultural concept that includes the Special Region and city of Yogyakarta as well as the Province of Central Java. However, administratively the city and its surrounding regencies have formed a special region since Indonesian independence. Located in the middle of the island of Java, the Central Java province is bordered by West Java, a small portion of its south region is the Yogyakarta Special Region province, fully enclosed on the landward side by the Central Java province. To the north and the south, the Central Java province faces the Java Sea, Central Java includes offshore islands such as Karimun Jawa Islands in the north, and Nusakambangan in the southwest. Yogyakarta is historically and culturally part of the Central Java region, the average temperature in Central Java is between 18–28 degrees Celsius and the relative humidity varies between 73–94 percent. While a high level of humidity exists in most low-lying parts of the province, the highest average annual rainfall of 3,990 mm with 195 rainy days was recorded in Salatiga. The geography of Central Java is regular with small strips of lowlands near the northern and southern coast with mountain ranges in the centre of the region, to the west lies an active stratovolcano Mount Slamet, and further east is the Dieng Volcanic Complex on Dieng Plateau. Southeast of Dieng lies the Kedu Plain, which is bordered to the east side by the volcanoes of Mount Merapi. South of Semarang, lies Mount Ungaran, and to the north-east of the city lies Mount Muria on the most northern tip of Java, to the east near the border with East Java lies Mount Lawu, where its eastern slopes are in the East Java province. Due to its volcanic history, volcanic ash makes Central Java highly fertile agriculture land. Paddy fields are extensive, except in the southeastern Gunung Kidul region partly due to the concentration of limestone. The largest rivers are the Serayu in the west, which empties into the Indian Ocean, on the eve of the World War II in 1942, Central Java was subdivided into 7 residencies which corresponded more or less with the main regions of this area. These residencies were Banjoemas, Kedoe, Pekalongan, Semarang, and Djapara-Rembang plus the so-called Gouvernement Soerakarta, however, after the local elections in 1957 the role of these residencies were reduced until they finally disappeared. Nowadays Central Java is divided into 29 regencies and 6 cities and these contemporary regencies and cities can further be subdivided into 565 districts. These districts are subdivided into 7,804 rural communes or villages and 764 urban communes. Java has been inhabited by humans or their ancestors since prehistoric times, in Central Java and the adjacent territories in East Java remains known as Java Man were discovered in the 1890s by the Dutch anatomist and geologist Eugène Dubois
9.
Yogyakarta
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Yogyakarta is a city on Java, Indonesia. It is renowned as a center of education, classical Javanese fine art and culture such as batik, ballet, drama, music, poetry and puppet shows. Yogyakarta is the capital of the Yogyakarta Special Region and was the Indonesian capital during the Indonesian National Revolution from 1945 to 1949, one of the districts in Yogyakarta, Kotagede, was the capital of the Mataram Sultanate between 1575 and 1640. The city is named after the Indian city of Ayodhya from the Ramayana epic, yogya means suitable, fit, proper, and karta, prosperous, flourishing. While urbanization sprawls, Yogyakarta-Magelang and Surakarta are being agglomerated in a few years, according to Canggal inscription dated 732, the area traditionally known as Mataram became the capital of the Medang Kingdom, identified as Mdang i Bhumi Mataram established by King Sanjaya. Around the year 929, the centre of the kingdom was shifted to East Java by Mpu Sindok, the exact cause of the move is still uncertain, however, a severe eruption of Mount Merapi volcano or a power struggle probably caused the move. Historians suggest that, some time during the reign of King Wawa of Mataram, during the Majapahit era, the area surrounding modern Yogyakarta was identified again as Mataram and recognized as one of the twelve Majapahit provinces in Java ruled by a Duke titled Bhre Mataram. During the reign of Hayam Wuruk, the title of Bhre Mataram was held by kings nephew, Kotagede was established as the capital of the Mataram Sultanate. During the reign of Sultan Agung Hanyokrokusumo, the Sultanate Mataram reached its zenith as the greatest kingdom in Java, after two changes of capital, the capital of Mataram Sultanate moved to Kartasura. During the reign of Pakubuwono II, a war broke out in Mataram Sultanate. The civil war was fought between Prince Mangkubumi and his brother, Sunan Pakubuwono II. It started when Sunan Pakubuwono II agreed to cooperate with the VOC, ceded some Mataram territory to the Dutch and his younger brother, Prince Mangkubumi stood against the agreement due to concerns that his people would become slaves under Dutch rule. Prince Mangkubumi defeated the Pakubuwono forces and declared sovereignty in the Kingdom of Yogjakarta occupying the southern parts of the former Mataram Sultanate, the Yogyakarta Sultanate was established as a result of the Treaty of Giyanti by Prince Mangkubumi, who later ascended the throne as Sultan Hamengkubuwono I. Officially, the creation of Yogyakarta Sultanate is dated at 7 October 1756 as a result of war among the princes of The Mataram Sultanate. This civil war marked the end of the Mataram Sultanate and resulted in the birth of the Yogyakarta Sultanate, during the British occupation of Java, rumors of plans by the Javanese court to stage a rebellion caused uneasiness among the colonial authorities. On 20 June 1812, Stamford Raffles led a 1, 200-strong British force to attack the royal city, the Javanese were surprised by the attack and were easily subdued. In one day the city of Yogyakarta fell, with the city destroyed, the event completely stripped the sultanate of its remaining power and influence. The sack also left the court humiliated and fueled a rebellion which would be known as Java War, in 1942 the Japanese Empire invaded Dutch East Indies and ruled Java until they were defeated in 1945
10.
East Java
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East Java is a province of Indonesia. Its capital is Surabaya, the second largest city in Indonesia, the Dinoyo inscriptions found near the city of Malang is the oldest written sources in East Java, written in the year AD760. This inscription tells many political and cultural events in the Kingdom of Dinoyo, Malang name itself is estimated to come from the name of a sacred building called Malangkuseswara. This name is contained in at least one inscription, namely, in 1222, Ken Arok founded the Kingdom of Singhasari. He ruled the kingdom until 1292, before coming to power, Ken Arok seize power in Tumapel, Kediri from Tungul Ametung. Ken Arok dynastys descendants became kings of Singhasari and Majapahit in the 13th century until the 15th century, in 1227, Anusapati kill Ken Arok. Anusapati power only lasted 20 years, three years later, Tohjaya killed in the uprising led by Jaya Wisnuwardhana, son of Anusapati. In 1268, Wisnuwardhana died, his throne as the king of Singasari was replaced by Kertanegara, in 1292 knowledge, Kertanegara defeated by a rebel named Jayakatwang, it ended Kertanegara power, ending the history of Singhasari. In 1294, the Kingdom of Majapahit was founded, Majapahit reached its peak during the reign of Hayam Wuruk. He was accompanied by the mahapatih Gajah Mada, together they managed to unite the vast territory under the name Dwipantara. In 1357, the Bubat event occurred, the war between the King of Sunda and the Majapahit Patih Gajah Mada and this event stems from the desire to take the king Hayam Wuruk Sundanese princess named Dyah Pitaloka as queen. However, because of a misunderstanding about the procedure of marriage, Majapahit troops, under the command of Gajah Mada conquered Pajajaran in the Bubat war. This era is the beginning of the collapse of Majapahit, one of them due to their disappointment Hayam Wuruk other children, namely Wirabumi. After that period, began the spread of Islam in Java, other developments, the Europeans started coming to the archipelago and trying to build strength. In the end they implement colonialism, at the beginning of the 20th century, the royal government system was abolished, replaced by a system of residency. During the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies, there is persistent resistance against the Japanese rule, in Blitar, an uprising by PETA occurred in early 1945. The uprising was led by Supriyadi, Moeradi, Halir Mangkudijoyo, although at the end the uprising was crushed by the Japanese, the uprising is able to rekindle the spirit of rebellion for independence to the entire people of East Java. Two weeks after the proclamation of independence, Surabaya has established its own government in shape of a resident, the first resident is R. Sudirman
11.
