1.
William Amherst, 1st Earl Amherst
–
William Pitt Amherst, 1st Earl Amherst, GCH, PC was a British diplomat and colonial administrator. He was Governor-General of India between 1823 and 1828, born at Bath, Somerset, Amherst was the son of William Amherst and Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Paterson. He was the grand-nephew of Jeffrey Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst and he was educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford. In 1816 he was sent as ambassador extraordinary to the court of Chinas Qing dynasty, in consequence of this, he was not allowed to enter Peking, and the object of his mission was frustrated. His ship, the Alceste, after a cruise along the coast of Korea, Amherst and part of his shipwrecked companions escaped in the ships boats to Batavia, whence relief was sent to the rest. The ship in which he returned to England in 1817 touched at St Helena and, as a consequence, during one of the interviews, Napoleon was attributed of saying China is a sleeping giant. For when she wakes, she will shake the world, Amherst was Governor-General of India from August 1823 to February 1828. The principal events of his government were annexation of Assam leading to the first Burmese war of 1824, resulting in the cession of Arakan and his appointment came on the heels of the removal of Governor-General Lord Hastings in 1823. Hastings clashed with London over the issue of lowering the field pay of officers in the Bengal Army, a measure that he was able to avoid through successive wars against Nepal and the Marathas. However, his refusal in the early 1820s during peacetime to lower field pay resulted in the appointment of Amherst, who was expected to carry out the demands from London. However, Amherst was a governor who was, at least in the early days of his tenure in Calcutta. The war was to two years, with 15,000 killed on the British side and cost 13 million pounds. It was only due to the efforts of friends such as George Canning. The war significantly changed Amhersts stance on Burma, now adamantly refusing to annexe Lower Burma, but did not repair his reputation entirely and he was created Earl Amherst, of Arracan in the East Indies, and Viscount Holmesdale, in the County of Kent, in 1826. On his return to England he lived in retirement till his death in March 1857, Lord Amhersts first wife was Sarah, Dowager Countess of Plymouth, daughter of Andrew Archer, 2nd Baron Archer and widow of Other Windsor, 5th Earl of Plymouth. He married his first wife in 1800, after Sarahs death in May 1838, Lord Amherst, aged 75, married his second wife, who was his first wifes widowed daughter-in-law. Although this was a marriage, it was not forbidden by Church law nor civil law. His second wife had no children by either marriage, mary, Dowager Countess of Plymouth elder daughter and co-heiress of John Sackville, 3rd Duke of Dorset, and widow of his stepson Other Windsor, 6th Earl of Plymouth, in 1839
2.
Field marshal (United Kingdom)
–
Field marshal has been the highest rank in the British Army since 1736. A five-star rank with NATO code OF-10, it is equivalent to an admiral of the fleet in the Royal Navy or a marshal of the Royal Air Force in the Royal Air Force. A field marshals insignia consists of two crossed batons surrounded by yellow leaves below St Edwards Crown. As with marshals of the RAF and admirals of the fleet in their services, field marshals remain officers of the British Army for life. The rank has been used throughout its history and was vacant through parts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. After the Second World War, it became practice to appoint the Chief of the Imperial General Staff to the rank on his last day in the post. Army officers occupying the post of Chief of the Defence Staff, in total,141 men have held the rank of field marshal. The majority led careers in the British Army or the British Indian Army, some members of the British Royal Family—most recently Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, and Charles, Prince of Wales—were promoted to the rank after shorter periods of service. Other ceremonial appointments were made as diplomatic gestures, twelve foreign monarchs held the honour, though three were stripped of it when their countries became enemies of Britain and her allies in the two world wars. Also awarded the rank were two distinguished foreign military officers, honoured for their contributions to World War I and World War II respectively, and one foreign statesman. A report commissioned by the Ministry of Defence in 1995 made a number of recommendations for financial savings in the forces budget. The recommendation was not taken up in full, but the convention of promoting service chiefs to five-star ranks was stopped, Sir Peter Inge was, in 1994, the last active officer to be promoted to the rank. Inge relinquished the post of Chief of the Defence Staff in 1997 and his successor, at the same time, Guthrie, who relinquished the post of CDS and retired from active service in 2001, was promoted to honorary field marshal. In June 2014 former Chief of the Defence Staff Lord Walker of Aldringham was also promoted to field marshal. The rank insignia of a marshal in the British Army comprises two crossed batons in a wreath of oak leaves, with a crown above. On appointment, British field marshals are awarded a gold-tipped baton which they may carry on formal occasions, the vast majority of officers to hold the rank of field marshal were professional soldiers in the British Army, though eleven served as officers in the British Indian Army. At least fifty-seven field marshals were wounded in battle earlier in their careers, of whom 24 were wounded more than once, and eight had been prisoners of war. Fifteen future field marshals were present at the Battle of Vitoria, where the Duke of Wellington earned the rank, and ten others served under Wellington at the Battle of Waterloo
3.
Order of the Bath
–
The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the medieval ceremony for appointing a knight. The knights so created were known as Knights of the Bath, George I erected the Knights of the Bath into a regular Military Order. Prior to 1815, the order had only a class, Knight Companion. Recipients of the Order are now usually senior officers or senior civil servants. Commonwealth citizens who are not subjects of the Queen and foreign nationals may be made Honorary Members, in the Middle Ages, knighthood was often conferred with elaborate ceremonies. These usually involved the taking a bath during which he was instructed in the duties of knighthood by more senior knights. He was then put to bed to dry, clothed in a special robe, he was led with music to the chapel where he spent the night in a vigil. At dawn he made confession and attended Mass, then retired to his bed to sleep until it was fully daylight, in the early medieval period the difference seems to have been that the full ceremonies were used for men from more prominent families. Knights Bachelor continued to be created with the form of ceremony. The last occasion on which Knights of the Bath were created was the coronation of Charles II in 1661. From at least 1625, and possibly from the reign of James I, Knights of the Bath were using the motto Tria iuncta in uno, and wearing as a badge three crowns within a plain gold oval. These were both adopted by the Order of the Bath, a similar design of badge is still worn by members of the Civil Division. Their symbolism however is not entirely clear, the three joined in one may be a reference to the kingdoms of England, Scotland and either France or Ireland, which were held by English and, later, British monarchs. This would correspond to the three crowns in the badge, another explanation of the motto is that it refers to the Holy Trinity. The prime mover in the establishment of the Order of the Bath was John Anstis, Garter King of Arms, the Court remained the centre of the political world. The King was limited in that he had to choose Ministers who could command a majority in Parliament, the leader of an administration still had to command the Kings personal confidence and approval. A strong following in Parliament depended on being able to supply places, pensions, the attraction of the new Order for Walpole was that it would provide a source of such favours to strengthen his political position
4.
Joshua Reynolds
–
Sir Joshua Reynolds RA FRS FRSA was an influential eighteenth-century English painter, specialising in portraits. He promoted the Grand Style in painting which depended on idealization of the imperfect and he was a founder and first president of the Royal Academy of Arts, and was knighted by George III in 1769. Reynolds was born in Plympton, Devon, on 16 July 1723 the third son of the Rev. Samuel Reynolds and his father had been a fellow of Balliol College, Oxford, but did not send any of his sons to the university. One of his sisters was Mary Palmer, seven years his senior, author of Devonshire Dialogue, in 1740 she provided £60, half of the premium paid to Thomas Hudson the portrait-painter, for Joshuas pupilage, and nine years later advanced money for his expenses in Italy. His other siblings included Frances Reynolds and Elizabeth Johnson, as a boy, he came under the influence of Zachariah Mudge, whose Platonistic philosophy stayed with him all his life. The work that came to have the most influential impact on Reynolds was Jonathan Richardsons An Essay on the Theory of Painting, having shown an early interest in art, Reynolds was apprenticed in 1740 to the fashionable London portrait painter Thomas Hudson, who had been born in Devon. Hudson had a collection of old master drawings, including some by Guercino, although apprenticed to Hudson for four years, Reynolds only remained with him until summer 1743. Having left Hudson, Reynolds worked for some time as a portrait-painter in Plymouth Dock and he returned to London before the end of 1744, but following his fathers death in late 1745 he shared a house in Plymouth Dock with his sisters. In 1749, Reynolds met Commodore Augustus Keppel, who invited him to join HMS Centurion, of which he had command, while with the ship he visited Lisbon, Cadiz, Algiers, and Minorca. From Minorca he travelled to Livorno in Italy, and then to Rome, while in Rome he suffered a severe cold, which left him partially deaf, and, as a result, he began to carry a small ear trumpet with which he is often pictured. Reynolds travelled homeward overland via Florence, Bologna, Venice, and he was accompanied by Giuseppe Marchi, then aged about 17. Apart from a brief interlude in 1770, Marchi remained in Reynolds employment as an assistant for the rest of the artists career. Following his arrival in England in October 1752, Reynolds spent three months in Devon, before establishing himself in London, where he remained for the rest of his life. He took rooms in St Martins Lane, before moving to Great Newport Street and he achieved success rapidly, and was extremely prolific. In 1760 Reynolds moved into a house, with space to show his works and accommodate his assistants. Alongside ambitious full-length portraits, Reynolds painted large numbers of smaller works, in the late 1750s, at the height of the social season, he received five or six sitters a day, each for an hour. By 1761 Reynolds could command a fee of 80 guineas for a full-length portrait, the clothing of Reynolds sitters was usually painted either by one of his pupils, his studio assistant Giuseppe Marchi, or the specialist drapery painter Peter Toms. Lay figures were used to model the clothes and he had an excellent vantage from his house, Wick House, on Richmond Hill, and painted the view in about 1780
5.
George II of Great Britain
–
George II was King of Great Britain and Ireland, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire from 11 June 1727 until his death. George was the last British monarch born outside Great Britain, he was born, after the deaths of Sophia and Anne, Queen of Great Britain, in 1714, his father George I, Elector of Hanover, inherited the British throne. In the first years of his fathers reign as king, George was associated with opposition politicians, as king from 1727, George exercised little control over British domestic policy, which was largely controlled by the Parliament of Great Britain. As elector, he spent twelve summers in Hanover, where he had direct control over government policy. He had a relationship with his eldest son, Frederick. During the War of the Austrian Succession, George participated at the Battle of Dettingen in 1743, Frederick died unexpectedly in 1751, nine years before his father, and so George II was ultimately succeeded by his grandson, George III. For two centuries after George IIs death, history tended to him with disdain, concentrating on his mistresses, short temper. Since then, most scholars have reassessed his legacy and conclude that he held and exercised influence in foreign policy and military appointments. George was born in the city of Hanover in Germany, and was the son of George Louis, Hereditary Prince of Brunswick-Lüneburg, both of Georges parents committed adultery, and in 1694 their marriage was dissolved on the pretext that Sophia had abandoned her husband. She was confined to Ahlden House and denied access to her two children, George and his sister Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, who never saw their mother again. George spoke only French, the language of diplomacy and the court, until the age of four, after which he was taught German by one of his tutors, Johann Hilmar Holstein. In addition to French and German, he was schooled in English and Italian. Georges second cousin once removed, Queen Anne, ascended the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1702, consequently, after his grandmother and father, George was third in line to succeed Anne in two of her three realms. England and Scotland united in 1707 to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, Georges father did not want his son to enter into a loveless arranged marriage as he had, and wanted him to have the opportunity of meeting his bride before any formal arrangements were made. Negotiations from 1702 for the hand of Princess Hedvig Sophia of Sweden, Dowager Duchess and regent of Holstein-Gottorp, the English envoy to Hanover, Edmund Poley, reported that George was so taken by the good character he had of her that he would not think of anybody else. A marriage contract was concluded by the end of July, on 22 August /2 September 1705O. S. /N. S. Caroline arrived in Hanover for her wedding, which was held the evening in the chapel at Herrenhausen. George was keen to participate in the war against France in Flanders, in early 1707, Georges hopes were fulfilled when Caroline gave birth to a son, Frederick
6.
George III of the United Kingdom
–
He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of Britains American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence, further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In the later part of his life, George III had recurrent, although it has since been suggested that he had the blood disease porphyria, the cause of his illness remains unknown. After a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established, on George IIIs death, the Prince Regent succeeded his father as George IV. Historical analysis of George IIIs life has gone through a kaleidoscope of changing views that have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them. Until it was reassessed in the half of the 20th century, his reputation in the United States was one of a tyrant. George was born in London at Norfolk House and he was the grandson of King George II, and the eldest son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. As Prince George was born two months prematurely and he was unlikely to survive, he was baptised the same day by Thomas Secker. One month later, he was baptised at Norfolk House. His godparents were the King of Sweden, his uncle the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, George grew into a healthy but reserved and shy child. The family moved to Leicester Square, where George and his younger brother Prince Edward, Duke of York, Family letters show that he could read and write in both English and German, as well as comment on political events of the time, by the age of eight. He was the first British monarch to study science systematically and his religious education was wholly Anglican. At age 10 George took part in a production of Joseph Addisons play Cato and said in the new prologue, What. It may with truth be said, A boy in England born, historian Romney Sedgwick argued that these lines appear to be the source of the only historical phrase with which he is associated. Georges grandfather, King George II, disliked the Prince of Wales, however, in 1751 the Prince of Wales died unexpectedly from a lung injury, and George became heir apparent to the throne. He inherited one of his fathers titles and became the Duke of Edinburgh, now more interested in his grandson, three weeks later the King created George Prince of Wales. Georges mother, now the Dowager Princess of Wales, preferred to keep George at home where she could imbue him with her moral values
7.
John Campbell, 4th Earl of Loudoun
–
General John Campbell, 4th Earl of Loudoun was a British nobleman and army officer. Born in Scotland 2 years before the creation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, Campbell inherited the peerage on the death of his father in 1731, becoming Lord Loudoun. The earl raised a regiment of infantry that took part in the Jacobite Rising of 1745 on the side of the Hanoverian government, the regiment consisted of twelve companies, with Loudoun as colonel and John Campbell as lieutenant colonel. The regiment was raised and served in different parts of Scotland. Eight companies, under the command of Lord Loudoun, were stationed in Inverness. Loudoun set out in February 1746 with this portion of his regiment and several of the Independent Companies in an attempt to capture the Jacobite pretender, the expedition was ignominiously defeated by a small number of Jacobites in what became known as the Rout of Moy. After this debacle, Loudoun fell back to join the Duke of Cumberlands army, in 1756, Loudoun was sent to North America as Commander-in-Chief and Governor General of Virginia, where he was unpopular with many of the colonial leaders. When he learned that some merchants were trading with the French, while he was trying to fight a war against them. Despite his unpopularity the county of Loudoun, formed from Fairfax in 1757, was named in his honour, while Loudoun was thus engaged in Canada, French forces captured Fort William Henry from the British, and Loudoun was replaced by James Abercrombie and returned to London. Francis Parkman, a 19th-century historian of the Seven Years War, many historians debate whether he played a fundamental part in the Seven Years War. Arguably, he was a figure as he embarked on reforms for the army such as replacing the ordinary musket with the flintlock musket for greater accuracy. He made improvements by embarking on an improvement programme, recognising the need to supply the army as he replaced the traditional supply line with army wagons. His focus was centralising the system of supplies and had built storehouses in Halifax and Albany, in 1762, he was sent to Portugal to counter the Spanish invasion of Portugal as second-in-command, and he became overall commander in 1763. Despite being unable to prevent the loss of Almeida, the British forces soon launched a counter-attack that drove the back across the border. Back in Great Britain, in 1763 Loudoun was made Governor of Edinburgh Castle, in 1770 he was promoted to full general. On 23 January 1773, the town of Loudon, New Hampshire was incorporated and named in Campbells honor, Campbell remained a bachelor, and on his death in 1782 was succeeded as earl by his cousin, James Mure-Campbell. Loudoun Fort Loudoun Loudonville, New York Loudon, New Hampshire Loudoun County, Virginia John Campbell, 4th Earl of Loudoun at wetpaint. com
8.
Norborne Berkeley, 4th Baron Botetourt
–
Norborne Berkeley, 4th Baron Botetourt, was a courtier, member of parliament, and royal governor of the colony of Virginia from 1768 until his death in 1770. Norborne Berkeley was born about 1717, in 1726, Berkeley was admitted to Westminster School. His political career began in 1741 when he was elected to the House of Commons as a knight of the shire for Gloucestershire, a seat he held until 1763. He thus took a seat in the House of Lords as the 4th Baron de Botetourt and he died in Williamsburg on 15 October 1770, after an illness lasting several weeks. Botetourt never married and left no direct heirs, a statue of Botetourt was placed in the Capitol in Williamsburg in 1773. In 1801 the statue of Botetourt was acquired by the College of William and Mary, Botetourt County, Virginia, was named in Botetourts honour. Lord Botetourt High School in the town of Daleville in Botetourt County, Virginia, is also named for him, as is the Botetourt Dorm Complex at The College of William. Two statues also adorn the campus of The College of William, gloucester County, Virginia has an elementary school named for governor. Both Richmond, Virginia and Norfolk, Virginia have streets named in his honour, taylor Stoermers Will the Real Lord Botetourt Please Stand. in the Journal of the American Revolution Norborne Berkeley at Encyclopedia Virginia
9.
James Murray (British Army officer, born 1721)
–
His term in Quebec was notably successful, and marked with excellent relationships with the conquered French-Canadians, who were reassured of their traditional rights and customs. He was a son of Alexander Murray, 4th Lord Elibank. His brother was Alexander Murray who served in Nova Scotia, educated in Haddington and Selkirk, he began his military career in 1736 in the 3rd Scots Regiment in Dutch service. In 1740 he served as a lieutenant in Wynyard’s Marines, under his brother Patrick Murray, 5th Lord Elibank. He returned as a captain in 1742, in December 1748, he married Cordelia Collier, of Hastings. James Murray purchased his majority in the 15th Regiment of Foot in 1749, and he commanded his regiment in the Raid on Rochefort,1757, defending Sir John Mordaunt in his subsequent court-martial. He commanded a battalion in the 1758 Siege of Louisbourg along with his brother Alexander, when Louisbourg was taken, Murray accompanied General Wolfe on a raiding expedition northwards in the Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign. While Wolfe destroyed French settlements along the Gaspe Peninsula, Murray harried the French fishing settlements along Miramichi Bay, part of the destruction included the homes and church at St. Annes, now called Burnt Church. Murray served under General James Wolfe at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in 1759, Murray believed Wolfes plan to land the army at Anse au Foulon was foolish and absurd, and succeeded only by Providence. He was the commander of Quebec City after it fell to the British. Lévis managed to defeat Murray and the British in the Battle of Sainte-Foy in 1760, but he had to abandon the siege of Quebec due to a lack of supplies and he encouraged his favourite nephew Patrick Ferguson to follow him in a military career. Patrick was the son of Murrays sister Anne who was married to Lord Pitfour and he also assisted another nephew, Patrick Murray, illegitimate son of his brother, George. On 5 September 1760, Murray signed a Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the Huron Nation, then residing at Lorette, in 1990, that treaty was found by the Supreme Court of Canada to still be valid and binding on the Crown. In October 1760, he became governor of the district of Quebec. He was promoted Major-General on 26 March 1765, as governor he was sympathetic to the French-Canadians, favouring them over British merchants who came to settle in the wake of the conquest. He allowed the continuance of French civil law because at the time the French outnumbered the British 25,1, the dissatisfaction of British settlers led to his recall in 1766, but his precedents were preserved in the Quebec Act of 1774. Formerly the property of General Murray, Murray was lieutenant-governor from 1774 to 1776 and then governor of Minorca from 1776 to 1782. In 1780, he married, as his wife, Ann Witham
10.
Sevenoaks
–
Sevenoaks is a town and civil parish with a population of 29,506 situated south-east of London in western Kent, England. The population of the parish had reduced to 20,409 at the 2011 Census and it is served by a commuter main line railway and is 21 miles from London Charing Cross. It is the town of the Sevenoaks district, followed by Swanley. A settlement was recorded in the 13th century, when a market was established, construction of Knole House in the 15th century helped develop the village. Sevenoaks became part of the communications network when one of the early turnpikes was opened in the 18th century. In the 21st century, it has a large commuting population, located to the south-east of the town is Knole Park, within which lies Knole House. Educational establishments in the include the independent Sevenoaks School and Knole Academy. The towns name is derived from the Old English word Seouenaca, there are few records earlier than the 13th century for the town, when it was given market status. The weekly cattle market was held in Hitchen Hatch Lane until 1999 and it was closed to make way for the 160 BT building in London Road. A food market is held in the centre of town every Saturday, in the Middle Ages two hospitals were provided by religious orders for the care of old or sick people, especially those going on pilgrimage. Sevenoaks School, at the end of High Street, is one of the oldest lay foundations in England. It was founded by William Sevenoke in 1432, Sevenoke, a foundling, had been brought up in the town. In later life he became a merchant and served as alderman, sheriff, founding the school and adjacent almshouses was his thanks to the town. In 1560 the school was granted letters patent by Queen Elizabeth I and it was for the education of boys and youths in grammar and learning. In 1456 Thomas Bourchier, Archbishop of Canterbury, purchased the Knole estate, the eponymous oak trees in Knole Park have been replaced several times over the centuries. In 1902 seven oaks were planted on the side of The Vine cricket ground to commemorate the coronation of King Edward VII. During the Great Storm of 1987, six of those trees were blown down, the trees have been replaced and eight Oak trees of varying ages line The Vine. A serious railway accident occurred nearby on 24 August 1927, Southern Railway K class passenger tank engine No
11.