Suriname
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Suriname, officially known as the Republic of Suriname, is a sovereign state on the northeastern Atlantic coast of South America. It is bordered by French Guiana to the east, Guyana to the west, at just under 165,000 square kilometers, it is the smallest country in South America. Suriname has a population of approximately 566,000, most of live on the countrys north coast, in and around the capital and largest city. Long inhabited by cultures of indigenous tribes, Suriname was explored and contested by European powers before coming under Dutch rule in the late 17th century. In 1954, the country one of the constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Its indigenous peoples have been active in claiming land rights and working to preserve their traditional lands. Suriname is considered to be a culturally Caribbean country, and is a member of the Caribbean Community, while Dutch is the official language of government, business, media, and education, Sranan, an English-based creole language, is a widely used lingua franca. Suriname is the territory outside Europe where Dutch is spoken by a majority of the population. The people of Suriname are among the most diverse in the world, spanning a multitude of ethnic, religious, and linguistic groups. This area was occupied by cultures of indigenous peoples long before European contact, remnants of which can be found in petroglyph sites at Werehpai. The name Suriname may derive from a Taino indigenous people called Surinen, British settlers, who founded the first European colony at Marshalls Creek along the Suriname River, spelled the name as Surinam. When the territory was taken over by the Dutch, it part of a group of colonies known as Dutch Guiana. The official spelling of the countrys English name was changed from Surinam to Suriname in January 1978, a notable example is Surinames national airline, Surinam Airways. The older English name is reflected in the English pronunciation, /ˈsʊrᵻnæm/ or /ˈsʊrᵻnɑːm/, in Dutch, the official language of Suriname, the pronunciation is, with the main stress on the third syllable and a schwa terminal vowel. Indigenous settlement of Suriname dates back to 3,000 BC, the largest tribes were the Arawak, a nomadic coastal tribe that lived from hunting and fishing. They were the first inhabitants in the area, the Carib also settled in the area and conquered the Arawak by using their superior sailing ships. They settled in Galibi at the mouth of the Marowijne River, while the larger Arawak and Carib tribes lived along the coast and savanna, smaller groups of indigenous peoples lived in the inland rainforest, such as the Akurio, Trió, Warrau, and Wayana. Beginning in the 16th century, French, Spanish, and English explorers visited the area, a century later, Dutch and English settlers established plantation colonies along the many rivers in the fertile Guiana plains
12.
Cape Malays
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Cape Malays are an ethnic group or community in South Africa. The communitys earliest members were enslaved Javanese transported by the Dutch East India Company, Malays also have significant South Asian slave ancestry. They were the group that first introduced Islam to South Africa, the Cape Malay identity can be considered the product of a set of histories and communities as much as it is a definition of an ethnic group. Also, over time, the original Indonesian slaves intermarried with other groups, including other slaves from South and Southeast Asia, Madagascar. The Cape Malay identity was also a subcategory of the Coloured category, like many South Africans, people described in some situations as Cape Malay are often the descendants of people from many continents and religions. The term Malay may have originated from the Malayo-Portuguese language that was a lingua franca in many Asian ports, the founders of this community were the first to bring Islam to South Africa. The communitys culture and traditions have left an impact that is felt to this day. The Muslim community in Cape Town remains large and vibrant and it has expanded greatly beyond those exiles who started the first mosques in South Africa. People in the Cape Malay community generally speak mostly Afrikaans but also English and they no longer speak the Malay languages and other languages which their ancestors used, although various Malay words and phrases are still employed in daily usage. Adaptations of traditional foods such as bredie, bobotie, sosaties, faldela Williams wrote three cookbooks, including The Cape Malay Cookbook, which became instrumental in preserving the cultural traditions of Cape Malay cuisine. This cultural group developed a characteristic Cape Malay music, an interesting secular folk song type, of Dutch origin, is termed the nederlandslied. The language and musical style of this reflects the history of South African slavery, it is often described and perceived as sad and emotional in content. The nederlandslied shows the influence of the Arabesque style of singing and this style is unique in South Africa, Africa and probably in the world. Cape Malay music has been of great interest to academics, historians, musicologists, writers, the well-known annual Cape Town Minstrel or Carnival street festival is a deep-rooted Cape Malay cultural event, it incorporates the Cape Malay comic song or moppie. The barrel-shaped drum, called the ghoema, is closely associated with Cape Malay music. It is estimated there are about 166,000 people in Cape Town who could be described as Cape Malay. The picturesque Malay Quarter of Cape Town is found on Signal Hill, the Claremont Road Mosque, frequented by many Cape Muslims, was an important center of anti-apartheid activity. Islamic scholar Farid Esack is from this community, connections between Malaysians and South Africans took up when South Africa rejoined the international community
13.
Malaysia
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Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government, with a population of over 30 million, Malaysia is the 44th most populous country. The southernmost point of continental Eurasia, Tanjung Piai, is in Malaysia, located in the tropics, Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth, with large numbers of endemic species. Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, the first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946, Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963 to become Malaysia, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, which plays a role in politics. About half the population is ethnically Malay, with minorities of Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indians. The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims, the government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state is the king, known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and he is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years. The head of government is the prime minister, since its independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with its GDP growing at an average of 6. 5% per annum for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce. Today, Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, ranked third largest in Southeast Asia, the name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malay and the Latin-Greek suffix -sia/-σία. The word melayu in Malay may derive from the Tamil words malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, malayadvipa was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula. Whether or not it originated from these roots, the word melayu or mlayu may have used in early Malay/Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run. This term was applied to describe the current of the river Melayu in Sumatra. The name was adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra
14.
Singapore
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Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its size by 23%. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce. Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index. Although income inequality is high, 90% of homes are owner-occupied, 38% of Singapores 5.6 million residents are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger. There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in 1824 the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations
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Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
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Sundanese people
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The Sundanese are an ethnic group native to the western part of the Indonesian island of Java. They number approximately 40 million, and are the second most populous of all the nations ethnicities, in their own language, Sundanese, the group is referred to as Urang Sunda, and Orang Sunda or Suku Sunda in the national language, Indonesian. The Sundanese have traditionally been concentrated in the provinces of West Java, Banten, Jakarta, Sundanese migrants can also be found in Lampung and South Sumatra. The provinces of Central Java and East Java are home to the Javanese, the name Sunda derives from the Sanskrit prefix su- which means goodness or possessing good quality. The example is used to describe gold. Sunda is also name for Hindu God Vishnu. In Sanskrit, the term Sundara or Sundari means beautiful or excellence, the term Sunda also means bright, light, purity, cleanness and white. The Sundanese are of Austronesian origins who are thought to have originated in Taiwan, migrated though the Philippines, the Sunda Wiwitan belief contains the mythical origin of Sundanese people, Sang Hyang Kersa, the supreme divine being in ancient Sundanese belief created seven bataras in Sasaka Pusaka Buana. The oldest of these bataras is called Batara Cikal and is considered the ancestor of the Kanekes people, other six bataras ruled various locations in Sunda lands in Western Java. This legend suggested the Parahyangan highland as the playland or the abode of gods, the earliest historical polity appeared in Sundanese realm in Western part of Java was the kingdom of Tarumanagara, flourished between 4th to 7th century. Hindu influences have reached Sundanese people as early as the 4th century CE as evident in Tarumanagara inscriptions, the adoption of these dharmic faith in Sundanese way of life however, was never as intense as their Javanese counterpart. It seems that despite the court began to adopt Hindu-Buddhist culture and institution. By the 4th century, the megalithic culture probably still alive. Court cultures flourished in ancient times, for example, during the era of Sunda Kingdom, however, the Sundanese appear not to have had the resources nor desire to construct large religious monuments similar to those built by Javanese in Central and East Java. Geographic constrains that isolate each regions, also led Sundanese village to enjoy their simple way of life and that was probably the factors that would contribute to the carefree nature, egalitarian, conservative, independent and somewhat individualistic social outlook of Sundanese people. The Sundanese seems to love and revere their nature in spiritual ways, the conservative tendency and somewhat their opposition of foreign influences, is demonstrated in extreme isolationist measures adopted keenly by Kanekes or Baduy people. They have these rules against interacting to outsiders and adopting foreign ideas, technology and they also has set some taboos, such as not to cut the trees nor harm the forest creatures, in order to conserve their natural ecosystem. One of the earliest historical record that mention the name Sunda appear in Sanghyang Tapak inscription dated 952 saka discovered in Cibadak, near Sukabumi
17.