Kent
–
Kent /ˈkɛnt/ is a county in South East England and one of the home counties. It borders Greater London to the north west, Surrey to the west and East Sussex to the south west, the county also shares borders with Essex via the Dartford Crossing and the French department of Pas-de-Calais through the Channel Tunnel. France can be clearly in fine weather from Folkestone and the White Cliffs of Dover. Hills in the form of the North Downs and the Greensand Ridge span the length of the county, because of its relative abundance of fruit-growing and hop gardens, Kent is known as The Garden of England. The title was defended in 2006 when a survey of counties by the UKTV Style Gardens channel put Kent in fifth place, behind North Yorkshire, Devon. Haulage, logistics, and tourism are industries, major industries in north-west Kent include aggregate building materials, printing. Coal mining has played its part in Kents industrial heritage. Large parts of Kent are within the London commuter belt and its transport connections to the capital. Twenty-eight per cent of the county forms part of two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, the North Downs and The High Weald, the area has been occupied since the Palaeolithic era, as attested by finds from the quarries at Swanscombe. The Medway megaliths were built during the Neolithic era, There is a rich sequence of Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Roman era occupation, as indicated by finds and features such as the Ringlemere gold cup and the Roman villas of the Darent valley. The modern name of Kent is derived from the Brythonic word Cantus meaning rim or border and this describes the eastern part of the current county area as a border land or coastal district. Julius Caesar had described the area as Cantium, or home of the Cantiaci in 51 BC, the extreme west of the modern county was by the time of Roman Britain occupied by Iron Age tribes, known as the Regnenses. East Kent became a kingdom of the Jutes during the 5th century and was known as Cantia from about 730, the early medieval inhabitants of the county were known as the Cantwara, or Kent people. These people regarded the city of Canterbury as their capital, in 597, Pope Gregory I appointed the religious missionary as the first Archbishop of Canterbury. In the previous year, Augustine successfully converted the pagan King Æthelberht of Kent to Christianity, the Diocese of Canterbury became Britains first Episcopal See with first cathedral and has since remained Englands centre of Christianity. The second designated English cathedral was in Kent at Rochester Cathedral, in the 11th century, the people of Kent adopted the motto Invicta, meaning undefeated. This naming followed the invasion of Britain by William of Normandy, the Kent peoples continued resistance against the Normans led to Kents designation as a semi-autonomous county palatine in 1067. Under the nominal rule of Williams half-brother Odo of Bayeux, the county was granted powers to those granted in the areas bordering Wales
12.
Kingdom of Great Britain
–
The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
13.
British Army
–
The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
14.
East Yorkshire Regiment
–
The East Yorkshire Regiment was a line infantry regiment of the British Army, first raised in 1685 as Sir William Cliftons Regiment of Foot and later renamed the 15th Regiment of Foot. It saw service for three centuries, before being amalgamated with the West Yorkshire Regiment to form the Prince of Waless Own Regiment of Yorkshire in 1958. Subsequently, the regiment amalgamated with the Green Howards and the Duke of Wellingtons Regiment to form the Yorkshire Regiment on 6 June 2006. Raised in 1685 in Nottingham by Sir William Clifton, 3rd Baronet and it took part in the Battle of Killiecrankie in July 1689 and the Battle of Cromdale in April 1690 during the Jacobite rising of 1689 to 1692. It went on to fight at the Battle of Ramillies in May 1706, the Battle of Oudenarde in July 1708 and it returned to England in 1714. It was sent to Scotland and took part in the Battle of Glen Shiel in June 1719 during Jacobite rising, the regiment was deployed to South America where it took part in the Battle of Cartagena de Indias in March 1741 during the War of Jenkins Ear. It also saw action at the Battle of Culloden in April 1746 during the next Jacobite rising, in 1751, when the numerical system of designation of Regiments of Foot was adopted, it became the 15th Regiment of Foot. The regiment went on to part in the capture of Île-dAix in 1757 and, having sailed for North America in 1758. In 1782 the regiment became the 15th Regiment of Foot, the regiment was sent to North America again in spring 1776 for service in the American Revolutionary War. It saw action at the Battle of Long Island in August 1776, the Battle of White Plains in October 1776 and it also took part in the Battle of Brandywine in September 1777, the Battle of Germantown in October 1777 and the Battle of White Marsh in December 1777. The regiment was deployed to the West Indies in 1795 for service in the French Revolutionary Wars and fought at attacks on Martinique and Guadeloupe before returning to England in 1796. The regiment returned to the West Indies in 1805 for service in the Napoleonic Wars and took part in the invasion of Martinique in January 1809, the regiment spent most of the 19th century on garrison duty, both at home and throughout the Empire. The 1st Battalion was shipped to New Brunswick in 1862 at the time of the Trent Affair, when Britain, under the reforms the regiment became The East Yorkshire Regiment on 1 July 1881. The 2nd Battalion fought in the Second Anglo-Afghan War and the Second Boer War, the 1st Battalion landed at Saint-Nazaire as part of the 18th Brigade in the 6th Division in September 1914 for service on the Western Front. The 1/4th Battalion landed at Boulogne-sur-Mer as part of the York, the 7th Battalion landed at Boulogne-sur-Mer as part of 50th Brigade in the 17th Division in July 1915 also for service on the Western Front. The 8th Battalion landed at Boulogne-sur-Mer as part of the 62nd Brigade in the 21st Division in September 1915 also for service on the Western Front, the 10th, 11th, 12th and 13th Battalions were raised in September 1914 from men volunteering in Hull. These units were additionally entitled 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th City of Hull battalions and they landed in Egypt as part of the 92nd Brigade in the 31st Division in December 1915 and then moved to France in March 1916 also for service on the Western Front. In 1935 the regiment was renamed The East Yorkshire Regiment, after its Colonel-in-Chief, in the Second World War, six hostilities-only battalions were raised
15.
King's Royal Rifle Corps
–
Later, ranked as the 60th Regiment of Foot, the regiment served for more than 200 years throughout the British Empire. The KRRC became the 2nd Battalion Royal Green Jackets, on the disbandment of 1/RGJ in 1992, the RGJs KRRC battalion was redesignated as 1/RGJ, eventually becoming 2/RIFLES in 2007. The Kings Royal Rifle Corps was raised in the American colonies in 1756 as the 62nd Regiment to defend the thirteen colonies against attack by the French and their Native American allies. After Braddocks defeat in 1755, royal approval for a new regiment, as well as funds, were granted by parliament just before Christmas 1755 – hence the regiments traditional birthday of Christmas Day. However, parliamentary delays meant that it was 4 March 1756 before an act of parliament created four battalions of 1,000 men each to include foreigners for service in the Americas. ”The Earl of Loudoun. About fifty officers’ commissions were given to Germans and Swiss, according to a modern history of the regiment, the idea for creating this unique force was proposed by Jacques Prevost, a Swiss soldier and adventurer who was a friend of the Duke of Cumberland. Prevost recognised the need for soldiers who understood forest warfare, unlike the regulars who were brought to America in 1755 by General Edward Braddock, the regiment was intended to combine the characteristics of a colonial corps with those of a foreign legion. Swiss and German forest fighting experts, American colonists and British volunteers from other British regiments were recruited and these men were Protestants, an important consideration for fighting against the predominantly Catholic French. The officers were recruited from Europe – not from the American colonies – and consisted of English, Scots, Irish, Dutch, Swiss. It was the first time officers were commissioned as British Army officers. In total, the regiment consisted of 101 officers,240 non-commissioned officers and 4,160 enlisted men, the battalions were raised on Governors Island, New York. The regiment was renumbered the 60th Regiment in February 1757 when the 50th and these were conventional battles on the European model, but fighting during Pontiacs War in 1763 was of a very different character. The frontier war threatened the British control of North America, the new regiment at first lost several outlying garrisons, but finally proved its mastery of forest warfare under Bouquets leadership at the victory of Bushy Run in August 1763. Two additional battalions of the regiment were raised in North America in 1775 for service in the American Revolutionary War and these battalions were deployed to Georgia and were involved in skirmishes at Sudbury in January 1779, at Savannah in October 1779 and at Augusta in September 1780. They went on to part in the Battle of Guilford Court House in March 1781. During the Napoleonic Wars, the regiment saw action in the Peninsular War, the mixing of rifle troops and muskets proved so effective that eventually line battalion light companies were replaced with rifle companies. The line battalions found themselves in different theatres, including the West Indies. The rifle battalion was joined by a second, and these found themselves in the Peninsula with Wellingtons army, serving along with the 95th Rifles
16.
Buffs (Royal East Kent Regiment)
–
The Buffs, formerly the 3rd Regiment of Foot, was a line infantry regiment of the British Army traditionally raised in the English county of Kent and garrisoned at Canterbury. It had a history dating back to 1572 and was one of the oldest regiments in the British Army, the regiment provided distinguished service over a period of almost four hundred years accumulating one hundred and sixteen battle honours. In 1881, under the Childers Reforms, it was known as the Buffs and later and this regiment was, in turn, amalgamated with the Royal Hampshire Regiment, in September 1992, to create the Princess of Waless Royal Regiment. The origins of the regiment lay in Thomas Morgans Company of Foot, The London Trained Bands and it fought in the Low Countries during the Dutch Revolt and in the Anglo Spanish War, taking part in many sieges and battles in that time. In 1665, when the Second Anglo-Dutch War started, the British, using his own funds, Sir George Downing, the English ambassador to the Netherlands, raised the Holland Regiment from the starving remnants of those who refused to sign. In 1665, it was known as the 4th Regiment and by 1668 as the 4th Regiment, in 1688, it became the 4th The Lord High Admirals Regiment and in 1689 it became the 3rd Regiment of Foot. The regiment wore coats with buff facings, whereas the 19th Regiment used coats faced in green, the nickname, The Old Buffs, arises from the need to distinguish the regiment from The Young Buffs, a nickname for the 31st Regiment of Foot. The regiment also fought at the Battle of Malplaquet in September 1709 before returning to England in August 1714. The regiment was sent to Ostend in August 1742 for service in the War of the Austrian Succession and fought at the Battle of Dettingen in June 1743 and at the Battle of Fontenoy in May 1745. The regiment was named, as regiments, after the Colonel Commanding until 1744, at which point it became the 3rd Regiment of Foot. It returned to the Netherlands in April 1747 and saw action at the Battle of Lauffeld in July 1747 and it became the 3rd Regiment of Foot, The Buffs in 1751. The regiment embarked for the West Indies in autumn 1758 for service in the Seven Years War and took part in the attack on Martinique in January 1759, after returning home, it took part in the capture of Belle Île in June 1761. It then moved to Portugal and fought at the Battle of Valencia de Alcántara in August 1762 before returning to England in spring 1771, the regiment was sent to the West Indies in December 1795 for service in the French Revolutionary Wars. The regiment embarked for Portugal in August 1808 for service in the Peninsular War, the grenadier company of the regiment served under Sir John Moore at the Battle of Corunna in January 1809 before being evacuated to England later that month. The rest of the regiment remained on the Peninsula and fought at the Battle of Talavera in July 1809 and it then saw action at Battle of Albuera in May 1811 and the Battle of Vitoria in June 1813. It became part of the Army of Occupation of France in 1816 before returning home in autumn 1818, the regiment had a tour of service from 1821 until 1827 in the British colony of New South Wales. For the duration of their service, The Buffs was divided into four detachments, the first was based in Sydney from 1821. The second arrived in Hobart in 1822, the third, entitled The Buffs Headquarters, arrived in Sydney in 1823
17.
Commander-in-Chief of the Forces
–
In most instances, Commanders-in-Chief of the Forces were not cabinet members. Instead, the British Army was represented variously in government by the Paymaster of the Forces, the Master-General of the Ordnance, the Secretary at War, the office was replaced in 1904 with the creation of the Army Council and the appointment of Chief of the General Staff. After Monckss death, the post was abolished, until James Scott, after Monmouths execution the post was again not filled until 1690, when it was bestowed upon John Churchill, Earl of Marlborough, during the Kings absence in Ireland. With the appointment of General Lord Jeffrey Amherst in 1793, the Commander-in-Chief was given authority over matters of discipline, over supplies, training, the establishment of a military staff took place under the oversight of his successor, HRH The Duke of York. The momentum of reform at this time, however, was increasing the authority of the Secretary of State for War. The post was abolished by recommendation of the Esher Report, set up in the wake of the Second Boer War. Peninsular Preparation, The Reform of the British Army 1795–1809
18.
Horse Grenadier Guards
–
Originally attached to the Horse Guards, they became independent for a century before being disbanded. However, the men of the formed the basis of the new troops of Life Guards. The origins of the Horse Grenadiers lie in the grenadiers a cheval of the French larmee, louis XIV added a troop of 154 to the Maison Militaire du Roi in December 1676, making it perhaps the most impressive regiment in Europe. Charles II was eager to copy the new innovation of grenade technology. Grenadiers, soldiers trained to carry and use hand grenades. Particularly tall and strong soldiers were picked to become grenadiers. Their use became general in the British Army in 1678, when a company from each regiment was picked and trained as grenadiers. It was at time that the horse grenadiers were first raised. Their intended role was to reinforce the troops of Horse Guards, the horse grenadiers, however, were recruited as in the rest of the army. In 1680 the Horse Grenadiers had been disbanded due to protest from anti-militarists in the backlash to the Popish Plots. But the King was insistent that they provided much needed protection, the Exclusion Parliaments attempted to dismiss the standing army and separate the militia from the kings command. In May 1679 they passed another Disbanding Act, calling for disbanding of all troops, the controversy caused the downfall of Tory minister Earl of Danby. From August the Horse Grenadiers were all quartered at the Royal Mews, Charing Cross and these grenadiers functioned as mounted infantry, riding with the Horse Guards but fighting with grenades and muskets on foot. To The Kings Troop of Horse Guards were attached 80 privates, officered by one captain, two lieutenants, three sergeants, and three corporals, and accompanied by two drummers and two hautboys. The grenadiers attached to The Queens Troop of Horse Guards and The Duke of Yorks Troop of Horse Guards had no drummers, apparently no grenadiers were raised for the 4th Troop then extant. However, The Earl of Dovers Troop of Horse Guards, raised in May 1686, did receive a grenadier contingent. In November 1687, the grenadiers were separated from the Horse Guards as the 1st, 2nd, 3rd. As with the Horse Guards, the captains commanding the troops were ranked as Captain & Colonel, the 4th Troop was disbanded in 1689, together with the Horse Guards troop it accompanied, after the abdication of James II
19.
War of the Austrian Succession
–
The War of the Austrian Succession involved most of the powers of Europe over the question of Maria Theresas succession to the Habsburg Monarchy. The war included King Georges War in British America, the War of Jenkins Ear, the First Carnatic War in India, the Jacobite rising of 1745 in Scotland, and the First and Second Silesian Wars. Austria was supported by Great Britain and the Dutch Republic, the enemies of France, as well as the Kingdom of Sardinia. France and Prussia were allied with the Electorate of Bavaria, the war ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, by which Maria Theresa was confirmed as Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary, but Prussia retained control of Silesia. But the peace was soon to be shattered, when Austrias desire to recapture Silesia intertwined with the political changes in Europe. In 1740, after the death of her father, Charles VI, Maria Theresa succeeded him as Queen of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia, Archduchess of Austria and Duchess of Parma. The complications involved in a female Habsburg ruler had been long foreseen, problems began when King Frederick II of Prussia violated the Pragmatic Sanction and invaded Silesia on 16 December 1740, using the 1537 Treaty of Brieg as a pretext. For much of the century, France approached its wars in the same way. It would let its colonies defend themselves, or would offer only minimal help, similarly, several long land borders made an effective domestic army imperative for any ruler of France. At the end of the war, France gave back its European conquests, the British—by inclination as well as for pragmatic reasons—had tended to avoid large-scale commitments of troops on the Continent. For the War of the Austrian Succession, the British were allied with Austria, by the time of the Seven Years War, they were allied with its enemy, Prussia. In marked contrast to France, Britain strove to prosecute the war in the colonies once it became involved in the war. The British pursued a strategy of naval blockade and bombardment of enemy ports. They would harass enemy shipping and attack enemy outposts, frequently using colonists from nearby British colonies in the effort and this plan worked better in North America than in Europe, but set the stage for the Seven Years War. Prince Frederick had been only 28 years of age on 31 May 1740 when his father, Frederick William I died, neither Frederick nor his father had ever been fond of Austria and its various snubs against Prussia. Emperor Charles VI had made provision for the succession of his daughter, in support of his invasion of Silesia, Frederick also used a questionable interpretation of a treaty between the Hohenzollerns and the Piasts of Brieg as pretext. In particular, Frederick feared that Augustus III, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, was preparing to seize Silesia for himself to unite Saxony and Poland. The only recent combat experience of the Prussian Army was their participation in the War of the Polish Succession, accordingly, the Prussian Army had an uninspiring reputation and was counted as one of the many minor armies of the Holy Roman Empire
20.
Seven Years' War
–
The Seven Years War was a war fought between 1754 and 1763, the main conflict occurring in the seven-year period from 1756 to 1763. It involved every European great power of the time except the Ottoman Empire and spanned five continents, affecting Europe, the Americas, West Africa, India, and the Philippines. The conflict split Europe into two coalitions, led by the Kingdom of Great Britain on one side and the Kingdom of France on the other. Meanwhile, in India, the Mughal Empire, with the support of the French, faced with this sudden turn of events, Britain aligned herself with Prussia, in a series of political manoeuvres known as the Diplomatic Revolution. Conflict between Great Britain and France broke out in 1754–1756 when the British attacked disputed French positions in North America, meanwhile, rising power Prussia was struggling with Austria for dominance within and outside the Holy Roman Empire in central Europe. In 1756, the major powers switched partners, realizing that war was imminent, Prussia preemptively struck Saxony and quickly overran it. The result caused uproar across Europe, because of Austrias alliance with France to recapture Silesia, which had been lost in a previous war, Prussia formed an alliance with Britain. Reluctantly, by following the diet, most of the states of the empire joined Austrias cause. The Anglo-Prussian alliance was joined by smaller German states, Sweden, seeking to re-gain Pomerania joined the coalition, seeing its chance when virtually all of Europe opposed Prussia. Spain, bound by the Pacte de Famille, intervened on behalf of France, the Russian Empire was originally aligned with Austria, fearing Prussias ambition on the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but switched sides upon the succession of Tsar Peter III in 1762. Naples, Sicily, and Savoy, although sided with the Franco-Spanish alliance, like Sweden, Russia concluded a separate peace with Prussia. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris between France, Spain and Great Britain and the Treaty of Hubertusburg between Saxony, Austria and Prussia, in 1763. The Native American tribes were excluded from the settlement, a subsequent conflict, Prussia emerged as a new European great power. Although Austria failed to retrieve the territory of Silesia from Prussia its military prowess was noted by the other powers. The involvement of Portugal, Spain and Sweden did not return them to their status as great powers. France was deprived of many of its colonies and had saddled itself with heavy war debts that its inefficient financial system could barely handle. Spain lost Florida but gained French Louisiana and regained control of its colonies, e. g. Cuba and the Philippines, France and Spain avenged their defeat in 1778 when the American Revolutionary War broke out, with hopes of destroying Britains dominance once and for all. The Seven Years War was perhaps the first true world war, having taken place almost 160 years before World War I and it was characterized in Europe by sieges and the arson of towns as well as open battles with heavy losses
21.
Pontiac's War
–
Warriors from numerous tribes joined the uprising in an effort to drive British soldiers and settlers out of the region. The war is named after the Odawa leader Pontiac, the most prominent of many leaders in the conflict. The war began in May 1763 when Native Americans, offended by the policies of British General Jeffrey Amherst, eight forts were destroyed, and hundreds of colonists were killed or captured, with many more fleeing the region. Hostilities came to an end after British Army expeditions in 1764 led to negotiations over the next two years. Native Americans were unable to drive away the British, but the uprising prompted the British government to modify the policies that had provoked the conflict. Warfare on the North American frontier was brutal, and the killing of prisoners, the targeting of civilians, the ruthlessness and treachery of the conflict was a reflection of a growing divide between the separate populations of the British colonists and Native Americans. This proved unpopular with British colonists, and may have one of the early contributing factors to the American Revolution. The conflict is named after its most famous participant, the Ottawa leader Pontiac, variations include Pontiacs War, Pontiacs Rebellion, an early name for the war was the Kiyasuta and Pontiac War, Kiyasuta being an alternate spelling for Guyasuta, an influential Seneca/Mingo leader. The war became known as Pontiacs Conspiracy after the publication in 1851 of Francis Parkmans The Conspiracy of Pontiac. Parkmans influential book, the account of the war for nearly a century, is still in print. In the 20th century, some argued that Parkman exaggerated the extent of Pontiacs influence in the conflict. Alternate titles for the war have been proposed, but historians continue to refer to the war by the familiar names. Pontiacs Conspiracy is now used by scholars. In the decades before Pontiacs Rebellion, France and Great Britain participated in a series of wars in Europe that also involved the French, the largest of these wars was the worldwide Seven Years War, in which France lost New France in North America to Great Britain. British troops proceeded to occupy the forts in the Ohio Country. Even before the war ended with the Treaty of Paris. While the French had long cultivated alliances among certain of the Native Americans, before long, Native Americans who had been allies of the defeated French found themselves increasingly dissatisfied with the British occupation and the new policies imposed by the victors. Native Americans involved in Pontiacs Rebellion lived in a defined region of New France known as the pays den haut
22.
American Revolutionary War
–
From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
23.