Javanisation
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Javanisation is the process in which Javanese culture dominates, assimilates, or influences other cultures in general. The term Javanise means to make or to become Javanese in form, idiom, style and this domination could take place in various aspects, such as cultural, language, politics and social. While to others it could mean the conscious or unconscious imposition of Javanese patterns of thought and behaviour throughout Indonesia. In previous sense it is focused on thinking and practice of those in power. These foreign influences are somehow are interpreted and adopted to suit Javanese frame of reference, style, needs and social-cultural conditions. The adoption of Indian Hindu epics and cultural elements in 5th to 15th-century Java and this Javanese cultural hegemony or domination could take form in various aspects. Such as physical through the expansions and settlements of Javanese diaspora outside their homeland in Java. Javanese values harmony and social order highly, and abhorred direct conflicts and disagreements and these Javanese values were often promoted through Javanese cultural expressions, such as Javanese dance, gamelan, wayang and batik as national culture of Indonesia. It also being reinforced through adherence to Javanese adat in ceremonies, such as Slametan, Satu Suro, Javanese wedding, in the language aspect, such as the using of Javanese terms, idioms, and vocabularies outside of traditional Javanese language realm. For example, today it is commons for Indonesians to use Javanese terms to address people across Indonesia, in social and politics, the examples of perceived Javanisation such as numbers of Indonesian Presidents are always Javanese. Also the alleged Javanese political dominance in government administrations, civil service, military and police, in its early stages, Javanese culture was heavily influenced by Indian Hindu-Buddhist civilisation. The process of adopting Hindu influences is describes as the Sanskritisation of Java, the blossoming of Javanese classical literature for example are the composing of Kakawin Ramayana and Arjunawiwaha. In early classical period, during Eastern Java Medang kingdom in 10th-century, East Javanese princess Mahendradatta become the queen consort of King Udayana Warmadewa of Bali, signify the Javanese increasing influences upon Bali. During the reign of Airlangga, Bali pretty much become parts of East Javanese Hindu kingdom realm, in 1200 CE, Mpu Jatmika from Java established the Hindu Kingdom of Negara Dipa by the river of Tapin, this was the start of the Javanese-style courts in South Kalimantan. Followed by the expansion of Majapahit empire circa 14th-century, the archipelago saw again the Javanese expansion and it was during this era that the town Banjarmasin in South Kalimantan and Sukadana in West Kalimantan has been established as Javanese colony as the vassal of Majapahit. In 1400 CE, Negara Dipa was succeeded by the Hindu Kingdom of Negara Daha, the Javanese influences can be seen on Banjar people art, culture, and costumes that demonstrated Javanese styles. It was also during the last period of Majapahit in the 15th century that the native Austronesian elements of pre Hindu-Javanese style are revived, as demonstrated in Sukuh and Cetho temples. The stiffer wayang style figures of statues and bas reliefs, and this reverse of Indianized process is also called the Javanisation of Hindu-Buddhist prototypes in Javanese art
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Ramayana
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The Ramayana is an ancient Indian epic poem which narrates the struggle of the divine prince Rama to rescue his wife Sita from the demon king Ravana. Along with the Mahabharata, it forms the Sanskrit Itihasa, the Ramayana is one of the largest ancient epics in world literature. It consists of nearly 24,000 verses, divided into seven Kandas, in Hindu tradition, it is considered to be the adi-kavya. It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying characters like the ideal father, the ideal servant, the ideal brother, the ideal wife. The Ramayana was an important influence on later Sanskrit poetry and Hindu life, like the Mahabharata, the Ramayana is not just a story, it presents the teachings of ancient Hindu sages in narrative allegory, interspersing philosophical and ethical elements. The name Ramayana is a compound of the name Rāma and ayana. According to Hindu tradition—and according to the Ramayana itself—the epic belongs to the genre of itihasa like Mahabharata, the definition of itihāsa is a narrative of past events which includes teachings on the goals of human life. According to Hindu tradition, Ramayana takes place during a period of known as Treta Yuga. In its extant form, Valmikis Ramayana is a poem of some 24,000 verses. The text survives in several thousand partial and complete manuscripts, the oldest of which is a manuscript found in Nepal. A Times of India report dated 18 December 2015 informs about discovery of a 6th-century manuscript of the Ramayana at the Asiatic Society library, the Ramayana text has several regional renderings, recensions and subrecensions. Goldman differentiates two major regional recensions, the northern and the southern, scholar Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that the Ramayana, like the Mahabharata, is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind. There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last chapters of Valmikis Ramayana were composed by the original author. Most Hindus still believe they are parts of the book, in spite of some style differences. Some cultural evidence, such as the presence of sati in Mahabharata but not in the body of Ramayana. By tradition, the text belongs to the Treta Yuga, second of the four eons of Hindu chronology, Rama is said to have been born in the Treta yuga to king Dasharatha in the Ikshvaku dynasty. The names of the characters are all known in late Vedic literature, however, nowhere in the surviving Vedic poetry is there a story similar to the Ramayana of Valmiki. Also, in the epic Mahabharata, there is a version of Ramayana known as Ramopakhyana and this version is depicted as a narration to Yudhishthira
19.
Mahabharata
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The Mahābhārata is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Rāmāyaṇa. The Mahābhārata is a narrative of the Kurukṣetra War and the fates of the Kaurava. It also contains philosophical and devotional material, such as a discussion of the four goals of life or puruṣārtha, traditionally, the authorship of the Mahābhārata is attributed to Vyāsa. There have been attempts to unravel its historical growth and compositional layers. The oldest preserved parts of the text are thought to be not much older than around 400 BCE, the text probably reached its final form by the early Gupta period. The title may be translated as the tale of the Bhārata dynasty. According to the Mahābhārata itself, the tale is extended from a version of 24,000 verses called simply Bhārata. The Mahābhārata is the longest known epic poem and has described as the longest poem ever written. Its longest version consists of over 100,000 śloka or over 200,000 individual verse lines, and long prose passages. About 1.8 million words in total, the Mahābhārata is roughly ten times the length of the Iliad and the Odyssey combined, or about four times the length of the Rāmāyaṇa. W. J. Johnson has compared the importance of the Mahābhārata in the context of civilization to that of the Bible, the works of Shakespeare. The epic is traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyāsa, who is also a character in the epic. Vyāsa described it as being itihāsa and he also describes the Guru-shishya parampara, which traces all great teachers and their students of the Vedic times. The first section of the Mahābhārata states that it was Gaṇeśa who wrote down the text to Vyasas dictation, the epic employs the story within a story structure, otherwise known as frametales, popular in many Indian religious and non-religious works. It is recited by the sage Vaiśampāyana, a disciple of Vyāsa, the text has been described by some early 20th-century western Indologists as unstructured and chaotic. Hermann Oldenberg supposed that the poem must once have carried an immense tragic force. Moritz Winternitz considered that only unpoetical theologists and clumsy scribes could have lumped the parts of disparate origin into an unordered whole, Research on the Mahābhārata has put an enormous effort into recognizing and dating layers within the text. Some elements of the present Mahābhārata can be traced back to Vedic times, the background to the Mahābhārata suggests the origin of the epic occurs after the very early Vedic period and before the first Indian empire was to rise in the third century B. C
20.
Medang Kingdom
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The Medang or Mataram Kingdom was a Javanese Hindu–Buddhist kingdom that flourished between the 8th and 10th centuries. It was based in Central Java, and later in East Java, established by King Sanjaya, the kingdom was ruled by the Sailendra dynasty. During most of its history, the kingdom seems to rely heavily on agricultural pursuit, especially extensive rice farming, according to foreign sources and archaeological findings, the kingdom seems to be well populated and quite prosperous. The kingdom had developed a society, they had a well developed culture and had achieved a degree of sophistication. The most notable temples constructed in Medang Mataram are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur, by 850, the kingdom had become the dominant power in Java and later of its history, was a serious rival to the hegemonic Srivijaya Empire. This has spurred the archaeological studies to uncover the history of this ancient civilisation, the history of Mataram area as the capital of the Central Javanese Medang kingdom is also part of the historical Yawadvipa or Bhumijava, and the classical Javanese civilisation. The native Javanese most often refer to their lands and country simply as Jawi, the only foreign source mentioning Medang was found from the Philippines inscription, dated 822 saka. There are no written records that have survived in Java except numbers of prasasti written on stones or copper plates. These inscriptions most often recorded the political and religious deeds of the rulers, nevertheless, some local legends and historical records, written on lontar — most often dated from later period — might also provides data and source to reconstruct the historical event. The kingdom is mentioned in the myth of Dewi Sri and also Aji Saka and this is probably the remnant of native Javanese vague collective memory of the existence of an ancient kingdom called Medang. Stone inscriptions, most common are mentioning about the foundation and funding of temples, which report on the political and religious deeds of the kings, or stating their lineage. The most notable are the Canggal, Kalasan, Shivagrha and Balitung charter, bas reliefs in a series of temple walls with depictions of life in the palace, village, temple, ship, marketplace and also the everyday lives of the population. The most notable are the bas reliefs found on Borobudur and Prambanan temple, native manuscripts, mentioning about the story of kings, their deeds and exploits, that somehow corrugated with accounts mentioned in stone inscriptions. The notable example is the Carita Parahyangan, reports and chronicles of foreign diplomats, traders and travellers, mainly from Chinese, Indian, and Arab sources. Initially, the kingdom was identified only through its location Yawadvipa as mentioned in Canggal inscription, the inscription mentioned Rakai Mataram Sang Ratu Sanjaya. This is based on the locations where numbers of candi were discovered in. The etymology of the name Mataram derived from a Sanskrit term for mother, the name Medang appear later in East Javanese inscriptions such as Anjukladang inscription and Minto Stone, Paradah inscription and some inscriptions discovered in Surabaya. As the result, historians tends to identify the Eastern Java period of this kingdom as Medang to differ it with its earlier Central Java period of Mataram