French Revolutionary Wars
–
The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of sweeping military conflicts, lasting from 1792 until 1802, resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted the French First Republic against Britain, Austria and several other monarchies and they are divided in two periods, the War of the First Coalition and the War of the Second Coalition. Initially confined to Europe, the fighting gradually assumed a global dimension as the political ambitions of the Revolution expanded, French success in these conflicts ensured the spread of revolutionary principles over much of Europe. The Revolutionary Wars began from increasing political pressure on King Louis XVI of France to prove his loyalty to the new direction France was taking. In the spring of 1792, France declared war on Prussia and Austria, the victory rejuvenated the French nation and emboldened the National Convention to abolish the monarchy. A series of victories by the new French armies abruptly ended with defeat at Neerwinden in the spring of 1793, by 1795, the French had captured the Austrian Netherlands and knocked Spain and Prussia out of the war with the Peace of Basel. A hitherto unknown general called Napoleon Bonaparte began his first campaign in Italy in April 1796, in less than a year, French armies under Napoleon decimated the Habsburg forces and evicted them from the Italian peninsula, winning almost every battle and capturing 150,000 prisoners. With French forces marching towards Vienna, the Austrians sued for peace and agreed to the Treaty of Campo Formio, the War of the Second Coalition began with the French invasion of Egypt, headed by Napoleon, in 1798. The Allies took the opportunity presented by the French strategic effort in the Middle East to regain territories lost from the First Coalition. The war began well for the Allies in Europe, where they pushed the French out of Italy and invaded Switzerland—racking up victories at Magnano, Cassano. However, their efforts largely unraveled with the French victory at Zurich in September 1799, meanwhile, Napoleons forces annihilated a series of Egyptian and Ottoman armies at the battles of the Pyramids, Mount Tabor, and Abukir. These victories and the conquest of Egypt further enhanced Napoleons popularity back in France, however, the Royal Navy had managed to inflict a humiliating defeat on the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile in 1798, further strengthening British control of the Mediterranean. Napoleons arrival from Egypt led to the fall of the Directory in the Coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon then reorganized the French army and launched a new assault against the Austrians in Italy during the spring of 1800. This latest effort culminated in a decisive French victory at the Battle of Marengo in June 1800, another crushing French triumph at Hohenlinden in Bavaria forced the Austrians to seek peace for a second time, leading to the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801. With Austria and Russia out of the war, the United Kingdom found itself increasingly isolated and agreed to the Treaty of Amiens with Napoleons government in 1802, concluding the Revolutionary Wars. The lingering tensions proved too difficult to contain, however, in 1789–1792, the entire governmental structure of France was transformed to fall into line with the Revolutionary principles of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. As a result, one of the first major elements of the French state to be restructured was the army, the transformation of the army was best seen in the officer corps. Before the revolution 90% had been nobility, compared to only 3% in 1794, Revolutionary fervour was high, and was closely monitored by the Committee of Public Safety, which assigned Representatives on Mission to keep watch on generals
24.
Amherst, Nova Scotia
–
Amherst is a Canadian town in northwestern Cumberland County, Nova Scotia. It is also located 60 kilometres southwest of the New Brunswick abutment of the Confederation Bridge to Prince Edward Island at Cape Jourimain, Amherst is the shire town and largest population centre in Cumberland County. According to Dr. Graham P. Hennessey, The Micmac name was Nemcheboogwek meaning going up rising ground, the Acadians who settled here as early as 1672 called the village Les Planches. The village was later renamed Amherst by Colonel Joseph Morse in honour of Lord Amherst and these settlers were joined by United Empire Loyalists. A mill was built on the current townsite, and the residents moved there to be closer to work, during the 19th century, Amherst became an important regional centre for shipbuilding and other services to outlying communities. An indication of the importance in Canadian history is seen with its four Fathers of Confederation. Dickey, Jonathan McCully, and Sir Charles Tupper, during the late 19th century, local industrialists and entrepreneurs constructed many fine Victorian and Edwardian homes along Victoria Street East, leading toward the farming hamlet of East Amherst. Many notable residents have lived in this district, including Tupper, Senator Thomas R. Black, the Barker Family, the Lamy Family, the Pugsley Family and Mary Simmons Critchley. Amherst experienced unprecedented industrialization in the late 1870s after the Intercolonial Railway of Canada constructed its line from Halifax to Quebec through the town in 1872. The economic boom created by the arrival of the Intercolonial Railway lasted through World War I and numerous foundries, factories and mills opened, in 1908, the manufacturing output of Amhersts industries was not exceeded by any centre in the Maritime Provinces. Many of the old buildings along Victoria Street are considered industrial artifacts because they were constructed during a period of tremendous industry growth. Local contractors employed local craftsmen, who used local materials, notice the emphasis on sandstone and brick, both locally produced and delightful detail which reflects the skilled craftsmanship prevalent in the 19th century. A Prisoner-of-war camp was set up at Malleable Iron Foundry in Amherst, during the Amherst general strike in 1919, worker unrest over social and economic conditions led to mass protests in sympathy with the Winnipeg general strike. Amherst had an industrial park constructed during the 1960s when the Trans-Canada Highway was being developed. Today the majority of the major employers are located there, including PolyCello. During World War II, the Royal Canadian Navy named a Flower class corvette HMCS Amherst, the town is currently served by Via Rails Halifax-to-Montreal train Ocean. Amherst is the centre for Cumberland County and the southeastern part of Westmorland County. Shoppers Drug Mart was the towns anchor pharmacy retail until its closure on October 8,2015 due to the periods of declining profits
25.
Amherstburg
–
Amherstburg is a town near the mouth of the Detroit River in Essex County, Ontario, Canada. In 1796, Fort Malden was established here, becoming the heart of the settlement and it has been designated as a National Historic Site. The city is approximately 25 kilometres south of the U. S. city of Detroit, Michigan, facing Wyandotte, Grosse Ile Township, Brownstown Charter Township and it is part of the Windsor census metropolitan area. Across the Detroit River from what developed as the state of Michigan in the United States, Fort Malden was occupied as a garrison. The town was developed by Loyalists who were granted land by the Crown in Ontario after the British lost the American Revolutionary War and they built many of their houses in the French style of a century before, giving the new town a historic character. During the days of the Underground Railroad before the American Civil War, fugitive African-American slaves often crossed the river to escape to freedom in Canada, by 1869, the town of Amherstburg in the Township of Malden County Essex had a population of 2,500. Fort Malden was adapted for use as a Lunatic Asylum and its main building was later used as a Port of Entry Money Order office and Post Office savings bank. Amherstburg was incorporated as a town in 1878, the local public high school in Amherstburg is General Amherst High School, named after Jeffrey Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst. French-speaking students in Amherstburg may also attend École Secondaire E. J, Amherstburg is home to several tourist attractions, including Fort Malden and the North American Black Historical Museum. An Ontario Historical Plaque was erected in Amherstburg by the province to commemorate Bellevue Houses role in Ontarios heritage, Bellevue House was the home of Catherine Reynolds, a landscape painter and her brother Robert Reynolds. Additional tourist activities include the Park House Museum and the charming Kings Navy Yard Park, the Gibson Gallery is located in a former Michigan Central Railroad Station, which has been fully restored to its original beauty. A restored Essex Terminal railway caboose is operated as a railway museum, the restored Gordon House is another historic attraction of Amherstburg. Built as a residence in 1798 overlooking the Detroit River, it now houses a Marine exhibit, the Holiday Beach Conservation Area is one of the best fall birding sites in North America. The 546-acre nature reserve contains over 2,000 feet of beaches, picnic areas, Holiday Beach is considered a premiere spot to view the fall migration of raptors. A Festival of Hawks event takes place in September, texas Road is a street popularly associated with paranormal sightings and ghostly experiences. This stretch of road passes through a gully and it has been rumored that a man once murdered another there, since this time people have reported strange disturbances such as car ignitions failing and paranormal light shows. Amherstburg is a city of trade for regional agriculture and it has also become known for several wineries in the area. Amherstburg Farmers Market is open every Saturday, from 8, 30am to 3, the Farmers Market is located at the Malden Community and Cultural Center,7860 County Road 20 at the end of Howard Avenue on County Rd 20
26.
William Amherst (British Army officer)
–
Lieutenant General William Amherst was a British military commander. In 1762 during the Seven Years War he led British forces that defeated a French expedition to Newfoundland at the Battle of Signal Hill. Amherst was born into a family of lawyers He was the son of Jeffery Amherst and Elizabeth Kerril and his brothers included Field Marshal Lord Amherst, Amherst was commissioned as an Ensign in the First Regiment of Foot Guards in 1755. He eventually rose to the rank of Lieutenant General in 1779, as a Lieutenant Colonel, Amherst was instrumental in the re-capture of St. Johns from the French in 1762 at the Battle of Signal Hill. In 1766 he became Member of Parliament for Hythe, and in 1768 he became MP for Launceston until 1774, in 1769 he built a house in Ryde, on the Isle of Wight. He named the house and estate St Johns, after his victory in Newfoundland, the neighbourhood of Ryde that surrounds the house is still known by that name. He was appointed Adjutant-General to the Forces in 1778, he died serving in that role in 1781. The point of St. Johns Harbour that is adjacent to Signal Hill is named Fort Amherst and he married Elizabeth Patterson, their children included Earl Amherst of Arracam, a future Governor-General of India. Chartrand, René, Louisbourg 1758, Wolfes first siege, Oxford, biography at Newfoundland Grand Banks The Rooms article on Conflict in Newfoundland
27.
Lionel Sackville, 1st Duke of Dorset
–
Lionel Cranfield Sackville, 1st Duke of Dorset KG PC was an English political leader and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. He was the son of the 6th Earl of Dorset and 1st Earl of Middlesex, styled Lord Buckhurst from birth, he succeeded his father as 7th Earl of Dorset and 2nd Earl of Middlesex in 1706, and was created Duke of Dorset in 1720. Perhaps because he had been on a diplomatic mission to Hanover. At George Is coronation he carried the sceptre, at the coronation of George II he was Lord High Steward and he quarreled with the King in 1717 and was told his services were no longer required, but was made a Duke three years later. Dorset served twice as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, from 1731 to 1737, in 1739, at the foundation of the Foundling Hospital, he was one of that charitys original governors. His first term as Lord Lieutenant was uneventful, Dorset, now heavily influenced by his son George Sackville, made the mistake of openly backing the Archbishop. He was unable to oust Boyle from power, and was accused of being the Archbishops tool and he became extremely unpopular, leading to his eventual recall. His last years were uneventful, apart from a riot in 1757 caused by the passage of the Militia Act where he escaped injury. He died at Knole on 9 October 1765 and was buried at Withyham in Sussex, horace Walpole gave this sketch of his character, with the greatest dignity in his appearance, he was in private the greatest lover of buffoonery and low company. He was never thought to have wanted a tendency to power, jonathan Swift thought him one of the most agreeable and well- informed men, and best conversationalists, he had ever met. Even harsh critics admitted his dignity and perfect decorum, a last reminder of the manners of the Court of Queen Anne and he married Elizabeth Colyear, the daughter of Lieutenant-General Walter Colyear, in January 1709. She later became a Lady of the Bedchamber and Mistress of the Robes to Caroline of Ansbach, wife of George II
28.
Ensign (rank)
–
Ensign is a junior rank of a commissioned officer in the armed forces of some countries, normally in the infantry or navy. As the junior officer in a regiment was traditionally the carrier of the ensign flag. This rank has generally replaced in army ranks by second lieutenant. Ensigns were generally the lowest ranking commissioned officer, except where the rank of subaltern existed. In contrast, the Arab rank of ensign, لواء, liwa, derives from the command of units with an ensign, not the carrier of such a units ensign, and is today the equivalent of a major general. Ensign is enseigne in French, and chorąży in Polish, each of which derives from a term for a flag, the Spanish alférez and Portuguese alferes is a junior officer rank below lieutenant associated with carrying the flag, and so is often translated as ensign. Unlike the rank in other languages, its etymology has nothing to do with flags, in the German Landsknecht armies, the equivalent rank of a Cornet existed for those men who carried the troop standard. It is still used in the artillery and cavalry divisions of the Netherlands, the NATO rank code is OF-1. In Argentina, the rank of ensign is used by both the air force and the gendarmerie and it is, however, used differently in the two services. The air force uses the rank for newly qualified officers, while the gendarmerie uses ensign ranks as an equivalent for the armys lieutenant ranks, the other armed forces of Argentina have ranks equivalent to ensign, subteniente in the army and guardiamarina in the navy. In the army, the most junior sublieutenant in a regiment is also the flag carrier, during the Ancien Régime in France, as in other countries, the ensign was the banner of an infantry regiment. As in other countries, the name began to be used for the officers who carried the ensign and it was renamed sub-lieutenant at the end of the 18th century. The Navy used a rank of ensign, which was the first officer rank. It was briefly renamed ship-of-the-line sub-lieutenant in the end of the 18th century, nowadays, the rank is still used in the Marine Nationale, Ship-of-the-line ensign is the name of the two lowest officer ranks Both ranks of ensign use the style lieutenant. However, French-Canadian sub-lieutenants use the form of enseigne instead of lieutenant. The rank ensign is used to refer to second lieutenants in household regiments of the Canadian Army. Fähnrich which has a parallel etymology to ensign, containing the corresponding German word stem of flag in it, is a German, the word Fähnrich comes from an older German military title, Fahnenträger, and first became a distinct military rank on 1 January 1899. The German Fähnrich is a non-commissioned officer promoted from the rank of Fahnenjunker or Seekadett, Fähnrich is equivalent to Feldwebel, but with additional responsibilities as an officer cadet
29.
Grenadier Guards
–
The Grenadier Guards is an infantry regiment of the British Army. It is the most senior regiment of the Guards Division and and it is not, however, the most senior regiment of the Army, this position being attributed to The Life Guards. The grouping of buttons on the tunic is a way to distinguish among the regiments of Foot Guards. Grenadier Guards buttons are equally spaced and embossed with the Royal Cypher reversed and interlaced surrounded by the Royal Garter bearing the royal motto Honi soit qui mal y pense and their Buff Belt brass clasps also carry the Royal Cypher. Modern Grenadier Guardsmen wear a cap badge of a grenade fired proper with seventeen flames and this cap badge has to be cleaned twice a day – once in the morning, and once in the afternoon. A tarnished grenade is severely frowned upon and can be punished by disciplinary action within the Regiment, a few years later, a similar regiment known as John Russells Regiment of Guards was formed. In 1665, these two regiments were combined to form the 1st Regiment of Foot Guards, consisting of 24 companies of men, since then the Grenadier Guards have served ten Kings and four Queens, including the current Queen Elizabeth II. Throughout the 18th century, the regiment took part in a number of campaigns including the War of Spanish Succession, the War of Austrian Succession, at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the regiment gained the name Grenadier in July 1815 following a Royal Proclamation. During the Victorian era, the regiment took part in the Crimean War, participating in the fighting at the Alma river, Inkerman, for their involvement in the Crimean War, four members of the 3rd Battalion received the Victoria Cross. In 1900,75 men from the regiment were used to raise a fourth Guards regiment, at the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, the regiment consisted of three battalions. The 2nd Battalion of the regiment was sent to France in August, and they took part in the early stages of the fighting during the period known as Race to the Sea, during which time they were involved significantly at the First Battle of Ypres. In February 1915, a fifth Guards regiment was raised, known as The Welsh Guards, in recognition of the significant contribution Welshmen had made to The Grenadier Guards, the regiment transferred five officers and 634 other ranks to the newly formed unit. Following this the four battalions of the regiment fought in a number of significant battles including Loos, the Somme, Cambrai, Arras. Seven members of the regiment received the Victoria Cross during the war, during the Second World War, the regiment was expanded to six service battalions, with the re-raising of the 4th Battalion, and the establishment of the 5th and 6th Battalions. The 3rd Battalion was in the 1st Guards Brigade attached to the 1st Infantry Division, after this, they returned to the United Kingdom, where they undertook defensive duties in anticipation of a possible German invasion. Between October 1940 and October 1941, the regiment raised the 4th, 5th, the 1st and 2nd Battalions were part of the 5th Guards Armoured Brigade, attached to the Guards Armoured Division, and the 4th Battalion was part of the 6th Guards Tank Brigade Group. The battalions took part in the Italian Campaign at Salerno, Monte Camino, Anzio, Monte Cassino, the 5th Battalion was part of 24th Guards Brigade and served with the 1st Division during the Battle of Anzio. After suffering devastating casualties, the brigade was relieved in March 1944, the 6th Battalion served with the 22nd Guards Brigade, later redesignated 201st Guards Motor Brigade, until late 1944 when the battalion was disbanded due to an acute shortage of Guards replacements
30.
John Ligonier, 1st Earl Ligonier
–
Field Marshal John Ligonier, 1st Earl Ligonier, KCB PC was a French-born British soldier. He joined a Regiment in Flanders commanded by Lord Cutts in 1702 and he fought, with distinction, in the War of the Spanish Succession and was one of the first to mount the breach at the siege of Liège in October 1702. In 1712, he became governor of Fort St. Philip, during the War of the Quadruple Alliance in 1719 he was adjutant-general of the troops employed in the Vigo expedition, where he led the stormers of Pontevedra. Two years later he became colonel of the Black Horse and he was made a brigadier general in 1735, major general in 1739, and accompanied Lord Stair in the Rhine Campaign of 1742 to 1743. He was promoted to lieutenant general on 26 February 1742 and George II made him a Knight of the Bath on the field of Dettingen in June 1743, at Fontenoy in May 1745, Ligonier commanded the British, Hanoverian, and Hessian infantry. During the Jacobite rising of 1745 he was called home to command the British army in the Midlands, in November 1745 he led a column of troops sent to Lancashire to oppose the rebels. Having been promoted to the rank of general of horse on 3 January 1746, he was placed at the head of the British and British-paid contingents of the Allied army in the Low Countries in June 1746. He was present at Rocoux in October 1746 and, having been made Lieutenant-General of the Ordnance on 19 March 1747, he fought at Lauffeld in July 1747 and he did this with such vigour that he overthrew the whole line of French cavalry. In this encounter his horse was killed and he was prisoner by Louis XV. The official despatch reported, it is impossible to commend too much the conduct of the generals both horse and foot. Sir John Legonier, who charged at the head of the British dragoons with that skill and spirit that he has shown on so many occasions and he became Member of Parliament for Bath in March 1748 and colonel of the 2nd Dragoon Guards in 1749. From 1748 to 1770 he was governor of the French Hospital, on 6 April 1750 he was appointed Governor of Guernsey and on 3 February 1753 he became colonel of the Royal Horse Guards. In September 1757, following the disgrace of the Duke of Cumberland who had signed the Convention of Klosterzeven and he worked closely with the Pitt-Newcastle Ministry who sought his strategic advice in connection with the Seven Years War which was underway at this time. He was notionally given command of British forces in the event of a planned French invasion in 1759 though it never ultimately occurred and he stood down as commander-in-chief in 1759 and became Master-General of the Ordnance. He was given a further Irish peerage on 1 May 1762 as Viscount Ligonier of Clonmell and on 19 April 1763 he became a Baron and he spent his later years at Cobham Park in Cobham, Surrey. Ligonier died, still unmarried, on 28 April 1770 and was buried in Cobham Church, there is a monument to him, sculpted by John Francis Moore in Westminster Abbey. His younger brother, Francis, was also a distinguished soldier and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. A history of the Highlands and of the Highland clans, Volume 4, the Georgian Era, Military and Naval Commanders
31.
Battle of Dettingen
–
The Battle of Dettingen took place on 27 June 1743 at Dettingen on the River Main, Germany, during the War of the Austrian Succession. The British forces, in alliance with those of Hanover and Hesse, George II commanded his troops in the battle, and this marked the last time a British monarch personally led his troops on the field. The battle straddled the river about 18 miles east of Frankfurt, with guns on the Hessian bank, the village of Dettingen is today the town of Karlstein am Main, in the extreme northwest of Bavaria. The British force of 17,000 men under John Dalrymple, here it joined the Pragmatic Army, some 50,000 strong at the start of the campaign, also containing 16,000 Hanoverians with the balance made up of Austrians, Hessians and Dutch. The army remained inactive until January 1743, when King George II ordered Dalrymple to march into Germany, leaving the Hessians. The internal divisions in the Dutch Republic delayed their army of 20,000 so that it too late to participate in the campaign. On 17 June the army set up camp between Kleinostheim and Aschaffenburg, George, accompanied by 25 squadrons of British and Hanoverian cavalry, arrived there on 19 June and took up overall command. This was the result of skillful maneuvering and harassment by a French army of some 45,000 led by Noailles, Noailles had also lined the south bank of the Main with artillery that could fire without interference on the Pragmatic armys left flank. Meanwhile, about 12,000 French troops marched north on Aschaffenburg, thickly wooded hills to the Pragmatic Armys right flank prevented the allies from turning Gramonts position. Some six hours passed with the British, Austrians and Hanoverians trying to form an advance in this confined position, at one point, George IIs horse ran off with him, it was halted by Ensign Cyrus Trapaud, who received a promotion as a reward. James Wolfe wrote that the Pragmatic first line of infantry consisted of nine regiments of British foot, four or five Austrian regiments, the French infantry followed and they too had initial success, throwing back several British regiments of foot. However, the charge forced the French artillery to stop firing and, with the attack spent and the French out of their defenses, the allies counter-attacked. The French line collapsed with the Allies driving Gramonts force across, as a consequence, the road to Hanau was opened, which allowed the Allies to continue their retreat and re-supply. With the French defeat at Dettingen, the Duc de Noailles missed the best opportunity to win the war at a stroke for the French. Had the French prevailed, the Pragmatic Army would have had to surrender or starve, during the battle, Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Andrew Agnew of Lochnaw warned his regiment The Royal Scots Fusiliers not to fire until they could see the whites of their een. A noted wit, Sir Andrew is also quoted as addressing his regiment thus, Lads, better kill them afore they kill you. And to George II after the battle, who had chided him for letting a French cavalry charge break into his regiments position, Ay, please Your Majesty, in memory of this victory, Handel composed his Dettingen Te Deum and Dettingen Anthem. The two parties had agreed before the battle that the sick and wounded who fell into the hands of the enemy would be cared for, when the allies retreated they left behind most of their wounded, and the French respected the agreement, a precursor of the Geneva Convention
32.