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Kediri Kingdom
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Kediri or Kadiri was a Hindu Javanese Kingdom based in East Java from 1042 to around 1222. Despite the lack of remains, the age of Kediri saw much development in classical literature. Mpu Sedahs Kakawin Bharatayuddha, Mpu Panuluhs Gatotkacasraya, and Mpu Dharmajas Smaradhana blossomed in this era, the kingdoms capital is believed to had been established in the western part of the Brantas River valley, somewhere near modern Kediri city and surrounding Kediri Regency. The name Kediri or Kadiri derived from Sanskrit word Khadri which means Indian Mulberry, the bark of morinda produces a brownish-purplish dye for batik-making, while its fruit have medicinal values. Similar named city also known, Kadiri in Andhra Pradesh, India, the kingdom was also known as Panjalu as the twin kingdom with Jenggala. During the reign of Jayakatwang that revived the short-lived second dynasty of Kadiri, other than Kadiri, the kingdom was also often referred to as Daha or Dahana, after its capital. The name Daha was used in later Majapahit period, as the seat of court of Trowulan. The Kingdom of Kediri is the successor of Airlanggas Kahuripan kingdom, in 1045, Airlangga divided his kingdom of Kahuripan into two, Janggala and Panjalu, and abdicated in favour of his sons to live as an ascetic. The first king of Kediri to leave historical records was Çri Jayawarşa Digjaya Çāstaprabhu, in his inscription dated 1104, like Airlangga, he claimed himself to be the incarnation or Avatar of Vishnu. His formal stylised name was Çri Maharaja Rake Sirikan çri Kameçvara Sakalabhuwanatustikarana Sarwaniwaryyawiryya Parakrama Digjayottunggadewa, the Lanchana of his reign was a skull with a crescent moon called chandrakapala, the symbol of Shiva. During his reign, Mpu Dharmaja wrote Smaradhana, in which the king was adored as the incarnation of Kamajaya, the god of love, kameçvaras wife, Çri Kirana, was celebrated as the incarnation of Kamaratih, goddess of love and passion. The tales of this story, known as Panji cycle, spread throughout Southeast Asia as far as Siam and his formal stylised name was Çri Maharaja çri Dharmmeçwara Madhusudanawataranindita Suhrtsingha Parakrama Digjayottunggadewa. The Lanchana of his reign was Narasingha, the name Jayabhaya was immortalised in Sedahs Kakawin Bharatayuddha, a Javanese version of the Mahabharata, written in 1157. This Kakawin was perfected by his brother, Mpu Panuluh, Mpu Panuluh wrote Hariwangsa and Gatotkacasraya. Jayabhayas reign was considered the age of Old Javanese literature. The Prelambang Joyoboyo, a prophetic book ascribed to Jayabhaya, is known among Javanese. It predicted that the archipelago would be ruled by a race for a long time, then a yellow race for a short time. The Jayabhaya prophecies mention Ratu Adil, the Just Prince, a popular figure in Javanese folklore
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Smaradahana
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Smaradahana is an old Javanese poem written by Mpu Dharmaja as a eulogy for King Kameçvara of Kediri in early 12th century East Java. The story tells about the disappearance of Kamajaya and Kamaratih from Svargaloka because being burnt by the fire burst out from the eye of Shiva. They fell upon the earth wondered and incarnated as human beings, Smaradahana is a sanskrit word from smara and dahana. Dhana itself can be translated as thirst or yearning, also as dahana, Smaradhana can be translated as the fire of love that burnt lovers hearts which put them to yearn for their lover, suffering the thirst or hunger for love. The theme Smaradhana inspires many art and literature such as stories, poems. The story begin when the goddess Parvati was feeling lonely and she is missing and longing for her husband Lord Shiva, which at that time was meditating somewhere on a sacred mountain top. Then she send Kamadeva, a love god known in ancient Java as Kamajaya to search for Shiva. His task is to inspired love in Shivas heart, to make him yearning for his wife, using the bow and arrow of love tipped with flower, Kamajaya shot the meditating Shiva. Suddenly Shiva felt the desire to see his wife and his heart is felt with memory of the past love-making with Parvati, so he promptly stop his meditation. However, when Shiva opened his eyes, he catch the glances of Kamajaya hiding behind the rock, angered by the fact that Kamajaya, the lesser god, had dared to disturb his meditation, fire burst out from his third eye and burnt Kamajaya down to ashes. Kamajayas wife, goddess Rati or known in ancient Java as Kamaratih, out of her love, devotion and loyalty and they both burn out and disappeared from svargaloka, vanished from the realm of gods. The spirits of the couple, the divine lovers Kamajaya and Kamaratih, Mpu Dharmaja wrote Smaradahana during the reign of Kameçvara, the second king of Kediri during the second quarter of 12th century. It is strongly suggested that the poem was also Dharmajas eulogy for the king, the tradition celebrated Kameçvara as a strikingly handsome man, while his queen consort, Çri Kirana is famous for her extraordinary beauty. The king was adored as the incarnation of Kamajaya, the god of love, kameçvaras wife, Çri Kirana, was celebrated as the incarnation of Kamaratih, goddess of love and passion. The Panji tales spread throughout Southeast Asia as far as Malaya, Siam and Cambodia
23.
Panji (prince)
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Panji was a legendary prince in East Java, Indonesia. His life formed the basis of a cycle of Javanese stories, that, along with the Ramayana and Mahabharata, are the basis of various poems, Panji tales have been the inspiration of Indonesian traditional dances, most notably the topeng dances of Cirebon and Malang. Especially in the environs of Kediri, the homeland of the tales of Panji. Panji tales have spread from East Java to be a source for literature and drama throughout Malaya, a region that includes modern-day Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand. Panji is also found as the name of a prince of the monarchy in Tabanan, ruled by Shri Arya Kenceng in 1414 In Thailand, he is called Inao or Enau or Enau Kurepan, Panji is the prince of the Kuripan or Janggala. He is usually depicted in an unadorned helmet-like rounded cap, the mask for Panji has a smooth white or green face, narrow, elongated eyes, a straight and pointed nose, and delicate, half-open lips. Panji is engaged to be married to Candra Kirana, the princess of Daha, later in the story, she is sometimes called Kuda Narawangsa when she appears disguised as a man. Panjis principal adversary is Klono, a king who desires Candra Kirana. Other common characters are Gunung Sari, Ragil Kuning or Dewi Onengan, Wirun, Kartala, there are differing versions and episodes of the overall Panji story. In one version, The main story of Panji tells of the romance between Prince Panji and Princess Kirana, and Panjis search for his long lost bride, the kakawin Smaradhana originally was the work of the poet Mpu Dharmaja in early 12th century. However, it was incorporated as a prelude to the Panji tales. This story tells about the disappearance of Kamajaya and his wife, the spirits of Kamajaya and Kamaratih fell upon the earth and were incarnated several times as mortal human beings. The main characters of Panji cyle are Prince Panji and Princess Kirana, the following are several episodes of the compilation of Panji stories, The tale of Chandra Kirana is a tragic love story, the prequel to the main Panji story. The story begins with the marriage of Prince Panji Asmoro Bangun to Princess Chandra Kirana from the twin neighboring kingdoms of Kediri. The dynastic marriage was meant as a means of an agreement to reunite the two warring factions of the once great kingdom under one dynasty again. During his youth, the prince of Jenggala loved to travel the country, visit ashrams and hermitages and learn from various wise Brahmins, during his stay in one of the remote hermitages, the prince fell in love with a beautiful commoner girl, Dewi Anggraeni. The prince married Anggraeni and took her home to the palace in the city of Jenggala. The marriage of a prince with the girl caused an uproar in the royal courts of both Jenggala and Kediri
24.
Ken Dedes
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Ken Dedes, first queen of Singhasari, was the consort of Ken Arok, the first ruler of Singhasari, Java, Indonesia. She was later considered as the origin of the lineage of kings that rule Java, the mother of the Rajasa dynasty. Local tradition also mentioned her as a woman of extraordinary beauty, most of the record of her life comes from the account of Pararaton, which is a mixed historical account including fictional supranatural tales and stories. She was the daughter of a Buddhist monk, Mpu Purwa, according to tradition, Ken Dedes exceptional and extraordinary beauty was famous throughout the land and attracted Tunggul Ametung, the ruler of Tumapel who later took her as his wife. According to local tradition, Ken Dedes was kidnapped while her father was away meditating and her father cursed Tunggul Ametung, saying he would be killed because of Ken Dedes beauty. The curse became reality when Ken Arok succeeded in assassinating Tunggul Ametung, according to Pararaton and local tradition, Ken Aroks usurpation of Tunggul Ametung was caused by Ken Dedes exceptional beauty and charisma. The story goes that Ken Arok happened to be standing close to where the carriage came to halt. When Ken Dedes clothes accidentally parted, Ken Arok caught sight of her legs and thighs. A Brahmin, Lohgawe, told Ken Arok that this radiance was the sign that Ken Dedes bears the divine quality and would be the bearer of kings. The beauty of Ken Dedes was said to have been so perfect that whoever married her, regardless of his status, by this, Ken Arok was motivated to murder and usurped Tunggul Ametung. Ken Arok later launched a campaign and succeeded to defeat Kertajaya, king of Kediri, Ken Dedes became his wife, the first queen of Singhasari. Anusapati, Ken Dedess son from Tunggul Ametung, her first husband, murdered Ken Arok and became the second ruler of Singhasari
25.
Majapahit
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The Majapahit Empire was a vast thalassocracy based on the island of Java from 1293 to around 1500. Majapahit reached its peak of glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk and his achievement is also credited to his prime minister, Gajah Mada. Its influence extended beyond the territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies. The name Majapahit derives from local Javanese, meaning bitter maja, german orientalist Berthold Laufer suggested that maja came from the Javanese name of Aegle marmelos, an Indonesian tree. The name originally referred to the area in and around Trowulan, the cradle of Majapahit and it was said that the workers clearing the Tarik timberland encountered some bael trees and consumed its bitter-tasting fruit that subsequently become the villages name. In ancient Java it is common to refer the kingdom with its capitals name, Majapahit is also known by other names, Wilwatikta, although sometimes the natives refer to their kingdom as Bhumi Jawa or Mandala Jawa instead. Little physical evidence of Majapahit remains, and some details of the history are rather abstract, nevertheless, local Javanese people did not forget Majapahit completely, as Mojopait is mentioned vaguely in Babad Tanah Jawi, a Javanese chronicle composed in the 18th century. Majapahit did produce physical evidence, the ruins dating from the Majapahit period are clustered in the Trowulan area. The Trowulan archaeological site was discovered in the 19th century by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles and he reported the existence of ruins of temples. Scattered about the country for miles, and referred to Trowulan as this pride of Java. By the early 20th century, Dutch colonial historians began to study old Javanese and Balinese literature to explore the past of their colony, two primary sources were available to them, the Pararaton manuscript was written in the Kawi language c. 1600, and Nagarakretagama was composed in Old Javanese in 1365, Pararaton focuses on Ken Arok, the founder of Singhasari, but includes a number of shorter narrative fragments about the formation of Majapahit. The Nagarakretagama is an old Javanese epic poem written during the Majapahit golden age under the reign of Hayam Wuruk, the Dutch acquired the manuscript in 1894 during their military expedition against the Cakranegara royal house of Lombok. There are also inscriptions in Old Javanese and Chinese. The Javanese sources incorporate some poetic mythological elements, and scholars such as C. C, berg, an Indonesia-born Dutch naturalist, have considered the entire historical record to be not a record of the past, but a supernatural means by which the future can be determined. Most scholars do not accept this view, as the record corresponds with Chinese materials that could not have had similar intention. The list of rulers and details of the structure show no sign of being invented. The Chinese historical sources on Majapahit, mainly owed to Zheng Hes account — a Ming Dynasty admiral reports during his visit to Majapahit, Zheng Hes translator Ma Huan wrote a detailed description of Majapahit and where the king of Java lived
26.
Nagarakretagama
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The Nagarakretagama or Nagarakrtagama, also known as Desawarnana, is an Old Javanese eulogy to Hayam Wuruk, a Javanese king of the Majapahit Empire. It was written on lontar as a kakawin by Mpu Prapanca in 1365, the Nagarakretagama contains detailed descriptions of the Majapahit Empire during its greatest extent. The poem affirms the importance of Hindu–Buddhism in the Majapahit empire by describing temples and palaces, in 1894, the Dutch East Indies launched a military expedition against the Cakranegara royal house of Lombok. That year, the Dutch took the manuscript as part of the valuable Lombok treasure, the first western scholar to study the manuscript was J. L. A. Brandes, a Dutch philologist. He accompanied the KNIL expedition to Lombok in 1894, and is credited with saving the valuable collection of the Lombok royal library from being burnt in the chaos of the battle. A generation of Dutch scholars participated in translating the poem, much of its historical value was due to its having been the product of priestly activities directed at enhancing the magical powers of the ruler at the time. The manuscript is written on lontar leaves and it was held in the library of Leiden University in the Netherlands, with inventory code number L Or 5.023. After its translation in the early 20th century, the Nagarakretagama became an inspiration and foundation of the Indonesian independence movement, in 1973 during the state visit of Queen Juliana to Indonesia, she returned the manuscript to Indonesia. Today it is held by the National Library of Indonesia, with inventory code number NB9, in May 2008 UNESCO recognised the significance of the Nagarakretagama by naming it The Memory of the World - Regional Register for Asia/Pacific, and finally registered it in 2013. Historians have examined the poem for what it reveals of political history, in the canto 13 to 14, the poet Prapanca named several states within todays Indonesian borders. This suggested that those areas were within Majapahit spheres of influence, Prapanca said the states were subsumed by Majapahit or were vassal states. In Canto 13, several lands on Sumatra are mentioned, and some possibly correspond to areas, Jambi, Palembang, Teba. Also mentioned are Kandis, Kahwas, Minangkabau, Siak, Rokan, Kampar and Pane, Kampe, Haru, tamiyang, negara Perlak and Padang Lawas, are noted in the west, together with Samudra and Lamuri, Batan, Lampung, and Barus. Also listed are the states of Tanjungnegara, Kapuas Katingan, Sampit, Kota Lingga, Kota Waringin, Sambas, and Lawas. In Canto 14 more lands are noted, Kadandangan, Landa, Samadang, Tirem, Sedu, Barune, Kalka, Saludung, Solot, Pasir, Barito, Sawaku, Tabalung, in Hujung Medini, Pahang is mentioned first. Next Langkasuka, Saimwang, Kelantan and Trengganu, Johor, Paka, Muar, Dungun, Tumasik, Kelang and Kedah, Jerai, Kanjapiniran, also in Canto 14 are territories east of Java, Badahulu and Lo Gajah. Gurun and Sukun, Taliwang, Sapi and Dompo, Sang Hyang Api, together with prosperous Sasak are already ruled. Also mentioned are Makassar, Buton, Banggai, Kunir, Galiao with Selayar, Sumba, Solot, also Wanda, Ambon or Maluku islands, Kai-islands, Wanin, Seran, Timor and other islands
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Kakawin Sutasoma
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Kakawin Sutasoma is an Old Javanese poem in poetic metres. It is the source of the motto of Indonesia, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika and it is not without reason that the motto was taken from this kakawin as the kakawin teaches religious tolerance, specifically between the Hindu and Buddhist religions. The Kakawin tells the story of Lord Sutasoma, and was written by Mpu Tantular in the 14th Century. Buddha-to-be was reincarnated as Sutasoma, the son of the King of Hastinapura, as an adult, he was very pious and devout, and did not wish to be married and crowned king. So one night, Sutasoma fled from Hastinapura, when Sutasomas absence was discovered, the palace was in tumult and the King and Queen were very sad, and were consoled by many people. When he arrived in the forest, the noble Lord Sutasoma prayed in a shrine, the Goddess Widyukarali appeared before him and told him that his prayers had been heard and would be granted. Lord Sutasoma then climbed into the Himalaya mountains in the company of holy men. When they arrived at a hermitage, he was told a story of a king who had been reincarnated as a demon who liked eating humans. The story was there was once a king called Purusada or Kalmasapada. One day all the meat that had set aside for the consumption of the king was eaten by dogs and pigs. The chef was concerned, and hurriedly sought out alternatives, in desperation he went to a graveyard and cut off the leg of one of the corpses and prepared it for his king. Because he had been reincarnated as a demon, he had found the very tasty. The chef admitted that the meat had been from a human, and from that moment on, soon there were no people left in his kingdom, either he had eaten his subjects, or they had fled. Soon the king suffered a wound in his leg which wouldnt heal, by the time of Sutasomas visit to the hermitage, the king had sworn that he would make an offering of 100 kings to the God Kala if he would cure him of his illness. The holy men begged Sutasoma to kill this demonic king, even the Goddess Prithvi beseeched him to kill the king, but he was adamant he would not do it, as he wished to live the life of an ascetic. One day in the middle of the road he met a Ganesh demon with a head who preyed upon humans. Sutasoma nearly became his victim, but he fought the beast and it felt like Satusoma had tried to strike a mountain. The demon surrendered and received a sermon from Sutasoma about the Buddhist religion, afterwards, the demon became Sutasomos disciple
28.