Battle of Fontenoy
–
The battle was one of the most important in the war and considered the masterpiece of Saxe, serving France, Louis XV, and his son, the Dauphin, were present at the battle. Saxe went on the offensive in April 1745 with a large French army and his initial aim was to take control of the upper Scheldt basin and thereby gain access to the heart of the Austrian Netherlands. To these ends, he first besieged the fortress of Tournai, in order to relieve Tournai, the allies first decided to attack Saxes position – a naturally strong feature, hinged on the village of Fontenoy and further strengthened by defensive works. Despite devastating flanking fire the allied column, made up of British and Hanoverian infantry, only when Saxe concentrated all available infantry, cavalry, and artillery was the column forced to yield. The allies retreated in order, conducting a fighting withdrawal. The battle had shown, however, the strength of a defensive force relying on firepower, casualties were high on both sides, but the French had gained the field, and Tournai fell shortly after the battle. This success was followed by an advance against the less organised and outnumbered allied army, Ghent, Oudenarde, Bruges. By the years end, the Saxon-born Saxe had completed the conquest of much of the Austrian Netherlands, the battle had established French superiority in force and high command. In 1744, France went over to the offensive in the Low Countries. King Louis XV and the Duke of Noailles scored early successes with the capture of the fortresses of western Flanders, Menin, Ypres. Opposing Saxe was the Pragmatic Army, the bulk of which was made up of British and Hanoverian troops under General George Wade, much had been expected of the allies in 1744 but the timidity of their generals had produced nothing against a numerically inferior enemy. Although Wade eventually advanced towards Lille, he did more than bicker with the Austrians about the cost of moving his siege train from Antwerp. Saxe was able to maintain his position at Courtrai and along the lines of the Lys, elsewhere, the Pragmatic Allies had scored considerable success in late 1744. A joint Austro-Saxon force under Charles of Lorraine and Count Traun drove Frederick IIs Prussian army from Bohemia, further success followed with the death in January 1745 of the French puppet emperor, Charles VII. Joseph sued for peace and gave his support for the candidacy of Maria Theresas husband, Francis Stephen, with Bavaria out of the war the Austrians could now try to win back Silesia from Frederick II. Likewise, Bavarian repudiation of its French ties meant France was freed of its German involvement, and could now concentrate on its own efforts in Italy. As early as December 1744, Saxe had prepared plans for an offensive in the Low Countries. The trio of generals was completed by Prince Waldeck, commander of the Dutch contingent in theatre and they hoped to gain the initiative by the establishment of forward magazines and an early opening of the campaign season
33.
Battle of Rocoux
–
The Battle of Rocoux was a French victory over an allied Austrian, British, Hanoveran and Dutch army in Rocourt, outside Liège during War of the Austrian Succession. The result was a major French victory but not the crushing blow Maurice had hoped to inflict, the French army was commanded by Marshall Saxe and the army of the Pragmatic Allies by Prince Charles of Lorraine of Austria and the British General Sir John Ligonier. Saxe had nearly completed his campaign to take Flanders and was threatening to invade the Netherlands, heavily outnumbering the Dutch, the French defeated them on the third assault. The Dutch were forced to withdraw behind the British and Hannoverian lines, in the face of a general French advance the allied line began to give way. The Austrians on the right were not engaged and made no attempt to take the initiative. Ligoniers cavalry and some British, Hanoverian and Dutch infantry formed a guard that held off the French as the army withdrew. The French were victorious, although the army escaped from destruction. This was the great victory of three for Saxe, after Fontenoy and prior to Lauffeld. The French were victorious, immediately capturing Liège and breaking Austrian control over the Austrian Netherlands for the remainder of the war, ripley, George, Dana, Charles A. eds. The Vinkhuijzen collection of uniforms, France, 1750-1757. Archived from the original on 8 March 2013, flags through the ages and across the world. Browning, Reed. The War of the Austrian Succession, St. Martins Press, New York, ISBN 0-312-12561-5 Chandler, the Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough. Spellmount Limited, ISBN 0-946771-42-1 Skrine, Francis Henry, Fontenoy and Great Britains Share in the War of the Austrian Succession 1741-48
34.
Prince William, Duke of Cumberland
–
Prince William Augustus KG KB FRS, was the third and youngest son of George II of Great Britain and Caroline of Ansbach, and Duke of Cumberland from 1726. He is best remembered for his role in putting down the Jacobite Rising at the Battle of Culloden in 1746 and he is often referred to by the nickname given to him by his English Tory opponents, Butcher Cumberland. Despite his triumph at Culloden, he had an unsuccessful military career. Following the Convention of Klosterzeven in 1757, he never held active military command and switched his attentions to politics and horse racing. William was born in Leicester House, in Leicester Fields, Westminster, London and his godparents included the King and Queen in Prussia, but they apparently did not take part in person and were presumably represented by proxy. The young prince was educated well, his mother appointed Edmond Halley as a tutor, another of his tutors was his mothers favourite Andrew Fountaine. At Hampton Court Palace, apartments were designed specially for him by William Kent, Williams elder brother Frederick, Prince of Wales, proposed dividing the kings dominions. Frederick would get Britain, while William would get Hanover, from childhood, he showed physical courage and ability, and became his parents favourite. He was enrolled in the 2nd Foot Guards and made a Knight of the Bath aged four, in December 1742, he became a major-general, and, the following year, he first saw active service in Germany. George II and the martial boy shared in the glory of the Battle of Dettingen, after the battle he was made a lieutenant general. As it became clear that the French intention was to take Tournai, Cumberland advanced to the relief of the town, in the resulting Battle of Fontenoy on 11 May 1745, the Allies were defeated by the French. Saxe had picked the battleground on which to confront the British, Cumberland ignored the threat of the woods when drawing up his battle plans, and instead concentrated on seizing the town of Fontenoy and attacking the main French army nearby. Following the battle Cumberland was frequently criticised for his tactics, particularly the failure to occupy the woods, in the wake of the battle, Cumberland was forced to retreat to Brussels and was unable to prevent the fall of Ghent, Bruges and Ostend. His appointment was popular, and caused morale to soar amongst the public, recalled from Flanders, Cumberland proceeded with preparations for quelling the Stuart uprising. The Jacobite army had advanced southwards into England, hoping that English Jacobites would rise, however, after receiving only limited support such as the Manchester Regiment, the followers of Charles decided to withdraw to Scotland. Cumberland joined the Midland army under Ligonier, and began pursuit of the enemy, carlisle was retaken, and he was recalled to London, where preparations were in hand to meet an expected French invasion. Arriving in Edinburgh on 30 January 1746, he at once proceeded in search of Charles and he made a detour to Aberdeen, where he spent some time training the well-equipped forces now under his command for the next stage of the conflict in which they were about to engage. He trained his troops to hold their fire until the enemy came within firing range, fire once
35.
Battle of Lauffeld
–
The Battle of Lauffeld, also known as Lafelt, Laffeld, Lawfeld, Lawfeldt, Maastricht or Val, took place on 2 July 1747, during the French invasion of the Netherlands. It was part of the War of the Austrian Succession, Cumberland moved to defeat a detachment of the French army commanded by the Prince of Clermont that de Saxe had sent to bait the Pragmatic Allies into moving. Then Saxe force-marched the main French force to the ground he had chosen, once again, as at the Battle of Rocoux, the Austrians on the right refused to move against the open French left flank. The French made five assaults on Lauffeld and the villages changed hands several times, a large French column drove the 10,000 British and Hessian defenders out of the village of Lauffeld a final time. The French cavalry then pierced the allied center, now, a general French advance began to turn the Allied left flank, threatening the annihilation of the British infantry. General Ligonier, on his own initiative, then led the cavalry in charges that would save the army, the greatest cavalry engagement of the war ensued with over 15,000 horsemen charging and counter-charging. Seven regiments of the Irish Brigade in the French service lost over 1400 killed or wounded, the Duke of Cumberland, George IIs favourite son was nearly taken prisoner by the Irish, as in the confusion of battle he mistook the red-coated Irish Brigade for his own troops. Ligonier came up with a body of horse, enabling Cumberland to escape. It was a French victory that left the gateway to the Dutch Republic open to invasion, the allied retreat allowed Saxe to send a detachment of 30,000 troops under Count Lowendahl north across the Low Lands, capturing the city of Bergen-op-Zoom to finish that years campaigning season. At the opening of the campaigning season of 1748, the French invested Maastricht and, after a brief siege. The citys siege started negotiations in April, ending the war in October 1748 with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, ripley, George, Dana, Charles A. eds. The Vinkhuijzen collection of uniforms, France, 1750-1757. Archived from the original on 8 March 2013, flags through the ages and across the world. History of England From the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles, browning, Reed. The War of the Austrian Succession, St. Martins Press, New York, ISBN 0-312-12561-5 Chandler, David. The Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough, spellmount Limited, ISBN 0-946771-42-1 Skrine, Francis Henry. Fontenoy and Great Britains Share in the War of the Austrian Succession 1741-48, history of England, from The Revolution to the Death of George the Second, London,1848, Vol. II
36.
Great Britain in the Seven Years' War
–
Great Britain was one of the major participants in the Seven Years War which lasted between 1756 and 1763. The war started poorly for Britain, which suffered many deaths from the plague and scurvy, and at the hands of France in North America during 1754–55, and in the loss of Minorca in 1756. The same year Britains major ally Austria switched sides and aligned itself with France, for the next seven years these two nations were ranged against a growing number of enemy powers led by France. In 1759 Britain enjoyed an Annus Mirabilis with success over the French on the continent, in North America, in 1761 Britain also came into conflict with Spain. The following year British forces captured Havana and Manila, the western and eastern capitals of the Spanish Empire, by this time the Pitt-Newcastle ministry had collapsed, Britain was short of credit and the generous peace terms offered by France and its allies were accepted. Through the crown, Britain was allied to the Electorate of Hanover and Kingdom of Ireland and it also directed the military strategy of its various colonies around the world including British America. In India British possessions were administered by the East India Company, by the early 1750s many saw another major war as imminent, and Austria was preparing its forces for an attempt to retake Silesia from Prussia. The British Prime Minister, the Duke of Newcastle, had acceded to the premiership in 1754 following the death of his brother Henry Pelham. Newcastle had thirty years experience as a Secretary of State and was a figure on the diplomatic scene. Despite enjoying a majority in the House of Commons he was extremely cautious and vulnerable to attacks led by men such as William Pitt. Newcastle fervently believed that peace in Europe was possible so long as the Old System, one of the major concerns for the British government of the era was colonial expansion. During the eighteenth century the British colonies in North America had become more populous, the territory most prized by the new settlers was the Ohio Country, which was also claimed by France. As well as having potential, it was considered strategically key. French control of territory would block British expansion westwards and eventually French territory would surround the British colonies. A number of delegations to London urged the government to take more decisive action in the Ohio dispute. The Ohio country located between Britains Thirteen Colonies and Frances New France saw France and Britain clash, in 1753 the French sent an expedition south from Montreal that began constructing forts in the upper reaches of the Ohio River. Washington and some native allies ambushed a company of French scouts at the Battle of Jumonville Glen in late May 1754, in the skirmish the French envoy Joseph Coulon de Villiers de Jumonville was left dead, leading to a diplomatic incident. The French responded in force from Fort Duquesne, and in July Washington was forced to surrender at the Battle of Fort Necessity, despite the conflict between them, the two nations were not yet formally at war
37.