Motto
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A motto is a maxim, a phrase meant to formally summarize the general motivation or intention of an individual, family, social group or organization. A motto may be in any language, but Latin has been widely used, especially in the Western world. In heraldry, a motto is depicted below the shield in a banderole, this placement stems from the Middle Ages, in which the vast majority of nobles possessed a coat of arms. In the case of Scottish heraldry it is mandated to appear above the crest, spanish coats of arms may display a motto in the bordure of the shield. In heraldic literature, the rallying cry respectively battle banner are also common, which date back to the battle cry. In English heraldry mottos are not granted with armorial bearings, in Scottish heraldry, mottos can only be changed by re-matriculation, with the Lord Lyon King of Arms. Although very unusual and perhaps outside standard heraldic practice, there are examples of the particular appearance of the motto scroll. Ships and submarines in the Royal Navy each have a badge and motto, Latin has been very common for mottos, but for nation states their official language is generally chosen. A canting motto is one that contains word play, for example, the motto of the Earl of Onslow is Festina lente, punningly interpreting on-slow. In literature, a motto is a sentence, phrase, poem, or word prefixed to an essay, chapter, novel and it is a short, suggestive expression of a guiding principle for the written material that follows. For example, Robert Louis Stevensons Travels with a Donkey in the Cévennes uses mottos at the start of each section, epigram Hendiatris Inscription List of Latin phrases List of mottos List of national mottos Slogan Tagline United in diversity United we stand, divided we fall
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Bhinneka Tunggal Ika
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Bhinneka Tunggal Ika is the official national motto of Indonesia. The phrase is Old Javanese translated as Unity in Diversity and it is inscribed in the Indonesian national symbol, Garuda Pancasila, and is mentioned specifically in article 36A of the Constitution of Indonesia. The Garuda is a bird and the mount of Lord Vishnu. Kakawin contains epic poems written in metres and this poem is notable as it promotes tolerance between Hindus and Buddhists. The motto of Indonesia is somewhat mistaken as Indias national motto and this quotation comes from canto 139, stanza 5. The full stanza reads as follows, This translation is based, with minor adaptations, E pluribus unum Motto of the European Union
30.
Hinduism
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Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents
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Buddhism
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Buddhism is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, from where it spread through much of Asia, two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars, Theravada and Mahayana. Buddhism is the worlds fourth-largest religion, with over 500 million followers or 7% of the global population, Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices. In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path, thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering. Theravada has a following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India, is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body. Buddhism is an Indian religion attributed to the teachings of Buddha, the details of Buddhas life are mentioned in many early Buddhist texts but are inconsistent, his social background and life details are difficult to prove, the precise dates uncertain. Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a king named Suddhodana, his mother queen Maya, and he was born in Lumbini gardens. Some of the stories about Buddha, his life, his teachings, Buddha was moved by the innate suffering of humanity. He meditated on this alone for a period of time, in various ways including asceticism, on the nature of suffering. He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree now called the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya in Gangetic plains region of South Asia. He reached enlightenment, discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way, as an enlightened being, he attracted followers and founded a Sangha. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his teaching the Dharma he had discovered. Dukkha is a concept of Buddhism and part of its Four Noble Truths doctrine. It can be translated as incapable of satisfying, the unsatisfactory nature, the Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism, we crave and cling to impermanent states and things, which is dukkha, incapable of satisfying and painful. This keeps us caught in saṃsāra, the cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha
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Babad Tanah Jawi
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Babad Tanah Jawi, is a generic title for a large number of manuscripts written in Javanese language. Their arrangements and details vary, and no copies of any of the manuscripts are older than the eighteenth century, although most of the manuscripts accept the convention of nine saints, a number list ten. C. A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300, 2nd Edition, Hans Ras, The Babad Tanah Jawi and its reliability. Questions of content, structure and function, robson, Cultural contact and textual interpretation. Papers from the Fourth European Colloquium on Malay and Indonesian Studies, held in Leiden in 1983 Hans Ras, origin and function of the Javanese court chronicle
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Diponegoro
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Diponegoro, also known as Dipanegara, was a Javanese prince who opposed the Dutch colonial rule. He played an important role in the Java War, in 1830, the Dutch exiled him to Makassar. Diponegoro was born on 11 November 1785 in Yogyakarta, and was the eldest son of Sultan Hamengkubuwono III of Yogyakarta. When the sultan died in 1814, Diponegoro was passed over for the succession to the throne in favor of his half brother, Hamengkubuwono IV. Being a devout Muslim, Diponegoro was alarmed by the relaxing of religious observance at his brothers court. In 1821, famine and plague spread in Java, Hamengkubuwono IV died, leaving only an infant son as heir. When the year-old boy was appointed as Sultan Hamengkubuwono V, there was a dispute over his guardianship, Diponegoro was again passed over, though he believed he had been promised the right to succeed his half brother. This series of disasters and political upheavals finally erupted into full-scale rebellion. Dipenogoro was widely believed to be the Ratu Adil, the Just Ruler predicted in the Pralembang Jayabaya, the beginning of the war saw large losses on the side of the Dutch, due to their lack of coherent strategy and commitment in fighting Diponegoros guerrilla warfare. Ambushes were set up, and food supplies were denied to the Dutch troops, the Dutch finally committed themselves to controlling the spreading rebellion by increasing the number of troops and sending General De Kock to stop the insurgency. De Kock developed a strategy of fortified camps and mobile forces, heavily-fortified and well-defended soldiers occupied key landmarks to limit the movement of Diponegoros troops while mobile forces tried to find and fight the rebels. From 1829, Diponegoro definitively lost the initiative and he was put in a position, first in Ungaran, then in the palace of the Resident in Semarang. Many troops and leaders were defeated or deserted, in 1830 Diponegoros military was as good as beaten and negotiations were started. Diponegoro demanded to have a state under a sultan and wanted to become the Muslim leader for the whole of Java. In March 1830 he was invited to negotiate under a flag of truce and he accepted but was taken prisoner on 28 March despite the flag of truce. De Kock claims that he had warned several Javanese nobles to tell Diponegoro he had to lessen his previous demands or that he would be forced to other measures. The Dutch exiled him to Makassar, today Diponegoro is a National Hero of Indonesia, and Kodam IV/Diponegoro, the Central Java Military Region, is named after him. The Indonesian Navy has named two ships after him, the first of these was the lead ship Diponegoro, a corvette purchased from the Netherlands
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Java
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Java is an island of Indonesia. With a population of over 141 million or 145 million as of 2015 Census released in December 2015, the Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is located on western Java. Much of Indonesian history took place on Java and it was the center of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies. Java was also the center of the Indonesian struggle for independence during the 1930s and 1940s, Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally. Formed mostly as the result of eruptions, Java is the 13th largest island in the world. A chain of mountains forms an east–west spine along the island. Three main languages are spoken on the island, Javanese, Sundanese, of these, Javanese is the dominant, it is the native language of about 60 million people in Indonesia, most of whom live on Java. Furthermore, most residents are bilingual, speaking Indonesian as their first or second language, while the majority of the people of Java are Muslim, Java has a diverse mixture of religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures. Java is divided into four provinces, West Java, Central Java, East Java, and Banten, the origins of the name Java are not clear. One possibility is that the island was named after the plant, which was said to be common in the island during the time. There are other sources, the word jaú and its variations mean beyond or distant. And, in Sanskrit yava means barley, a plant for which the island was famous, Yawadvipa is mentioned in Indias earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief of Ramas army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa and it was hence referred to in India by the Sanskrit name yāvaka dvīpa. Java is mentioned in the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai by Chithalai Chathanar that states that Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram, another source states that the Java word is derived from a Proto-Austronesian root word, Iawa that meaning home. The great island of Iabadiu or Jabadiu was mentioned in Ptolemys Geographia composed around 150 CE Roman Empire, Iabadiu is said to mean barley island, to be rich in gold, and have a silver town called Argyra at the west end. The name indicate Java, and seems to be derived from Hindu name Java-dvipa, Java lies between Sumatra to the west and Bali to the east. Borneo lies to the north and Christmas Island is to the south and it is the worlds 13th largest island. Java is surrounded by the Java Sea to the north, Sunda Strait to the west, Java is almost entirely of volcanic origin, it contains thirty-eight mountains forming an east–west spine that have at one time or another been active volcanoes
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Religion in Indonesia
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Indonesia is constitutionally a secular state and the first principle of Indonesias philosophical foundation, Pancasila, is belief in the one and only God. A number of different religions are practised in the country, and their influence on the countrys political, economic. The Indonesian Constitution guarantees freedom of religion, the government recognises only six official religions. Although based on data collected by the Indonesian Conference on Religion and Peace, Indonesian law requires that every Indonesian citizen hold an identity card that identifies that person with one of these six religions, although citizens may be able to leave that section blank. Indonesia does not recognise agnosticism or atheism, and blasphemy is illegal, historically, immigration from India, China, Portugal, Arabia, and the Netherlands has been a major contributor to the diversity of religion and culture within the country. However, these aspects have changed since some modifications have made to suit the Indonesian culture. These religions were brought to Indonesia around the 2nd and 4th centuries, respectively, Hinduism of Shaivite traditions started to develop in Java in the fifth century AD. The worlds largest Buddhist monument, Borobudur, was built by the Kingdom of Sailendra and around the same time, the peak of Hindu-Javanese civilisation was the Majapahit Empire in the fourteenth century, described as a golden age in Indonesian history. Islam was introduced to Indonesia in the fourteenth century, coming from Gujarat, India, Islam spread through the west coast of Sumatra and then developed to the east in Java. This period also saw kingdoms established but this time with Muslim influence, namely Demak, Pajang, Mataram, by the end of the fifteenth century,20 Islam-based kingdoms had been established, reflecting the domination of Islam in Indonesia. The Portuguese introduced Catholicism to Indonesia, notably to the island of Flores, Protestantism was first introduced by the Dutch in the sixteenth century with Calvinist and Lutheran influences. Animist areas in eastern Indonesia, on the hand, were the main focus Dutch conversion efforts, including Maluku, North Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, Papua. Later, Christianity spread from the ports of Borneo and missionaries arrived among the Torajans on Sulawesi. Parts of Sumatra were also targeted, most notably the Batak people, significant changes in religion aspect also happened during the New Order era. Following a purported coup in 1965 officially blamed on the Communist Party of Indonesia, following the incident, the New Order government had tried to suppress the supporters of PKI, by applying a policy that everyone must choose a religion, since PKI supporters were mostly atheists. As a result, every Indonesian citizen was required to carry identification cards indicating their religion. The policy resulted in a mass religion conversions, topped by conversions to Protestantism and Catholicism, the same situation happened with Indonesians with Chinese ethnicity, who mostly were Confucianists. Because Confucianism was not one of the recognised religions, many Chinese Indonesians were also converted to Christianity
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Sunda Wiwitan
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Sunda Wiwitan is a religious belief system of traditional Sundanese. It venerates the power of nature and the spirit of ancestors, in Carita Parahyangan this faith is called Jatisunda. Its practitioners assert that Sunda Wiwitan has been part of their way of life since ancient times, before the arrival of Hinduism, the sacred book of Sunda Wiwitan is called Sanghyang siksakanda ng karesian, it is a didactic text of religious and moral guidance, rules and lessons. The text is identified as Kropak 630 by National Library of Indonesia, however, over the course of time Sunda Wiwitan has been influenced by and incorporated Hindu, and to some extent, Islamic elements. The highest spiritual power in Sunda Wiwitan is Sang Hyang Kersa or Nu Ngersakeun and this supreme being is also referred to by several names or divine titles, such as Batara Tunggal, Batara Jagat, and Batara Seda Niskala. Sang Hyang Kersa resides in the highest and most sacred realm called Buana Nyungcung, the Hindu gods are considered subordinates of Sang Hyang Kersa. According to Sunda Wiwitan ontology, the universe consists of three realms, Buana Nyungcung, the uppermost realm, the abode of the supreme highest Sang Hyang Kersa. Buana Panca Tengah, earth, the realm of human beings and animals, with five cardinal directions, east, west, north, south, Buana Larang, hell, the realm of demons and lowly spirits, the lowermost realm. Between Buana Nyungcung and Buana Panca Tengah, there are 18 layers of realms, the uppermost of these heavenly realms is called Bumi Suci Alam Padang, or according to Kropak 630, Alam Kahyangan or Mandala Hyang. This second-highest realm is the abode of Nyi Pohaci Sanghyang Asri, Sang Hyang Kersa created seven bataras in Sasaka Pusaka Buana. The oldest of these bataras is called Batara Cikal and is considered to be the ancestor of the Kanekes people, other bataras ruled various locations in Sunda lands. The value system of Sunda Wiwitan is based on written and unwritten norms, the written norms are rules and taboos that govern the way of life of adherents, while the unwritten norms are internal and individual understandings of the faith. Sunda Wiwitans basic and principle concepts are based on two things, Cara Ciri Manusia and Cara Ciri Bangsa and these two principles are mentioned by Sunda Wiwitan elders, yet are not explicitly mentioned in the Siksa Kanda-ng Karesian, the sacred text of Sunda Wiwitan. Cara Ciri Manusia comprises the elements of human life. This principle refers to the human characteristic of always being wary or suspicious of foreign or unknown influences. This reflects an inherent conservatism and resistance to change in village life. It implies that influences incompatible with tradition must be rejected, the second concept of Cara Ciri Bangsa states that people have universals or similarities in basic human traits, yet express diversity from one individual or community to another. Originally Sunda Wiwitan did not incorporate many taboos or prohibitions, the most numerous taboos are applied to those living within the most sacred place on earth—the people of Baduy Dalam that inhabit Sasaka Pusaka Buana
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Hyang
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A hyang is an unseen spiritual entity that has supernatural power in ancient Indonesian mythology. This spirit can be either divine or ancestral, the reverence for this spiritual entity can be found in Sunda Wiwitan, Kejawen, and Balinese Hinduism. In the modern Indonesian this term tends to be associated with gods, devata, the realm where the hyangs reside is called kahyangan, now a synonym for svarga or heaven in modern Indonesian. The term hyang now widely associated with Balinese Hinduism developed in ancient Java, however this term actually has an older origin, it has its root in the indigenous animism and dynamism beliefs of Austronesian people that inhabit the Indonesian archipelago. The hyang concept indigenously developed in the archipelago and not considered to have originated from Indian dharmic religions, before the adoption of Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam, the natives of the Indonesian archipelago believed in powerful but unseen spiritual entities that can be both benevolent or malevolent. They also believed that the ancestor is not gone away or disappeared completely. The ancestral spirit may gain god-like spiritual power and remain involved in their offsprings worldly affairs, in ancient Sundanese, Javanese, and Balinese society, this unseen spiritual entity is identified as hyang. These ancestral divine spirits are believed to inhabit high places, such as mountains, hills and these mountainous regions are considered sacred realms, as the abode of gods and the resting place for the soul of the ancestors. In Sundanese, the term nga-hyang means disappear or unseen and it is suggested that the word hyang has linguistic relation with the Indonesian word, hilang which means disappear. In its development, the term hyang become the word for many terms that still known and used in modern Indonesian. If the word hyang is attached with prefixes attribute Sang-, Dang-, Ra-, to form the word Sanghyang, Danghyang, or Rahyang, it is meant to honor ar revere gods or the deceased ancestors. For example, Sanghyang Sri Pohaci and Sang Hyang Widhi refer to gods, the term Danghyang or Danyang is refer to the guardian spirits of certain sacred or haunted places. The name of Srivijayan empire founder, Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, kahyangan, from the word ka-hyang-an, is the realm where hyangs resides. Because of the belief that hyang prefer high places, some regions is considered as the abode of hyang. For example, Parahyangan refer to mountainous region of West Java, originated from combined words para-hyang-an, para indicate plural, while the suffix -an shows the place, so Parahyangan means the abode of hyangs. The term parahyangan is also used as the type of Pura or Balinese temple, Pura parahyangan is Balinese temple that located in mountainous region as the counterparts of pura segara, Balinese temple located by the sea. Dieng Plateau in Central Java also shared the same origin, it is from the combined words di-hyang which also means hyangs place, the word sembahyang in Indonesian is synonymous with the Islamic shalat ritual. It actually originated from the combined word sembah-hyang which means worship the hyang, the Balinese Sanghyang Dedari sacred dance involved some pre-pubescent girls dances in trance condition
38.