Invasion of Hanover (1757)
–
French forces overran most of Hanover forcing the Hanoverian Army of Observation, intended to defend the Electorate, to Stade on the North Sea coast. At the Convention of Klosterzeven the Duke of Cumberland agreed to disband his army, following pressure by his British ministers, George II of Great Britain, Elector of Hanover, renounced the Convention and the German troops returned to active operations. By spring 1758, under a new commander, the Allied forces had driven the French out of Hanover, since 1714 Britain and the Electorate of Hanover had shared a single monarch. George II was ruler of both states – and the French believed they could exert pressure on him as King of Great Britain by occupying Hanover, a number of British officers, such as Jeffrey Amherst and Guy Carleton, were given commands in the force. It was placed under the command of the Duke of Cumberland, second son of George II, the name Army of Observation expressed a hope that the army would serve as a deterrent and their role would merely be to observe. In early 1756, when a French invasion of the British Isles seemed imminent, as the threat of invasion subsided, the troops were then shipped back to Germany again. The prospect of fighting in Western Germany coincided with a dispute between Austria and Prussia, who went to war in 1756, following the First Treaty of Versailles, Austria and France formed Franco-Austrian Alliance and sought to defeat the German allies in turn in 1757. First a major French force would sweep through Western Germany defeating and occupying Hanover, France began building up a large force known as the Army of Westphalia under the Duc dEstrées. In early June 1757, the French army began to advance towards Hanover once it became clear there was to be no negotiated agreement. The first skirmish between the two forces had taken place on 3 May, part of the French army was delayed by the Siege of Geldern which took three months to capture from its Prussian garrison of 800. The bulk of the French army advanced across the Rhine, advancing slowly because of the difficulties of logistics for moving an estimated at around 100,000. On July 2, the Prussian port of Emden fell to the French before a Royal Navy squadron sent to relieve it could reach there and this cut Hanover off from the Dutch Republic meaning that supplies from Britain could now only be shipped direct by sea. The French followed this up by seizing Cassel, securing their right flank, by late July, Cumberland believed his army was ready for battle and adopted a defensive position around the village of Hastenbeck. The French won a victory over him there, but as Cumberland retreated his force began to disintegrate as morale collapsed. Richelieus orders followed the strategy of taking total control of Hanover. Cumberlands forces continued to withdraw northwards, the French pursuit was slowed by further problems with supplies, but they continued to steadily pursue the retreating Army of Observation. Under Richelieu the French continued their drive, taking Minden and then capturing the city of Hanover on 11 August, Richelieu despatched a force to occupy Brunswick. Frederick the Great then decided to withdraw the Prussian contingent of Cumberlands army so they could rejoin his own forces further weakening the Army of Observation
38.
Hesse
–
Hesse or Hessia is a federal state of the Federal Republic of Germany, with just over six million inhabitants. The state capital is Wiesbaden, the largest city is Frankfurt am Main, the English name Hesse originates in the Hessian dialects. The variant Hessia comes from the medieval Latin Hassia, the German term Hessen is used by the European Commission because their policy is to leave regional names untranslated. The term Hesse ultimately derives from a Germanic tribe called the Chatti, an inhabitant of Hesse is called a Hessian. The synthetic element hassium, number 108 on the table, is named after the state of Hesse. As early as the Paleolithic period, the Central Hessian region was inhabited, due to the favorable climate of the location, people lived there about 50,000 years ago during the last glacial period, as burial sites show from this era. Finds of paleolitical tools in southern Hesse in Rüsselsheim suggest Pleistocene hunters about 13,000 years ago, the Züschen tomb is a prehistoric burial monument, located between Lohne and Züschen, near Fritzlar, Hesse, Germany. Classified as a grave or a Hessian-Westphalian stone cist, it is one of the most important megalithic monuments in Central Europe. Dating to the fourth millennium BC, it belongs to the Late Neolithic Wartberg culture. An early Celtic presence in what is now Hesse is indicated by a mid-fifth-century BC La Tène style burial uncovered at Glauberg, the region was later settled by the Germanic Chatti tribe around the first century BC, and the name Hesse is a continuation of that tribal name. The ancient Romans had a camp in Dorlar, and in Waldgirmes directly on the eastern outskirts of Wetzlar was a civil settlement under construction. Presumably, the government for the occupied territories of the right bank of Germania was planned at this location. The governor of Germania, at least temporarily, likely had resided here, the settlement appears to have been abandoned by the Romans after the devastating Battle of the Teutoburg Forest failed in the year 9 AD. The Chatti were also involved in the Revolt of the Batavi in 69 AD, Hessia occupies the northwestern part of the modern German state of Hesse, its borders were not clearly delineated. Its geographic center is Fritzlar, it extends in the southeast to Hersfeld on the Fulda river, in the north to past Kassel and up to the rivers Diemel, to the west, it occupies the valleys of the rivers Eder and Lahn. It measured roughly 90 kilometers north-south, and 80 north-west, the area around Fritzlar shows evidence of significant pagan belief from the first century on. Excavations have produced a horse burial and bronze artifacts, a possible religious cult may have centered on a natural spring in Geismar, called Heilgenbron, the name Geismar itself may be derived from that spring. By 650, the Franks were establishing themselves as overlords, which is suggested by evidence of burials
39.
Hanover
–
At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Electorate was enlarged to become a Kingdom with Hanover as its capital. From 1868 to 1946 Hanover was the capital of the Prussian Province of Hanover and it is now the capital of the Land of Lower Saxony. Since 2001 it has been part of the Hanover district, which is a body made up from the former district. With a population of 518,000, Hanover is a centre of Northern Germany. Hanover also hosts annual commercial trade fairs such as the Hanover Fair, every year Hanover hosts the Schützenfest Hannover, the worlds largest marksmens festival, and the Oktoberfest Hannover, the second largest such festival in Germany. In 2000, Hanover hosted the world fair Expo 2000, the Hanover fairground, due to numerous extensions, especially for the Expo 2000, is the largest in the world. Hanover is of importance because of its universities and medical school, its international airport. The city is also a crossing point of railway lines and highways. Hanover is the traditional English spelling, the German spelling is becoming more popular in English, recent editions of encyclopaedias prefer the German spelling, and the local government uses the German spelling on English websites. The traditional English spelling is used in historical contexts, especially when referring to the British House of Hanover. Hanover was founded in times on the east bank of the River Leine. Its original name Honovere may mean high bank, though this is debated, Hanover was a small village of ferrymen and fishermen that became a comparatively large town in the 13th century due to its position at a natural crossroads. As overland travel was difficult, its position on the upper navigable reaches of the river helped it to grow by increasing trade. In the 14th century the churches of Hanover were built. The beginning of industrialization in Germany led to trade in iron and silver from the northern Harz Mountains, in 1636 George, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, ruler of the Brunswick-Lüneburg principality of Calenberg, moved his residence to Hanover. The Dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg were elevated by the Holy Roman Emperor to the rank of Prince-Elector in 1692, thus the principality was upgraded to the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg, colloquially known as the Electorate of Hanover after Calenbergs capital. Its electors would later become monarchs of Great Britain, the first of these was George I Louis, who acceded to the British throne in 1714. The last British monarch who ruled in Hanover was William IV, semi-Salic law, which required succession by the male line if possible, forbade the accession of Queen Victoria in Hanover
40.
Battle of Hastenbeck
–
The Battle of Hastenbeck was fought as part of the Invasion of Hanover during the Seven Years War between the allied forces of Hanover, Hesse-Kassel and Brunswick, and the French. The allies were defeated by the French army near Hamelin in the Electorate of Hanover, the French, who were allied with Austria, Russia, Sweden and Saxony during the Seven Years War, invaded Germany in April 1757 with two armies, altogether about 100,000 soldiers. The French hoped to draw the attention of the Kingdom of Prussia, one of the two French armies under command of Prince de Soubise marched through central Germany. They joined the Imperial Army, or Reichsarmee, commanded by Prinz von Hildburghausen and this coalition army later met a Prussian army at the Battle of Rossbach on 5 November 1757 with disaster. The other French army commanded by Marshal Louis Charles dEstrées consisted of about 50,000 infantry,10,000 cavalry and 68 cannons, the army advanced towards the Electorate of Hanover. Prussia was heavily involved with its enemies Austria, Russia and Sweden and this task was given to the Hanoverian Army of Observation which had little support from Prussia, namely six Prussian battalions. The main part of the Hanoverian Army of Observation came from Hanover and Hesse, smaller additional forces from Brunswick, the total strength of the Hanoverian Army of Observation consisted of about 30,000 infantry,5,000 cavalry and 28 guns. The army was commanded by William Augustus the Duke of Cumberland who was a son of King George II of Great Britain, Hanover refused to defend the Rhine which is west of the Weser. This left the Prussians no choice but to abandon their fortress in Wesel, cumberlands main objective was preventing the occupation of Hanover. He first concentrated his army at Bielefeld, and then after a stand in Brackwede. The main idea was to use the Weser as a defense line. The Duke of Cumberland deployed his forces at Hamelin which is a couple of kilometers to the northwest of Hastenbeck. He also deployed small patrols all along the Weser, meanwhile, the French sent a detachment to the north to capture Emden, which was an important access point for Britain to Europe, on 3 July. Later they sent another detachment to the south, which took Kassel on 15 July, during the night of 7 July, a strong French advance guard crossed the river Weser close to the town Beverungen. While the river Weser normally cannot easily be forded, during the summer the water drops down to a low of 80 cm between Münden and Hameln, making it possible for infantry and cavalry to cross. The French advance troops then marched to the north and established a bridgehead at Höxter, the main army crossed the Weser on 16 July, leaving the Duke of Cumberland no choice but to deploy his troops south of Hamelin and to engage dEstrées. The Prussian battalions were then recalled by Frederick the Great, after losing the Battle of Kolin against Austria, the armies finally met on the morning of 25 July at the village of Hastenbeck. The commander of the French right flank, general François de Chevert, was ordered to engage Hanoverian troops at the village of Voremberg, but failed to drive them out
_by_Joshua_Reynolds.jpg)