Dewi Sri
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Dewi Sri is believed to have dominion over the underworld and the Moon. She is often associated with the rice paddy snake, most of the story of Dewi Sri is associated with the mythical origin of the rice plant, the staple food of the region. Anybody who disobeyed this commandment are considered lazy and would lose their arms, upon hearing the Batara Gurus commandment, one of the gods, Antaboga, a Nāga god, was very anxious. He didnt have arms or legs and he wasnt sure how he could possibly do the job, Anta was shaped as a serpent and he could not work. He sought advice from Batara Narada, the brother of Batara Guru. But unfortunately Narada was also confused by Antas bad luck, Anta became very upset and cried. As he was crying three teardrops fell on the ground, miraculously, after touching the ground those teardrops became three beautiful shining eggs that looked like jewels or pearls. Batara Narada advised him to offer those jewels to the Batara Guru hoping that the gift would appease him, with the three eggs in his mouth Anta went to the Batara Gurus palace. On the way there he was approached by an eagle whom asked him a question, Anta keep silent and could not answer the question because he is holding the eggs is in his mouth. However the bird thought that Anta was being arrogant and it became furious thus began to attack Anta, as the result one egg was fell to earth and shattered. Anta quickly tried to hide in the bushes but the bird was waiting for him, the second attack left Anta with only one egg to offer to the Batara Guru. The two broken eggs fell to the earth and become twin boar Kalabuat and Budug Basu, later Kalabuat and Budug Basu was adopted by Sapi Gumarang cow. Finally he arrived at the palace and offered his teardrop in the shape of an egg to the Batara Guru. The offer was accepted and the Batara Guru asked him to nest the egg until it hatched. Miraculously the egg hatched into a beautiful baby girl. He gave the girl to the Batara Guru and his wife. Nyai Pohaci Sanghyang Asri was her name and she grew up into a beautiful princess, every gods who saw her became attracted to her, even her foster father, Batara Guru started to feel attracted to her. Seeing the Batara Gurus desire toward his daughter, all the gods became so worried
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Buddhism in Indonesia
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Buddhism in Indonesia has a long history, with a considerable range of relics dated from its earlier years in Indonesia. Buddhism is recognized as one of six religions in Indonesia, along with Islam, Christianity. According to the 2000 national census, roughly 0. 8% of the citizens of Indonesia were Buddhists. Most Buddhists are concentrated in Jakarta, Riau, Riau Islands, Bangka Belitung, North Sumatra, today, most Buddhists in Indonesia are Chinese, however small numbers of native Buddhists are also present. Buddhism is the second oldest religion in Indonesia after Hinduism, arriving around the second century, the history of Buddhism in Indonesia is closely related to the history of Hinduism, as a number of empires influenced by Indian culture were established around the same period. The arrival of Buddhism in the Indonesian archipelago was started with the activity that began in the early of first century on the maritime Silk Road between Indonesia and India. The oldest Buddhist archaeological site in Indonesia is arguably the Batujaya stupas complex in Karawang, the oldest relic in Batujaya was estimated to originate from the 2nd century, while the latest dated from the 12th century. Subsequently, numbers of Buddhist sites were found in Jambi, Palembang, and Riau provinces in Sumatra, Indonesian archipelago has witnessed the rise and fall of powerful Buddhist empires such as the Sailendra dynasty, the Mataram and Srivijaya empires. According to some Chinese source, a Chinese Buddhist monk I-tsing on his journey to India. The empire served as a Buddhist learning center in the region, a notable Srivijayan revered Buddhist scholar is Dharmakirti, a Srivijayan prince of the Sailendra dynasty, born around the turn of the 7th century in Sumatra. He became a revered scholar-monk in Srivijaya and moved to India to become a teacher at the famed Nalanda University and he built on and reinterpreted the work of Dignaga, the pioneer of Buddhist Logic, and was very influential among Brahman logicians as well as Buddhists. His theories became normative in Tibet and are studied to this day as a part of the monastic curriculum. Other Buddhist monks that visited Indonesia were Atisha, Dharmapala, a professor of Nalanda, Srivijaya was the largest Buddhist empire ever formed in Indonesian history. During the era of Kediri, Singhasari and Majapahit empire, buddhism — identified as Dharma ri Kasogatan — was acknowledged as one of kingdoms official religions along with Hinduism, in the 13th century Islam entered the archipelago, and began gaining foothold in coastal port towns. The fall of Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit empire in late 15th century marked the end of dharmic civilization dominance in Indonesia, by the end of the 16th century, Islam had supplanted Hinduism and Buddhism as the dominant religion of Java and Sumatra. After that for 450 years, there is no significant Buddhist adherence and practice in Indonesia, many of Buddhist sites, stupas, temples, and manuscripts are lost or forgotten, as the region has become more predominantly Muslim. Many of klenteng in Indonesia are in fact a temple that houses three faiths, namely Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism. In 1934, Narada Thera, a monk from Sri Lanka
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Sanghyang Adi Buddha
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Sanghyang Adi Buddha is a concept of God in Buddhism in Indonesia. e. KeTuhanan Yang Maha Esa that requires the belief in a supreme God and this concept is used by the Indonesian Buddhist Council, an organization that seeks to represent all Buddhist traditions in Indonesia such as Theravada, Mahayana, and Tantrayana. Adi Buddha is one of names that may be used as an approximation for God Almighty in addition to Advaya, Diwarupa, Mahavairocana, Vajradhara, Samantabhadra. In Indonesia, the term Sanghyang Adi Buddha is agreed upon and used by the Indonesian Supreme Sangha and this term is not found in Pāli Canon, but used in some old Indonesian Vajrayana texts such as Sanghyang Kamahayanikan. Sang Hyang Adi Buddha refers to the seed of Buddhahood inside every being, in Mahayana Buddhism, Adi Buddha refers to the primordial Buddha that outlines the same Universal Dhamma. Adi-Buddha is the Almighty Primordial Buddha, or Paramadi Buddha and he has some other names such as Adau‐Buddha, Anadi‐Buddha, Uru‐Buddha. He also called Adinatha, Svayambhulokanatha, Vajradhara, Vajrasattva, Svayambhu, in Chinese language, Adi‐Buddha is Pen‐chu‐fu, while aramadi‐Buddha is translated as Sheng‐chu‐fu. Mahayana Buddhism believes that Buddha has three bodies, i. e, there may be many Buddhas, but only one Dharmakaya. This Dharmakaya is identical with Adi‐Buddha, the sources of this Trikaya doctrine are Avatamsaka Sutra and Mahayana‐sraddhotpada‐shastra. The last one was the work of Asvagosha, a monk who lived around the first century AD, vetulyaka Lokottaravada School says that Sakyamuni originally was the manifestation of Adi‐Buddha in this world. Herman S. Karena itu bila kita menjebut Sang Adhi Buddha maka itu adalah Sang Buddha jang tidak berkarya, therefore if we refers the Adhi Buddha then He is the Buddha who is inactive. Although revered, prayers are never addressed to Adi Buddha, with his power, he emanates into five Dhyani Buddhas. The heaven of Adi Buddha is called Ogamin in Tibetan or Akanistha in Sanskrit, in Udana Nikaya, Sakyamuni gave His teaching, “There is, O monks, an Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed. Were there not, O monks, this Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed, there would be no escape from the world of the born, originated, created, formed. Since, O monks, there is an Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed, therefore is there an escape from the born, what is dependent, that also moves, what is independent does not move. Where there is no movement, there is rest, where rest is, there is no desire, where there is no ceasing-to-be, no further coming-to-be, there is neither this shore nor the other shore, nor anything between them. Pali language for the Almighty God is Athi Ajatam Adbhutam Akatam Samkhatam or the Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, the Almighty God is something without ego, unpersonified, and indescribable in any form. But for there is the Absolute, the unconditioned, one can attain the freedom from wheel of life by meditating, however, those words are unable to describe the true self of Sanghyang Adi Buddha
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Spread of Islam in Indonesia
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The history of arrival and spread of Islam in Indonesia is unclear. Before the arrival of Islam, the predominant religions in Indonesia were Buddhism and Hinduism, initially, the spread of Islam was slow and gradual. The eastern islands of Indonesia remained largely animist until the 17th and 18th centuries when Christianity became predominant in those areas, the spread of Islam was initially driven by increasing trade links outside of the archipelago. Traders and the royalty of major kingdoms were usually the first to convert to Islam, dominant kingdoms included Mataram in Central Java, and the sultanates of Ternate and Tidore in the Maluku Islands to the east. This evidence cannot explain more complicated matters such as how lifestyles were affected by the new religion or how deeply it affected societies, nevertheless, a clear turning point occurred when the Hindu empire Majapahit in Java fell to the Islamised Demak Sultanate. In 1527, the Muslim ruler renamed newly conquered Sunda Kelapa as Jayakarta which was contracted to Jakarta. Assimilation increased rapidly in the wake of this conquest, funds, both public and private, are spent on the construction of new mosques, rather than the exploration of old ones. Before Islam was established in Indonesian communities, Muslim traders had been present for several centuries, Islam is thought to have been present in Southeast Asia from early in the Islamic era. From the time of the caliph of Islam, Uthman, Muslim emissaries. It would have been through this contact that Arabic emissaries between 904 and the century are thought to have become involved in the Sumatran trading state of Srivijaya. The earliest accounts of the Indonesian archipelago date from the Abbasid Caliphate, the presence of foreign Muslims in Indonesia does not, however, demonstrate a significant level of local conversion or the establishment of local Islamic states. The most reliable evidence of the spread of Islam in Indonesia comes from inscriptions on tombstones. The earliest legibly inscribed tombstone is dated AH475, although as it belongs to a non-Indonesian Muslim, the presence of the Shafii school of thought, which was to later dominate Indonesia, was reported by Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan traveller, in 1346. In his travel log, Ibn Battuta wrote that the ruler of Samudera Pasai was a Muslim who performs his religious duties with utmost zeal, the madhhab he used was Al-Shafi‘i with similar customs to those he had seen in India. Zheng He is credited to have settled Chinese Muslim communities in Palembang and along the shores of Java, the Malay Peninsula, and these Muslims allegedly followed the Hanafi school in the Chinese language. This Chinese Muslim community was led by Hajji Yan Ying Yu, Zheng He, originally named Ma He, was a Hui court eunuch, mariner, explorer, diplomat, and fleet admiral during Chinas early Ming dynasty. Zheng commanded expeditionary voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, Western Asia and his larger ships stretched 400 feet in length. These carried hundreds of sailors on four tiers of decks, as a favorite of the Yongle Emperor, whose usurpation he assisted, he rose to the top of the imperial hierarchy and served as commander of the southern capital Nanjing
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